The Untold History of the United States

INTRODUCTION: ROOTS OF EMPIRE: “WAR IS A RACKET”

1 Lloyd C. Gardner, Walter F. LaFeber, and Thomas J. McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, vol. 1: U.S. Diplomatic History to 1901 (Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing, 1976), 108.

2 Alfred W. McCoy, Francisco A. Scarano, and Courtney Johnson, “On the Tropic of Cancer: Transitions and Transformations in the U.S. Imperial State,” in Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State, ed. Alfred W. McCoy and Francisco A. Scarano (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 21.

3 J. M. Coetzee, Waiting for the Barbarians (London: Secker & Warburg, 1980), 133.

4 Sam Dillon, “U.S. Students Remain Poor at History, Tests Show,” New York Times, June 15, 2011.

5 President Woodrow Wilson speaking on the League of Nations to a luncheon audience in Portland, OR. 66th Cong., 1st sess. Senate Documents: Addresses of President Wilson (May–November 1919), vol. 11, no. 120, p. 206.

6 Barack Obama, News Conference, April 4, 2009, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=85959&st=american+exceptionalism&st1=#axzz1RXk$VS7z.

7 Jonathan Martin and Ben Smith, “The New Battle: What It`¡ Means to Be American,” August 20, 2010, www.politico.com/news/stories/0810/41273.html.

8 Nina J. Easton, “Thunder on the Right,” American Journalism Review 23 (December 2001), 320.

9 Emily Eakin, “Ideas and Trends: All Roads Lead to D.C.,” New York Times, March 31, 2002.

10 Ibid.

11 William Appleman Williams, Empire as a Way of Life: An Essay on the Causes and Character of America’s Present Predicament Along with a Few Thoughts About an Alternative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 62.

12 Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 51.

13 Max Boot, “American Imperialism? No Need to Run Away from Label,” USA Today, May 6, 2003.

14 Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Price of America’s Empire (New York: Penguin, 2004), 14–15.

15 Paul Kennedy, “The Eagle Has Landed,” Financial Times, February 22, 2002.

16 Jonathan Freedland, “Is America the New Rome?” Guardian, September 18, 2002.

17 “Joint Vision 2010,” www.dtic.mil/jv2010/jvpub.htm; General Howell M. Estes III, USAF, United States Space Command, “Vision for 2020,” February 1997, www.fas.org/spp/military/docops/usspac/visbook.pdf; “Joint Vision 2020,” www.dtic.mil/jointvision/jvpub2.htm.

18 Benjamin J. Cohen, The Question of Imperialism: The Political Economy of Dominance and Dependence (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 23.

19 Amiya Kumar Bacgchi, Perilous Passage: Mankind and the Global Ascendance of Capital (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 272.

20 Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), 150.

21 Lars Shoultz, Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 86.

22 Walt Whitman, Complete Poetry and Collected Prose (New York: Viking, 1982), 1074.

23 Robert V. Bruce, 1877: Year of Violence (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1989), 225–226.

24 Philip Sheldon Foner, The Great Labor Uprising of 1877 (New York: Monad Press, 1975), 157.

25 Philip Sheldon Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2: From the Founding of the A.F. of L. to the Emergence of American Imperialism (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 50.

26 Maury Klein, The Life and Legend of Jay Gould (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 357.

27 Ida Minerva Tarbell, All in the Day’s Work: An Autobiography (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 82.

28 John D. Hicks, Populist Revolt: A History of the Farmers’ Alliance and the People’s Party (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1931), 140, 440.

29 Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860–1898 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 366.

30 Robert L. Beisner, Twelve Against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists 1898-1900 (New York: McGraw Hill, 1968), xiv.

31 William Roscoe Thayer, ed. “John Hay’s Years with Roosevelt,” Harper’s Magazine 131 (1915), 578.

32 Homer Clyde Stuntz, The Philippines and the Far East (Cincinnati: Jennings and Pye, 1904), 144.

33 John Byrne Cooke, Reporting the War: Freedom of the Press from the American Revolution to the War on Terrorism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 78.

34 “Ratification of the Treaty Now Assured,” Chicago Tribune, February 6, 1899.

35 “Treaty Wins in the Senate by One Vote,” Chicago Tribune, February 7, 1899.

36 Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Times Books, 2006), 49.

37 George Frisbie Hoar, Autobiography of Seventy Years, vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1905), 304.

38 “Gain for the Treaty,” New York Times, February 6, 1899.

39 Kinzer, Overthrow, 52–53.

40 David Howard Bain, Sitting in Darkness: Americans in the Philippines (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1984), 84.

41 Congressional Record, Senate, 56th Cong., 1st Sess., 1900, vol. 33, pt. 1, 704.

42 William Jennings Bryan, Speeches of William Jennings Bryan, vol. 2 (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1909), 17, 24–26. For an excellent biography of Bryan, see Michael Kazin, A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006).

43 Stuart Creighton Miller, Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 211.

44 Henry Moore Teller, The Problem in the Philippines (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1902), 52.

45 Epifanio San Juan, Crisis in the Philippines: The Making of a Revolution (South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey, 1986), 19.

46 Some estimate that the death toll among Filipinos was higher than 600,000. See John M. Gates, “War-Related Deaths in the Philippines, 1898–1902,” Pacific Historical Review 53 (1984), 367–378.

47 Eric Rauchway, Murdering McKinley: The Making of Theodore Roosevelt’s America (New York: Hill & Wang, 2003), 102.

48 Howard C. Hill, Roosevelt and the Caribbean (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927), 67.

49 Schoultz, Beneath the United States, 191.

50 Richard F. Grimmett, “Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad, 1798–2009,” January 27, 2010, Congressional Research Service, www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL32170.pdf.

51 Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 42.

52 Ibid., 46.

53 Ibid., 50.

54 “The Republic of Brown Bros.,” Nation, 114 (1922), 667.

55 LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions, 69.

56 Howard Zinn and Anthony Arnove, Voices of a People’s History of the United States, 2nd. ed. (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2009), 251–252.

CHAPTER 1: WORLD WAR I: WILSON VS. LENIN

1 William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), 72.

2 Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: HarperPerennial, 1992), 240.

3 Richard Hofstadter, The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 237–241.

4 Lloyd C. Gardner, Wilson and Revolutions: 1913–1921 (New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1976), 12.

5 Walter LaFeber, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad Since 1750 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 262; Lloyd C. Gardner, Walter F. LaFeber, and Thomas J. McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, vol. 2: U.S. Diplomatic History Since 1893 (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976), 305.

6 George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 390.

7 Gardner, LaFeber, and McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, vol. 2, 306–307; LaFeber, The American Age, 278.

8 Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy, 70.

9 Lars Schoultz, Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 246.

10 Nicholas D. Kristof, “Our Broken Escalator,” New York Times, July 17, 2011.

11 Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States (New York: Harper Colophon, 1980), 350.

12 Nell Irvin Painter, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 293.

13 Ray Ginger, The Bending Cross: A Biography of Eugene Victor Debs (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1949), 328.

14 Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 399.

15 Kathryn S. Olmsted, Real Enemies: Conspiracy Theories and American Democracy, World War I to 9/11 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 34.

16 “Notes Linking Wilson to Morgan War Loans,” Washington Post, January 8, 1936.

17 Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 403, 409–410.

18 “Scene in the Senate as President Speaks,” New York Times, January 23, 1917.

19 “Amazement and Bewilderment Caused by Proposal of Wilson for Peace Pact for the World,” Atlanta Constitution, January 23, 1917.

20 LaFeber, The American Age, 278; Carter Jefferson, Anatole France: The Politics of Skepticism (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1965), 195.

21 Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 118.

22 Ibid., 120.

23 Ibid., 121, 131.

24 David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 184–185.

25 Ibid., 60–62.

26 William Graebner, The Engineering of Consent: Democracy and Authority in Twentieth-Century America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 42.

27 Victor S. Clark, “The German Press and the War,” Historical Outlook 10 (November 1919), 427.

28 “Shows German Aim to Control World,” New York Times, December 3, 1917.

29 Stewart Halsey Ross, Propaganda for War: How the United States Was Conditioned to Fight the Great War of 1914–1918 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1996), 241.

30 “Documents Prove Lenin and Trotzky Hired by Germans,” New York Times, September 15, 1918.

31 Ross, Propaganda for War, 241.

32 “Creel Upholds Russian Exposure,” New York Times, September 22, 1918.

33 “Spurns Sisson Data,” Washington Post, September 22, 1918.

34 Ross, Propaganda for War, 241–242.

35 “The Sisson Documents,” Nation, November 23, 1918, in Philip Sheldon Foner, The Bolshevik Revolution: Its Impact on American Radicals, Liberals, and Labor (New York: International Publishers, 1967), 137.

36 George F. Kennan, “The Sisson Documents,” Journal of Modern History 28 (June 1956), 130–154.

37 Charles Angoff, “The Higher Learning Goes to War,” The American Mercury, May–August 1927, 178.

38 Harold D. Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in the World War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1927), 14–15.

39 “Oust Traitors, Says Butler,” New York Times, June 7, 1917.

40 “Columbia Ousts Two Professors, Foes of War Plans,” New York Times, October 2, 1917.

41 “The Expulsions at Columbia,” New York Times, October 3, 1917.

42 “Quits Columbia; Assails Trustees,” New York Times, October 9, 1917.

43 Ibid.

44 Horace Cornelius Peterson and Gilbert Courtland Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957), 104–112.

45 Carol S. Gruber, Mars and Minerva: World War I and the Uses of the Higher Learning in America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 213–214.

46 “War Directed College Course to be Intensive,” Chicago Tribune, September 1, 1918.

47 Gruber, Mars and Minerva, 217–218, 237–244; Kennedy, Over Here, 57–59.

48 “Bankers Cheer Demand to Oust Senator La Follette; ‘Like Poison in Food of Army,’” Chicago Tribune, September 28, 1917.

49 Gruber, Mars and Minerva, 208.

50 Zinn, A People’s History of the United States, 356.

51 Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 335; Kennedy, Over Here, 76.

52 “Sedition Act of 1918,” www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/sourcesdocument1.html.

53 Nick Salvatore, Eugene V. Debs: Citizen and Socialist (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 292.

54 Zinn, A People’s History of the United States, 358.

55 Ibid., 358–359.

56 Ibid., 359.

57 “The I.W.W.,” New York Times, August 4, 1917.

58 Kennedy, Over Here, 67–68; Knock, To End All Wars, 133; Alan Axelrod, Selling the Great War: The Making of American Propaganda (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 181–182.

59 Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 335.

60 “Stamping Out Treason,” Washington Post, April 12, 1918.

61 Zinn, A People’s History of the United States, 355–356.

62 Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 336.

63 John D’Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 212–213.

64 Barbara Meil Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 169, 176–177; Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 143–145.

65 Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 59–60, 101; Connelly, 140; Kennedy, Over Here, 186.

66 Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 101–106; Kennedy, Over Here, 186–187.

67 Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 116–119.

68 Randolph Bourne, “Unfinished Fragment on the State,” in Untimely Papers, ed. James Oppenheim (New York: B. W. Huebsch, 1919), 145.

69 Jonathan B. Tucker, War of Nerves: Chemical Warfare from World War I to Al-Qaeda (New York: Pantheon Books, 2006), 10.

70 Wyndham D. Miles, “The Idea of Chemical Warfare in Modern Times,” Journal of the History of Ideas 31 (April–June 1970), 300–303.

71 “Declaration (IV, 2) Concerning Asphyxiating Gases,” Document 3 in Adam Roberts and Richard Guelff, ed. Documents on the Laws of War, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 60.

72 “Crazed by Gas Bombs,” Washington Post, April 26, 1915.

73 “New and Peculiar Military Cruelties Which Arise to Characterize Every War,” Washington Post, May 30, 1915.

74 “Topics of the Times,” New York Times, May 8, 1915.

75 James Hershberg, James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the Making of the Nuclear Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), 44.

76 David Jerome Rhees, “The Chemists’ Crusade: The Rise of an Industrial Science in Modern America, 1907–1922,” PhD Thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1987, 169; Hershberg, James B. Conant, 45–49.

77 Hershberg, James B. Conant, 42.

78 James A. Tyner, Military Legacies: A World Made by War (New York: Routledge, 2010), 98–99.

79 Robert A. Millikan, “The New Opportunities in Science,” Science 50 (September 26, 1919), 292.

80 John D. Moreno, Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans (New York: Routledge, 2001), 38–39; Andy Sagar, “‘Secret, Deadly Research’: Camp AU Scene of World War Training Trenches, Drill Field,” Eagle, American University, January 15, 1965.

81 Sagar, “‘Secret, Deadly Research.’”

82 Moreno, Undue Risk, 38–39; Sagar, “‘Secret, Deadly Research.’”

83 Martin K. Gordon, Barry R. Sude, Ruth Ann Overbeck, and Charles Hendricks, “A Brief History of the American University Experiment Station and U.S. Navy Bomb Disposal School, American University,” Office of History, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, June 1994, 12.

84 Hershberg, James B. Conant, 46–47.

85 Richard Barry, “America’s Most Terrible Weapon: The Greatest Poison Gas Plant in the World Ready for Action When the War Ended,” Current History (January 1919), 125, 127.

86 Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare (New York: Random House, 2002), 35.

87 Barry, “America’s Most Terrible Weapon,” 127–128.

88 Dominick Jenkins, The Final Frontier: America, Science, and Terror (London: Verso, 2002), 38.

89 Tucker, War of Nerves, 19–20.

90 Barry, “America’s Most Terrible Weapon,” 128.

91 Yuki Tanaka, “British ‘Humane Bombing’ in Iraq During the Interwar Era,” in Yuki Tanaka and Marilyn B. Young, ed. Bombing Civilians: A Twentieth-Century History (New York: New Press, 2009), 8, 11.

92 Spencer Tucker, ed., Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social and Military History (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 57.

93 Tanaka, “British ‘Humane Bombing’ in Iraq,” 13–29.

94 Jenkins, The Final Frontier, 2–3.

95 Ibid., 12.

96 Will Irwin, “The Next War”: An Appeal to Common Sense (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1921), 37–38 (quotes in original).

97 “The Chemical Industry Show,” New York Times, September 26, 1917.

98 Daniel P. Jones, “American Chemists and the Geneva Protocol,” Isis, September 1980, 432, 438.

99 Ibid., 433, 438; Tucker, War of Nerves, 21–22.

100 Tucker, War of Nerves, 20.

101 Gardner, LaFeber, and McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, 336.

102 “President Wilson’s Message to Congress on War Aims,” Washington Post, January 9, 1918.

103 Gardner, LaFeber, and McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, 343.

104 Ibid., 343; Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 423.

105 Robert David Johnson, The Peace Progressives and American Foreign Relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 82–83.

106 “Our Men in Russia at Foch’s Demand,” New York Times, January 10, 1919.

107 Johnson, The Peace Progressives and American Foreign Relations, 84, 320 (Table A.1, “Votes on Anti-imperialist Issues,” Section J).

108 H. G. Wells, The Shape of Things to Come (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 82.

109 Donald Kagan, On the Origins of War: And the Preservation of Peace (Doubleday, 1995), 285.

110 LaFeber, The American Age, 297.

111 Ibid., 299.

112 Ibid.

113 Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson: Essential Writings and Speeches of the Scholar-President, ed. Mario DiNunzio (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 36.

114 Paul F. Boller, Jr., Presidential Anecdotes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 220.

115 Gardner, LaFeber, and McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, 340–341.

116 Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 418, 426.

117 Gardner, LaFeber, and McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, 341.

118 Knock, To End All Wars, 223–224, 329, note 76.

119 Boller, Presidential Anecdotes, 220–221.

120 John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920), 36–37, 268.

121 John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, The Soviet Union, and the United States: An Interpretive History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), 77; John M. Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, and the Versailles Peace (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966), 2; Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 422.

122 Gardner, Wilson and Revolutions, 341–342.

123 Ibid., 338–339.

124 Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955), 124–129.

125 Jeremy Brecher, Strike! (1972; reprint, Boston: South End Press, 1977), 126.

126 Olmsted, Real Enemies, 19.

127 66th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Documents: Addresses of President Wilson, 11, 120 (May–November 1919), 206.

128 Leroy Ashby, The Spearless Leader: Senator Borah and the Progressive Movement in the 1920’s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972), 101.

129 Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 429.

130 Knock, To End All Wars, 186.

131 Ron Chernow, The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), 206–208.

132 Sally Marks, The Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe, 1918–1933 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1976), 13, 38–39.

133 David F. Schmitz, Thank God They’re on Our Side: The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1921–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 31–45.

134 Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 176–183.

135 Ibid., 233.

136 Darlene Rivas, “Patriotism and Petroleum: Anti-Americanism in Venezuela from Gómez to Chávez,” in Anti-Americanism in Latin America and the Caribbean, ed. Alan L. McPherson (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006), 87.

137 Stephen G. Rabe, The Road to OPEC: United States Relations with Venezuela, 1919–1976 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), 22.

138 Yergin, The Prize, 233.

139 Rabe, The Road to OPEC, 17, 38, 43.

140 Ibid., 17–18, 36, 38.

141 Nikolas Kozloff, Hugo Chávez: Oil, Politics, and the Challenge to the U.S. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 15.

142 Yergin, The Prize, 233–236.

143 B. S. McBeth, Juan Vicente Gómez and the Oil Companies in Venezuela, 1908–1935 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 70.

144 Rivas, “Patriotism and Petroleum,” 93; Rabe, The Road to OPEC, 94–116; Yergin, The Prize, 436.

145 “Favors Body with Teeth,” New York Times, August 29, 1920.

146 “The Republic of Brown Bros.,” Nation, June 7, 1922, 667.

147 John Dos Passos, Three Soldiers (New York: George H. Doran, 1921), 209–211.

148 F. Scott Fitzgerald, This Side of Paradise (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920), 282.

149 Ernest Hemingway, A Moveable Feast: The Restored Edition (New York: Scribner, 2009), 61.

150 Kennedy, Over Here, 187–189; Loren Baritz, The Servants of Power: A History of the Use of Social Science in American Industry (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974), 43–46.

151 Kennedy, Over Here, 188.

152 Merle Curti, “The Changing Concept of ‘Human Nature’ in the Literature of American Advertising,” The Business History Review 41 (Winter 1967), 337–353.

153 Noble T. Praigg. Advertising and Selling: By 150 Advertising and Sales Executives (New York: Doubleday, 1923), 442.

154 Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 69.

155 Ibid., 85.

156 H. L. Mencken, “The Husbandman,” in H. L. Mencken, A Mencken Chrestomathy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 360–361.

157 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Cycles of American History (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1986), 16.

CHAPTER 2: THE NEW DEAL: “I WELCOME THEIR HATRED”

1 David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 163–164.

2 “Looking to Mr. Roosevelt,” New York Times, March 4, 1933.

3 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Coming of the New Deal, 1933–1935 (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003), 13.

4 “Text of New President’s Address at Inauguration,” Los Angeles Times, March 5, 1955.

5 “The Michigan ‘Bank Holiday,’” New York Times, February 16, 1933; “More States Move to Protect Banks,” New York Times, March 1, 1933; “Banks Protected in 5 More States,” New York Times, March 2, 1933.

6 Anne O’Hare McCormick, “Main Street Reappraises Wall Street,” New York Times, February 28, 1932.

7 “Mitchell Called in Senate Inquiry,” New York Times, February 2, 1933.

8 Liaquat Ahamed, Lords of Finance: The Bankers Who Broke the World (New York: Penguin, 2009), 441; Jonathan Alter, The Defining Moment: FDR’s Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 150.

9 Barton J. Bernstein, “The New Deal: The Conservative Achievements of Liberal Reform,” in Towards a New Past: Dissenting Essays in American History, ed. Barton J. Bernstein (New York: Pantheon, 1968), 268.

10 Francis Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Harper Colophon, 1946), 328.

11 Stephen K Shaw, William D. Pederson, and Frank J. Williams, ed. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Transformation of the Supreme Court, vol. 3 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), 83.

12 Robert S. McElvaine, The Great Depression: America, 1929–1941 (New York: Times Books, 1983), 158; Gary Orren, “The Struggle for Control of the Republican Party,” New York Times, August 17, 1976.

13 “The Nation: I’ve Had a Bum Rap,” Time, May 17, 1976, 19.

14 “National Affairs: Not Since the Armistice,” Time, September 25, 1933, 12.

15 Hugh S. Johnson, Blue Eagle, from Egg to Earth (New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1935), 405; Perkins, 206; McElvaine, 161.

16 Arthur G. Dorland, “Current Events: The Break Down of the London Economic Conference,” Quarterly Review of Commerce, Autumn 1933, 36–37.

17 Michael Augspurger, “Henry Luce, Fortune, and the Attraction of Italian Fascism,” American Studies 41 (Spring 2000), 115.

18 “Cites Harm to U.S. in ‘Patriot Racket,’” Baltimore Sun, March 9, 1931.

19 Philip Jenkins, Hoods and Shirts: The Extreme Right in Pennsylvania, 1925–1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 91.

20 Ibid., 118; “Ballot on Gold 283–5,” New York Times, May 30, 1933.

21 Peter H. Amann, “A ‘Dog in the Nighttime’ Problem: American Fascism in the 1930s,” The History Teacher 19 (August 1986), 572; Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression (New York: Vintage Books, 1983), 266–277.

22 Michael Kazin, The Populist Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 130.

23 Alan J. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008), 76; Leo P. Ribuffo, The Old Christian Right (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 25–79, 80–127.

24 Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, 76; Jenkins, Hoods and Shirts, 101–104; Ribuffo, The Old Christian Right, 184–185.

25 Amann, “A ‘Dog in the Nighttime’ Problem,” 566.

26 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 154; Raymond Moley, After Seven Years (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1939), 369–370.

27 “Defends Current Policy,” New York Times, November 10, 1933; Franklyn Waltman, Jr., “Morgan Call on President Is Surprise,” Washington Post, November 17, 1933; “More Loans Urged by Irénée DuPont,” New York Times, December 31, 1933.

28 “Moley Says Banks Back Gold Policy,” New York Times, December 4, 1933.

29 “Smith Hurls Broadside Against Gold Program,” Los Angeles Times, November 25, 1933.

30 Howard Wood, “Fears for Nation’s Future Lead Bankers to Speak Out,” Chicago Tribune, September 29, 1934.

31 “Business Body Demands U.S. Return to Gold,” Washington Post, November 4, 1933.

32 “Time to Stop Crying Wolf,” New York Times, May 4, 1934.

33 “Business: Reassurance,” Time, October 8, 1934, 56.

34 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 388–389; Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 101.

35 Arthur Krock, “Tide Sweeps Nation,” New York Times, November 7, 1934.

36 “Borah Demands a Rebuilt Party,” New York Times, November 9, 1934.

37 Oswald Garrison Villard, “Russia from a Car Window,” Nation, November 6, 1929, 517.

38 Louis Fischer, “Russia and the World Crisis,” Nation, November 25, 1931.

39 “6,000 Artisans Going to Russia, Glad to Take Wages in Roubles,” Business Week, September 2, 1931; “Amtorg Gets 100,000 Bids for Russia’s 6,000 Skilled Jobs,” Business Week, October 7, 1931.

40 Stuart Chase, “The Engineer as Poet,” New Republic, May 20, 1931; Stuart Chase, A New Deal (New York: Macmillan, 1932), 252.

41 Edmund Wilson, Travels in Two Democracies (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1936), 321.

42 Edmund Wilson, “The Literary Consequences of the Crash,” The Shores of Light: A Literary Chronicle of the Twenties and Thirties (New York: Farrar, Straus & Young, 1952), 408; Peter J. Kuznick, Beyond the Laboratory: Scientists as Political Activists in 1930s America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 106–143.

43 “The Beleaguered City,” Los Angeles Times, July 17, 1934.

44 “Strike Condemned by Coast Papers,” New York Times, July 17, 1934.

45 Read Bain, “Scientist as Citizen,” Social Forces 11 (March 1933), 413–414.

46 Kuznick, Beyond the Laboratory, 101–102.

47 Bernstein, “The New Deal,” 271.

48 Frank A. Warren, Liberals and Communism: The Red Decade Revisited (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966), 6.

