The Soviet Century

NOTES

1

See Craig Eisendrath, ed., National Insecurity: US Intelligence after the Cold War, Philadelphia 2000, pp. 8–9.

2

See Peter Baldwin, ed., Reworking the Past: Hitler, the Holocaust and the Historians’ Debate, Boston 1990.

3

V. P. Mezhuev, ‘Otnoshenie k proshlomu-kliuch k budushchemu’, in Kuda Idet Rossiia? Krizis Institutsional’nykh Sistem: Vek, Desatiletie, God, Moscow 1999, p. 47.

1

I could not have known all this when writing Lenin’s Last Struggle in 1967.

2

See Istoricheskii Archiv, no. 2, 1994, pp. 220–3.

1

See A. P. Nenarokov, V. A. Gornyi, V. N. Dobrokhotov, A. I. Kozhokina, A. D. Kotykhov and A. I. Ushakov, Nesostoiavshiisia Iubilei: Pochemu SSSR ne Otprazdnoval svoego Semidesiatiletiia, Moscow 1992: a very rich collection of documents, with articles by the editors.

2

The episode is described more fully in Lenin’s Sochineniia, fifth edition, vol. 45; and, in more detail, in the sources published in Nenarokov et al., eds, op. cit.

3

Lenin, ‘K voprosu o natsianalnostiakh ill ob “avtonomizatsii”’, in Sochineniia, vol. 45, pp. 356–62.

4

RGASPI, f. 17, op. 84, d. 304, no page number, dated 26 June 1922. Five doctors, members of a concilium convened to examine and probably treat Trotsky – Ramonov, Voitsik, Semashko, Professor Klemperer and Professor Ferster (the latter two German doctors invited to treat Lenin) – signed the following diagnosis: Trotsky suffers from ‘a chronic functional colitis, a slight hypertrophy of the heart and a tendency to fainting fits, due to anaemia’. In their judgement, Trotsky required a special diet (feeding up) and should avoid physical and intellectual exertion. (The copy of the report was difficult to read; I have carefully transcribed it.)

1

Stalin. Sochineniia, vol. 5, pp. 210–11.

2

See Valentin Berezhkov, Riadom so Stalinym, Moscow 1999, pp. 244–5.

3

Georges Duby, ‘Hérésies et sociétés’, in L’ Europe pré-industrielle, Xle-XIIe siècles, Paris-La Haye 1968, p. 404.

1

RGASPI, f. 613, op. I, d. 79: materials of the Collegium of the Central Control Commission.

2

RGASPI, f. 17, op. 84, d. 488, L. 68.

3

RGASPI, 17, 114, d. 685, L. 235, 29.

4

‘VKP(b) i oppozitsiia’ – a file from RGASPI, f. 17, op. 120, d. 68, L. 6, which reproduces for internal party information various Left Opposition documents, copied from Trotsky’s Biulleten’ Oppozitsii, published abroad. Trotsky somehow continued to receive this and other texts by Rakovsky, which he then published.

5

See Milovan Djilas, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System, New York 1957.

6

RGASPI, f. 17, op. 120, d. 278, containing material on the various pre – 1937 purges and the party ranks and apparatus.

7

V. G. Kolychev, in D. A. Volkogonov, otvet. red., Tridtsatye Gody: Vzgliad iz Segodniia, Moscow 1990, pp. 24–5.

8

RGASPI, f. 3, op. 3, d. 439.

9

RGASPI, f. 56, op. 1, d. 198 (Molotov’s papers). On 16 May 1934, at Stalin’s behest, two memos ‘for your information’, written by Stetsky (a former Bukharin supporter) and Mekhlis, were circulated to Politburo members and Zhdanov. In them, the two apparatchiks attacked an article by Bukharin published in lzvestiia on 12 May.

1

Iu. A. Pohakov and A. A. Isupov, introduction to Vsesoiuznaia Perepis’ Naseleniia 1939 goda – Osnovnye Itogi, Moscow 1992, pp. 7–8.