49 John Dos Passos, “Whither the American Writer,” Modern Quarterly 6 (Summer 1932), 11–12.

50 For a chilling account of the murderous policies of Hitler and Stalin, see Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (New York: Basic Books, 2010). Millions of people died in Stalin’s deliberately induced Ukrainian famine of 1932 and 1933, during which thousands resorted to cannibalism.

51 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 278–279.

52 “Text of Roosevelt’s Closing Campaign Speech at Madison Square Garden,” Baltimore Sun, November 1, 1936.

53 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 286.

54 “President Sets a Record with Electoral Vote,” Chicago Tribune, November 4, 1936.

55 “Politics and Health,” Nation, July 30, 1938, 101.

56 “National Health Program Offered by Wagner in Social Security Bill,” New York Times, March 1, 1939.

57 Peter Kuznick, “Healing the Well-Heeled: The Committee of Physicians and the Defeat of the National Health Program in 1930’s America” (1989), unpublished paper; also see Kuznick, Beyond the Laboratory, 86–87.

58 Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, 68.

59 Ibid., 60–62.

60 Ibid., 69–70.

61 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Politics of Upheaval (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1960), 83. “Gen. Butler Bares Fascist Plot to Seize Government by Force,” New York Times, November 21, 1934.

62 Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, 70.

63 Kathryn S. Olmsted, Real Enemies: Conspiracy Theories and American Democracy, World War I to 9/11 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 30.

64 “Probing War’s Causes,” Washington Post, April 14, 1934.

65 Wayne Cole, Senator Gerald P. Nye and American Foreign Policy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1962), 71–73.

66 John E. Wilz, In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934–36 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963), 37.

67 “Arms and the Men,” Fortune, March 1934, 53.

68 “Congress Gets Message,” New York Times, May 19, 1934.

69 “Greed, Intrigue Laid to War Materials Ring,” Washington Post, June 23, 1934.

70 “Munitions Control by the Government Favored by Senatorial Inquiry Group,” New York Times, August 30, 1934.

71 “$1,245,000,000 Work to Du Ponts in War,” New York Times, September 13, 1934.

72 Robert C. Albright, “Du Ponts Paid 458 Per Cent on War Profits,” Washington Post, September 13, 1934.

73 Robert Albright, “Reich Builds Big Air Force with U.S. Aid, Inquiry Hears,” Washington Post, September 18, 1934.

74 “Plan of Legion to Curb Profits of War Hailed,” Washington Post, September 25, 1934.

75 “Nye Plans to Abolish War Profit,” Los Angeles Times, September 27, 1934.

76 “Arms Inquiry Just Starting, Nye Declares,” Washington Post, September 29, 1934.

77 “Look Before Leaping,” Washington Post, October 1, 1934.

78 “Nye Asks 98% Tax for War Incomes,” New York Times, October 4, 1934.

79 Constance Drexel, “State Ownership Not Arms Problem Remedy,” Washington Post, December 4, 1934.

80 “The Problem of Munitions,” Chicago Tribune, December 18, 1934; Walter Lippmann, “Today and Tomorrow,” Los Angeles Times, December 16, 1934.

81 “Roosevelt Asks Laws to Remove Profit from War,” Los Angeles Times, December 13, 1934.

82 Raymond Clapper, “Between You and Me,” Washington Post, December 14, 1934.

83 Cole, Senator Gerald P. Nye and American Foreign Policy, 80, 82.

84 “800% War Profit Told at Inquiry; Du Pont Deal Up,” Washington Post, December 14, 1934.

85 “Senator Nye’s Third Degree,” Chicago Tribune, December 24, 1934.

86 “Roosevelt Backs Munitions Inquiry,” New York Times, December 27, 1934.

87 “Urge Continuing Munitions Inquiry,” New York Times, January 11, 1935.

88 “Grace Challenges 100% War Tax Plan,” New York Times, February 26, 1935; “Huge War Profits Laid to Bethlehem,” New York Times, February 27, 1935.

89 Eunice Barnard, “Educators Assail Hearst ‘Influence,’” New York Times, February 25, 1935; Eunice Barnard, “Nye Asks for Data for Press Inquiry,” New York Times, February 28, 1935.

90 L. C. Speers, “Issue of War Profits Is Now Taking Form,” New York Times, March 24, 1935; Robert C. Albright, “President Hears Drastic Plan to Take Profit Out of War,” Washington Post, March 24, 1935; Cole, Senator Gerald P. Nye and American Foreign Policy, 85.

91 “House and Senate Clash on Drastic Bills to End All Profiteering in War,” New York Times, April 3, 1935.

92 “Hostility to War Rules House Votes as Army Parades,” New York Times, April 7, 1935.

93 Arthur Krock, “In the Nation,” New York Times, April 11, 1935.

94 “Hedging on Aims Denied by Baruch,” New York Times, April 17, 1935.

95 “Nye Submits Bill for Big War Taxes,” New York Times, May 4, 1935.

96 “The Communistic War Bill,” Chicago Tribune, September 18, 1935.

97 Newton D. Baker, “Our Entry into the War,” New York Times, November 13, 1935.

98 Thomas W. Lamont, “Mr. Lamont Excepts,” New York Times, October 25, 1935.

99 “2 Morgan Aides Deny Blocking Arms Inquiry,” Washington Post, January 7, 1936.

100 Ibid; “Morgan Testifies as Nye Bares Data on War Loans Curbs,” New York Times, January 8, 1936.

101 Felix Bruner, “Nye Assailed as Senators Leave Arms Investigation,” Washington Post, January 17, 1936.

102 “Southerner Shakes with Rage as He Defends Chief in Senate,” Washington Post, January 18, 1936.

103 “Funds Spent, Nye Declares Arms Inquiry Is Postponed,” Washington Post, January 20, 1936.

104 “Senate Votes Funds for Nye Wind-up,” New York Times, January 31, 1936.

105 Ray Tucker, “Hard Road to Peace Revealed by Inquiry,” New York Times, February 9, 1936.

106 “An Inquiry Ends Well,” New York Times, February 9, 1936.

107 “Nye Denies Inquiry ‘Cleared’ Morgan,” New York Times, February 10, 1936.

108 George Gallup, “82% Majority Votes to End Profit of War,” Washington Post, March 8, 1936.

109 “Munitions Report May Challenge Arms Industry,” Atlanta Constitution, March 8, 1936.

110 “On Nationalizing Munitions,” Washington Post, March 9, 1936.

111 Cole, Senator Gerald P. Nye and American Foreign Policy, 91–92.

112 “Nye Group Urges U.S. Set Up Its Own Gun Plants,” Chicago Tribune, April 21, 1936.

113 Max Wallace, The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2003), 226.

114 Richard S. Tedlow, The Watson Dynasty: The Fiery Reign and Troubled Legacy of IBM’s Founding Father and Son (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 129.

115 “British, Nazi Trade Groups Reach Accord,” Chicago Tribune, March 17, 1939.

116 Theodore J. Kreps, “Cartels, a Phase of Business Haute Politique,” American Economic Review 35 (May 1945), 297.

117 Kevin Maney, The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson Sr. and the Making of IBM (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003), 206.

118 “Ford Says It’s All a Bluff,” New York Times, August 29, 1939; Wallace, The American Axis, 219.

119 GM spokesman John Mueller claimed that the company had lost day-to-day control over its German operations in September 1939. See Michael Dobbs, “Ford and GM Scrutinized for Alleged Nazi Collaboration,” Washington Post, November 30, 1998; Wallace, The American Axis, 332; Bradford Snell, “American Ground Transport,” U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, February 26, 1974, 17–18.

120 Snell, “American Ground Transport,” 16.

121 Edwin Black, Nazi Nexus: America’s Corporate Connections to Hitler’s Holocaust (Washington, DC: Dialog Press, 2009), 9.

122 Ibid., 10; Dobbs, “Ford and GM Scrutinized.”

123 Paul A. Lombardo, A Century of Eugenics in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 100; Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).

124 Black, Nazi Nexus, 34–35.

125 Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985), 111; Black, Nazi Nexus, 25.

126 Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 116.

127 Ben Aris and Duncan Campbell, “How Bush’s Grandfather Helped Hitler’s Rise to Power,” Guardian, Sep. 25, 2004; Wallace, The American Axis, 349.

128 Black, Nazi Nexus, 119; Snell, “American Ground Transport,” 22.

129 Research Findings About Ford-Werke Under the Nazi Regime (Dearborn, MI: Ford Motor Company, 2001), 7, 121–122, http://media.ford.com/events/pdf/0_Research_Finding_Complete.pdf.

130 Jason Weixelbaum, “The Contradiction of Neutrality and International Finance: The Presidency of Thomas H. McKittrick at the Bank for International Settlements in Basle, Switzerland 1940–1946,” http://jasonweixelbaum.wordpress.com/#_ftn85.

131 Dobbs, “Ford and GM Scrutinized.”

132 Johnson, The Peace Progressives, 292.

133 George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 503–504.

134 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 395–396.

135 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960), 293.

136 Dominic Tierney, FDR and the Spanish Civil War: Neutrality and Commitment in the Struggle that Divided America (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 68–69.

137 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 398–400.

CHAPTER 3: WORLD WAR II: WHO REALLY DEFEATED GERMANY?

1 “The Debate in Commons,” New York Times, October 4, 1938.

2 David Reynolds, From Munich to Pearl Harbor: Roosevelt’s America and the Origins of the Second World War (New York: Ivan R. Dee, 2001), 42–49.

3 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007411.

4 Frank L. Kluckhohn, “Line of 4,500 Miles,” New York Times, September 4, 1940.

5 David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 456.

6 John C. Culver and John Hyde, American Dreamer: The Life and Times of Henry A. Wallace (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 123–125.

7 Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., “Who Was Henry A. Wallace? The Story of a Perplexing and Indomitably Naïve Public Servant,” Los Angeles Times, March 12, 2000.

8 Peter J. Kuznick, Beyond the Laboratory: Scientists as Political Activists in 1930s America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 184–186, 205–206.

9 Samuel I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952), 218.

10 Culver and Hyde, American Dreamer, 222–223.

11 Charles Hurd, “President Moves,” New York Times, March 31, 1940.

12 George Bookman, “President Says Program Would Eliminate ‘Silly Foolish Dollar Sign,’” Washington Post, December 18, 1940.

13 “Mrs. Roosevelt Rebukes Congressmen of G.O.P.,” Los Angeles Times, January 8, 1941.

14 “Hoover Scores Surrender of Congress,” Washington Post, January 11, 1941.

15 “Wheeler Sees War in Bill,” Los Angeles Times, January 13, 1941.

16 Ibid.

17 Robert C. Albright, “President Calls Senator’s ‘Plow Under… Youth’ Remark ‘Rotten,’” Washington Post, January 15, 1941.

18 “Wheeler Asserts Bill Means War,” New York Times, January 13, 1941.

19 George C. Herring, Aid to Russia 1941–1946: Strategy, Diplomacy, the Origins of the Cold War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973), 5.

20 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 475.

21 “Basic Fear of War Found in Surveys,” New York Times, October 22, 1939.

22 David Kennedy pushed the number up to 3.6 million; cf. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 482.

23 “Text of Pledge by Churchill to Give Russia Aid,” Chicago Tribune, June 23, 1941.

24 Turner Catledge, “Our Policy Stated,” New York Times, June 24, 1941.

25 Herring, Aid to Russia 1941–1946, 12.

26 “Our Alliance with Barbarism,” Chicago Tribune, September 2, 1941, 14.

27 Arthur Krock, “US Aid to Soviet Is Found Lagging,” New York Times, December 3, 1941.

28 Charles A. Beard, President Roosevelt and the Coming of the War (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1968), 139.

29 Ibid., 141–142.

30 Walter LaFeber, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad Since 1750 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 381–382.

31 Justus D. Doenecke and John E. Wilz, From Isolation to War, 1931–1941 (American History Series) (Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1991), 159–161, 168–176.

32 Ronald H. Spector, In the Ruins of Empire: The Japanese Surrender and the Battle for Postwar Asia (New York: Random House, 2007), 95.

33 Henry R. Luce, “The American Century,” Life, February 1941, 61–65.

34 LaFeber, The American Age, 380.

35 Henry A. Wallace, The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace 1942–1946, ed. John Morton Blum (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 635–640.

36 Herring, Aid to Russia 1941–1946, 56, 58.

37 Herbert Feis, Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin: The War They Waged and the Peace They Sought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957), 42.

38 Lloyd C. Gardner, Walter F. LaFeber, and Thomas J. McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, vol. 2: U.S. Diplomatic History Since 1893 (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976), 425.

39 John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, The Soviet Union, and the United States (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990), 149.

40 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 573.

41 Allan M. Winkler, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Making of Modern America (New York: Longman, 2006), 235.

42 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 574.

43 Edward T. Folliard, “Molotov’s Visit to White House, Postwar Amity Pledge Revealed,” Washington Post, June 12, 1942.

44 “US Pledges Europe Attack,” Los Angeles Times, June 12, 1942.

45 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 575–576.

46 Mark Sullivan, “A Military Question,” Washington Post, August 5, 1942.

47 Mark Sullivan, “Mark Sullivan,” Washington Post, July 12, 1942.

48 John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972), 69.

49 George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 547.

50 Mark A. Stoler, The Politics of the Second Front: American Military Planning and Diplomacy in Coalition Warfare, 1941–1943 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), 55–58, 110.

51 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 579.

52 “Hull Lauds Soviet Stand,” New York Times, December 12, 1941.

53 Ralph Parker, “Russian War Zeal Lightens Big Task,” New York Times, April 4, 1942.

54 Orville Prescott, “Books of the Times,” New York Times, June 22, 1942.

55 Barnett Nover, “Twelve Months,” Washington Post, June 22, 1942.

56 Robert Joseph, “Filmland Salutes New Tovarichi,” New York Times, July 5, 1942.

57 Leland Stowe, “Second Front Held Vital,” Los Angeles Times, July 7, 1942.

58 Leland Stowe, “Second Front Decision Held Imperative Now: All Signs Point to Powerful Resistance in West if Allies Wait Until Spring,” Los Angeles Times, August 25, 1942.

59 George Gallup, “Allied Invasion of Europe Is Urged,” New York Times, July 17, 1942.

60 June Austin, “Letter to the Editor,” Washington Post, July 10, 1942.

61 “C.I.O. Leaders Ask President to Open Second Front at Once,” Los Angeles Times, July 18, 1942.

62 “C.I.O. Rally to Ask 2d Front,” New York Times, July 13, 1942.

63 “Moscow’s Newspapers Highlight Second Front,” Atlanta Constitution, August 2, 1942; “Sees Stand Vindicated,” New York Times, June 13, 1942.

64 “500 Writers Ask 2d Front,” New York Times, September 15, 1942.

65 “2d Front Demand Made at Red Rally,” New York Times, September 25, 1942.

66 “43 May Be Too Late for 2nd Front—Wilkie,” Chicago Tribune, September 27, 1942.

67 A. J. P. Taylor, The Second World War: An Illustrated History (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1975), 168.

68 Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 26.

69 Susan Butler, ed. My Dear Mr. Stalin: The Complete Correspondence of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph V. Stalin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 63.

70 Frances Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Harper & Row, 1946), 83–85.

71 Lloyd C. Gardner, A Covenant with Power: America and World Order from Wilson to Reagan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 63.

72 Winston Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy: The Second World War, vol. vi (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1953), 214–215; Gaddis, Russia, The Soviet Union, and the United States, 154.

73 Edward S. Mason and Robert E. Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods: The Origins, Policies, Operations, and Impact of the International Bank for Reconstruction (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1973), 29.

74 Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2005), 252.

75 Warren F. Kimball, Forged in War: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Second World War (New York: William Morrow, 1997), 140.

76 Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1946), 37.

77 Warren F. Kimball, The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as Wartime Statesman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 144.

78 Lloyd C. Gardner, Approaching Vietnam: From World War II through Dienbienphu (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), 25.

79 Kimball, The Juggler, 149, 154.

80 Stephen F. Vogel, The Pentagon: A History: The Untold Story of the Wartime Race to Build the Pentagon—and to Restore It Sixty Years Later (New York: Random House, 2007), 42.

81 New York Times described it as a “great concrete doughnut of a building.” Newsweek criticized the building’s exterior as “penitentiary-like.” Years later, Norman Mailer would observe that the “pale yellow walls” of the Pentagon, which he anointed “the true and high church of the military-industrial complex,” were “reminiscent of some plastic plug coming out of the hole made in flesh by an unmentionable operation.” See “Mammoth Cave, Washington, DC,” New York Times, June 27, 1943; Vogel, The Pentagon: A History, 306; Norman Mailer, The Armies of the Night: History as a Novel, the Novel as History (New York: Signet, 1968) 116, 132.

82 Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, 227–228; Paul Johnson, Modern Times: The World from the Twenties to the Nineties (New York: Perennial, 2001), 434.

83 LaFeber, The American Age, 413.

84 Howard Jones, Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations from 1897 (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 219.

85 Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, 338.

86 Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947, 163.

87 H. W. Brands, The Devil We Knew: Americans and the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 6.

88 Kenneth W. Thompson, Cold War Theories: World Polarization, 1943–1953 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), 103.

89 “Report of President Roosevelt in Person to the Congress on the Crimea Conference,” New York Times, March 2, 1945.

90 Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950), 870.

91 Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 43.

92 William E. Leuchtenberg, In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to George W. Bush (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983), 1.

93 Harry S. Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945: Year of Decisions (New York: New American Library, 1955), 31.

94 Lloyd C. Gardner, Architects of Illusion: Men and Ideas in American Foreign Policy, 1941–1949 (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1970), 56.

95 Walter Millis, ed., The Forrestal Diaries (New York: The Viking Press, 1951), 36–37.

96 LaFeber, The American Age, 417–418.

97 Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945, 25–26.

98 Donald C. Watt, Succeeding John Bull: America in Britain’s Place, 1900–1975 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 105.

99 Robert H. Ferrell, ed. Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1980), 17.

100 Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945, 21, 104.

101 Gar Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb and the Architecture of an American Myth (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), 197.

102 Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy, 57.

103 Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945, 86; Gardner, Architects of Illusion, 58–59.

104 Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945, 95.

105 “Memorandum by Mr. Charles E. Bohlen, Assistant to the Secretary of State, of a Meeting at the White House, April 23, 1945,” in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, vol. 5 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967), 253.

106 Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945, 87.

107 “WPB Aide Urges U.S. to Keep War Set-up,” New York Times, January 20, 1944.

108 Robert H. Ferrell, Harry S. Truman: A Life (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1994), 200.

109 Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945, 99.

110 Arnold A. Offner, Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 33.

111 Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947, 205.

112 Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945, 102–103.

113 Gaddis, Russia, The Soviet Union, and the United States, 157.

114 Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947, 227.

115 Martin J. Sherwin, A World Destroyed: Hiroshima and the Origins of the Arms Race (New York: Vintage, 1987), 172–174, 180–183; Elizabeth Kimball MacLean, Joseph E. Davies: Envoy to the Soviets (New York: Praeger, 1992), 136–140; Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas, The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made: Acheson, Bohlen, Harriman, Kennan, Lovett, McCloy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), 279.

116 “Durable World Peace Fervent Aim of Stalin,” Atlanta Constitution, June 22, 1945; “Russia Seen Eager for Lasting Peace,” New York Times, June 22, 1945.

117 Don Whitehead and John Beals Romeiser, Beachhead Don: Reporting the War from the European Theater, 1942–1945 (New York: Fordham University Press, 2004), 355–356.

118 Harold Denny, “First Link Made Wednesday by Four Americans on Patrol,” New York Times, April 28, 1945.

119 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 34.

120 C. L. Sulzberger, “What the Russians Want—and Why,” New York Times, June 10, 1945.

121 Editorial, “Russia’s Children,” Washington Post, January 1, 1945.

122 “First Lady Gathers Books for Russians,” New York Times, July 1, 1945.

123 “‘I Am an American’ Is Powerful Password in Poland or Russia,” Washington Post, March 4, 1945.

124 George Gallup, “New Confidence in Russian Aims Shown in Poll,” Los Angeles Times, March 11, 1945.

125 Melvyn P. Leffler, “Inside Enemy Archives: The Cold War Reopened,” Foreign Affairs 75 (July–August 1996), 123.

126 Alexander Werth, Russia at War (New York: Dutton, 1964), 768.

127 Anita Kondoyanidi, “The Liberating Experience: War Correspondents, Red Army Soldiers, and the Nazi Extermination Camps,” Russian Review 69 (July 2010), 438.

128 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 29.

129 Offner, Another Such Victory, 54.

130 “America and Russia,” Life, July 30, 1945, 20.

131 Gardner, Architects of Illusion, 58.

CHAPTER 4: THE BOMB: THE TRAGEDY OF A SMALL MAN

1 Paul Fussell, “Thank God for the Atom Bomb: Hiroshima: A Soldier’s View,” New Republic, August 26 and 29, 1981, 28–30.

2 Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950), 605.

3 Roger M. Macklis, “The Great Radium Scandal,” Scientific American 269 (1993), 94–99; Spencer R. Weart, Nuclear Fear: A History of Images (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 50–52.

4 H. G. Wells, The World Set Free (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1914), 152.

5 Barton J. Bernstein, “Introduction” in Toward a Livable World: Leo Szilard and the Crusade for Nuclear Arms Control, ed. Helen S. Hawkins, G. Allen Greb, and Gertrud Weiss Szilard (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), xxvi.

6 Allan M. Winkler, Life Under a Cloud: American Anxiety About the Atom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 36.

7 Arthur Holly Compton, Atomic Quest: A Personal Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), 49.

8 Jeremy Bernstein, Hans Bethe, Prophet of Energy (New York: Basic Books, 1980), 73.

9 Nuel P. Davis, Lawrence and Oppenheimer (New York: Da Capo Press, 1986), 130.

10 Compton, Atomic Quest, 128.

11 William Lanouette with Bela Silard, Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard, the Man Behind the Bomb (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 245.

12 Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 185.

13 Michael S. Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 172, 236.

14 Henry A. Wallace, “The Price of Free World Victory,” in Henry A. Wallace, The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942–1946, ed. John Morton Blum (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 636.

15 Anthony Cave Brown, “C”: The Secret Life of Sir Stewart Graham Menzies (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 481–484; Wallace, The Price of Vision, 385. In October 1945, Wallace recorded the following about Dahl in his diary: “He is a nice boy and I am very fond of him but necessarily he is working out problems from the standpoint of British policy, and British policy clearly is to provoke the maximum distrust between the United States and Russia and thus prepare the groundwork for World War III.” Wallace, The Price of Vision, 492–493.

16 Culver and Hyde, American Dreamer, 298-300; “Costa Ricans Mass to Cheer Wallace,” New York Times, March 19, 1943; “Wallace Sees Evil If Few Hold Riches,” New York Times, April 20, 1943.

17 George Gallup, “The Gallup Poll,” Washington Post, March 19, 1943.

18 Edwin W. Pauley, “Why Truman Is President,” as told to Richard English. Copy in Harry S. Truman Library, Papers of Harry S. Truman, White House Central Files, Confidential Files. Referring to it as “The Pauley Conspiracy,” he comments, “If it was a conspiracy, I am proud to have been its organizer.”

19 Steve Kettmann, “Politics 2000,” www.salon.com/politics2000/feature/2000/03/20/rice.

20 Robert J. Lifton and Greg Mitchell, Hiroshima in America: A Half Century of Denial (New York: Avon Books, 1995), 196–197.

21 Harry S. Truman, Dear Bess: The Letters from Harry to Bess Truman, 1910–1959, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1998), 80, 83; Ronald Takaki, Hiroshima: Why America Dropped the Atomic Bomb (Boston: Little, Brown, 1995), 109–111; Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman, 34–35, 51. One of the neighborhood boys, Morton Chiles, recalled that they “used to call Harry a sissy. He wore glasses and didn’t play our games. He carried books, and we’d carry a baseball bat. So we called him a sissy.” When, years later, a young questioner asked him if he was “popular” as “a little boy,” Truman replied honestly, “Why, no, I was never popular. The popular boys were the ones who were good at games and had big, tight fists. I was never like that. Without my glasses I was blind as a bat, and to tell the truth, I was kind of a sissy. If there was any danger of getting into a fight, I always ran.”

22 Arnold A. Offner, Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 8.

23 Ibid., 9.

24 Arthur Sears Henning, “How Boss Rule and Roosevelt Named Truman,” Chicago Tribune, July 25, 1944.

25 Culver and Hyde, American Dreamer, 364.

26 Harry S. Truman, Memoirs of Harry S. Truman, vol. 1 (New York: Signet/New American Library, 1955), 21.

27 Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (Harper & Brothers, 1948), 635–636.

28 Harry S. Truman, “Why I Dropped the Bomb,” Parade, December 4, 1988. Bart Bernstein, who brought this article to my attention, cautions that Margaret Truman’s editing may have influenced the wording.

29 Barton J. Bernstein, “A Postwar Myth: 500,000 U.S. Lives Saved,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, June–July 1986, 38; David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 834.

30 Henry L. Stimson, “The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb,” Harper’s Magazine, February 1947, 97–107.

31 Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and Japan’s Surrender in the Pacific War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 37.

32 Gar Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb and the Architecture of an American Myth (New York: Vintage Books, 1996), 328.

33 Richard B. Frank, Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire (New York: Penguin, 1999), 354.

34 “Roosevelt in North Africa: The President Interrupts Historical Conference of Anglo-American High Command to Review U.S. Troops,” Life, February 8, 1943.

35 Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, 696.

36 John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 282–283.

37 Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy, 52–53.

38 U.S. Department of Defense, The Entry of the Soviet Union into the War Against Japan (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1955), 84.

39 John W. Dower, Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor/Hiroshima/9-11/Iraq (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 227.

40 Magic Diplomatic Summary SRS-1727, July 13, 1945, Records of the National Security Agency, Magic Files, Box 18, RG 457, National Archives.

41 Barton J. Bernstein, “The Perils and Politics of Surrender: Ending the War with Japan and Avoiding the Third Atomic Bomb,” Pacific Historical Review, February 1977, 5.

42 “Senator Urges Terms to Japs Be Explained,” Washington Post, July 3, 1945.

43 “Fatal Phrase,” Washington Post, June 11, 1945.

44 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 20.

45 Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy, 72–73.

46 Combined Chiefs of Staff, 643/3, “Estimate of the Enemy Situation (as of 6 July)” July 8, 1945, RG 218, Central Decimal Files, 1943–1945, CCS 381 (6/4/45), sec. 2, pt. 5.

47 Allan Nevins, “How We Felt About the War,” in While You Were Gone: A Report on Wartime Life in the United States, ed. Jack Goodman (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1946), 13.

48 Lisle Abbott Rose, Dubious Victory: The United States and the End of World War II (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1973), 58.

49 John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1986), 54, 78, 79, 85; “World Battlefronts, THE ENEMY: Perhaps He Is Human,” Time, July 5, 1943, 29.

50 Dower, War Without Mercy, 51–52.

51 Truman, Dear Bess, 39.

52 Peter Kuznick, “We Can Learn a Lot from Truman the Bigot,” Los Angeles Times, July 18, 2003; Miller, 183.

53 Edgar Jones, “One War’s Enough,” Atlantic Monthly, February 1946, 49.

54 Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 89–90; John Morton Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture During World War II (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1976), 158.

55 Lillian Baker, The Concentration Camp Conspiracies, A Second Pearl Harbor (Lawndale, CA: AFHA Publications, 1981), 156.

56 Harry N. Scheiber, Earl Warren and the Warren Court: The Legacy in American and Foreign Law (New York: Lexington Books, 2007), 41; Roger Daniels, Sandra C. Taylor, Harry H. L. Kitano, and Leonard J. Arrington, Japanese Americans, from Relocation to Redress (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 242; “Bay City Warned Raid Peril Real,” Los Angeles Times, December 10, 1941; Lawrence E. Davies, “Carrier Is Hunted off San Francisco,” New York Times, December 10, 1941.

57 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 749–751.

58 Robert Asahina, Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad (New York: Gotham, 2006), 20.

59 “Epilogue to a Sorry Drama,” Life, April 28, 1967, 6; Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 753.

60 John Howard, Concentration Camps on the Home Front: Japanese Americans in the House of Jim Crow (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 120; Dower, War Without Mercy, 82.

61 Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 751.

62 Eddie Yamaoka, “Sport Tidbits,” Heart Mountain Sentinel, July 7, 1945.

63 Susan Lynn Smith, “Women Health Workers and the Color Line in the Japanese American ‘Relocation Centers’ of World War II,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 73 (Winter 1999), 585–586.

64 Linda Gordon and Gary Y. Okihiro, Impounded: Dorothea Lange and the Censored Images of Japanese American Internment (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008), 19–20.

65 Asahina, Just Americans, 43, 161–193.

66 “A Jap’s a Jap,” Washington Post, April 15, 1943.

67 Blum, Victory, 163, 166; Charles McClain, The Mass Internment of Japanese Americans and the Quest for Legal Redress (New York: Taylor & Francis, 1994), 189.

68 Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U. S. 81, 1943, http://supreme.justia.com/us/320/81/case.html.

69 J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord, “Closing the Relocation Centers,” www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/anthropology74/ce3o.htm.

70 Michi Nishiura Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America’s Concentration Camps (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), 268, 281–282.

71 Dower, War Without Mercy, 39.

72 Greg Mitchell, “On the Death of ‘Hiroshima Bomb’ Pilot Paul Tibbets,” Editor and Publisher, November 1, 2007, http://editorandpublisher.com/Article/UPDATE-On-the-Death-of-Hiroshima-Bomb-Pilot-Paul-Tibbets. For a fuller discussion of Tibbets, see Peter J. Kuznick, “Defending the Indefensible: A Meditation on the Life of Hiroshima Pilot Paul Tibbets, Jr.,” The Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, January 22, 2008, http://japanfocus.org/-Peter_J_-Kuznick/2642.

73 Yuki Tanaka and Marilyn B. Young, Bombing Civilians: A Twentieth-Century History (New York: New Press, 2009), 5, 84–85, 117.

74 Lifton and Mitchell, Hiroshima in America, 133; Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power, 295.

75 Robert S. McNamara, “We Need International Rules for War,” The Gazette (Montreal, Quebec), August 9, 2003.

76 Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus, 291.

77 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 352.

78 Ronald Schaffer, Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 154.

79 Sherwin, A World Destroyed, 298.

80 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 147.

81 Sherwin, A World Destroyed, 62.

82 Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus, 284.

83 Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945, 104.

84 For the full report, see the appendix to Alice Kimball Smith, A Peril and A Hope: The Scientists’ Movement in America: 1945–47 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 560–572.

85 Lanouette with Silard, Genius in the Shadows, 273.

86 Ibid., 527–528, note 42. Seventy-two percent favored a demonstration before use and 11 percent favored a demonstration and no use.

87 Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus, 300.

88 Sherwin, A World Destroyed, 235; Harry S. Truman, Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), 53.

89 Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy, 133–134.

90 Allen Dulles, The Secret Surrender (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), 255–256.

91 “Russo-Japanese Relations (13–20 July 1945),” Publication of Pacific Strategic Intelligence Section, Commander-in-Chief United States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations, 21 July 1945, SRH-085, Record Group 457, Modern Military Branch, National Archives.

92 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 27.

93 Truman, Off the Record, 53.

94 Truman, Dear Bess, 519.

95 Henry L. Stimson, diary, May 15, 1945, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University.

96 Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus, 304.

97 Ibid., 309.

98 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 250–251.

99 Stimson, diary, July 21, 1945.

100 Ibid.

101 Stimson, diary, July 22, 1945.

102 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 259.

103 Truman, Off the Record, 55.

104 Stimson, diary, May 31, 1945.

105 “Ike on Ike,” Newsweek, November 11, 1963, 107.

106 Barton J. Bernstein, “Ike and Hiroshima: Did He Oppose It?,” Journal of Strategic Studies 10 (September 1987), 377–389.

107 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 271.

108 Robert L. Messer, The End of an Alliance: James F. Byrnes, Roosevelt, Truman and the Origins of the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 105.

109 Truman, Off the Record, 54.

110 Andrei Gromyko, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1989), 110.

111 Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy, 177.

112 Fletcher Knebel and Charles W. Bailey, “The Fight over the Atom Bomb,” Look, August 13, 1963, 20. For Groves’s denial to Truman that he said this, see Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 780, note 39.

113 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 415.

114 Dorris Clayton James, The Years of MacArthur: 1941–1945, vol. 2 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), 774.

115 Richard Goldstein, “Paul W. Tibbets Jr., Pilot of Enola Gay, Dies at 92,” New York Times, November 2, 2007.

116 Kuznick, “Defending the Indefensible.”

117 Merle Miller and Abe Spitzer, We Dropped the A-Bomb (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1946), 42–45.

118 Ibid., 45.

119 Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy, 179–180.

120 Robert Jay Lifton, Death in Life: Survivors of Hiroshima (New York: Random House, 1967), 441–442.

121 Miller and Spitzer, We Dropped the A-Bomb, 47. For a fuller discussion of the crewmembers and their reactions to the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, see Kuznick, “Defending the Indefensible.”

122 Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: 1945, 465.

123 Lifton and Mitchell, Hiroshima in America, 169–170.

124 David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy 1939–1956 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994), 127.

125 Georgii Konstantinovich Zhukov, The Memoirs of Marshal Zhukov (New York: Delacorte Press, 1971), 674–675; Vladislav M. Zubok, A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 27, 354, notes 120 and 121.

126 Ralph B. Levering, Vladimir O. Pechatnov, Verena Botzenhart-Viehe, and C. Earl Edmondson, Debating the Origins of the Cold War: American and Russian Perspectives (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001), 105; Zubok, 354 (notes 120 and 121).

127 Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy, 197.

128 Miller and Spitzer, We Dropped the A-Bomb, 57–59.

129 Lifton and Mitchell, Hiroshima in America, 162.

130 Sherwin, A World Destroyed, 237.

131 Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy, 237.

132 Stimson, diary, August 10, 1945.

133 Dower, Cultures of War, 239.

134 Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, “The Atomic Bombs and the Soviet Invasion: What Drove Japan’s Decision to Surrender?,” The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, www.japanfocus.org/-Tsuyoshi-Hasegawa/2501.

135 Ibid.

136 Memorandum for Chief, Strategic Policy Section, S&P Group, Operations Division, War Department General Staff, from Ennis, Subject: Use of Atomic Bomb on Japan, April 30, 1946, “ABC 471.6 Atom (17 August 1945), Sec. 7,” Entry 421, RG 165, National Archives.

137 William D. Leahy, I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time (New York: Whittlesey House, 1950), 441.

138 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 326.

139 Douglas MacArthur, memorandum to Herbert Hoover, December 2, 1960, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, Post-Presidential Papers, Individual File Series, Box 129 G, Douglas MacArthur 1953–1964, folder [3212 (3)]. MacArthur’s insistence on this point never wavered over the years. After a long talk with MacArthur in May 1946, Hoover had written in his diary, “I told MacArthur of my memorandum of mid-May 1945 to Truman, that peace could be had with Japan by which our major objectives would be accomplished. MacArthur said that was correct and that we would have avoided all the losses, the Atomic bomb, and the entry of Russia into Manchuria.” Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 350–351.

140 H. H. Arnold, Global Mission (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949), 598.

141 “Giles Would Rule Japan a Century,” New York Times, September 21, 1945; Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 336.

142 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 343.

143 Ibid., 329.

144 Sidney Shalett, “Nimitz Receives All-Out Welcome from Washington,” New York Times, October 6, 1945.

145 Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 331. Testifying before Congress in 1949, Halsey said, “I believe that bombing—especially atomic bombing—of civilians, is morally indefensible.” Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, 720, note 52.

146 Ibid., 359.

147 Lifton and Mitchell, Hiroshima in America, 11.

148 “Japan Beaten Before Atom Bomb, Byrnes Says, Citing Peace Bids,” New York Times, August 30, 1945.

149 “Oxnam, Dulles Ask Halt in Bomb Use,” New York Times, August 10, 1945.

150 Gerald Wendt and Donald Porter Geddes, ed. The Atomic Age Opens (New York: Pocket Books, 1945), 207.

151 Sadao Asada, “The Mushroom Cloud and National Psyches,” in Living with the Bomb, ed. Laura Hein and Mark Selden (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), 182.

152 Leahy, I Was There, 384–385.

153 Stimson, “The Decision,” 107.

154 Asada, “The Mushroom Cloud and National Psyches,” 179.

155 Wayne Phillips, “Truman Disputes Eisenhower on ’48,” New York Times, February 3, 1958.

156 John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945 (New York: Random House, 1970), 766 note.

157 Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus, 332.

158 Freeman J. Dyson, Weapons and Hope (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 121.

159 Dwight McDonald, Memoirs of a Revolutionist: Essays in Political Criticism (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy, 1957), 97.

160 Margaret Truman, Harry S. Truman (New York: William Morrow, 1973), 555.

CHAPTER 5: THE COLD WAR: WHO STARTED IT?

1 Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., “Some Lessons from the Cold War,” Diplomatic History 16 (January 1992), 47–53.

2 Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon, 1985), 7, 15.

3 Gerald Wendt and Donald Porter Geddes, ed. The Atomic Age Opens (New York: Pocket Books, 1945), 159.

4 “Everyman,” New York Times, August 18, 1945.

5 “Last Judgment,” Washington Post, August 8, 1945.

6 “Text of Kennedy’s Address Offering ‘Strategy of Peace’ for Easing the Cold War,” New York Times, June 11, 1963.

7 Gregg Herken, The Winning Weapon: The Atomic Bomb in the Cold War (New York: Vintage Books, 1982), 48.

8 Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), 643–644.

9 Felix Belair, Jr., “Plea to Give Soviet Atom Secret Stirs Debate in Cabinet,” New York Times, September 22, 1945.

10 “The Reminiscences of Henry Agard Wallace,” Columbia University Oral History, p. 4379.

11 Arthur Compton to Henry A. Wallace, September 27, 1945, Arthur Compton Papers, Washington University in St. Louis Archives; Arthur Holly Compton, The Cosmos of Arthur Holly Compton, ed. Marjorie Johnston (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 440.

12 Henry A. Wallace, The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942–1946, ed. John Morton Blum (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 489–490.

13 “Harry S. Truman, Press Conference, Oct. 8, 1945,” www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=12319#axzz1aJSeeAQ2.

14 Samuel A. Tower, “Truman for Civil Control over Atomic Energy in U.S.,” New York Times, February 1, 1946.

15 “Secretary of Commerce Warns of Danger of Fascism Under Army,” Washington Post, March 13, 1946.

16 Memorandum by the Commanding General, Manhattan Engineer District (Groves), January 2, 1946, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972), 1197–1198.

17 Wallace, The Price of Vision, 496–497.

18 Ibid., 502–503, 517.

19 Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), 6.

20 Fraser J. Harbutt, The Iron Curtain: Churchill, America, and the Origins of the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 152.

21 Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 55–56.

22 John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972), 119.

23 Arnold Joseph Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, vol. 2: The Middle East in the War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1954), 1.

24 Geoffrey Wawro, Quicksand: America’s Pursuit of Power in the Middle East (New York: Penguin, 2010), 5; Michael T. Klare, Blood and Oil: The Dangers and Consequences of America’s Growing Dependency on Imported Petroleum (New York: Owl Books, 2004), 33; Edward W. Chester, United States Oil Policy and Diplomacy: A Twentieth Century Overview (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983), 234.

25 Klare, Blood and Oil, 32.

26 James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American-Iranian Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 18.

27 Ibid., 19.

28 “Text of Churchill Plea for Alliance,” Los Angeles Times, March 6, 1946.

29 “Soviet Chief Calls Churchill Liar, Warmonger,” Chicago Tribune, March 14, 1946.

30 “Mr. Churchill’s Warning,” New York Times, June 7, 1946.

31 “Testament,” Washington Post, March 6, 1946.

32 “Mr. Churchill’s Plea,” Chicago Tribune, March 7, 1946.

33 “Senators Shy from Churchill Alliance Plan,” Chicago Tribune, March 6, 1946; “Senators Cold to Churchill’s Talk of Alliance,” Los Angeles Times, March 6, 1946.

34 “Churchill Plea Is ‘Shocking’ to 3 Senators,” Washington Post, March 7, 1946.

35 John D. Eddy, “Churchill’s Speech,” Washington Post, March 8, 1946.

36 Francis M. Stephenson, “Churchill’s ‘Attack on Peace’ Denounced by James Roosevelt,” New York Herald Tribune, March 15, 1946.

37 Marquis Childs, Witness to Power (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975), 45.

38 “Ickes, Truman Feud Flames Hotter in Two New Letters,” Chicago Tribune, February 14, 1946; “Ickes Flays Truman as He Quits,” Los Angeles Times, February 14, 1946; Thomas J. Hamilton, “Ickes Resigns Post, Berating Truman in Acid Farewell,” New York Times, February 14, 1946.

39 Bill Henry, “Ickes Blowup Rocks Capital like Atom Bomb,” Los Angeles Times, February 14, 1946.

40 Henry Wallace, April 12, 1946, RG 40 (Department of Commerce); Entry 1, General Records of the Department of Commerce, Office of the Secretary, General Correspondence; Box 1074, File “104251/6” (2 of 7), National Archives, Washington, D.C.

41 “Dr. Butler Urges Iran Oil Sharing,” Los Angeles Times, March 25, 1946.

42 “Russia and Iran,” Washington Post, March 7, 1946.

43 Robert C. Albright, “Pepper Urges Big 3 to Meet on ‘Confidence,’” Washington Post, March 21, 1946.

44 E. Brook Lee, “Relations with Russia,” Washington Post, March 20, 1946.

45 “Nation: Good Old Days,” Time, January 28, 1980, 13.

46 Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light, 30.

47 David E. Lilienthal, The Atomic Energy Years, 1945–1950, vol. 2: The Journals of David E. Lilienthal, ed. Helen M. Lilienthal (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), 10, 27.

48 Ibid., 30; Herken, The Winning Weapon, 160–162.

49 Lilienthal, The Atomic Energy Years, 1945–1950, vol. 2, 59; Robert C. Grogin, Natural Enemies: The United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War (New York: Lexington Books, 2001), 95.

50 Drew Middleton, “Baruch Atom Plan Spurned by Pravda,” New York Times, June 25, 1946.

51 Lloyd J. Graybar, “The 1946 Atomic Bomb Tests: Atomic Diplomacy or Bureaucratic Infighting?,” Journal of American History 72 (1986), 900.

52 “Red Sees Atom Test as Effort to Better Bomb,” Chicago Tribune, July 4, 1946.

53 Lewis Mumford, “Gentlemen: You Are Mad!” Saturday Review of Literature, March 2, 1946, 5.

54 Wallace, The Price of Vision, 589–601.

55 James A. Hagerty, “Wallace Warns on ‘Tough’ Policy Toward Russia,” New York Times, September 12, 1946.

56 Henry A. Wallace, “The Way to Peace,” September 12, 1946, in Wallace, The Price of Vision, 661–668.

57 James Reston, “Wallace Speech Is Seen Embarrassing to Byrnes,” New York Times, September 13, 1946.

58 “Hillbilly Policy, British Reaction,” Los Angeles Times, September 15, 1946.

59 Eleanor Roosevelt, “My Day,” September 17, 1946, www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1946&_f=md000445.

60 Wallace, The Price of Vision, 593.

61 Robert J. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S Truman (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977), 227.

62 Wallace, The Price of Vision, 630.

63 Richard J. Walton, Henry Wallace, Harry Truman, and the Cold War (New York: Viking, 1976), 114.

64 Clifford-Elsey Report, Septembner 24, 1946, Conway Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.

65 Leffler, A Preponderance of Power, 130–138; Offner, Another Such Victory, 178–182.

66 Clifford-Elsey Report.

67 Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas, The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), 376.

68 Offner, Another Such Victory, 180–181.

69 Lloyd C. Gardner, Three Kings: The Rise of an American Empire (New York: New Press, 2009), 48.

70 “Plan to Split U.S. Charged,” Baltimore Sun, May 29, 1946.

71 Robert L. Beisner, Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 53, 57.

72 Gardner, Architects of Illusion, 204.

73 Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York: Signet, 1969), 293.

74 “Text of President Truman’s Speech on New Foreign Policy,” New York Times, March 13, 1947.

75 Lawrence S. Wittner, Cold War America: From Hiroshima to Watergate (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978), 34.

76 “Henry Wallace Answers President Truman [advertisement],” New York Times, March 18, 1947; “Truman Betraying U.S. Wallace Says,” New York Times, March 14, 1947; Culver and Hyde, American Dreamer, 436–437.

77 “Pravda Opens Bitter Attack on U.S. Loans,” Washington Post, March 16, 1947.

78 Gardner, Architects of Illusion, 221; Anne O’Hare McCormick, “Open Moves in the Political War for Europe,” New York Times, June 2, 1947.

79 Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 616.

80 Lawrence S. Wittner, American Intervention in Greece, 1943–49 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 262–263.

81 Lorraine M. Lees, Keeping Tito Afloat: The United States, Yugoslavia and the Cold War (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993), 54; John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, The Soviet Union, and the United States: An Interpretive History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), 192.

82 Lloyd C. Gardner, Spheres of Influence: The Great Powers Partition Europe, From Munich to Yalta (Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993), 265.

83 Offner, Another Such Victory, 209–211.

84 Walter LaFeber, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad Since 1750 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 479–480.

85 Offner, Another Such Victory, 213.

86 Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 322–323.

87 Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 276–277; Melvyn P. Leffler, “Inside Enemy Archives: The Cold War Reopened,” Foreign Affairs 75 (July–August 1996).

88 Gary Wills, Bomb Power: The Modern Presidency and the National Security State (New York: Penguin, 2010), 63.

89 Walter Lippmann, The Cold War: A Study in U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), 15–16, 19, 44.

90 Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 287; Wills, Bomb Power, 74.

91 Offner, Another Such Victory, 202.

92 Ibid., 192.

93 Mark Perry, Four Stars (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), 88; Townsend Hoopes and Douglas Brinkley, Driven Patriot: The Life and Times of James Forrestal (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), 310–312; “NSC 10/2,” June 18, 1948, in William M Leary, ed., The Central Intelligence Agency: History and Documents (Birmingham, AL: University of Alabama Press), 133.

94 Colonel R. Allen Griffin, recorded interview by James R. Fuchs, staff interviewer, February 15, 1974, Harry S. Truman Library, Oral History Program; Wills, Bomb Power, 78, 88–89; Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 28–29.

95 Norman J. W. Goda, “Nazi Collaborators in the United States: What the FBI Knew,” in U.S. Intelligence and the Nazis, ed. Richard Breitman, Norman J. W. Goda, Timothy Naftali, and Robert Wolfe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 249–253.

96 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 43–45.

97 Wills, Bomb Power, 87.

98 Christopher Simpson, Blowback: America’s Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1988), 65.

99 Walter A. McDougall, The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1997), 88.

100 Leffler, A Preponderance of Power, 238–239.

101 Avi Shlaim, “The Balfour Declaration and Its Consequences,” in Yet More Adventures with Britannia: Personalities, Politics and Culture in Britain, ed. W. Roger Lewis (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005), 251.

102 Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 569.

103 Wawro, Quicksand, 37–38.

104 Wallace, The Price of Vision, 607.

105 Steven M. Gillon, The American Paradox: A History of the United States Since 1945 (Boston: Wadsworth, 2012), 25.

106 Daniel Yergin, The Prize, 408.

107 William Stivers, “The Incomplete Blockade: Soviet Zone Supply of West Berlin, 1948–1949,” Diplomatic History 21(Fall 1997), 569–570; Carolyn Eisenberg, “The Myth of the Berlin Blockade and the Early Cold War,” in Ellen Schrecker, ed. Cold War Triumphalism: The Misuse of History After the Fall of Communism (New York: New Press, 2004), 174–200.

108 Carolyn Woods Eisenberg, Drawing the Line: The American Decision to Divide Germany, 1944–1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 440.

109 James Carroll, House of War: The Pentagon and the Disastrous Rise of American Power (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2006), 148.

110 John C. Culver and John Hyde, American Dreamer: The Life and Times of Henry A. Wallace (W. W. Norton, 2000), 456–457.

111 Ibid., 466–467.

112 Ibid., 464–470.

113 Ibid., 502.

114 PPS/23, “Review of Current Trends: U.S. Foreign Policy,” February 24, 1948, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, vol. 1, Part 2 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), 524–525.

115 “The Tragedy of China,” New York Times, January 24, 1949.

116 “Duel for Asia,” New York Times, December 18, 1949.

117 “Chennault Sees War in Loss of China,” Washington Post, June 26, 1949.