2

See TsSU (Central Office of Statistics), Gosapparat SSSR, Moscow 1929, p. 47; L. I. Vas’kina, Rabochii Klass SSSR Nakanune Sotsialisticheskoi Industrializatsii, Moscow 1981, p. 16; and also two articles from Statisticheskoe Obozrenie in 1928 and 1929, as well as various documents from the TsSU archives. Many of the data used here and elsewhere derive from Trud v SSSR: Statisticheskii Sbornik, Moscow 1988, p. 47 and passim, which also contains data on 1939. As does the TsSU publication, Itogi Vsesoiuznoi Perepisi Naseleniia v 1959, Moscow 1962, based on the unpublished 1939 census, which is now available in Vsesoiuznaia Perepis’ Naseleniia 1939 goda.

3

See Naradnoe Obrazovanie, Nauka i Kultura v SSSR: Statistichiskii Sbornik, Moscow 1971, pp. 233–5, 247.

4

Ibid.

5

Sotsialnoe Razvitie Rabochego Klassa SSSR: Istoriko-sotsiologicheskie Ocherki, p. 275; V. M. Selunskaya, otvet. red., Izmeneniia Sostial’noi Struktury Sovetskogo Obshchestva, 1921 – Seredina 30-kh godov, Moscow 1979, p. 306; and Trud v SSSR, p. 118.

6

Trud v SSSR, p. 189.

7

Vsesoiuznaia Perepis’ Naseleniia, Table 33, p. 112.

8

See V. P. Danilov, Sovetskaia Dokolkhoznaia Derevnia, Moscow 1977, pp. 29–30.

9

A. S. Moskovskii and M. A. Isupov, Formirovanie Gorodskogo Naseleniia Sibiri (1926–1939), Novosibirsk 1984, p. 148. The subsequent stage in urbanization (1939–59), although interrupted by the war, increased the urban population by 39.4 million inhabitants. These figures are derived from the 1939 census and A. G. Rashin, Istoricheskie Zapiski, no. 66, 1960, p. 269 (who gives 32 per cent, not 33, for town-dwellers in 1939, making the share of the rural population 68 per cent).

10

Basile Kerblay, La Société soviétique contemporaine, Paris 1977, p. 61 (English translation, New York 1983); V. M. Selunskaya, red., Sotsialisticheskoe Stroitel’stvo Sovetskogo Obshchetva, 1921-sered. 30kh godov, Moscow 1979, pp. 192–3.

11

Trud v SSSR, p. 30.

1

Sotsialisticheskoe Zemledelie, 10 August 1940.

1

RGASPI, 17, 85, 170, LL. 69–80 (a lengthy, detailed GPU document for the period January-September 1926 on the behaviour and statements of workers from many factories and regions).

2

See V. A. Viktorov, Bez Grifa ‘Sekretno’ – Zapiski Voennogo Prokurora, Moscow 1990, pp. 95–116.

3

See Oleg V. Khlevniuk, ‘The Politbureau, Penal Policy and “Legal Reforms’”, in Peter H. Solomon, Jr, ed., Reforming Justice in Russia, 1964–1966: Power, Culture and the Limits of Legal Order, Armonk (New York) and London 1997.

1

See Oleg V. Khlevniuk, Politbiuro – Mekhanizm Politicheskoi Vlasti v 1930-ye gody, Moscow 1990, pp. 96–116.

2

RGASPI, f. 39, op. 3, d. 188, L. 246. All this comes from a note to volume four of Mikoyan’s memoirs, ‘O Staline i Moem Otnoshenii k Nemu, 1934–53’ (‘On Stalin and My Attitude Towards Him’).

3

One of my sources here is Lennart Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War Machine: Tukhachevskij and Military-Economic Planning, 1925–1941, New York 2000.

4

Konstantin Simonov, Glazami Cheloveka moego Pokoleniia: Razmyshleniia o Staline, Moscow 1990.

5

T. I. Fetisov, sost., Prem’er – Izvestnyi i Neizvestnyi: Vospominaniia o A. N. Kosygine, Moscow 1997.

1

RGASPI, f. 56, op. 1, d. 198.