118 Margaret Truman, Harry S. Truman (New York: William Morrow, 1973), 412.

119 Harry Truman, “Statement by the President on Announcing the First Atomic Explosion in the U.S.S.R., September 23, 1949,” Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945–1953, Truman Library.

120 “Groves of Illusion,” Los Angeles Times, February 28, 1946.

121 Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 417.

122 Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 145–147.

123 “Public Was Deluded on Bomb, Dewey Says,” New York Times, September 24, 1949.

124 “Lucas Blasts Gutter Politics over Red Atom,” Chicago Tribune, October 10, 1949.

125 “Who Is Winning?,” New York Times, October 9, 1949.

126 “Russ Bomb Heralds New Atom Era—as Predicted,” William Laurence, Los Angeles Times, September 25, 1949.

127 Lilienthal, The Atomic Energy Years, 1945–1950, vol. 2, 584–585.

128 “Forrestal Hopes to Keep His Job,” Los Angeles Times, October 10, 1948; Drew Pearson, “Pearson Replies,” Washington Post, May 30, 1949.

129 “Four Forrestal Suicide Bids, Says Pearson,” Los Angeles Times, May 23, 1949; Carroll, House of War, 151.

130 Marquis Childs, “Washington Calling: Food for Propaganda,” Washington Post, May 5, 1949.

CHAPTER 6: EISENHOWER: A NOT SO PRETTY PICTURE

1 Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 91.

2 Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 153.

3 Gregg Herken, The Winning Weapon: The Atomic Bomb in the Cold War (New York: Vintage Books, 1982), 279, 293–297.

4 David E. Lilienthal, The Atomic Energy Years, 1945–1950, vol. 2: The Journals of David E. Lilienthal, ed. Helen M. Lilienthal (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), 582.

5 Priscilla J. McMillan, The Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer and the Birth of the Modern Arms Race (New York: Viking, 2005), 24.

6 “USAEC General Advisory Committee Report on the ‘Super,’ October 30, 1949,” in The American Atom: A Documentary History of Nuclear Policies from the Discovery of Fission to the Present, 1939–1984, ed. Robert C. Williams and Philip L. Cantelon (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984), 124–127.

7 Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 427.

8 Albert Einstein, Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb, ed. David E. Rowe and Robert Schulmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 404.

9 Leo Szilard, Toward a Livable World, ed. Helen S. Hawkins, G. Allen Greb, and Gertrud Weiss Szilard (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), 84.

10 William Faulkner, Nobel Prize Banquet Speech, December 10, 1950, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1949/faulkner-speech.html.

11 “NSC 68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security (April 14, 1950),” in American Cold War Strategy: Interpreting NSC 68, ed. Ernest R. May (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993), 25, 28, 38, 55.

12 Robert Griffith, The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1970), 49.

13 Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 206.

14 Michael S. Sherry, In the Shadow of War: The United States Since the 1930s (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 174.

15 Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes, xiii, 267–268.

16 Mary McCarthy, “Naming Names: The Arthur Miller Case,” in Mary McCarthy, On the Contrary (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy, 1961), 154.

17 I. F. Stone, “Must Americans Become Informers?,” in I. F. Stone, The Truman Era (1953; reprint, New York: Random House, 1972), 99.

18 Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 1940s and 1950s, 2nd ed. (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1989), 322.

19 Larry Ceplair and Steven Englund, The Inquisition in Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community, 1930–1960 (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1980), 386–388, 403–407, 418–422.

20 Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes, 369–370.

21 Vincent Joseph Intondi, “From Harlem to Hiroshima: African Americans and the Bomb, 1945–1968,” PhD dissertation, American University, 2009.

22 David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 166–168.

23 Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes, 208, 212, 216, 227.

24 Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), 365.

25 “War in Korea,” New York Times, June 26, 1950.

26 David Halberstam, The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War (New York: Hyperion, 2007), 2.

27 Lloyd C. Gardner, “The Dulles Years: 1953–1959,” in From Colony to Empire: Essays on the History of American Foreign Relations, ed. William Appleman Williams (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972), 375–376.

28 Ibid., 371–372.

29 Halberstam, The Coldest Winter, 92–93.

30 Deborah Welch Larson, “Bandwagon Images in American Foreign Policy: Myth or Reality?” in Dominoes and Bandwagons, ed. Robert Jervis and Jack Snyder (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 96.

31 “Truman Lauds ‘Brilliant’ Victory by MacArthur,” Los Angeles Times, September 30, 1950.

32 Robert L. Beisner, Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 404.

33 Vladislav M. Zubok, A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 78.

34 Harry S. Truman, Memoirs: Years of Trial and Hope (New York: Doubleday, 1956), 375.

35 Halberstam, The Coldest Winter, 14–16, 386, 390–391.

36 “Statement by Gen. MacArthur,” New York Times, November 29, 1950.

37 Bruce Cumings, Korea’s Place in the Sun (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 272; Joseph Gerson, Empire and the Bomb: How the U.S. Uses Nuclear Weapons to Dominate the World (London: Pluto Press, 2007), 288; Drew Pearson, “Korea Briefing Startled British,” Washington Post, December 8, 1950.

38 Alan Brinkley, The Publisher: Henry Luce and His American Century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 365.

39 “Speeches by Warren Austin of U.S. and Wu Hsiu-chuan of Red China in Security Council,” New York Times, November 29, 1950.

40 Arthur Veysey, “Attlee to Tell Truman: Don’t Use Atom Bomb,” Chicago Tribune, December 2, 1950.

41 Cumings, Korea’s Place in the Sun, 272; Gerson, Empire and the Bomb, 81; Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, vol. 2: The Roaring of the Cataract, 1947–1950 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 749–750.

42 Michael H. Hunt, Crises in U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 217–218.

43 “Rivers Urges A-Bomb Against Reds,” Miami Daily News, November 28, 1950.

44 “Congressmen Split on Use of Atom Bomb,” Chicago Tribune, December 1, 1950.

45 Richard Lee Miller, Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (The Woodlands, TX: Two Sixty Press, 1991), 101.

46 A. M. Rosenthal, “U.N. Circles Wary on Atom Bomb Use,” New York Times, December 1, 1950.

47 Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, 750.

48 C. L. Sulzberger, “U.S. Prestige Ebbs on Korea, Europe-Asia Survey Shows,” New York Times, December 7, 1950.

49 Bruce Cumings, The Korean War: A History (New York: Modern Library, 2010), 156.

50 Arnold A. Offner, Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 402.

51 Max Hastings, The Korean War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), 201.

52 Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, 750–751.

53 Halberstam, The Coldest Winter, 607.

54 “McCarthy Charges Treason with Bourbon,” Los Angeles Times, April 13, 1951.

55 Richard H. Rovere and Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., General MacArthur and President Truman: The Struggle for Control of American Foreign Policy (1951; reprint, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992), 276–277.

56 Halberstam, The Coldest Winter, 609.

57 Beisner, Dean Acheson, 432.

58 Ibid., 433, 446.

59 George Barrett, “Radio Hams in U.S. Discuss Girls, So Shelling of Seoul Is Held Up,” New York Times, February 9, 1951.

60 I. F. Stone, The Hidden History of the Korean War (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969), 313.

61 Bruce Cumings, “American Airpower and Nuclear Strategy in Northeast Asia Since 1945,” in War and State Terrorism: The United States, Japan, and the Asia-Pacific in the Long Twentieth Century, ed. Mark Selden and Alvin Y. So (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), 76.

62 Bruce Cumings, Dominion from Sea to Sea: Pacific Ascendancy and American Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 340–341.

63 John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, The Soviet Union, and the United States: An Interpretive History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), 212.

64 Thomas C. Reeves, The Life and Times of Joe McCarthy (1982; reprint, Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1997), 451.

65 Ibid., 436.

66 Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President, vol. 2 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984), 55.

67 Samuel Shaffer, “Behind Nixon’s Speech,” Newsweek, October 6, 1952, 25.

68 Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), 218.

69 Dwight D. Eisenhower, “The Long Pull for Peace: Extracts from the Final Report of the Chief of Staff General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower,” The Army Information Digest, April 1948, 41.

70 Ira Chernus, Apocalypse Management: Eisenhower and the Discourse of National Security (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 30–31.

71 Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–2006 (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 147.

72 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 104.

73 Klaus Larres, Churchill’s Cold War: The Politics of Personal Diplomacy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), 189–193.

74 “Text of Speech by Eisenhower Outlining Proposals for Peace in World,” New York Times, April 17, 1953.

75 “Highway of Peace,” New York Times, April 17, 1953, 24.

76 “Eisenhower’s Peace Program,” Washington Post, April 17, 1953, 26.

77 Lloyd Gardner, “Poisoned Apples: John Foster Dulles and the ‘Peace Offensive,’” in The Cold War After Stalin’s Death, ed. Klaus Larres and Kenneth Osgood (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006), 85.

78 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Cycles of American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 399.

79 H. R. Haldeman with Joseph DiMona, The Ends of Power (New York: Dell, 1978), 121–122; Richard Nixon, The Real War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), 255.

80 Jon Halliday and Bruce Cumings, Korea: The Unknown War (New York: Penguin, 1990), 203.

81 Ibid., 204.

82 Dwight MacDonald, “America! America!,” in 50 Years of Dissent, ed. Nicolaus Mills and Michael Walzer (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 50.

83 McMillan, The Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer, 142.

84 DeGroot, The Bomb, 179.

85 “Text of Eisenhower Inaugural Address Pledging Search for Peace,” New York Times, January 21, 1953.

86 Edgar Snow, Journey to the Beginning (New York: Random House, 1958), 360–361.

87 “Ike Scouts Bomb as Full Defense,” Baltimore Sun, February 25, 1947.

88 David Alan Rosenberg, “The Origins of Overkill: Nuclear Weapons and American Strategy 1945–1960,” International Security 7 (Spring 1983), 27.

89 Peter J. Kuznick, “Prophets of Doom or Voices of Sanity? The Evolving Discourse of Annihilation in the First Decade and a Half of the Nuclear Age,” Journal of Genocide Research 9 (2007), 424.

90 “The Central Problem,” New York Times, September 19, 1953.

91 Richard H. Immerman, Empire for Liberty: A History of American Imperialism from Benjamin Franklin to Paul Wolfowitz (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 164–172.

92 Ronald W. Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power (New York: Free Press, 1982), 123–132.

93 Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Times Books, 2006), 114.

94 Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1974), 364.

95 John Prados, The Sky Would Fall: Operation Vulture: The U.S. Bombing Mission in Indochina, 1954 (New York: Dial Press, 1983), 30.

96 Memorandum of Discussion at a Special Meeting of the National Security Council on Tuesday, March 31, 1953, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954: Korea, vol. 15 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984), 827.

97 Appu K. Soman, Double-edged Sword: Nuclear Diplomacy in Unequal Conflicts: The United States and China, 1950–1958 (New York: Praeger, 2000), 88.

98 Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (1983; reprint, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), 183–184.

99 Schlesinger, Cycles of History, 401.

100 Chernus, Apocalypse Management, 96.

101 Edward T. Folliard, “U.S. to Use A-Weapons in Any War,” Washington Post, March 17, 1955; “President Says Atom Bomb Would Be Used like ‘Bullet,’” New York Times, March 17, 1955.

102 “Record Shows U.S. Stands Ready to Use Its Nuclear Weapons Against Aggressor,” New York Times, January 2, 1956.

103 Chernus, Apocalypse Management, 78–79.

104 William Lanouette, “Looking Back: Civilian Control of Nuclear Weapons,” Arms Control Today, May 2009, 45.

105 “Text of Eisenhower’s Address to the U.N. Assembly,” New York Times, December 9, 1953.

106 Hanson W. Baldwin, “Eisenhower’s Bid Hailed,” New York Times, December 10, 1953.

107 Shane J. Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid: The Quest for American Atomic Supremacy from World War II to the Present (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 91.

108 David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 349–350.

109 John Foster Dulles, “The Evolution of Foreign Policy,” Department of State Bulletin 30, no. 761 (January 25, 1954), 108.

110 William Henry Chamberlin, “The New Strategy,” Wall Street Journal, March 22, 1954.

111 James Reston, “Washington: ‘Massive Atomic Retaliation’ and the Constitution,” New York Times, January 17, 1954.

112 Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon, 212.

113 DeGroot, The Bomb, 190.

114 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 112.

115 Gardner, “The Dulles Years,” 391.

116 Kinzer, Overthrow, 122.

117 Beisner, Dean Acheson, 538; Kinzer, 117–118.

118 The Ambassador in Iran (Grady) to the Department of State, July 1, 1951, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, vol. 10 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989), 80.

119 Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 457.

120 Ibid., 458.

121 Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 121.

122 Beisner, Dean Acheson, 546.

123 Christopher Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), 203.

124 The Ambassador in Iran (Henderson) to the Department of State, July 28, 1952, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, vol. 10 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989), 417.

125 Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 86.

126 LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–2006, 162.

127 Piero Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944–1954 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 150.

128 “The Guatemalan Cancer,” New York Times, June 8, 1951.

129 “Red Cell in Guatemala,” Washington Post, March 4, 1952.

130 Kinzer, Overthrow, 134–135.

131 Nick Cullather, Secret History: The CIA’s Classified Account of Its Operations in Guatemala 1952–1954 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 28.

132 Peter Chapman, Bananas: How the United Fruit Company Shaped the World (New York: Canongate, 2007), 131–132.

133 Richard H. Immerman, The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), 181; Stephen C. Schlesinger and Stephen Kinzer, Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in Guatemala (New York: Doubleday, 1982), 137–138.

134 Cullather, Secret History, 26.

135 John W. Young, “Great Britain’s Latin American Dilemma: The Foreign Office and the Overthrow of ‘Communist’ Guatemala, June 1954,” International History Review 8 (November 1986), 575.

136 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 461.

137 Walter H. Waggoner, “U.S. Wants Rio Pact Inquiry on Arms Sent to Guatemala,” New York Times, May 19, 1954.

138 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 98.

139 “Guatemala Lifts Ban; Allows Times Correspondent to Re-enter Country,” New York Times, May 21, 1954.

140 Sydney Gruson, “U.S. Stand on Arms Unites Guatemala,” New York Times, May 21, 1954.

141 Sydney Gruson, “Guatemala Says U.S. Tried to Make Her Defenseless,” New York Times, May 22, 1954.

142 Sydney Gruson, “U.S. Arms Stand Alienates Guatemalan Foes of Reds,” New York Times, May 24, 1954.

143 Kinzer, Overthrow, 140.

144 Young, “Great Britain’s Latin American Dilemma,” 584.

145 Kinzer, Overthrow, 145.

146 Schlesinger and Kinzer, Bitter Fruit, 206.

147 “The Text of Dulles’ Speech on Guatemalan Upset,” New York Times, July 1, 1954.

148 Young, “Great Britain’s Latin American Dilemma,” 588.

149 Stephen Kinzer, “Revisiting Cold War Coups and Finding Them Costly,” New York Times, November 30, 2003.

150 Kinzer, Overthrow, 147; “Dulles Hails Upset of Reds,” Chicago Tribune, July 1, 1954.

151 Philip C. Roettinger, “For a CIA Man, It’s 1954 Again,” Los Angeles Times, March 16, 1986.

152 Westad, The Global Cold War, 149.

153 “Text of Talk by President Eisenhower at Governors’ Conference,” New York Times, August 5, 1953.

154 “Speech by Vice-President Nixon, December 23, 1953,” transcribed in Conflict in Indo-China and International Repercussions: A Documentary History, 1945–1955, ed. Allan B. Cole (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1956), 171.

155 “Why U.S. Risks War for Indochina: It’s the Key to Control of All Asia,” U.S. News & World Report, April 4, 1954, 21.

156 McGeorge Bundy, Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (New York: Vintage, 1990), 267.

157 Prados, The Sky Would Fall, 145–157; Fawn M. Brodie, Richard Nixon: The Shaping of His Character (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 322.

158 Frederick W. Marks, Power and Peace: The Diplomacy of John Foster Dulles (New York: Praeger, 1993), 197, note 41.

159 Bundy, Danger and Survival, 78.

160 Schlesinger, Cycles of History, 400.

161 “Cat in the Closet,” Chicago Tribune, April 13, 1954.

162 Chalmers M. Roberts, “Our 25 Years in Vietnam,” Washington Post, June 2, 1968.

163 Richard H. Immerman, John Foster Dulles: Piety, Pragmatism, and Power in U.S. Foreign Policy (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999), 93.

164 Walter Lippmann, “Surrender Demands by Both Sides Make Vietnam Settlement Difficult,” Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1965.

165 William L. Ryan, “Real Leader Needed to Rally Vietnamese,” Washington Post, April 24, 1954.

166 Hans Morgenthau, “Vietnam Chief a Multi-Paradox,” Washington Post, February 26, 1956.

167 Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change: The White House Years (New York: Doubleday, 1963), 372.

168 Wittner, Resisting the Bomb, 147.

169 Robert T. Hartmann, “AEC Chief Bares Facts on H-Bomb,” Los Angeles Times, April 1, 1954; “Text of Statement and Comments by Strauss on Hydrogen Bomb Tests in the Pacific,” New York Times, April 1, 1954.

170 Chernus, Apocalypse Management, 87.

171 Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid, 96.

172 Chernus, Apocalypse Management, 88.

173 Bundy, Danger and Survival, 271–273.

174 John Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies: United States Security and Alliance Policy Toward Japan, 1945–1960 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005), 181. For a fuller discussion of this effort, see Peter J. Kuznick, “Japan’s Nuclear History in Perspective: Eisenhower and Atoms for War and Peace,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, April 13, 2011, http://www.thebulletin.org/web-edition/features/japans-nuclear-history-perspective-eisenhower-and-atoms-war-and-peace, or Toshiyuki Tanaka and Peter Kuznick, Genpatsu to hiroshima—genshiryoku heiwa riyo no shinso (Nuclear Power and Hiroshima: The Truth Behind the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Power) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 2011).

175 Stanley Levey, “Nuclear Reactor Urged For Japan,” New York Times, September 22, 1954, 14.

176 “A Reactor for Japan,” Washington Post, September 23, 1954, 18; Foster Hailey, “Tokyo Press Stirs Ire of Americans,” New York Times, June 8, 1956.

177 William L. Laurence, “Now Most Dreaded Weapon, Cobalt Bomb, Can Be Built; Chemical Compound That Revolutionized Hydrogen Bomb Makes It Possible,” New York Times, April 7, 1954.

178 “Russ Reported Making Deadly Nitrogen Bomb,” Los Angeles Times, April 9, 1954.

179 “Cobalt Bomb’s Peril to All Life Stressed,” Washington Post, February 14, 1955.

180 DeGroot, The Bomb, 198.

CHAPTER 7: JFK: “THE MOST DANGEROUS MOMENT IN HUMAN HISTORY”

1 “Shedding New Light on the Stalin Regime,” Manchester Guardian, March 17, 1956.

2 Gerald J. DeGroot, Dark Side of the Moon: The Magnificent Madness of the American Lunar Quest (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 64, 67–68.

3 Ibid., 69.

4 Martin Walker, The Cold War: A History (New York: Macmillan, 1995), 114.

5 Lloyd C. Gardner, “The Dulles Years: 1953–1959,” in From Colony to Empire, ed. William Appleman Williams (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972), 418.

6 DeGroot, Dark Side of the Moon, 73.

7 “Science: Sputnik’s Week,” Time, October 21, 1957, 51.

8 Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (1983; reprint, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), 135.

9 Mathew Brzezinski, Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries that Ignited the Space Age (New York: Macmillan), 180.

10 David Halberstam, The Fifties (New York: Villard, 1993), 621.

11 “Khrushchev Speaks on Economic and Technical Progress,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, December 1957, 360.

12 Dwight D. Eisenhower: Public Papers of the President of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961), 789–792.

13 William J. Broad, “U.S. Planned Nuclear Blast on the Moon, Physicist Says,” New York Times, May 16, 2000.

14 Keay Davidson and Carl Sagan, Carl Sagan: A Life (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 86.

15 Special National Intelligence Estimate Number 11-10-57, “The Soviet ICBM Program,” December 10, 1957, National Security Archive, Digital Collection, Soviet Estimate, 2.

16 Richard Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 109.

17 Chalmers M. Roberts, “Enormous Arms Outlay Is Held Vital to Survival,” Washington Post, December 20, 1957.

18 DeGroot, Dark Side of the Moon, 69.

19 Joseph Alsop, “Matter of Fact: Untruths on Defense,” Washington Post, August 1, 1958.

20 John G. Norris, “Power Shifts to Soviet, Kennedy Warns,” Washington Post, August 15, 1958.

21 Michael S. Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 218.

22 Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 162–163.

23 “Texts of Appeal by Noted Scientists for Abolition of War,” New York Times, July 10, 1955.

24 Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden, ed. Einstein on Peace (New York: Schocken Books, 1960), 681.

25 “Policies Averted 3 Wars, Dulles Quoted as Saying,” New York Times, January 12, 1956.

26 William S. White, “Rayburn Assails Stand by Dulles,” New York Times, January 17, 1956.

27 “Dulles Risking U.S. Safety, Adlai Charges,” Washington Post, January 15, 1956; Richard J. H. Johnston, “Stevenson Bids President Repudiate or Oust Dulles,” New York Times, January 18, 1956.

28 Chalmers M. Roberts, “Political Pot-Shots Beset Dulles,” Washington Post, January 17, 1956.

29 “Protest to Ike over Dulles’ Step to the Brink,” Chicago Tribune, January 29, 1956.

30 John Lewis Gaddis, “The Unexpected John Foster Dulles: Nuclear Weapons, Communism, and the Russians,” in John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War, ed. Richard H. Immerman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 53–58.

31 “What the President Saw: A Nation Coming into Its Own,” Time, July 29, 1985, 50.

32 Warren Unna, “Atoms and Politics,” Washington Post, October 10, 1956; Bradford Jacobs, “Stevenson,” Baltimore Sun, October 27, 1956.

33 Bradford Jacobs, “Democrat Again Urges Testing Ban,” Baltimore Sun, October 16, 1956.

34 Henry R. Lieberman, “Nehru Again Asks End of Bomb Tests,” New York Times, May 18, 1957.

35 “Focus on Atoms,” New York Times, May 19, 1957.

36 Lawrence S. Wittner, Resisting the Bomb: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1954–1970 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997), 52–53.

37 Ibid., 35–36.

38 Warren Unna, “Libby Believes Man Can Tap Energy Sealed in Mountain by A-Bomb Blast,” Washington Post, December 3, 1957.

39 Richard G. Hewlett and Jack M. Holl, Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961: Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 529.

40 Gladwin Hill, “A.E.C. Considers Deep A-Blasting for Oil and Ore,” New York Times, March 14, 1958.

41 “Underground Atom Blast Planned for U.S. for 1961,” New York Times, March 17, 1960.

42 “‘Plowshare’ Seeks Uses for H-Bomb Explosions,” Washington Post, August 23, 1959.

43 “Excerpts from Message by Schweitzer,” New York Times, April 24, 1957; “Schweitzer Urges World Opinion to Demand End of Nuclear Tests,” New York Times, April 24, 1957.

44 “Focus on Atoms,” New York Times, May 19, 1957.

45 George Gallup, “Public Favors H-Tests’ Halt, If—,” Washington Post, May 19, 1957.

46 Earle P. Brown, “The Facing of Certain Death,” Washington Post, July 28, 1957.

47 Gerard J. De Groot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 211.

48 Bosley Crowther, “Screen: On the Beach,” New York Times, December 18, 1959.

49 Spencer R. Weart, Nuclear Fear: A History of Images (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 218–219.

50 Kenneth D. Rose, One Nation Underground: The Fallout Shelter in American Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 43.

51 Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly, 101.

52 Robert S. Norris and William M. Arkin, “Estimated U.S. and Soviet/Russian Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945–94,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November–December 1994, 58–59; Robert S. Norris and William M. Arkin, “Global Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945–2006,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, July–August 2006, 66.

53 Daniel Ellsberg, personal communication with Peter Kuznick.

54 David A. Rosenberg, “The Origins of Overkill: Nuclear Weapons and American Strategy, 1945–1960,” International Security 7 (Spring 1983), 8.

55 Daniel Ellsberg, Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers (New York: Viking, 2002), 58–59.

56 David Talbot, Brothers: The Hidden History of the Kennedy Years (New York: Free Press, 2007), 36.

57 W. H. Lawrence, “President Describes Nixon Role in Administration’s Decisions,” New York Times, August 25, 1960.

58 Charles J. G. Griffin, “New Light on Eisenhower’s Farewell Address,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 22 (Summer 1992), 472.

59 Milton Leitenberg, personal communication with Peter Kuznick, December 2010.

60 “Text of Eisenhower’s Farewell Address,” New York Times, January 18, 1961.

61 Walter Lippmann, “Today and Tomorrow: Eisenhower’s Farewell Warning,” Washington Post, January 19, 1961.

62 Griffin, “New Light on Eisenhower’s Farewell Address,” 475.

63 Jack Raymond, “The ‘Military-Industrial Complex’: An Analysis,” New York Times, January 22, 1961.

64 Talbot, Brothers, 35–36.

65 Desmond Ball, Politics and Force Levels: The Strategic Missile Program of the Kennedy Administration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 18–19.

66 Christopher A. Preble, “Who Ever Believed in the ‘Missile Gap’?: John F. Kennedy and the Politics of National Security,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 33 (December 2003), 805–806.

67 “Text of President Kennedy’s Inaugural Address,” Washington Post, January 21, 1961.

68 David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Random House, 1972), 60.

69 Kenneth P. O’Donnell and David F. Powers, “Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye”: Memories of John Fitzgerald Kennedy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 14.

70 Talbot, Brothers, 45.

71 Talbot, Brothers, 50–51.

72 “Curtains for Now in Cuba,” Chicago Tribune, April 22, 1961.

73 “The Collapse in Cuba,” Wall Street Journal, April 21, 1961.

74 “A Policy on Cuba,” New York Times, April 27, 1961.

75 Douglas Brinkley, Dean Acheson: The Cold War Years (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 127; Jim Heath, Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy-Johnson Years (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1975), 83.

76 Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest, 69.

77 “Kennedy’s Address,” Baltimore Sun, April 21, 1961.

78 Jack Raymond, “Gore Would Oust the Joint Chiefs,” New York Times, May 20, 1961; “C.I.A. Under the Microscope,” New York Times, May 9, 1961.

79 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 292.

80 Ibid., 258.

81 Benjamin C. Bradlee, Conversations with Kennedy (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 122.

82 Talbot, Brothers, 50–51.

83 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 180.

84 Ibid., 178–179.

85 Talbot, Brothers, 51.

86 W. J. Rorabaugh, Kennedy and the Promise of the Sixties (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 24.

87 Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, 391.

88 T. Christopher Jespersen, ed. Interviews with George F. Kennan (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2002), 88.

89 Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest, 76.

90 Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 163–164.

91 Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon, 297.

92 Heather A. Purcell and James K. Galbraith, “Did the U.S. Military Plan a Nuclear First Strike for 1963?,” American Prospect 19 (Fall 1994), 88–96.

93 Dean Rusk, As I Saw It (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), 246–247.

94 Roger Hilsman, From Nuclear Military Strategy to a World Without War: A History and Proposal (New York: Praeger, 1999), 52.

95 “Text of Kennedy Appeal to Nation for Increases in Spending and Armed Forces,” New York Times, July 26, 1961.

96 James Carroll, An American Requiem: God, My Father, and the War That Came Between Us (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 82–83.

97 Michael R. Beschloss, The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev 1960–1963 (New York: Edward Burlingame Books, 1991), 278.

98 Shane J. Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid: The Quest for American Atomic Supremacy from World War II to the Present (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 131.

99 Ibid., 162–163.

100 “Fallout Defense Seen in ‘Deplorable Shape,’” Washington Post, March 29, 1960.

101 “Fire Wrecks Libby’s Bel Air Fallout Shelter,” Washington Post, November 10, 1961.

102 Rose, One Nation Underground, 190; “Atom Shelter Builders Finding Business Poor,” Los Angeles Times, June 4, 1961.

103 Rose, One Nation Underground, 97, 94.

104 L. C. McHugh, “Ethics at the Shelter Doorway,” America, September 30, 1961, 826.

105 Louis Cassels, “Private A-Shelters Held ‘Unjust’ by Bishop Dunn,” Washington Post, October 14, 1961.

106 Rose, One Nation Underground, 98.

107 Arthur Gelb, “Political Satire Invades Capital,” New York Times, January 30, 1962; Emma Harrison, “Priest Unmoved on Shelter View,” New York Times, November 22, 1961.

108 “U.S. Bares Atomic Might,” Chicago Tribune, October 22, 1961; Beschloss, The Crisis Years, 331.

109 The U.S. had one Titan and sixty-two Atlas ICBMs by December 31, 1961, according to the December 7, 1991, SAC report “Alert Operations and the Strategic Air Command, 1957–1991.”

110 Roy F. Houchin, US Hypersonic Research and Development: The Rise and Fall of Dyna-Soar, 1944–1963 (New York: Routledge, 2006), 140; Robert S. Norris and William M. Arkin, “Global Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945–2006,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, July–August 2006, 66.

111 Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon, 246.

112 Ibid., 254–257.

113 James G. Blight and Philip Brenner, Sad & Luminous Days: Cuba’s Struggle with the Superpowers after the Missile Crisis (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 8.

114 Ibid.

115 Gregg Herken, Counsels of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 37.

116 Allan M. Winkler, Life Under a Cloud: American Anxiety About the Atom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 175.

117 Talbot, Brothers, 95.

118 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 184–185.

119 “Justification for U.S. Military Intervention in Cuba,” March 13, 1962, National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20010430/doc1.pdf.

120 John F. Kennedy, “Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at the Fourth Annual Rockhurst Day Banquet of Rockhurst College in Kansas City, Missouri, Saturday, June 2, 1956,” www.findingcamelot.net/speeches/1956/remarks-of-senator-john-f-kennedy-at-the-fourth-annual-rockhurst-day-banquet-of-rockhurst-college-in-kansas-city-missouri-Saturday-June-2-1956/.

121 Douglas A. Borer, Superpowers Defeated: Vietnam and Afghanistan Compared (New York: Frank Cass Publishers, 1999), 102.

122 Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest, 135.

123 Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, 547.

124 Despite having a seventeen-to-one advantage in nuclear weaponry during the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy considered the possibility of even one or two Soviet bombs striking U.S. cities too high a price to pay even if the United States could obliterate the Soviet Union in retaliation.

125 Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid, 197.

126 Blight and Brenner, Sad & Luminous Days, 36. We are grateful to Phil Brenner for clarifying the reference to Khrushchev’s planned “December” visit.

127 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 201.

128 Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 574.

129 O’Donnell and Powers, “Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye,” 318.

130 Ernest R. May and Philip D. Zelikow, The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1997), 178.

131 “Text of Kennedy’s Address on Moves to Meet the Soviet Build-up in Cuba,” New York Times, October 23, 1962.

132 Robert S. McNamara, Blundering into Disaster: Surviving the First Century of the Nuclear Age (New York: Pantheon, 1987), 10; Dobbs, One Minute to Midnight, 163.

133 Marion Lloyd, “Soviets Close to Using A-Bomb in 1962 Crisis, Forum Is Told,” Boston Globe, October 13, 2002.

134 Alexander Mozgovoi, “The Cuban Samba of the Quartet of Foxtrots: Soviet Submarines in the Caribbean Crisis of 1962,” Military Parade, Moscow, 2002, National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nsa/cuba_mis_cri/020000%20Recollections;%20of%20Vadim%20Orlov.pdf.

135 “Khrushchev Note,” Los Angeles Times, November 2, 1962.

136 Mimi Alford, Once Upon a Secret: My Affair with President John F. Kennedy and Its Aftermath (New York: Random House, 2012), 94; Andreas Wegner, Living with Peril: Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Nuclear Weapons (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), 201; J. Anthony Lukas, “Class Reunion,” New York Times, August 30, 1987.

137 William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 347.

138 Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 552.

139 Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War: The Inside Story of an American Adversary (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 500.

140 On October 25, Kennedy learned that the Soviets had installed Luna missiles, which could be used as tactical nuclear weapons or as conventional weapons. Kennedy and his advisors assumed that the Lunas were conventional. When Admiral George Anderson asked permission to load equivalent nuclear missiles on U.S. ships, Kennedy refused because he believed that the Soviet Lunas were not nuclear.

141 Robert S. McNamara, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam (New York: Vintage, 1996), 338–342; Jon Mitchell, “Okinawa’s First Nuclear Missile Men Break Silence,” Japan Times, July 8, 2012.

142 J. Anthony Lukas, “Class Reunion,” New York Times, August 30, 1987.

143 Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid, 198.

144 Ibid.

145 Message from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy, October 30, 1962, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 11 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997), 309–317.

146 Wittner, Resisting the Bomb, 416.

147 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 161.

148 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Robert Kennedy and His Times (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002), 596.

149 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 184.

150 Beschloss, The Crisis Years, 624.

151 For a discussion of the Atmospheric Test Ban Treaty, see Wittner, Resisting the Bomb, 416–421.

152 Gareth Porter, Perils of Dominance: Imbalance of Power and the Road to War in Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 169–170.

153 John M. Newman, JFK and Vietnam: Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power (New York: Warner Books, 1992), 319–320.

154 James W. Douglass, JFK and the Unspeakable: Why He Died and Why It Matters (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2008), 181.

155 For a fuller discussion of McNamara and Kennedy’s maneuvering, see Porter, Perils of Dominance, 165–179.

156 Tad Szulc, “Crisis in Vietnam: Repercussions Are Felt Throughout Asia,” New York Times, August 25, 1963.

157 Kai Bird, The Color of Truth: McGeorge and William Bundy: Brothers in Arms (New York: Touchstone, 1988), 261.

158 Ellsberg, Secrets, 195–196.

159 Douglass, JFK and the Unspeakable, 182.

160 John F. Kennedy, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1963 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964), 459–464.

161 Talbot, Brothers, 206.

162 Wittner, Resisting the Bomb, 421–422.

163 Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara: Nuclear Test Ban Issue, April 20, 1963, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 7 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995), 684.

164 “Transcript of President Kennedy’s News Conference,” Washington Post, March 22, 1963.

165 Beschloss, The Crisis Years, 632.

166 Talbot, Brothers, 213.

167 Andrei Gromyko, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1989), 137.

168 Walter A. McDougall, The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 221–222.

169 “Transcript of Kennedy Address to Congress on U.S. Role in Struggle for Freedom,” New York Times, May 26, 1961.

170 “Excerpts from the Speech of President John F. Kennedy Before the United Nations General Assembly, September 20,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November 1963, 45.

171 Douglass, JFK and the Unspeakable, 69–70; William Attwood, The Twilight Struggle: Tales of the Cold War (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 257–262.

172 Jean Daniel, “Unofficial Envoy: An Historic Report from Two Capitals,” New Republic, December 14, 1963, 16.

173 Douglass, JFK and the Unspeakable, 84–89.

174 Jules Dubois, “Kennedy Soft on Reds: Rocky,” Chicago Tribune, November 14, 1963; Donald Janson, “Rockefeller Says Kennedy’s Policy Imperils Peace,” New York Times, November 17, 1963; Foster Hailey, “Governor Scores U.S. on Atom Use,” New York Times, November 21, 1963.

175 Talbot, Brothers, 151.

CHAPTER 8: LBJ: EMPIRE DERAILED

1 Jean Daniel, “When Castro Heard the News,” New Republic, December 7, 1963, 7–8.

2 David Talbot, Brothers: The Hidden History of the Kennedy Years (New York: Free Press, 2007), 33.

3 James W. Douglass, JFK and the Unspeakable: Why He Died and Why It Matters (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2008), 381.

4 Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 192; Michael Dobbs, One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War (New York: Random House, 2009), 350.

5 Jim F. Heath, Decades of Disillusionment: The Kennedy-Johnson Years (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1975), 36.

6 Doris Kearns Goodwin, Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 95.

7 David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Random House, 1972), 298.

8 Goodwin, Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream, 230, 251.

9 John McCone, Memorandum, November 24, 1963, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/vietnam/showdoc.php?docid=7.

10 Gareth Porter, Perils of Dominance: Imbalance of Power and the Road to War in Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 182–183.

11 Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 237–239.

12 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 213.

13 John Prados, The Hidden History of the Vietnam War (New York: Ivan R. Dee, 1995), 15.

14 Sidney Lens and Howard Zinn, The Forging of the American Empire (London: Pluto Press, 2003), 422.

15 Carl Oglesby and Richard Shaull, Containment and Change (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 116.

16 Jeffrey P. Kimball, ed. To Reason Why: The Debate About the Cause of U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 271.

17 Lloyd Gardner, Pay Any Price: Lyndon Johnson and the Wars for Vietnam (New York: Ivan R. Dee, 1995), 233.

18 Marilyn B. Young, The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990 (New York: HarperPerennial, 1991), 120.

19 John Prados, Vietnam: The History of an Unwinnable War, 1945–1975 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009), 114.

20 Young, The Vietnam Wars, 129.

21 Fredrik Logevall, Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 357.

22 Loren Baritz, Backfire: A History of How American Culture Led Us into Vietnam and Made Us Fight the Way We Did (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 156.

23 Prados, The Hidden History of the Vietnam War, 296.

24 Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest, 533.

25 Gardner, Pay Any Price, 203.

26 Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 566.

27 Daniel Ellsberg, Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers (New York: Viking, 2002), 92.

28 “Russia Says U.S. Claims Right to Start A-War,” Washington Post, April 27, 1965.

29 “Red Raps U.S. in U.N.,” Chicago Daily Defender, April 27, 1965.

30 Rupert Cornwell, “Obituary: William Bundy,” Independent, October 12, 2000; “Ky Warns of Fight If ‘Reds’ Win Vote,” New York Times, May 14, 1967; “Ky Is Said to Consider Hitler a Hero,” Washington Post, July 10, 1965; James Reston, “Saigon: The Politics of Texas and Asia,” New York Times, September 1, 1965.

31 Neil Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam (New York: Random House, 1988), 524.

32 Ellsberg, Secrets, 96.

33 Ibid., 97.

34 Christian G. Appy, Patriots: The Vietnam War Remembered from All Sides (New York: Viking, 2003), 122–123.

35 Rowland Evans and Robert D. Novak, Lyndon B. Johnson: The Exercise of Power (New York: New American Library, 1966), 539.

36 Young, The Vietnam Wars, 141.

37 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 285.

38 David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Council (New York: William Morrow, 1986), 560.

39 Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest, 633.

40 Ibid., 434.

41 John Dumbrell, President Lyndon Johnson and Soviet Communism (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 2004), 12.

42 Overall, the 1967 ghetto uprisings left 88 dead, 1,397 injured, 16,389 arrested, and 2,157 convicted and resulted in almost $665 million in damage; see Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 286.

43 Walter Lippmann, “Today and Tomorrow: The CIA Affair,” Washington Post, February 21, 1967.

44 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 278–280; Tim Weiner, “Angleton’s Secret Policy,” New York Times, June 26, 2007.

45 Nhu Tang Truong, David Chanoff, and Van Toai Doan, A Vietcong Memoir: An Inside Account of the Vietnam War and Its Aftermath (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985), 167.

46 “Wilson Warns Against Use of Nuclear Arms,” Los Angeles Times, February 12, 1968.

47 General William C. Westmoreland, A Soldier Reports (New York: Doubleday, 1976), 338.

48 Jules Boykoff, The Suppression of Dissent: How the State and Mass Media Squelch USAmerican Social Movements (New York: Routledge, 2006), 202.

49 Jules Boykoff, Beyond Bullets: The Suppression of Dissent in the United States (Oakland, CA: AK Press, 2007), 180–181.

50 Walter LaFeber, The Deadly Bet: LBJ, Vietnam and the 1968 Election (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 60.

51 Robert D. Schulzinger, A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941–1975 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 266.

52 John Gerassi, The Great Fear in Latin America (New York: Collier, 1965),19–20, 129.

53 Britta H. Crandall, Hemispheric Giants: The Misunderstood History of U.S.-Brazilian Relations (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 211), 98; David F. Schmitz, Thank God They’re on Our Side: The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1921–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 272–273.

54 Schmitz, Thank God They’re on Our Side, 265.

55 Joseph Smith, Brazil and the United States: Convergence and Divergence (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 161.

56 Noam Chomsky, Hegemony or Survival: America’s Quest for Global Dominance (New York: Henry Holt, 2003), 92.

57 William Blum, Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Books, 1995), 168.

58 James N. Green, We Cannot Remain Silent: Opposition to the Brazilian Military Dictatorship in the United States (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010), 22.

59 H. W. Brands, The Wages of Globalism: Lyndon Johnson and the Limits of American Power (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 49.

60 Guian A. McKee, ed. The Presidential Recordings: Lyndon B. Johnson, vols. 4–6 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 18.

61 Ronald G. Hellman and H. Jon Rosenbaum, Latin America: The Search for a New International Role (New York: Wiley, 1975), 80.

62 Michael Wines, “William F. Raborn Is Dead at 84; Led Production of Polaris Missile,” New York Times, March 13, 1990.

63 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 250–251.

64 Schmitz, Thank God They’re on Our Side, 284.

65 “Text of Johnson’s Address on U.S. Moves in the Conflict in the Dominican Republic,” New York Times, May 3, 1965.

66 Thomas J. Hamilton, “Sharp U.N. Clash,” New York Times, May 4, 1965.

67 “Dominican Issues,” New York Times, May 9, 1965.

68 Homer Bigart, “Bosch Gives His Version of Revolt,” New York Times, May 8, 1965.

69 Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 152.

70 Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), 260.

71 Blum, Killing Hope, 102.

72 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 151.

73 Blum, Killing Hope, 103; “Aid to Indonesian Rebels,” New York Times, May 9, 1958.

74 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 142–154.

75 Douglass, JFK and the Unspeakable, 259; Evan Thomas, The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA (New York: Touchstone, 1995), 232–233.

76 Douglass, JFK and the Unspeakable, 257–259, 376.

77 Westad, The Global Cold War, 186.

78 Samuel B. Griffith, The Chinese People’s Liberation Army (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), 286.

79 David F. Schmitz, The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 45.

80 Blum, Killing Hope, 193–196.

81 Schmitz, The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 48.

82 Bradley R. Simpson, Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.-Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 171.

83 Edward C. Keefer, ed. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968: Indonesia, Malaysia-Singapore, Philippines (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2001), 571.

84 Schmitz, The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989, 48.

85 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 261.

86 Philip Shenon, “Indonesia Improves Life for Many but the Political Shadows Remain,” New York Times, August 27, 1993.

87 Young, The Vietnam Wars, 106.

88 Goodwin, Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream, 251–252, 259–260.

CHAPTER 9: NIXON AND KISSINGER: THE “MADMAN” AND THE “PSYCHOPATH”

1 Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon: Ruin and Recovery, 1973–1990 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 488; Lawrence Martin, The Presidents and the Prime Ministers: Washington and Ottawa Face to Face (Toronto: Doubleday, 1982), 259.

2 H. R. Haldeman with Joseph Dimona, The Ends of Power (New York: Dell Books, 1978), 108, 111.

3 Robert Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 93, 250.

4 Walter LaFeber, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad Since 1750 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 602; Henry A. Kissinger, American Foreign Policy, exp. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 183.

5 Walter Isaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 764.

6 “Dr. Kirk Urges U.S. to Leave Vietnam,” New York Times, April 13, 1968.

7 Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2008), 265.

8 Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 68.

9 John Prados, Vietnam: The History of an Unwinnable War, 1945–1975 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009), 288.

10 Joseph A. Califano, Jr., The Triumph and Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 328; Jules Witcover, The Making of an Ink-Stained Wretch: Half a Century Pounding the Political Beat (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), 131.

11 Isaacson, Kissinger, 127–128.

12 Seymour M. Hersh, The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House (New York: Summit Books, 1983), 20.

13 Ibid, 14.

14 Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 99.

15 Carolyn Eisenberg, “Remembering Nixon’s War,” in A Companion to the Vietnam War, ed. Marilyn B. Young and Robert Buzzanco (Maiden, MA: Blackwell, 2002), 263.

16 Anne Hessing Cahn, Killing Détente: The Right Attacks the CIA (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), 21.

17 Henry Kissinger, White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), 26.

18 Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 196.

19 Hersh, The Price of Power, 111.

20 Isaacson, Kissinger, 160.

21 Haldeman with DiMona, The Ends of Power, 122.

22 Fawn M. Brodie, Richard Nixon: The Shaping of His Character (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 322.

23 William Shawcross, Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon and the Destruction of Cambodia (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979), 30–32.

24 Isaacson, Kissinger, 213.

25 Jeffrey Kimball, Nixon’s Vietnam War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 159.

26 Ibid., 163; Young, Vietnam Wars, 239.

27 Hersh, The Price of Power, 127.

28 Kimball, Nixon’s Vietnam War, 163; Hersh, The Price of Power, 126, 129.

29 Hersh, The Price of Power, 124.

30 Henry A. Kissinger, Memorandum for the President, “Contingency Military Operations Against North Vietnam,” October 2, 1969, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB195/VN-2.pdf.

31 “Editorial Note,” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, vol. 7, Vietnam, January 1969–July 1970, Document 125, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v06/d125.

32 Richard Nixon, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1978), 398.

33 Hersh, The Price of Power, 124–125.

34 Tom Wells, The War Within: America’s Battle over Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 358.

35 Gregg Herken, Counsels of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 217.

36 Nixon, RN, 401.

37 AAAS, Minutes of the Meeting of the AAAS Council, December 30, 1965, AAAS Archives, Washington, D.C.

38 “Scientists Protest Viet Crop Destruction,” Science, January 21, 1966, 309.

39 Bryce Nelson, “Military Research: A Decline in the Interest of Scientists?” Science, April 21, 1967, 365.

40 Bryce Nelson, “Scientists Plan Research Strike at M.I.T. on 4 March,” Science, January 25, 1969, 373.

41 Max Tishler, “The Siege of the House of Reason,” Science, October 3, 1969, 193; Bryce Nelson, “M.I.T’s March 4: Scientists Discuss Renouncing Military Research,” Science, March 14, 1969, 1175–1178.

42 Hersh, The Price of Power, 134.

43 Christian G. Appy, Patriots: The Vietnam War Remembered from All Sides (New York: Viking, 2003), 122–123.

44 Robert S. McNamara, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam (New York: Vintage, 1996), 32–33.

45 Appy, Patriots, 243–244.

46 Ibid., 348–349.

47 Hersh, The Price of Power, 135.

48 Ibid.

49 Robert Parry and Norman Solomon, “Colin Powell’s My Lai Connection,” 1996, www.consortiumnews.com/2009/120209b.html.

50 Thomas S. Langston, ed. The Cold War Presidency: A Documentary History (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2007), 297.

51 Perlstein, Nixonland, 482.

52 Isaacson, Kissinger, 269.

53 Bernard D. Nossiter, “Thousands of Students Protest War,” Washington Post, May 6, 1970.

54 Kissinger, White House Years, 511, 513.

55 We are grateful to Daniel Ellsberg for this information.

56 Isaacson, Kissinger, 280.

57 Wells, The War Within, 579.

58 Testimony of Tom Charles Huston, Hearings before the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities of the United States Senate, 94th Cong., 1st Sess., “Huston Plan,” September 23, 1975, 20.

59 Ambrose, Nixon, 508.

60 Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Times Books, 2006), 175–176.

61 Ibid., 176.

62 Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 307–308.

63 “New Kissinger ‘Telecons’ Reveal Chile Plotting at Highest Levels of U.S. Government,” National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB255/index.htm.

64 Peter Kornbluh, The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability (New York: New Press, 2003), 1–2, 18, 36; Westad, The Global Cold War, 201; Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 309.

65 Kornbluh, The Pinochet File, 11.

66 Ibid., 8.

67 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 355.

68 Westad, The Global Cold War, 201.

69 Seymour M. Hersh, “Censored Matter in Book About C.I.A. Said to Have Related Chile Activities,” New York Times, September 11, 1974.

70 “World: Chile: The Expanding Left,” Time, October 19, 1970, 23.

71 Michael Dodge, Letter to the Editor, Time, November 16, 1970, 13.

72 Kornbluh, The Pinochet File, 17, 20–21, 58–59.

73 Ibid., 25, 26, 28–29, 64, 72.

74 Ibid., 79, 119.

75 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 364.

76 Kinzer, Overthrow, 187.

77 Ibid., 189.

78 James D. Cockcroft and Jane Carolina Canning, ed. Salvador Allende Reader: Chile’s Voice of Democracy (Melbourne, Australia: Ocean Press, 2000), 201–220.