2

O. V. Khlevniuk, 1937–01, Moscow 1992, pp. 20–1.

3

Ibid., p. 165.

4

Ibid., pp. 164–7.

5

GARF, 940, 8, 46, LL. 1 and 9–15: a report to the head of the NKVD’s cadres department.

6

GARF, 9401, 8, 45, LL. 4–5.

7

Our source here is R. G. Pikhoia, Sovetskii Soiuz: Istoriia Vlasti, 1945–1991, Moscow 1998, pp. 138–9 and passim.

1

E. M. Adreev, L. A. Karskii and T. L. Khar’kova, Vestnik Statistiki, no. 7, 1990, p. 44 (derived from the KGB and quoted in Izvestiia, 14 February 1990).

2

Organy i Vojska MVD Rossii, Kratkii Istoricheskii Ocherk: MVD 200 let, Moscow 1996 (with chapters written by MVD [Ministry for Internal Affairs] experts, some of them more ‘liberal’, others still ‘Stalinist’).

3

Zhelezodorozhnyi Transport v Gody Industrializatsii SSSR (1926–1941), Moscow 1970, pp. 309–10, document no. 91 (from TsGANKh SSSR, f. 1884, op. 31, d. 2546, LL. 171–3). This is a report, dated 17 November 1938, from the cadres sector of the Commissariat to the Commissar himself on the morale of leading cadres on the railways. Table A (length of service) shows that of the 2,968 leading cadres in this strategically crucial commissariat, 75 per cent (from managers to middle-ranking officials and specialists) had been appointed to their jobs between 1 November 1937 and 1 April 1938. Of those they replaced, most were certainly dismissed or were victims of the purges.

4

The data here are for the most part derived from O. V. Khlevniuk, 1937-oi, Moscow 1992.

5

TsKhSD, f. 89 (various minutes and other texts from this file have already been published).

6

TsKhSD, perechen’ 73, doc. no. 1, PB-TsK, no. 56, 9 January 1938.

1

The GUGB – Glavnoe Upravlenie Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti (General Directorate of State Security) – was the direct heir to the Cheka and the GPU. It could at any moment be detached from the broader NKVD and become an autonomous secret police agency. At various points, especially during and after the Second World War, the GUGB became the NKGB (People’s Commissariat for State Security), then the MGB (Ministry of State Security), before being reintegrated into the NKVD or MVD for reasons that are not always clear. The definitive separation occurred in 1953 with the creation of the MGB, which was subsequently renamed the KGB.

2

RGAE, 7733, 36, 331, LL. 55–65, January 1940.

3

RGAE, 7733, 36, 218, LL. 330–50 – a report delivered to the Finance Commissariat at the start of 1940.

4

Marta Kraven and Oleg Khlevniuk, ‘Krizis ekonomiki MVD – konets 1940kh-1950e gody’, Cahiers du Monde Russe, XXXVI (1–2), January-June 1995, pp. 179–90.

5

RGASPI, f. 56, op. 1, d. 900, LL. 25–7: the Molotov papers.

6

RGAE, f. 7733, op. 36, d. 442, L. 192.

7

RGAE, f. 4372, 95, 672, L. 26.

8

RGAE, f. 7733, op. 36, d. 2998.

9

Kraven and Khlevniuk, ‘Krisis ekonomiki MVD…’

10

I have published various tables in the appendix to my Russia – USSR – Russia (New York, 1995), compiled from reliable sources. Similar data have been published by Arch Getty, Gabor Rittersporn and V. N. Zemskov in The American Historical Review, vol. 98, no. 4, 1993, pp. 1017–49.

11

B. P. Kurashvili, Istoricheskaia Logika Stalinizma, Moscow 1996.

12

Ibid., pp. 161–2 and GARF, f. 9479, op. 1, d. 89, 205 & 216.

13

R. W. Davies, Soviet Economic Development from Lenin to Khrushchev, Cambridge 1998.

1

Good accounts of Zhdanovism can be found in histories of Soviet literature. A useful concise account is M. Slonim, Soviet Russian Literature: Writers and Problems, 1917–1967, New York 1967, chapter 26.