79 Robert Alden, “Allende, at U.N., Charges Assault by U.S. Interests,” New York Times, December 5, 1972; Kinzer, Overthrow, 189; Joseph Zullo, “Allende Hits U.S., I.T.T.,” Chicago Tribune, December 5, 1972; Don Shannon, “Chile President Accuses U.S. Firms of ‘Indirect Aggression,’” Los Angeles Times, December 5, 1972.

80 Kinzer, Overthrow, 190.

81 Ibid., 194.

82 Tim Weiner, “Word for Word/Covert Action,” New York Times, September 13, 1998.

83 “TelCon: 9/16/73 (Home) 11:50, Mr. Kissinger/The President,” National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/Box%2022,%20File%203,%20Telcon,%209-16-73%2011,50%20Mr.%20Kissinger-The%20Pres%202.pdf.

84 Kornbluh, The Pinochet File, 265.

85 ARA Monthly Report (July), “The ‘Third World War’ and South America,” August 3, 1976, National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB125/condor05.pdf.

86 Ambassador Harry W. Shlaudeman to Secretary Kissinger, action memorandum, “Operation Condor,” August 30, 1976, Department of State, National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB312/1_19760830_Operation_Condor.PDF.

87 FM USDEL Secretary in Lusaka to Henry Kissinger, cable, “Actions Taken,” September 16, 1976, Department of State, National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB312/2_19760916_Actions_Taken.pdf.

88 John Dinges, “Pulling Back the Veil on Condor,” Nation, July 24, 2000, www.thenation.com/article/pulling-back-veil-condor.

89 Raymond L. Garthoff, Détente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1985), 290.

90 Richard Nixon, “Address to a Joint Session of the Congress on Return From Austria, the Soviet Union, Iran, and Poland,” June 1, 1972, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3450#axzz1aJSeeAQ2.

91 For a discussion of Okinawa, see Gavan McCormack, “Ampo’s Troubled 50th: Hatoyama’s Abortive Rebellion, Okinawa’s Mounting Resistance and the U.S.-Japan Relationship (Part 1),” The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, 22-3-10, May 31, 2010, www.japanfocus.org/-Gavan-McCormack/3365/; Gavan McCormack and Satoko Oka Norimatsu, Resistant Islands: Okinawa Confronts Japan and the United States (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012), 55–57.

92 Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 783–784.

93 Kurt M. Campbell and Tsuyoshi Sunohara, “Japan: Thinking the Unthinkable,” in The Nuclear Tipping Point: Why States Reconsider Their Nuclear Choices, ed. Kurt M. Campbell, Robert J. Einhorn, and Mitchell B. Reiss (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2004), 221–222.

94 Ibid., 225.

95 “The New Equilibrium,” New York Times, June 3, 1972.

96 Jacob Heilbrunn, They Knew They Were Right: The Rise of the Neocons (New York: Anchor Books, 2009), 122.

97 Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), 249.

98 Daniel Ellsberg, Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers (New York: Viking, 2002), 255–256, 258–260.

99 Ibid., 398.

100 Ibid., 408.

101 Ibid., 434, 440.

102 Ibid., 418.

103 Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 793.

104 Ellsberg, Secrets, 419.

105 Isaacson, Kissinger, 459.

106 “Transcript of the Speech by President on Vietnam,” New York Times, January 24, 1973.

107 Robert McNamara lecture to Peter Kuznick’s class at American University, October 21, 1999.

108 Mr. Kissinger/The President (tape) [telephone conversation], December 9, 1970, 8:45 p.m., National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/Box%2029,%20File%202,%20Kissinger%20%96%20President%20Dec%209,%201970%208,45%20pm%20%200.pdf.

109 Mr. Kissinger/General Haig (tape) [telephone conversation], December 9, 1970, 8:50 p.m., National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/Box%2029,%20File%202,%20Kissinger%20%96%20Haig,%20Dec%209,%201970%208,50%20pm%20106-10.pdf.

110 Ben Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide Under the Khmer Rouge (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 23.

111 Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime, xi, note 3.

112 Shawcross, Sideshow, 389.

113 Georges Chapelier and Joysane Van Malderghem, “Plain of Jars: Social Changes Under Five Years of Pathet Lao Administration,” Asia Quarterly 1 (1971), 75.

114 Marilyn B. Young, The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990 (New York: HarperPerennial, 1991), 234–236; Fred Branfman, Voices from the Plain of Jars: Life Under an Air War (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 3, 18–20.

115 Daniel Ellsberg, personal communication with Peter Kuznick.

116 “Excerpts from Mitchell’s Testimony,” Los Angeles Times, July 11, 1973.

117 New Yorker, vol. 49, 1973, 173.

118 Mark H. Lytle, America’s Uncivil Wars: The Sixties Era from Elvis to the Fall of Richard Nixon (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 1.

119 Eisenberg, “Remembering Nixon’s War,” 263.

CHAPTER 10: COLLAPSE OF DETENTE: DARKNESS AT NOON

1 “Carter Criticizes Bush and Blair on War in Iraq,” New York Times, May 20, 2007.

2 Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–2006 (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 293.

3 Marilyn B. Young, The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990 (New York: HarperPerennial, 1991), 239.

4 Gregory D. Cleva, Henry Kissinger and the American Approach to Foreign Policy (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1989), 40.

5 Jonathan Schell, The Real War: The Classic Reporting on the Vietnam War (New York: Da Capo Press, 2000), 53.

6 Ibid., 55.

7 Graham Hovey, “He Calls ’73 Pledge of Aid to Hanoi Invalid,” New York Times, May 20, 1977.

8 “Vietnam Report Details Unexploded Ordnance,” New York Times, August 1, 2009.

9 Douglas Brinkley, Gerald R. Ford (New York: Macmillan, 2007), 91.

10 Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 247; Clair Apodaca, Understanding U.S. Human Rights Policy: A Paradoxical Legacy (New York: Routledge, 2006), 60.

11 Robert Hotz, “Beam Weapon Threat,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, May 2, 1977, 11.

12 Anne Hessing Cahn, Killing Détente: The Right Attacks the CIA (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), 138.

13 Ibid., 152.

14 Richard Pipes, “Team B: The Reality Behind the Myth,” Commentary, October 1986, 29, 33.

15 Thom Hartmann, “Hyping Terror for Fun, Profit—and Power,” www.commondreams.org/views04/1207-26.htm.

16 Cahn, Killing Détente, 158.

17 Nicholas Thompson, The Hawk and the Dove: Paul Nitze, George Kennan, and the History of the Cold War (New York: Henry Holt, 2009), 260.

18 Ibid., 260–261.

19 Tom Nugent and Steve Parks, “New Evidence Clouds Paisley ‘Suicide’ Verdict,” Baltimore Sun, April 2, 1979; “Paisley’s Death Believed Linked to CIA, Majority Security Breach,” Baltimore Sun, January 26, 1979; James Coates, “CIA Spy Mystery: How Did He Die and Why?,” Chicago Tribune, October 8, 1978.

20 Coates, “CIA Spy Mystery.”

21 Nugent and Parks, “New Evidence Clouds Paisley ‘Suicide’ Verdict”; “Wife Probing Death of Ex-CIA Official,” Los Angeles Times, November 26, 1978; “The Paisley Mystery,” Baltimore Sun, May 22, 1979; Timothy S. Robinson, “Full Report on Paisley to Be Secret,” Washington Post, April 24, 1980.

22 Cahn, Killing Détente, 188.

23 Alexander Cockburn, Rumsfeld: His Rise, Fall, and Catastrophic Legacy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 20, note 18.

24 Gerald R. Ford, A Time to Heal: The Autobiography of Gerald R. Ford (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 357.

25 Sean Wilentz, The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008 (New York: HarperCollins, 2008), 64.

26 Westad, The Global Cold War, 247–248.

27 Ibid., 443, note 102.

28 Leo P. Ribuffo, “Writing About Jimmy Carter as if He Was Andrew Jackson: The Carter Presidency in (Deep) Historical Perspective,” delivered January 2007 at the University of Georgia, http://gwu.academia.edu/leoribuffo/Papers/168463/.

29 John B. Judis, “Twilight of the Gods,” Wilson Quarterly, Autumn 1991, 46–47.

30 Zbigniew Brzezinski, Between Two Ages: America’s Role in the Technetronic Era (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 297.

31 Judis, “Twilight of the Gods,” 47–50.

32 Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1983), 5.

33 Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States (New York: Harper Colophon, 1980), 551.

34 Jimmy Carter, A Government as Good as Its People (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 99–100.

35 Walter L. Hixson, The Myth of American Diplomacy: National Identity and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 258, n. 23.

36 Lawrence S. Wittner, Towards Nuclear Abolition: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1971–Present (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003), 41.

37 Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, “Jimmy Carter: No Apology on Vietnam,” Washington Post, July 7, 1976.

38 Alan Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008), 334.

39 Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 64.

40 Ibid., 65–66.

41 LaFeber, America, Russia, 300.

42 Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 268–269.

43 Ibid., 284.

44 “Speech of the President on Soviet-American Relations at the U.S. Naval Academy,” New York Times, June 8, 1978.

45 Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 189.

46 Westad, The Global Cold War, 283.

47 John Drumbell, The Carter Presidency: A Re-evaluation (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1995), 102.

48 David Vine, Island of Shame: The Secret History of the U.S. Military Base on Diego Garcia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).

49 Westad, The Global Cold War, 292.

50 “Tears and Sympathy for the Shah,” New York Times, November 17, 1977; see also Ronald Lee Ridenhour, “America Since My Lai: 10 Years on a Tightrope,” Los Angeles Times, March 19, 1978.

51 Lloyd C. Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad: A History of U.S. Foreign Policy from the 1970s to the Present (New York: New Press, 2008), 51.

52 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 301.

53 Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 54–55.

54 Robert Dreyfuss, Devil’s Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), 221.

55 Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 371.

56 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 308.

57 “Nuclear Know-how: A Close Call,” Los Angeles Times, March 12, 1979.

58 Robert A. Pastor, Condemned to Repetition: The United States and Nicaragua (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), 148.

59 Steve Galster, “Afghanistan: The Making of U.S. Policy, 1973–1990,” National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB57/essay.html.

60 William Borders, “Afghanistan Vows ‘Active Neutrality,’” New York Times, May 5, 1978.

61 Chalmers Johnson, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire (New York: Henry Holt, 2004), xiii.

62 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 310–311.

63 Ibid., 332.

64 Russell Baker, “A Bone in the Throat,” New York Times, May 3, 1980.

65 Jimmy Carter, State of the Union Address 1980, January 23, 1980, www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/speeches/su80jec.phtml.

66 Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 113.

67 Robert J. Lifton and Greg Mitchell, Hiroshima in America: A Half Century of Denial (New York: Avon Books, 1995), 220, 402.

68 Geoffrey Wawro, Quicksand: America’s Pursuit of Power in the Middle East (New York: Penguin, 2010), 382.

69 “Transcript of President’s News Conference on Foreign and Domestic Affairs,” New York Times, March 25, 1977.

70 Cahn, Killing Détente, 49.

71 David Walsh, The Military Balance in the Cold War: US Perception and Policy (Abingdon: Routledge, 2008), 183.

72 Melvin R. Laird, “Defense Secretaries Shouldn’t Play Politics,” Washington Post, August 17, 1980.

73 Gates, From the Shadows, 113.

74 Ibid., 114–115.

75 State Department cable 295771 to U.S. Embassy Moscow, “Brezhnev Message to President on Nuclear False Alarm,” 14 November 1979; Marshal Shulman memo to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, 16 November 1979; Marshal Shulman memo to Cyrus Vance, 21 November 1979, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 371, March 1, 2012, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb371/index.htm.

76 Mary McGrory, “Vance Departs Knowing the Full Implications,” Baltimore Sun, April 30, 1980.

77 “The Vance Resignation,” Washington Post, April 29, 1980.

78 “Leaving Well,” Wall Street Journal, April 29, 1980.

79 “Vance Says National Security Adviser Should Stop Making Foreign Policy,” Washington Post, May 5, 1980.

80 Steven R. Weisman, “Carter Sees Muskie as ‘Much Stronger’ in the Job than Vance,” New York Times, May 10, 1980.

81 Robert Parry, “The Crazy October Surprise Debunking,” November 6, 2009, www.consortiumnews.com/2009/110609.html.

CHAPTER 11: THE REAGAN YEARS: DEATH SQUADS FOR DEMOCRACY

1 Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents (1962–1986) (New York: Times Books, 1995), 530.

2 Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 349; Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 388.

3 Bob Schieffer and Gary Paul Gates, The Acting President (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1989), 91.

4 Lou Cannon, “Latin Trip an Eye-Opener for Reagan,” Washington Post, December 6, 1982.

5 William E. Pemberton, Exit with Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), 150.

6 Schieffer and Gates, The Acting President, 175.

7 Ronald Reagan, An American Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), 588.

8 Joanne Omang, “President, Nazi Hunter Discuss the Holocaust,” Washington Post, February 17, 1984; Lou Cannon, “Dramatic Account About Film of Nazi Death Camps Questioned,” Washington Post, March 5, 1984.

9 Mike Royko, “What Prez Says Ain’t Necessarily So,” Chicago Tribune, April 6, 1984.

10 James M. Perry, “… While Candidate Stays True to Form by Spreading the Word, and the Words,” Wall Street Journal, January 15, 1988; Carl P. Leubsdorf, “Cornerstone of Reagan Election Appeal Is Promised Return to ‘Good Old Days,’” Baltimore Sun, April 30, 1980.

11 Larry Speakes, Speaking Out: The Reagan Presidency from Inside the White House (New York: Scribner, 1988), 136.

12 Lou Cannon, President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 156–157.

13 “Wrong Turn on Human Rights,” New York Times, February 6, 1981; John M. Goshko, “Ultraconservative May Get Human Rights Post at State,” Washington Post, February 5, 1981; Jack Anderson, “U.S. Human Rights Post Goes to a Foe,” Washington Post, February 28, 1981; “The Case Against Mr. Lafever,” New York Times, March 2, 1981.

14 Pemberton, Exit with Honor, 151.

15 Cannon, President Reagan, 241.

16 Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 191, 199.

17 Melvin Goodman, Failure of Intelligence: The Decline and Fall of the CIA (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 303.

18 Robert Parry, Secrecy & Privilege: Rise of the Bush Dynasty from Watergate to Iraq (Arlington, VA: Media Consortium, 2004), 192–193.

19 Colman McCarthy, “They Are Less than Freedom Fighters,” Washington Post, March 2, 1985.

20 George Skelton, “Reagan Pledges to Back Guatemala,” Los Angeles Times, December 5, 1982; Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2006), 101.

21 Mary McGrory, “Learning Diplomacy from Movies,” Chicago Tribune, December 9, 1982.

22 Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 322.

23 Skelton, “Reagan Pledges to Back Guatemala”; Lou Cannon, “Reagan Praises Guatemalan Military Leader,” Washington Post, December 5, 1982.

24 Steven R. Weisman, “Reagan Criticized by Colombia Chief on Visit to Bogota,” New York Times, December 4, 1982; Anthony Lewis, “Howdy, Genghis,” New York Times, December 6, 1982.

25 Lou Cannon, “‘Unseemly Pressure’ from Nofziger Reported to Annoy Reagan,” Washington Post, December 6, 1982.

26 Lewis, “Howdy, Genghis.”

27 Frank P. L. Somerville, “Guatemala Atrocities Reported by a Jesuit,” Baltimore Sun, December 8, 1982.

28 Eric Alterman, When Presidents Lie: A History of Official Deception and Its Consequences (New York: Penguin Books, 2004), 246.

29 “Secret Guatemala’s Disappeared,” Department of State, 1986, Kate Doyle and Jesse Franzblau, “Historical Archives Lead to Arrest of Police Officers in Guatemalan Disappearance,” March 17, 2009, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 273, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB273/index.htm.

30 Gates, From the Shadows, 213.

31 George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Scribner, 1993), 864.

32 Ronald Reagan, “Remarks to an Outreach Working Group on United States Policy in Central America,” July 18, 1984, www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1984/71884d.htm.

33 Grandin, Empire’s Workshop, 115, n. 75.

34 Harry E. Bergold, Jr., to United States, “Ex-FDN Mondragon Tells His Story,” May 8, 1985, Department of State, http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:dnsa&rft_dat=xri:dnsa:article:CNI02471.

35 Robert S. Leiken and Barry Ruin, ed. The Central American Crisis Reader (New York: Summit Books, 1987), 562–563.

36 Walter LaFeber, “Salvador,” in Oliver Stone’s USA: Film, History, and Controversy, ed. Robert Brent Toplin (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 101.

37 “Research Group Calls Salvador, Guatemala Worst Rights Violators,” Baltimore Sun, December 30, 1982.

38 Sean Wilentz, The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008 (New York: HarperCollins, 2008), 156.

39 John M. Goshko, “Catholic Aid to Marxists Puzzles Bush,” Washington Post, March 3, 1983.

40 Ronald Reagan, “Peace: Restoring the Margin of Safety,” delivered at the Veterans of Foreign Wars Convention, Chicago, IL, August 18, 1980, www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/reference/8.18.80.html.

41 Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Times Books, 2006), 227.

42 Dick Cheney, “What Bonker Missed,” Washington Post, November 14, 1983.

43 Ronald V. Dellums, “And Then I Said…,” Washington Post, November 15, 1983.

44 Richard Bernstein, “U.N. Assembly Adopts Measure ‘Deeply Deploring’ Invasion of Isle,” New York Times, November 3, 1983.

45 “Grenada Act a ‘Liberation,’ Not Invasion, Reagan Insists,” Los Angeles Times, November 3, 1983.

46 Ronald Reagan, “Address to the Nation on Events in Lebanon and Grenada,” October 27, 1983, www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1983/102783b.htm.

47 Robert Timberg, “‘Days of Weakness Over,’ Reagan Tells War Heroes,” Baltimore Sun, December 13, 1983.

48 Marilyn B. Young, The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990 (New York: HarperPerennial, 1991), 316.

49 Bob Woodward, “CIA Told to Do ‘Whatever Necessary’ to Kill Bin Laden,” Washington Post, October 21, 2001.

50 Martin F. Nolan, “American Defense: Spending,” New York Times, June 28, 1981.

51 Michael Kramer, “When Reagan Spoke from the Heart,” New York, July 21, 1980, 18.

52 Wilentz, The Age of Reagan, 274.

53 Pemberton, Exit with Honor, 140.

54 Anthony Lewis, “Abroad and at Home: Nuclear News in Moscow,” New York Times, June 4, 1981.

55 Colin S. Gray and Keith Payne, “Victory Is Possible,” Foreign Policy, Summer 1980, 18, 21, 25.

56 Richard Halloran, “Special U.S. Force for Persian Gulf Is Growing Swiftly,” New York Times, October 25, 1982.

57 Joyce Battle, ed. “Shaking Hands with Saddam Hussein: The U.S. Tilts Toward Iraq, 1980–1984,” National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/.

58 Declaration of Howard Teicher before the United States District Court, Southern District of Florida, January 31, 1995, National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf.

59 Jonathan B. Tucker, War of Nerves: Chemical Warfare from World War I to Al-Qaeda (New York: Pantheon, 2006), 256.

60 “Excerpts from President’s Speech to National Association of Evangelicals,” New York Times, March 9, 1983.

61 Robert Jay Lifton and Eric Markusen, The Genocidal Mentality: Nazi Holocaust and Nuclear Threat (New York: Basic Books, 1990), 272.

62 Cannon, President Reagan, 290.

63 Robert Timberg, “Reagan Condemns ‘Massacre’ by Soviets, Spells Out Sanctions,” Baltimore Sun, September 6, 1983.

64 David E. Hoffman, The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy (New York: Doubleday, 2009), 86.

65 Ronald Reagan, The Reagan Diaries, ed. Douglas Brinkley (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 186.

66 Edmund Morris, Dutch: A Memoir of Ronald Reagan (New York: Random House, 1999), 498–499.

67 Reagan, The Reagan Diaries, 199.

68 Reagan, An American Life, 588; Hoffman, The Dead Hand, 96.

69 Reagan, An American Life, 586; Hoffman, The Dead Hand, 92.

70 Hoffman, The Dead Hand, 152–153.

71 Ibid., 153–154.

72 Reagan, An American Life, 550.

73 “Reagan in Radio Test, Jokes About Bombing Russia,” Baltimore Sun, August 13, 1984.

74 Fay S. Joyce, “Mondale Chides Reagan on Soviet-Bombing Joke,” New York Times, August 14, 1984.

75 “President’s Joke About Bombing Leaves Press in Europe Unamused,” New York Times, August 14, 1984; “European Reaction Is Uniformly Grim,” Baltimore Sun, August 14, 1984.

76 Dusko Doder, “Moscow Calls Reagan’s Quip ‘Self-Revealing,’” Washington Post, August 15, 1984; “Soviets Hit ‘Hostility’ of Reagan Joke,” Los Angeles Times, August 15, 1984.

77 John B. Oakes, “Mr. Reagan Bombs,” New York Times, August 18, 1984.

78 Jerome B. Wiesner, “Should a Jokester Control Our Fate?,” Los Angeles Times, August 30, 1984.

79 Robert Scheer, “White House Successfully Limits News,” Los Angeles Times, August 20, 1984.

80 “Transcript of President’s Address on Nuclear Strategy Toward Soviet Union,” New York Times, November 23, 1982.

81 Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 2005), 308–309.

82 Hoffman, The Dead Hand, 207–208.

83 Richard Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 205.

84 Wilentz, The Age of Reagan, 247.

85 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 377.

86 Ibid., 380.

87 Wilentz, The Age of Reagan, 151.

88 Vladislav M. Zubok, A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 284; Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 380.

89 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 385.

90 Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly, 129.

91 Ibid., 4.

92 Zubok, A Failed Empire, 288.

93 Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly, 26.

94 Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph, 716–717.

95 Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly, 242.

96 Ibid., 248.

97 Jack F. Matlock, Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War Ended (New York: Random House, 2004), 222.

98 Kenneth L. Adelman, The Great Universal Embrace: Arms Summitry—a Skeptic’s Account (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), 53.

99 Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly, 257–258.

100 Jay Winik, On the Brink: The Dramatic, Behind-the-Scenes of the Saga of the Reagan Era and the Men and Women Who Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 515.

101 Russian transcript of Reagan-Gorbachev Summit in Reykjavík, October 12, 1986 (afternoon), in FBIS-USR-93-121, September 20, 1993, “The Reykjavik File,” National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB203/index.htm.

102 Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly, 266–269.

103 Mikhail Gorbachev, Alone with Myself (Reminiscences and Reflections) (Moscow, 2010), unpublished memoir without page numbers.

104 “Session of the Politburo of the CC CPSU,” October 14, 1986, National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB203/Document21.pdf.

105 Philip Geyelin, “And CIA Comics,” Washington Post, August 12, 1984; Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 399.

106 Wilentz, The Age of Reagan, 167.

107 Ibid., 212, 214–215.

108 Pemberton, Exit with Honor, 173.

109 Lloyd C. Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad: A History of U.S. Foreign Policy from the 1970s to the Present (New York: New Press, 2008), 67.

110 Doyle McManus and Michael Wines, “Schultz Said to Seek Ouster of Poindexter,” Los Angeles Times, November 21, 1986.

111 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 403–408.

112 Wilentz, The Age of Reagan, 228; “Reagan: I Was Not Fully Informed,” Washington Post, November 26, 1986.

113 Pemberton, Exit with Honor, 191–192.

114 Robert Parry, “The Mysterious Robert Gates,” May 31, 2011, http://consortiumnews.com/2011/05/31/the-mysterious-robert-gates.

115 Pemberton, Exit with Honor, 174; Lawrence E. Walsh, Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-up (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), 120.

116 Gorbachev, Alone with Myself.

117 James J. F. Forest, ed. Countering Terrorism and Insurgency in the 21st Century: International Perspectives, vol. 2 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group), 468.

118 Robert Dreyfuss, Devil’s Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), 267.

119 Stephen Buttry and Jake Thompson, “UNO’s Connection to Taliban Centers on Education UNO Program,” Omaha World-Herald, September 16, 2001, 1.

120 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 384.

121 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 405.

122 Alfred W. McCoy, “Can Anyone Pacify the World’s Number One Narco-State? The Opium Wars in Afghanistan,” March 30, 2010, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175225; Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 384.

123 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 411.

124 Steve Coll, Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001 (New York: Penguin, 2004), 104; Thomas L. Friedman, “Bad Bargains,” Washington Post, May 10, 2011.

125 Dreyfuss, Devil’s Game, 290.

126 Ibid., 291.

127 Wilentz, The Age of Reagan, 173.

CHAPTER 12: THE COLD WAR ENDS: SQUANDERED OPPORTUNITIES

1 “Stirrings of Peace,” New York Times, July 31, 1988.

2 “Excerpts from Speech to U.N. on Major Soviet Military Cuts,” New York Times, December 8, 1988.

3 Robert G. Kaiser, “An Offer to Scrap the Postwar Rules,” Washington Post, December 8, 1988.

4 Jennifer Lowe, “Whither the Wimp?,” Washington Post, November 30, 1987.

5 Curt Suplee, “Sorry, George, But the Image Needs Work,” Washington Post, July 10, 1988.

6 Margaret Garrard Warner, “Bush Battles the ‘Wimp Factor,’” Newsweek, October 19, 1987, 28.

7 Sidney Blumenthal, “George Bush: A Question of Upbringing,” Washington Post, February 10, 1988.

8 Sean Wilentz, The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 265.

9 Thomas Hardy, “‘Wimp Factor,’ Joins Poor George Bush at the Starting Line,” Chicago Tribune, October 18, 1987.

10 Wilentz, The Age of Reagan, 266.

11 Suplee, “Sorry, George, But the Image Needs Work.”

12 “Transcript of the Keynote Address by Ann Richards, the Texas Treasurer,” New York Times, July 19, 1988.

13 Tom Shales, “Rather, Bush and the Nine-Minute War,” Washington Post, January 26, 1988; Richard Cohen, “The ‘Wimp’ Becomes a Bully,” Washington Post, November 1, 1988.

14 Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 408.

15 Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 449.

16 Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 386–387.

17 Richard Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 287.

18 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 436; Clifford Krauss, “U.S. Officials Satisfied with Soviets’ Gulf Role,” New York Times, September 20, 1990; Daniel T. Rogers, Age of Fracture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 246.

19 Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind, 450.

20 Mary Elise Sarotte, “Enlarging NATO, Expanding Confusion,” New York Times, November 30, 2009, 31; Uwe Klussman, Matthias Schepp, and Klaus Wiegrefe, “NATO’s Eastward Expansion: Did the West Break Its Promise to Moscow?,” www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,druck-663315,00.html; Noam Chomsky, Hopes and Prospects (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2010), 278–280.

21 Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Times Books, 2006), 253.

22 “A Transcript of Bush’s Address on the Decision to Use Force in Panama,” New York Times, December 21, 1989.

23 “Cheney’s Reasons for Why the U.S. Struck Now,” New York Times, December 21, 1989.

24 R. W. Apple, “War: Bush’s Presidential Rite of Passage,” New York Times, December 21, 1989.

25 James Brooke, “U.S. Denounced by Nations Touchy About Intervention,” New York Times, December 21, 1989.

26 John B. Quigley, The Invasion of Panama and International Law (Vienna: International Progress Organization, 1990), 3.

27 Noam Chomsky, Hegemony or Survival: America’s Quest for Global Dominance (New York: Owl Books, 2004), 107.

28 Gary J. Dorrien, Imperial Designs: Neoconservatism and the New Pax Americana (New York: Routledge, 2004), 26.

29 Elliott Abrams, “Better Earlier,” Washington Post, December 22, 1989.

30 “Excerpts from Iraqi Document on Meeting with U.S. Envoy,” New York Times, September 23, 1990.

31 George F. Will, “Gorbachev, Hussein and Morality,” St. Petersburg Times, January 16, 1991.

32 Elaine Sciolino, “Deskbound in U.S., the Envoy of Iraq Is Called Scapegoat for a Failed Policy,” New York Times, September 12, 1990.

33 Lloyd C. Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad: A History of U.S. Foreign Policy from the 1970s to the Present (New York: New Press, 2008), 81.

34 Ned Zeman, “Where Are the Troops?” Newsweek, December 3, 1990, 6; Craig Unger, House of Bush, House of Saud (New York: Scribner, 1994), 139–140.

35 Andrew J. Bacevich, American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 63–64; David Hoffman, “Baker Calls Iraqi Threat to ‘Economic Lifeline,’” Washington Post, November 14, 1990.

36 Joel Brinkley, “Israelis Praising Decision by Bush,” New York Times, August 9, 1990.

37 R. W. Apple, Jr., “Bush Draws Line,” New York Times, August 9, 1990.

38 Charles Paul Freund, “In Search of a Post-Postwar Rhetoric,” Washington Post, August 12, 1990.

39 Maureen Dowd, “President Seeks to Clarify Stand,” New York Times, November 2, 1990; Lloyd Gardner, “The Ministry of Fear: Selling the Gulf Wars,” in Selling War in a Media Age: The Presidency and Public Opinion in the American Century, ed. Kenneth Osgood and Andrew K. Frank (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 232–233.

40 Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 77.

41 Ibid., 83–84.

42 Thomas L. Friedman, “How U.S. Won Support to Use Mideast Forces,” New York Times, December 2, 1990.

43 George Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Knopf, 1998), 491.

44 Ruth Marcus, “U.N. Debate to Cap U.S. Lobby Effort,” Washington Post, November 26, 1990.

45 Judith Miller, “Iraqi Pullout? Election in Kuwait? Prospects Worry Hawks,” New York Times, October 8, 1990.

46 Patrick E. Tyler, “U.S. Juggling Iraq Policy,” New York Times, April 13, 1991.

47 Dorrien, Imperial Designs, 35.

48 Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 489.

49 George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 912.

50 Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 78.

51 George F. Will, “The Emptiness of Desert Storm,” Washington Post, January 12, 1992.

52 Paul Lewis, “U.N. Survey Calls Iraq’s War Damage Near-Apocalyptic,” New York Times, March 22, 1991.

53 Patrick E. Tyler, “U.S. Officials Believe Iraq Will Take Years to Rebuild,” New York Times, June 3, 1991.

54 “Quotation of the Day,” New York Times, March 2, 1991; Bacevich, American Empire, 62.

55 Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly, 292.

56 Ibid., 296.

57 Patrick E. Tyler, “Pentagon Imagines New Enemies to Fight in Post-Cold-War Era,” New York Times, February 17, 1992; Patrick E. Tyler, “Lone Superpower Plan: Ammunition for Critics,” New York Times, March 10, 1992.

58 Barton Gellman, “Keeping the U.S. First,” New York Times, March 11, 1992; “America’s Not the Only Cop,” New York Times, June 7, 1992.

59 Alan Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008), 410.

60 Jim Vallette, “Larry Summers’ War Against the Earth,” CounterPunch, June 15, 1999, www.counterpunch.org/1999/06/15/larry-summers-war-against-the-earth/; “Furor on Memo at World Bank,” New York Times, February 7, 1992.

61 Jeffrey Sachs, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), 139.

62 Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007), 291.

63 Stephen F. Cohen, Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia, updated ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 4–5.

64 Ibid., 36–37.

65 “Yeltsin Is a Liar, Says Gorbachev,” Times (London), December 26, 2001.

66 Joe Stephens and David B. Ottaway, “From the U.S., the ABCs of Jihad,” Washington Post, March 23, 2002; Stephen Buttry, “UNO’s Afghan Textbooks Face Criticism,” Omaha World-Herald, March 23, 2002.

67 Kenneth Freed, “Odd Partners in UNO’s Afghan Project,” Omaha World-Herald, October 26, 1997.

68 Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 176.

69 Freed, “Odd Partners in UNO’s Afghan Project.”

70 Marjorie Cohn, “The Deadly Pipeline War: U.S. Afghan Policy Driven by Oil Interests,” Jurist, December 8, 2001, www.commondreams.org/views01/1208-04.htm.

71 Project for the New American Century, “Statement of Principles,” www.newamericancentury.org/statementofprinciples.htm.

72 Dorrien, Imperial Designs, 142–143. Of the eighteen people who signed the 1998 PNAC letter to Clinton calling for “removing Saddam Hussein and his regime from power,” eleven took positions in the George W. Bush administration. Among the PNACers and prominent neocons who staffed the administration were Dick Cheney (vice president), Donald Rumsfeld (secretary of defense), Paul Wolfowitz (deputy secretary of defense), Richard Armitage (deputy secretary of state), Elliott Abrams (senior director for Near East, Southwest Asian, and North African Affairs on the National Security Council), John Bolton (undersecretary of state for Arms Control and International Security and UN ambassador), Paula Dobriansky (undersecretary of state for Global Affairs), Zalmay Khalilzad (president’s special envoy to Afghanistan and ambassador at large for free Iraqis), Richard Perle (chair of the Pentagon’s semiautonomous Defense Policy Board), Peter Rodman (assistant secretary of defense for International Security Affairs), William Schneider, Jr. (chair of the Pentagon’s Defense Science Board), Robert B. Zoellick (U.S. trade representative), Stephen Cambone (director of the Pentagon Office of Program Analysis and Evaluation), Eliot Cohen (Defense Policy Board), Devon Gaffney Cross (Defense Policy Board), I. Lewis Libby (Vice President Cheney’s chief of staff), William Luti and Abram Shulsky (directors of the Pentagon’s Office of Special Plans), James Woolsey (Defense Policy Board), and David Wurmser (special assistant to the undersecretary of state for Arms Control).

73 John W. Dower, Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor/Hiroshima/9-11/Iraq (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 91–92.

74 “Transcript: Town Hall Meeting on Iraq at Ohio State February 18,” February 20, 1998, www.fas.org/news/iraq/1998/02/20/98022006_tpo.html.

75 Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 111.

76 Ibid., 112.

77 Colin Powell with Joseph Persico, My American Journey (New York: Random House, 1995), 576.

78 “Excerpt from McCain’s Speech on Religious Conservatives,” New York Times, February 29, 2000.

79 Nicholas Kulish and Jim Vandehei, “Politics & Economy: Protest in Miami-Dade Is a Well-Organized GOP Effort,” Wall Street Journal, November 27, 2000; Paul Gigot, “Burgher Rebellion: GOP Turns Up Miami Heat,” Wall Street Journal, November 24, 2000; Wilentz, The Age of Reagan, 423–424.

80 Edward Walsh, “Ruling Marked by the Words of a Dissenter,” Washington Post, December 17, 2006.

81 “Profile: Washington Hawk Donald Rumsfeld,” http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2247256.stm.

82 Robert Draper, Dead Certain: The Presidency of George W. Bush (New York: Free Press, 2007), 282.

83 Bob Woodward, “A Course of ‘Confident Action,’” Washington Post, November 19, 2002.

84 Elizabeth Becker, “Head of Religion-Based Initiative Resigns,” New York Times, August 18, 2001; Ron Suskind, “Why Are These Men Laughing?,” Esquire, January 2003, 97.

85 “John Dilulio’s Letter,” October 24, 2002, www.esquire.com/features/dilulio.

86 Joel Achenbach, “Nader Puts His Mouth Where the Money Is,” Washington Post, August 4, 2000.

87 Jane Mayer, “Contract Sport: What Did the Vice-President Do for Halliburton?,” New Yorker, February 16, 2004, www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/02/16/040216fa_fact.

88 “Full Text of Dick Cheney’s Speech at the IP Autumn Lunch,” http://web.archive.org/web/20000414054656/ http://www.petroleum.co.uk/speeches.htm.

89 Antonia Juhasz, “Whose Oil Is It, Anyway?,” New York Times, March 13, 2007.

90 Dennis Kucinich, “Obviously Oil,” March 11, 2003, www.alternet.org/story/15359/.

91 Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 940.

92 David Johnston and Jim Dwyer, “Pre-9/11 Files Show Warnings Were More Dire and Persistent,” New York Times, April 18, 2004.

93 “Clarke ‘Would Welcome’ Open Testimony,” www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4619346/ns/us_news-security/t/clarke-would-welcome-open-testimony/#.TpJrlajEMhA.

94 Richard A. Clarke, Against All Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror (New York: Free Press, 2004), 235.

95 Johnston and Dwyer, “Pre-9/11 Files Show Warnings Were More Dire and Persistent.”

96 Thomas Powers, “Secret Intelligence and the ‘War on Terror,’” New York Review of Books, December 16, 2004, www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2004/dec/16/secret-intelligence-and-the-war-on-terror.

97 Ron Suskind, The One Percent Doctrine: Deep Inside America’s Pursuit of Its Enemies Since 9/11 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 2.

98 Wilentz, The Age of Reagan, 440.

99 “Transcript of Bush’s Remarks on Iraq: ‘We Will Finish the Work of the Fallen,’” New York Times, April 14, 2004.

100 “Two Months Before 9/11, an Urgent Warning to Rice,” Washington Post, October 1, 2006.

101 Frank Rich, “The Jack Welch War Plan,” New York Times, September 28, 2002.

102 Johnston and Dwyer, “Pre-9/11 Files Show Warnings Were More Dire and Persistent.”

CHAPTER 13: THE BUSH-CHENEY DEBACLE: “THE GATES OF HELL ARE OPEN IN IRAQ”

1 George W. Bush, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George W. Bush, 2004, Book 2, July 1 to September 30, 2004 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2004), 1494.

2 Robert S. McElvaine, “HNN Poll: 61% of Historians Rate the Bush Presidency Worst,” History News Network, March 5, 2009, http://hnn.us/articles/48916.html.

3 Devin Dwyer, “George W. Bush Cans Swiss Trip as Groups Promise Prosecution for War Crimes,” February 7, 2011, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/george-bush-cancels-swiss-trip-rights-activists-vow/story?id=12857195.

4 Ewen MacAskill and Afua Hirsch, “George Bush Calls Off Trip to Switzerland,” Guardian (London), February 6, 2011.

5 “The Kissinger Commission,” New York Times, November 29, 2002.

6 Philip Shenon, The Commission: The Uncensored History of the 9/11 Investigation (New York: Twelve, 2008), 9–14.

7 Ibid., 39, 107, 324.

8 Glenn Kessler, “Close Adviser to Rice Plans to Resign,” Washington Post, November 28, 2006.

9 “Rebuilding America’s Defenses: Strategy, Forces, and Resources for a New Century,” Project for the New American Century, September 2000, www.newamericancentury.org/RebuildingAmericasDefenses.pdf, 51.

10 David Cole, “What Bush Wants to Hear,” New York Review of Books, November 17, 2005, www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2005/nov/17/what-bush-wants-to-hear/; Chitra Ragavan, “Cheney’s Guy,” U.S. News & World Report, May 21, 2006, www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/060529/29addington.htm.

11 Joseba Zulaika, Terrorism: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 214.

12 Richard A. Clarke, Against All Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), 32.

13 Paul Krugman, “Osama, Saddam and the Ports,” New York Times, February 24, 2006.

14 George Tenet, At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), xix.

15 Elisabeth Bumiller and Jane Perlez, “Bush and Top Aides Proclaim Policy of ‘Ending’ States That Back Terror,” New York Times, September 14, 2001.

16 Clarke, Against All Enemies, 30–31.

17 Michael Cooper and Marc Santora, “Mideast Hawks Help to Develop Giuliani Policy,” New York Times, October 25, 2007.

18 Max Boot, “The Case for American Empire,” Weekly Standard, October 15, 2001, 30.

19 Clarke, Against All Enemies, 30.

20 Robert D. McFadden, “A Day of Mourning,” New York Times, September 15, 2001.

21 “Vice President Dick Cheney Discusses the Attack on America and Response to Terrorism,” NBC News Transcript, Meet the Press, September 16, 2001.

22 “Transcript of President Bush’s Address,” Washington Post, September 21, 2001.

23 Bob Woodward, “CIA Told to Do ‘Whatever Necessary’ to Kill Bin Laden,” Washington Post, October 21, 2001.

24 Ruth Rosen, “Could It Happen Again?,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 12, 2003.

25 Robin Toner, “Not So Fast, Senator Says, as Others Smooth Way for Terror Bill,” New York Times, October 10, 2001.

26 In 1975, Senator Frank Church had warned of the dangers posed by much more limited NSA surveillance during that era: “That capability at any time could be turned around on the American people, and no American would have any privacy left, such is the capability to monitor everything: telephone conversations, telegrams, it doesn’t matter. There would be no place to hide…. I know the capacity that is there to make tyranny total in America, and we must see to it that this agency [NSA] and all agencies that possess this technology operate within the law and under proper supervision.” Marjorie Cohn, Cowboy Republic: Six Ways the Bush Gang Has Defied the Law (Sausalito, CA: PoliPointPress, 2007), 100–101.

27 The warning system would become an easy target for comics. Conan O’Brien joked, “Champagne-fuchsia means we’re being attacked by Martha Stewart.” Jay Leno quipped, “They added a plaid in case we were ever attacked by Scotland.” John Schwartz, “U.S. to Drop Color-Coded Terror Alerts,” New York Times, November 25, 2010.

28 Eric Lipton, “Come One, Come All, Join the Terror Target List,” New York Times, July 12, 2006; Zbigniew Brzezinski, “Terrorized by ‘War on Terror,’” Washington Post, March 25, 2007.

29 Katrina vanden Heuvel, “With Osama bin Laden Dead, It’s Time to End the ‘War on Terror,’” The Nation Blogs, May 2, 2011, www.thenation.com/blog/160310/osama-bin-laden-dead-its-time-end-war-terror.

30 H. W. Brands, Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (New York: Random House, 2008), 650.

31 George W. Bush, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, George W. Bush, 2001, Book 2, July 1 to December 31, 2001 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2004), 1172.

32 Frank Rich, “Journal: War Is Heck,” New York Times, November 10, 2001.

33 Tamim Ansary, West of Kabul, East of New York: An Afghan American Story (New York: Picador, 2003), 291.

34 David B. Ottaway and Joe Stephens, “Diplomats Met with Taliban on Bin Laden,” Washington Post, October 29, 2001; Gareth Porter, “U.S. Refusal of 2001 Taliban Offer Gave bin Laden a Free Pass,” May 3, 2011, http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=55476; Gareth Porter, “Taliban Regime Pressed bin Laden on Anti-U.S. Terror,” February 11, 2001, http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=50300.

35 Karen DeYoung, “More Bombing Casualties Alleged,’” Washington Post, January 4, 2002.

36 Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Times Books, 2006), 310.

37 Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index 2009, www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2009/cpi_2009_table.

38 James P. Pfiffner, Power Play: The Bush Presidency and the Constitution (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008), 146–149.

39 Alfred W. McCoy, A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006), 10–11, 25–50, 101–107, 108–150; Jane Mayer, The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals (New York: Doubleday, 2008), 159–181.

40 Mayer, The Dark Side, 8.

41 Joby Warrick, Peter Finn, and Julie Tate, “CIA Releases Its Instructions for Breaking a Detainee’s Will,” Washington Post, August 26, 2009.

42 Joby Warrick, Peter Finn, and Julie Tate, “Red Cross Described ‘Torture’ at CIA Jails,” Washington Post, March 16, 2009.

43 Karen J. Greenberg, “Visiting the Torture Museum: Barbarism Then and Now,” February 21, 2008, www.tomdispatch.com/post/174897/karen_greenberg_barbarism_lite.

44 George W. Bush, Decision Points (New York: Crown, 2010), 169.

45 Peter Finn and Joby Warrick, “Detainee’s Harsh Treatment Foiled No Plots,” Washington Post, March 29, 2009.

46 Scott Shane, “2 Suspects Waterboarded 266 Times,” New York Times, April 20, 2009.

47 McCoy, A Question of Torture, 132–135.

48 Seymour M. Hersh, “Torture at Abu Ghraib,” New Yorker, May 10, 2004.

49 “Remarks by the President at the 2003 Republican National Committee Presidential Gala,” October 8, 2003, http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/10/20031008-9.html.

50 Mayer, The Dark Side, 8.

51 “Sources: Top Bush Advisors Approved ‘Enhanced Interrogation,’” April 9, 2008, http://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/LawPolitics/Story?id=4583256&page=3.

52 Noam Chomsky, Hopes and Prospects (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2010), 265–266.

53 George Hunsinger, ed. Torture Is a Moral Issue: Christians, Jews, Muslims, and People of Conscience Speak Out (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2008), 71; “Decisions from on Low,” Star-Ledger (Newark), April 15, 2008.

54 Glenn Greenwald, “The Suppressed Fact: Deaths by U.S. Torture,” June 30, 2009, www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2009/06/30/accountability; Antonio Taguba, “Preface to ‘Broken Laws, Broken Lives,’” June 2008, http://brokenlives.info/?page_id=23.

55 Roger Cohen, “A Command of the Law,” New York Times, November 27, 2008.

56 Mayer, The Dark Side, 187.

57 Taguba, “Preface to ‘Broken Laws, Broken Lives.’”

58 Seymour M. Hersh, Chain of Command: The Road from 9/11 to Abu Ghraib (New York: HarperCollins, 2004), 5.

59 Linda Greenhouse, “Justices, 5–4, Back Detainee Appeals for Guantánamo,” New York Times, June 13, 2008.

60 Patrick Sawer, “Yard Fury over Bush Visit,” London Evening Standard, October 11, 2003.

61 Sidney Blumenthal, “Dick Cheney Was Never a ‘Grown Up’: A Hard Look at How One Man Changed the Face of Neoconservatism,” April 14, 2008, www.salon.com/2008/04/14/cheney_10/.

62 Alan Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008), 447.

63 James Mann, Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet (New York: Penguin Books, 2004), 80.

64 Sam Tanenhaus, “Bush’s Brain Trust,” Vanity Fair, July 2003, 169.

65 Ron Suskind, The Price of Loyalty: George W. Bush, the White House, and the Education of Paul O’Neill (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), 72.

66 Ibid., 85–86.

67 Ibid., 129.

68 Elaina Sciolino and Patrick E. Tyler, “A National Challenge: Saddam Hussein,” New York Times, October 12, 2001.

69 Daniel Eisenberg, “We’re Taking Him Out,” Time, May 5, 2005, www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,235395,00.html.

70 Ron Suskind, The One Percent Doctrine: Deep Inside America’s Pursuit of Its Enemies Since 9/11 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 23, 189–191; Lloyd C. Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad: A History of U.S. Foreign Policy from the 1970s to the Present (New York: New Press, 2008), 134–135, 202–203.

71 Dilip Hiro, Secrets and Lies: Operation “Iraqi Freedom” and After (New York: Nation Books, 2004), 8.

72 Peter Bergen, “Armchair Provocateur: Laurie Mylroie: The Neocons’ Favorite Conspiracy Theorist,” Washington Monthly, December 2003, www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2003/0312.bergen.html.

73 Meet the Press, September 14, 2003.

74 Jeff Stein, “Spy Talk,” Washington Post, May 25, 2010.

75 Jack Fairweather and Anton La Guardia, “Chalabi Stands by Faulty Intelligence That Toppled Saddam’s Regime,” Daily Telegraph (London), February 19, 2004.

76 Seymour Hersh, “Selective Intelligence,” New Yorker, May 6, 2003.

77 Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 486.

78 David E. Sanger, “Threats and Responses: The President’s Speech,” New York Times, October 8, 2002.

79 “In Cheney’s Words: The Administration Case for Removing Saddam Hussein,” New York Times, August 27, 2002.

80 Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 153–154.

81 Todd S. Purdum and New York Times staff, A Time of Our Choosing: America’s War in Iraq (New York: Henry Holt, 2003), 37.

82 Michael Isikoff and David Corn, Hubris: The Inside Story of Spin, Scandal, and the Selling of the Iraq War (New York: Crown, 2006), 3.

83 “Scott Ritter: Facts Needed Before Iraqi Attack,” http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/07/17/saddam.ritter.cnna/.

84 Kinzer, Overthrow, 294.

85 Thomas Ricks, Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq (New York: Penguin Press, 2006), 40–41.

86 Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 141–143, 154.

87 Hans Blix, Disarming Iraq (New York: Pantheon Books, 2004), 156–157.

88 Lloyd C. Gardner, “Present at the Culmination: An Empire of Righteousness?,” in The New American Empire: A 21st Century Teach-in on U.S. Foreign Policy, ed. Lloyd C. Gardner and Marilyn B. Young (New York: New Press, 2005), 3.