1

GARF, 8131, 32, 6610, LL. 9196 – from a longer report by A. Mishutin, deputy Prosecutor General, 13 May 1961.

2

GARF, 9401, 8, 9.

3

This information derives not from the sources cited above, but from the appendix to my Russia – USSR – Russia, New York 1995.

4

My mam sources here are N. A. Struchkov, Kurs Ispravitel’no – Trudovogo Prava: Problemy Obshchei Chasti, Moscow 1984 and N. A. Struchkov and V. A. Kirin, eds, Kommentarii k Osnovam Ispravitel’ no-Trudovgo Zakonodatel’tsva SSSR i Soiuznykh Respublik, Moscow 1972. Supplementary material derives from the highly competent British scholar, W. I. Butler, Soviet Law, London 1983, which offers a very balanced view of the Soviet legal system. Other references will be cited separately.

5

N. A. Struchkov, Kurs Ispravitel’ no – Trudovogo Prava: Problemy Osobennoi Chasti, Moscow 1985, pp. 83–4.

6

Ibid. The same author’s Problemy Obshche Chasti (Moscow 1984), pp. 21–22 is more clear on many aspects.

7

See Butler, Soviet Law, pp. 282 ff.

8

As documented in the work of Peter Solomon, Soviet Criminologists and Criminal Policy: Specialists in Policy Making, London 1978.

9

See Amnesty International, Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR, London 1974.

10

See Todd Fogleson, ‘The Reform of Criminal Justice and Evolution of Judicial Dependence in Late Soviet Russia’, in Peter H. Solomon, Jr, ed., Reforming Justice in Russia, 1864–1996: Power, Culture and the Limits of Legal Order, Armonk (New York) and London 1997.

11

Butler, Soviet Law, pp. 208–22 is my main source here.

12

Material on this, labour disputes and other problems derives from V. I. Terebilov, ed., Kommentarii k Zakonodatel’stvu o Trude, Moscow 1996. The general editor was chairman of the USSR Supreme Court. Labour disputes are studied in detail on p. 409 (paras 86–94 and 201–24 of the labour code). On the work contract and the worker’s right to cancel it, see pp. 50–5, in particular para 29 of the Russian Federation’s labour code: ‘Grounds for cancelling the work contract’.

13

Decision of the plenum of the Supreme Court, 29 June 1979 on the tasks of courts, in the light of the Central Committee decision about improving ideological and political-educational work.

14

See Iu. A. Korshunov et al., Sovetskoe Zakonodatel’stvo o Trude: Spravochnik, Moscow 1980, pp. 57 ff.

15

The last version of the USSR’s labour code was published in 1970 (and that of the RSFSR in 1971). In my view, the best source on these codes and subsequent work-related legislation is V. I. Terebilov, ‘Verkhsuda SSSR’, in A. I. Startseva, M. E. Pankin, eds, Kommentarii k Zakonodatel’stvu o Trude, Moscow 1986.

1

Anastas Mikoyan, Tak Bylo: Razmyshleniia o Minuvshem, Moscow 1999.

2

My sources here are R. G. Pikhoia, Sovetskii Soiuz: Istoriia Vlasti, 1945–1991, Moscow 1998; T. P. Korzhikhina, Sovetskoe Gosurdarstvo i ego Uchrezhdeniia, Noiabr’ 1917 – Dekabr’ 1991 g., Moscow 1995; and A. I. Kokurin and M. V. Petrov, sost., Lubianka: VChK-KGB, 1917–1960, Spravochnik, Moscow 1997.

3

As reported by Pikhoia, Sovetskii Soiuz, who uses material about events covered by other sources at my disposal, but who goes into more detail.

4

These details come from Arkhivno-informatsionnyi biulleten’, no. 1, 1993, pp. 11036 – an appendix to Istoricheskii Arkhiv.

5

TsKhSD, f. 89, op. 6, d. 20, LL. 1–11 contains three documents dating from 1962. Two of them belong to the category ‘Special file – Absolutely top secret: to be returned in 24 hours to the 1st sector of the General Department of the Central Committee’. The third pertains to the ‘Special file – Top secret’. Among other things, it contains an extract from minute no. 42 of the 19 July 1962 session of the Central Committee Presidium.

6

Amnesty International, Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR: Their Treatment and Conditions, London 1975 and Butler, Soviet Law, pp. 7–8.

7

O. V. Edelman, sost., 58–10: Nadzornye Proizvodstva Prokuratury SSSR po Delam ob Antisovetskoi Agitatsii i Propagande: Annotirovannyi Katalog, 1953–1991, Moscow 1999. This is also my source for the way in which the Prosecutor’s Office supervised KGB investigations.

8

Pikhoia, Sovetskii Soiuz, pp. 365–6.

9

TsKhSD, op. 25, d. 47, LL. 4–5 (‘special file’) from Andropov and Rudenko.

10

Regarding psychiatric wards, a recent publication may be of interest. It is written by D. B. Dmitrieva and entitled Alians prava i miloserdiia – O Probleme Zashchity Prav Cheloveka v Psikhiatrii (Moscow 2001). Harshly critical of the Soviet system, its author is herself a psychiatrist and was a Yeltsin supporter and Health Minister in his government. She then became head of the State Institute of Social and Criminal Psychiatry – the well-known institution bearing the name of V. P. Serbskii that is alleged to have been the main culprit in supplying phoney diagnoses of psychiatric illness for perfectly healthy political critics. On the basis of research conducted in the Institute’s archives of all the cases that passed through it, Dmitrieva argues that there was no widespread policy – and perhaps no policy at all – of using psychiatry for political ends in the USSR. There might simply have been instances of personal corruption or yielding to political pressure on the part of some psychiatrists. In any event, the jury is still out on this.

11

Vladimir Lakshin, Solzhenitsyn, Tvardovskii and ‘Novyi Mir’, ed. and trans. Michael Glenny, with additional contributions by Mary Chaffin and Linda Aldwinckle, Cambridge (Mass.) 1980.

12

O. V. Edelman, sost., 58–10: Nadzornye proizvodstva prokuratury SSSR.

1

RGAE, 1562, 44, 2598, L. 60, 19 March 1965: table from the Central Statistical Office.

2

RGAE, 4372, 81, 1091, LL. 1–44. On 6 February 1965, Efimov received from his deputy Korobov a report (commissioned on 26 December 1964) on ‘the main problems related to rationalizing the use of labour resources in the key regions of the USSR in 1966–70’.

3

GARF, f. A-10005, op. 1, d. 248, LL. 51–5.

4

GARF, f. A-10005, op. 1, d. 249, LL. 244–53, October 1972 (report by the head of the RSFRS’s state committee on labour resources to the Russian Council of Ministers).

5

With the exception of a few remarks of my own, this material is taken from R. W. Davies, Soviet Economic Development from Lenin to Khrushchev, Cambridge 1998, pp. 67 ff.

6

RGAE, f. 4372, op. 82, d. 1086 (undated but from the Gosplan Collegium in 1970).

7

RGAE, 4372, 66, 3717, LL. 1–3.

1

See T. P. Korzhikhina, Sovetskoe Gosudarstvo i ego Uchrezhdeniia, Noiabr’ 1917 – Dekabr’ 1991 g., Moscow 1995.

2

T. I. Fetisov, sost., Prem’er – Izvestnyi i Neizvestnyi: Vospominaniia o A. N. Kosygine, Moscow 1997.

3

RGASPI, f. 17, op. 75, d. 9.

4

RGASPI, f. 17, op. 75, d. 23, L. 67.

5

RGASPI, f. 17, op. 75, d. 23, LL. 62–7.

6

RGASPI, f. 17, op. 75, d. 22, L. 64.

7

See M. Woslenski, Les nouveaux secrets de la nomenklatura, Paris 1965, pp. 441–50.

8

RGAE, f. 7733, op. 36, d. 7242, LL. 10–11. This is the original draft of the decision sent to the Finance Ministry by the department of party organs.

9

E. K. Ligachev, Zagadka Gorbacheva, Novosibirsk 1992.

10

Anatolii Dobrynin, Sugubo Doveritel’no, Moscow 1996.

11

Ligachev, Zagadka Gorbacheva, pp. 26–7.

12

Dobrynin, Sugubo Doveritel’no, pp. 652–3.

1

E. V. Nesternko, ed., A. A. Gromyko – Diplomat, Politik, Uchenyi, Moscow 2000, p. 222: the papers of a conference to mark the ninetieth anniversary of Gro-myko’s birth organized by Moscow University (with contributions sent from abroad by foreign political figures).

2

See R. G. Pikhoia, Sovetskii Soiuz: Istoriia Vlasti, 1945–1991, Moscow 1998. Pikhoia has examined the relevant documents in the Politburo archives and reconstructed the unfolding of the Twentieth Congress in detail.

1

T. I. Fetisov, sost., Prem’er – Izvestnyi i Neizvestnyi: Vospominania o A. N. Kosygine, Moscow 1997.

2

It comes from Nemchinov’s O Dal’neishem Sovershenstvovanii Planirovaniia i Upravleniia Khoziaistvom, Moscow 1965, p. 53; quoted in my Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates – From Bukharin to the Modern Reformers, Princeton and London 1974, p. 157 (reissued as Stalinism and the Seeds of Soviet Reforms, Armonk (New York) and London 1991).

3

Markus Wolf, Man without a Face – The Autobiography of Communism’s Greatest Spymaster, New York 1999.

4

Intelligentsia i vlast’, Istoricheskii Arkhiv, no. 1, 1994, pp. 175–207.

5

F. D. Bobkov, KGB i Vlast’, Moscow 1995, p. 4.

6

Viacheslav Kevorkov, Tainyi Kanal, Moscow 1997.

7

Vadim A. Medvedev, V Komande Gorbacheva: Vzgliad Iznutri, Moscow 1994.

8

V. I. Vorotnikov, A Bylo Eto Tak – Iz Dnevnika Chlena Politburo TsK KPSS, Moscow 1995.

9

Here we follow the findings of Professor R. G. Pikhoia (who had access to presidential and other archives denied to common mortals): Sovetskii Soiuz: Istoriia Vlasti, 1945–1991, Moscow 1998.

10

This quotation and other material are taken from Pikhoia, Sovetskii Soiuz, pp. 434–5.

1

Bukharin’s letters to Lenin in 1915 are published in Voprosy Istorii, 3/94, pp. 166–9.

2

Z. Galili, ‘Mensheviki i vopros O koalitsionnom pravitel’stve: pozitsiia “revoliutsionnykh oborontsev” i ee politicheskie posledstvia’, Otechestvennaia Istoriia, no. 6, 1993, pp. 15–26.

3

An excerpt from volume 1 of Rossia na Perelome (Paris 1927) is reproduced in Svobodnaia Mysl’, February 1997, pp. 103–13.

4

N. Miliukov, ‘Pri svete dvukh revoliutsii’, Istoricheskii Arkhiv, nos 1–2, 1993.

5

A. I. Shingarev, Finansovoe Polozhenie Rossii, Petrograd 1917; undated speech.

6

Published in Otechestvennaia Istoriia, no. 5, 1992, pp. 143–55.

7

O. N. Znamenskii, Vserosiiskoe Uchreditel’noe Sobranie, Leningrad 1976, pp. 337–8. According to calculations made in the 1920s, the Constituent Assembly contained 370 Socialist Revolutionaries, 175 Bolsheviks, 40 left-wing Socialist Revolutionaries, 86 representatives of national organizations and parties, 17 Cadets, 2 national socialists, and one independent. The Bolshevik strongholds were in the industrial regions and among soldiers, where they often commanded a majority of votes. The countryside predominantly elected Socialist Revolutionaries. For their part, the Mensheviks were not mentioned: they had only 17 delegates.

8

See Istoricheskii Arkhiv, no. 2, 1993, p. 168, n. 121.

9

Lenin, Sochineniia, vol. 13, p. 406.

1

See ‘Grazhdanskaia voina v Rossii – kruglyi stol’, in Otechestvennaia Istoriia, no. 3, 1993, pp. 102–15. The discussion is very interesting: here I have used only the contributions by Iu. I. Igritskii and L. M. Gavrilov.

2

The data on Civil War losses are taken from different sources, in particular R. W. Davies, Soviet Economic Development from Lenin to Khrushchev, Cambridge 1998, pp. 21–2.

3

These texts are published in volume 45 of Lenin’s Sochincniia.

4

Lenin, Sochineniia, vol. 45, p. 280.

5

For the relevant sources, see my Russia – USSR – Russia, New York 1995, pp. 156–7.

6

This notion was formulated in Lenin’s article ‘Better Fewer, But Better’. The adjective ‘civilized’ is my translation of the Russian term gramotnye (literate or educated), because I believe that Lenin regarded this term as the one most appropriate to socialist aspirations and ideals in the given historical circumstances.

7

These points are treated in more detail in my Lenin’s Last Struggle, originally published in French in 1967 and subsequently translated into English and other languages.

8

These remarkable minutes are available in English in The Bolsheviks and the October Revolution, trans. Ann Bone, London 1974.

9

D. Dallin, Posle Voin i Revoliutsii, Berlin 1921 (the author was the father of our deceased colleague Alexander Dallin, himself an eminent Russian scholar).

1

B. N. Mironov, Sotsial’naia Rossia, St Petersburg 1999, pp. 341–56.

1

V. A. Kozlov, Massovye Besporiadki v SSSR pri Khrushcheve i Brezhneve, 1983 – Nachalo 1980-kh godov, Novosibirsk 1999, p. 402.

2

Identifying and assessing potential ‘sources of trouble’ is one of the tasks of any secret service, whatever the means and methods of surveillance employed against groups or organizations.

3

Based on the memoirs of some of his collaborators – among them, Arbatov, Shakhnazarov, Burlatsky, Cherniaev and Beketin (editor of the outstanding political review, Svobodnaia Mysl’).

4

See E. J. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, London 1994, p. 400, citing Gur Ofer, ‘Soviet Economic Growth, 1928–1985’, Journal of Economic Literature, vol. XXV, no. 4, December 1987, p. 1778.

5

Academician Yevgeny Fedoseev, who presented the findings of this inquiry into the ‘essential problems and perspectives of the competition between the USSR, the United States, and other important capitalist countries’ on 5 August 1966 (as instructed by the Council of Ministers in April 1966), explained that the study was conducted by the Institute of the World Economy and International Relations of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, with the collaboration of Gosplan’s director, Baibakov, who received the following instructions from Kosygin on 15 March: (1) discuss the Academy’s report at the session of Gosplan’s collegium, in the presence of representatives of the Academy, so as to include the relevant conclusions and recommendations in the text of the next five-year plan, currently in preparation; and (2) present the relevant texts to the members of the Presidium of the Council of Ministers.

6

RGAE, 4372, 66, 670, LL. 31–53, 54–66, and LL. 67–91.

1

GARF, f. A-10005, op. 1, d. 48, LL. 2–62, 16 September 1968.

*

The Commission for the Elimination of Waste was subsequently renamed the Commission for Economizing State Resources (see chapter 23). Here we shall refer to it simply as the ‘Anti-Waste Commission’.

1

However, helpful information can be found in the 1986 and 1995 editions of T. P. Korzhikhina, Sovetskoe Gosudarstvo i ego Uchrezhdeniia. Noiabr’ 1917 – Dekabr’ 1991 (Moscow); and in the very valuable reference work on Soviet Government Officials, 1922–1941: A Handlist, edited by R. W. Davies and his colleagues at the Centre of Russian and East European Studies, University of Birmingham, England.

2

RGAE, f. 1562, op. 47, d. 1896, LL. 1–47. These are the results of the census (edinovremennyi uchet) conducted by the Central Statistical Office, carefully edited and presented. The document was produced by the Office’s computing centre. See also RGAE, f. 1562, op. 47, d. 1897, LL. 1–211, vols 1–2.

3

See Korzhikhma, Sovetskoe Gosudarstvo i ego Uchrezhdeniia.

4

RGAE, 4372, op. 66, d. 670, LL. 175–6, 3 September 1966: the report of a session of the ‘commission for saving state resources’. Vested with considerable powers, it was chaired by Gosplan’s head, Baibakov, and included: Starovsky, head of the Central Statistical Office; Finance Minister Garbuzov; the head of Mattekhsnab (a powerful agency responsible for supplying enterprises with raw materials and technological resources), Martynov; the head of the State Bank, Poskonov; and Tchikin, one of the heads of the State Control Committee. The Committee of Labour and Wages was represented by Volokov. The report on the meeting, which took place on 21 September 1966, was signed by Deputy Prime Minister Poliansky.

*

An expression rerring to the phases of the process: the supply of goods (snabzhenie) and their sale (sbyt).

5

RGAE, 4372, 66, 670, LL. 31–8.

6

GARF, A–259, op. 45, d. 7501, LL. 4962: a file of documents from the government of the Russian Federation (October-November 1968) concerning the campaign which was being conducted throughout the USSR against ‘illegal expenditure of public money on banquets and receptions’.

7

RGAE, f. 7733, op. 58, d. 2892, LL. 1–5, 85–97: a bundle of documents (dating from July–December 1970) dealing with the negotiations between Gossnab and the Finance Ministry over the numbers and salaries of top officials.

8

RGAE, f. 1562, op. 47, d. 1183, LL. 4–8: data of the census conducted on 1 October 1970 by the Central Statistical Office on ‘indicators of the activities of supply-and-marketmg organizations’.

1

I. G. Minervin, ‘Tenevaia ekonomika v SSSR – prichiny i sledstviia’, pp. 103–27, in I. Iu. Zhilina and L. M. Timofeev, otvet. red., ‘Tenevaia ekonomika: ekonomicheskie i sotsial’nye aspekty’. This set of essays is to be found in a periodical published under the auspices of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ekonomicheskie i Sotsial’nye Problemy Rossii, vol. 4, Moscow 1999.

2

See A. Portes and J. Boroch, in Ekonomicheskie i Sotsial’nye Problemy Rossii, p. 121.

3

Ibid., p. 125.

4

T. I. Zaslavskaya and Z. I. Kalugina, otvet. red., Sotsialnaia Traektoriia Reformiruemoi Rossii – Issledovaniia Novosibirskoi Ekonomiko-sotsiologicheskoi Shkoly, Novosibirsk 1999, pp. 577–84.

5

Menshikov is cited by Zhilina and Timofeev, Tenevaia Ekonomika, pp. 116–17.

6

RGAE, 4372, 66, 3717, LL. 1–9.

7

Quoted by G. Vernadsky, Russkaia Istoriografiia, Moscow 1998, p. 106. The Russian formula is ‘zhidkii element v russkoi istorii’ (‘the drawn-out element in Russian history’).

1

See David Joravsky, ‘Communism in Historical Perspective’, The American Historical Review, vol. 99, no. 3, June 1994, pp. 837–57.

2

See T. P. Korzhikhina, Istoriia Gosudarstvennykh Uchrezhdenii SSSR, Moscow 1995, p. 45 and passim; and Lenin, Sochineniia, vol. 45, p. 290.

3

See H. Rosenberg, Bureaucracy, Aristocracy and Autocracy, Boston 1966.

4

See V. Berezhkov, Riadom so Stalinym, Moscow 1999.

5

T. I. Zaslavskaya and Z. I. Kalugina, otvet. red., Sotsialnaia Traektoriia Reformiruemoi Rossii – Issledovaniia Novosibirskoi Ekonomiko-sotsiologicheskoi Shkoly, Novosibirsk 1999, pp. 577–84.

6

See V. P. Mezhuev, ‘Otnoshenie k proshlomu – kliuch k budushchemu’, in Kuda Idet Rossiia? Krizis Institutsional’nykh Sistem: Vek, Desiatiletie, God, Moscow 1999, pp. 39–47.