89 Rajiv Chadrasekaran, “Baghdad Delivers Weapons Data to U.N.,” Washington Post, December 8, 2002; Kinzer, Overthrow, 295; Chalmers A. Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic (London: Verso, 2004), 224.

90 John Barry, Howard Fineman, Jonathan Adams, Tara Pepper, William Underhill, and Michael Isikoff, “Periscope,” Newsweek, March 3, 2003.

91 Walter Pincus, “U.S. Lacks Specifics on Banned Arms,” Washington Post, March 16, 2003.

92 Anthony H. Cordesman, Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East: Regional Trends, National Forces, Warfighting Capabilities, Delivery Options, and Weapons Effects (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2002), 17–19, 22, 27–31, 37–40, 53–59, 90–94, 98–103.

93 Paul Krugman, “Things to Come,” New York Times, March 18, 2003.

94 Frederik Logevall, “Anatomy of an Unnecessary War,” in The Presidency of George W. Bush: A First Historical Assessment, ed. Julian E. Zelizer (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 110.

95 John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen M. Walt, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008), 242–243. A broad range of Jewish groups jumped onto the prowar bandwagon. AIPAC continued to support the war vociferously even when most Americans, including most Jewish Americans, had turned against it. In 2007, Democratic Representative Jim Moran of Virginia noted, “Jewish Americans, as a voting bloc and as an influence on American foreign policy, are overwhelmingly opposed to the war. There is no ethnic group as opposed to the war as much as Jewish Americans. But, AIPAC is the most powerful lobby and has pushed this war from the beginning.” In fact, Gallup reported that year, based on thirteen polls taken since 2005, that 77 percent of American Jews opposed the war compared to 52 percent of all Americans. AIPAC’s former Director of Foreign Policy Issues Steven Rosen bragged that he could deliver the votes of seventy senators on any issue. “Representative Jim Moran on the Power of AIPAC,” Tikkun, September–October 2007, 76; Mearsheimer and Walt, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy, 240–243. Jeffrey Goldberg, “Real Insiders: A Pro-Israel Lobby and an F.B.I. Sting,” New Yorker, July 4, 2005, www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/07/04/050704fa_fact#ixzz1LilbqLAj.

96 Mearsheimer and Walt, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy, 238–240.

97 “President’s State of the Union Message to Congress and the Nation,” New York Times, January 29, 2003.

98 Paul R. Pillar, “Intelligence, Policy, and the War in Iraq,” Foreign Affairs, March–April 2006, 24.

99 Ron Suskind, The One Percent Doctrine, 191.

100 Karen DeYoung, Soldier: The Life of Colin Powell (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006), 439.

101 “Powell’s Address, Presenting ‘Deeply Troubling’ Evidence on Iraq,” New York Times, February 6, 2003.

102 “Colin Powell on Iraq, Race, and Hurricane Relief,” 20/20, September 8, 2005, http://abcnews.go.com/2020/Politics/story?id=1105979.

103 Ivo H. Daalder and James M. Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy (Washington: DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), 158; Martin Chulov and Helen Pidd, “Curveball: How US Was Duped by Iraqi Fantasist Looking to Topple Saddam,” Guardian (London), February 16, 2011; Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 157.

104 Nicholas D. Kristof, “Cloaks and Daggers,” New York Times, June 6, 2003, 33.

105 DeYoung, Soldier, 450–451.

106 For a full account of the Katharine Gun affair, see Marcia and Thomas Mitchell, The Spy Who Tried to Stop a War: Katharine Gun and the Secret Plot to Sanction the Iraq Invasion (Sausalito, CA: PoliPointPress, 2008).

107 Colum Lynch, “U.S. Pushed Allies on Iraq, Diplomat Writes,” Washington Post, March 23, 2008.

108 Steven R. Weisman, “U.S. Set to Demand That Allies Agree Iraq Is Defying U.N.,” New York Times, January 23, 2003.

109 Thomas L. Friedman, “Vote France off the Island,” New York Times, February 9, 2003.

110 Toby Harnden, “Gerhard Schroeder Accuses George W. Bush of ‘Not Telling Truth’ in Memoirs,” Telegraph (London), November 10, 2010.

111 Don Van Natta, Jr., “Bush Was Set on Path to War, Memo by British Adviser Says,” New York Times, March 27, 2006.

112 Matthew Yglesias, “Democrats and the World,” in In Search of Progressive America, ed. Michael Kazin with Frans Becker and Menno Hurenkamp (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 13.

113 David Barstow, “Behind TV Analysts, Pentagon’s Hidden Hand,” New York Times, April 20, 2008; “Instruments of War: Transcript,” April 25, 2008, www.onthemedia.org/transcripts/2008/04/25/01.

114 Daniel Okrent, “The Public Editor: Weapons of Mass Destruction? Or Mass Distraction?,” New York Times, May 30, 2004.

115 John Barry, “Beyond Baghdad: Expanding Target List,” Newsweek, August 18, 2002.

116 Norman Podhoretz, “In Praise of the Bush Doctrine,” Commentary, September 2002, 19.

117 Linda Diebel, “Bush Doctrinaires,” Toronto Star, April 13, 2003.

118 Wesley K. Clark, Winning Modern Wars: Iraq, Terrorism, and the American Empire (New York: PublicAffairs, 2004), 130.

119 Robert Dreyfuss, “Just the Beginning: Is Iraq the Opening Salvo in a War to Remake the World?,” American Prospect, April 1, 2003, 26.

120 Barbara Slavin, “Iraq a Harsh Climate to Try to Grow Democracy,” USA Today, November 11, 2002.

121 G. John Ikenberry, “America’s Imperial Ambition,” Foreign Affairs, September–October 2002, 49–50.

122 Michael Hirsh, “Hawks, Doves and Dubya,” Newsweek, September 2, 2002, 25.

123 Anthony Zinni, “Comments of Gen. Anthony Zinni (ret.) During a Speech before the Florida Economic Club, August 23, 2002,” www.npr.org/programs/morning/zinni.html.

124 George C. Wilson, “Cheney Believes Gorbachev Sincere,” Washington Post, April 5, 1989.

125 Phil McCombs, “The Unsettling Calm of Dick Cheney,” Washington Post, April 3, 1991.

126 Robert H. Swansbrough, Test by Fire: The War Presidency of George W. Bush (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 27; James E. Westheider, Fighting on Two Fronts: African Americans and the Vietnam War (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 29–30.

127 Colin L. Powell with Joseph E. Persico, My American Journey (New York: Random House, 1995), 148.

128 Stephen J. Whitfield, “Still the Best Catch There Is: Joseph Heller’s Catch 22,” in Rethinking Cold War Culture, ed. Peter J. Kuznick and James Gilbert (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001), 188.

129 Ross Goldberg and Sam Kahn, “Bolton’s Conservative Ideology Has Roots in Yale Experience,” Yale Daily News, April 28, 2005.

130 Paul D. Colford, The Rush Limbaugh Story: Talent on Loan from God (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993), 14–20; Whitfield, “Still the Best Catch There Is,” 188.

131 Craig Glenday, ed. Guinness World Records 2010: Thousands of New Records in the Book of the Decade! (New York: Bantam, 2010), 47.

132 Robert J. Samuelson, “The Gulf of World Opinion,” Washington Post, March 27, 2003.

133 Michael Dobbs, “Persuasion: Why Success Requires More than Victory,” Washington Post, March 30, 2003.

134 Nicholas D. Kristof, “Flogging the French,” New York Times, January 31, 2003.

135 Samuelson, “The Gulf of World Opinion.”

136 Harlan K. Ullman and James Wade, Shock and Awe: Achieving Rapid Dominance (Washington, DC: NDU Press, 1996), www.au.af.mil/AU/AWC/AWCGATE/ndu/shocknawe.

137 Arundhati Roy, An Ordinary Person’s Guide to Empire (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2004), 64.

138 Donald Rumsfeld, “Remarks as Delivered by Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld, Baghdad, Iraq, Wednesday, April 30, 2003,” www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=382.

139 Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 170; John W. Dower, Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor/Hiroshima/9-11/Iraq (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 397–398.

140 Richard Perle, “Next Stop, Iraq: Remarks of the Hon. Richard Perle at the FPRI Annual Dinner,” November 14, 2001, www.fpri.org/transcripts/annualdinner.20011114.perle.nextstopiraq.html.

141 Lawrence F. Kaplan and William Kristol, The War over Iraq: Saddam’s Tyranny and America’s Mission (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), vii–viii, 124.

142 Robert Fisk, “American Billions Keep Arab Regimes Sweet,” Independent (London), March 2, 2003.

143 Doug Struck, “Citing Iraq, N. Korea Signals Hard Line on Weapons Issue,” Washington Post, March 30, 2003.

144 Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 223.

145 Alan Greenspan, The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World (New York: Penguin, 2007), 463.

146 Robert Dreyfuss, “The Thirty-Year Itch,” Mother Jones, March–April 2003, http://motherjones.com/politics/2003/03/thirty-year-itch?page=2.

147 Congressional Record, Proceedings and Debates of the 108th Congress, First Session, April 3, 2003, 8544.

148 Dreyfuss, “The Thirty-Year Itch.”

149 “Report on Prewar Intelligence Assessments About Postwar Iraq,” Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, 110th Cong., May 25, 2007, 27, 57, http://intelligence.senate.gov/11076.pdf.

150 Walter Pincus and Karen DeYoung, “Analysts’ Warnings of Iraq Chaos Detailed,” Washington Post, May 26, 2007.

151 Roger Strother, “Post-Saddam Iraq: The War Game,” November 4, 2006, National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB207/index.htm.

152 Nicholas D. Kristof, “War and Wisdom,” New York Times, February 7, 2003.

153 Michael F. Scheuer, “Tenet Tries to Shift the Blame. Don’t Buy It,” Washington Post, April 29, 2007.

154 Peter W. Galbraith, The End of Iraq: How American Incompetence Created a War Without End (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 83.

155 Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 292.

156 “Bin Laden: Goal Is to Bankrupt U.S.,” November 1, 2004, http://articles.cnn.com/2004-11-01/world/binladen.tape_1_al-jazeera-qaeda-bin?_s=PM:WORLD.

157 Aram Roston, The Man Who Pushed America to War: The Extraordinary Life, Adventures, and Obsessions of Ahmad Chalabi (New York: Nation Books, 2008), 252–253, 255–256; Gardner, Long Road to Baghdad, 205.

158 Eli Lake, “Chalabi Aide Tied to Shi’ite Terrorists,” Washington Times, August 28, 2009.

159 “Interview with Andrew Natsios, Administrator for the US Agency for International Development, with Ted Koppel, Nightline, ABC News, 23 April 2003 on the Costs of Iraqi Reconstruction,” www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/iraq/koppel.htm.

160 Bruno Coppieters and Boris Kashnikov, “Right Intentions,” in Moral Constraints on War: Principles and Cases, ed. Bruno Coppieters and Nick Fotion (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 94.

161 Eric Schmitt, “2 U.S. Officials Liken Guerrillas to Renegade Postwar Nazi Units,” New York Times, August 23, 2003.

162 James Risen and David Johnston, “Bin Laden Is Seen with Aide on Tape,” New York Times, September 11, 2003.

163 For a discussion of U.S. privatization plans, see Dower, Cultures of War, 411–416.

164 Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (New York: Henry Holt, 2007), 432–436.

165 Rajiv Chandrasekaran, “Ties to GOP Trumped Know-how Among Staff Sent to Rebuild Iraq,” Washington Post, September 17, 2006.

166 “‘Gates of Hell’ Are Open in Iraq, Warns Arab League Chief,” Agence France Presse, September 19, 2004.

167 Jeremy Scahill, Blackwater: The Rise of the World’s Most Powerful Mercenary Army (New York: Nation Books, 2008), 59–60.

168 James Risen, “U.S. Splits Controversial Contractor’s Iraq Work 3 Ways, but Costs May Soar,” New York Times, May 24, 2008; Robert O’Harrow, Jr., “Halliburton Is a Handy Target for Democrats,” Washington Post, September 18, 2004.

169 Helen Dewar and Dana Milbank, “Cheney Dismisses Critic with Obscenity,” Washington Post, June 25, 2004.

170 James Risen, “Electrical Risks Worse than Said at Bases in Iraq,” New York Times, July 18, 2008.

171 Robert F. Worth, “Blast Destroys Shrine in Iraq, Setting Off Sectarian Fury,” New York Times, February 22, 2006.

172 Gardner, The Long Road to Baghdad, 245.

173 Dana Priest and Dana Milbank, “President Defends Allegation on Iraq,” Washington Post, July 15, 2003.

174 Ron Suskind, “Without a Doubt,” New York Times Magazine, October 17, 2004, 44, 51.

175 Buddhika Jayamaha, Wesley D. Smith, Jeremy Roebuck, Omar Mora, Edward Sandmeier, Yance T. Gray, and Jeremy A. Murphy, “The War as We Saw It,” New York Times, August 19, 2007.

176 Joseph E. Stiglitz and Linda Bilmes, The Three Trillion Dollar War: The True Cost of the Iraq Conflict (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008).

177 Iraq: No Let-up in the Humanitarian Crisis (Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross, 2008), 3.

178 Transparency International, “Corruption Perceptions Index 2010 Results,” www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results.

179 Liz Sly, “In Iraq, Ex-Foe Is New Friend: Historic Visit by Iran Leader Showcases Ties,” Chicago Tribune, March 3, 2008.

180 Gareth Porter, “Burnt Offering,” American Prospect, May 25, 2006, www.prospect.org/cs/articles?articleId=11539.

181 Philip Giraldi, “Deep Background: In Case of Emergency, Nuke Iran; Give Tenet Another Medal; Iraq’s Police Brutality,” American Conservative, August 1, 2005, www.amconmag.com/article/2005/aug/01/00027/.

182 “Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities,” National Intelligence Estimate, November 2007, www.dni.gov/press_releases/20071203_release.pdf, 6.

183 James Risen and Judith Miller, “A Nation Challenged,” New York Times, October 29, 2001; Tim Reid, “We’ll Bomb You to Stone Age, US Told Pakistan,” Times (London), September 22, 2006, www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article647188.ece.

184 Celia W. Dugger, “The World: Unthinkable,” New York Times, June 2, 2002.

185 Roger D. Hodge, “Weekly Review,” Harper’s Magazine, January 15, 2002.

186 Hersh, Chain of Command, 291, 312; Statement of Leonard Weiss, Ph.D., to the House Subcommittee on International Terrorism and Nonproliferation, “The A. Q. Khan Network: Case Closed?: Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Terrorism of the Committee on International Relations,” 109th Cong., 2nd Sess., May 25, 2006, 10; John Lancaster and Kamran Khan, “President Won’t Submit to Nuclear Inspections,” Washington Post, February 6, 2004.

187 Seymour M. Hersh, “The Deal: Why Is Washington Going Easy on Pakistan’s Nuclear Black Marketers?,” New Yorker, March 8, 2004, 32.

188 Pew Research Center, “Pew Global Attitudes Project: Spring 2007 Survey of 47 Publics” (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, 2007), 88; Pew Research Center, “Publics of Asian Powers Hold Negative Views of One Another,” September 21, 2006, http://pewglobal.org/2006/09/21/publics-of-asian-powers-hold-negative-views-of-one-another/.

189 “Poll: Bin Laden tops Musharraf in Pakistan,” September 11, 2007, http://articles.cnn.com/2007-09-11/politics/poll.pakistanis_1_approval-rating-poll-qaeda?_s=PM:POLITICS.

190 Nick Allen, “Soviet Break-up Was Geopolitical Disaster, Says Putin,” Daily Telegraph (London), April 26, 2005.

191 Nick Allen, “Why Russia Is Putting Stalin Back on His Pedestal,” Daily Telegraph (London), April 20, 2005.

192 William M. Arkin, “Secret Plan Outlines the Unthinkable,” Los Angeles Times, March 9, 2002.

193 “America as Nuclear Rogue,” New York Times, March 12, 2002.

194 Tadatoshi Akiba, “Peace Declaration, August 6, 2003,” www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/declaration/English/2003/index.html.

195 Keir A. Leiber and Daryl G. Press, “The Rise of U.S. Nuclear Primacy,” Foreign Affairs, March–April 2006, 42, 52.

196 Peter Finn, “Russians Sense the Heat of Cold War,” Washington Post, April 3, 2006.

197 Yegor Gaidar, “Nuclear Punditry Can Be a Dangerous Game,” Financial Times (London), March 29, 2006.

198 “Russian and U.S. Citizens See Each Other as Potential Enemies?,” Pravda, April 24, 2006.

199 “National Security,” program broadcast by Radio Russia on April 5, 2006, supplied by BBC Worldwide Monitoring; Fred Weir, “In Moscow, Buzz over Arms Race II,” Christian Science Monitor, April 24, 2006; Gaidar, “Nuclear Punditry Can Be a Dangerous Game.”

200 Peter C. W. Flory, “Does Washington Really Have (Or Want) Nuclear Primacy?,” Foreign Affairs, September–October 2006, 149–150; Keith Payne, “A Matter of Record,” Foreign Affairs, September–October 2006, 152.

201 Alexei Arbatov, “Cutting a Deal,” Foreign Affairs, September–October 2006, 153–154.

202 Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, “Lieber and Press Reply,” Foreign Affairs, September–October 2006, 154–157.

203 William B. Scott, “USSC Prepares for Future Combat Missions in Space,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, August 5, 1996, 51.

204 Report of the Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2001), viii, xii.

205 Sean Kay, Global Security in the Twenty-First Century: The Quest for Power and the Search for Peace (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006), 187.

206 Jonathan Shainin, “Rods from God,” New York Times Magazine, December 10, 2006, 70.

207 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 502.

208 Ibid., 503.

209 Nick Turse, “Planet Pentagon How the Pentagon Came to Own the Earth, Seas, and Skies,” July 11, 2007, www.tomdispatch.com/post/174818.

210 “Department of Defense Base Structure Report, Fiscal Year 2008 Baseline,” www.acq.osd.mil/ie/download/bsr/BSR2008Baseline.pdf.

211 Thomas Donnelly and Vance Serchuk, “Toward a Global Cavalry: Overseas Rebasing and Defense Transformation,” American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, July 1, 2003, www.aei.org/outlook/17783.

212 Douglas J. Feith, “Prepared Statement Before the House Armed Services Committee,” June 23, 2004, www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=133.

213 Tom Engelhardt, The American Way of War: How Bush’s Wars Became Obama’s (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2010), 42.

214 Thom Shanker, “Despite Slump, U.S. Role as Top Arms Supplier Grows,” New York Times, September 7, 2009.

215 Brzezinski, “Terrorized by ‘War on Terror.’”

216 Mike Allen and Edward Walsh, “Presidential Rivals Feast on Jokes, Jabs,” Washington Post, October 20, 2000.

217 Louise Story, “Wall St. Profits Were a Mirage, but Huge Bonuses Were Real,” New York Times, December 18, 2008.

218 David Goldman, “Most Firms Pay No Income Taxes—Congress,” August 12, 2008, http://money.cnn.com/2008/08/12/news/economy/corporate_taxes.

219 Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, 446.

220 James T. Patterson, “Transformative Economic Policies: Tax Cutting, Stimuli, and Bailouts,” in Zelizer, The Presidency of George W. Bush, 130.

221 Paul Harris, “Welcome to Richistan, USA,” Observer (London), July 22, 2007.

222 Louise Story, “Top Hedge Fund Managers Do Well in a Down Year,” New York Times, March 25, 2009.

223 International Labour Organization, World of Work Report 2008: Income Inequalities in the Age of Financial Globalization (Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies, 2008), www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/inst/download/world08.pdf, xi.

224 Tomoeh Murakami Tse, “Buffett Slams Tax System Disparities,” Washington Post, June 27, 2007.

225 David Rothkopf, “They’re Global Citizens. They’re Hugely Rich. And They Pull the Strings,” Washington Post, May 4, 2008; David Brown, “Richest Tenth Own 85% of World’s Assets,” Times (London), December 6, 2006, www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article661055.ece.

226 “Giving More Generously: What Rich Countries Gave in Foreign Aid Last Year,” Economist, March 31, 2009, www.economist.com/node/13400406?story_id=13400406.

227 Mark Knoller, “President Bush by the Numbers,” February 11, 2009, www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/01/19/politics/bush_legacy/main4735360.shtml.

228 Carol Morello and Dan Keating, “Millions More Thrust into Poverty,” Washington Post, September 11, 2009.

229 Jodie T. Allen, “A Nation of ‘Haves’ and ‘Have-Nots’?,” Pew Research Center, September 13, 2007, http://pewresearch.org/pubs/593/haves-have-nots.

230 Robert Reich, “America Is Becoming a Plutocracy,” October 18, 2010, www.salon.com/news/feature/2010/10/18/the_perfect_storm.

231 “Bush’s Final Approval Rating: 22 Percent,” www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/01/16/opinion/polls/main4728399.shtml.

CHAPTER 14: OBAMA: MANAGING A WOUNDED EMPIRE

1 Emily Eakin, “Ideas & Trends: All Roads Lead to D.C.,” New York Times, March 31, 2002.

2 Bob Woodward, Obama’s Wars (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 11.

3 Steven S. Clark, “Pharma Makes a Pragmatic Left Turn in this Election,” WTN News, November 3, 2008, wtnnews.com/articles/5185.

4 Dan Froomkin, “White House Watch,” Washington Post, April 6, 2009.

5 Matt Taibbi, “Obama’s Big Sellout,” December 13, 2009, Rolling Stone, www.commondreams.org/headline/2009/12/13-8; Jackie Calmes, “Obama’s Economic Team Shows Influence of Robert Rubin—With a Difference,” New York Times, November 24, 2008; Eric Dash, “Citigroup to Halt Dividend and Curb Pay,” New York Times, November 23, 2008; Amit R. Paley and David Cho, “Administration Seeks an Out on Bailout Rules for Firms,” Washington Post, April 4, 2009.

6 James K. Galbraith, “It Was the Banks,” November 5, 2010, www.commondreams.org/view/2010/11/05-13.

7 Dan Froomkin, “Suskind’s ‘Confidence Men’ Raises Questions About Obama’s Credibility,” Huffington Post, December 2, 2011, www.commondreams.org/view/2011/12/02-8.

8 Eric Alterman, “The Ingrates of Wall Street,” Nation, June 15, 2011, www.thenation.com/article/161447/ingrates-wall-street.

9 Nelson D. Schwartz and Louise Story, “Pay of Hedge Fund Managers Roared Back Last Year,” New York Times, April 1, 2010.

10 Michael Luo, “In Banking, Emanuel Made Money and Connections,” New York Times, December 4, 2008.

11 Ryan Lizza, “Inside the Crisis: Larry Summers and the White House Economic Team,” New Yorker, October 12, 2009, www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/10/12/091012fa_fact_lizza?printable=true#ixzz1QgGbqGCw.

12 Andrew Sum, Ishwar Khatiwada, Joseph McLaughlin, and Sheila Palma, “The ‘Jobless and Wageless’ Recovery from the Great Recession of 2007–2009: The Magnitude and Sources of Economic Growth Through 2011 and Their Impacts on Workers, Profits, and Stock Values,” May 2011, www.clms.neu.edu/publication/documents/Revised_Corporate_Report_May_27th.pdf; Jeff Madrick, “When Will Obama Sound the Alarm About Jobs?” June 9, 2011, www.huffingtonpost.com/jeff-madrick/when-will-obama-sound-the_b_874426.html.

13 Harold Meyerson, “The Unshared Recovery,” Washington Post, September 6, 2010; Steven Rattner, “The Rich Get Even Richer,” Washington Post, March 25, 2012.

14 Chris Hedges, “Nader Was Right: Liberals Are Going Nowhere With Obama,” August 10, 2009, www.truthdig.com/report/item/20090810_nader_was_right_liberals_are_going_nowhere_with_obama.

15 Paul Krugman, “The Social Contract,” New York Times, September 23, 2011.

16 Robert B. Reich, “How to End the Great Recession,” New York Times, September 3, 2010; Edward N. Wolff, “Recent Trends in Household Wealth in the United States,” March 2010, www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_589.pdf, 11.

17 Charles M. Blow, “America’s Exploding Pipe Dream,” New York Times, October 29, 2011; www.sgi-network.org/pdf/SGI11_Social_Justice_OECD.pdf.

18 Jason DeParle, “Harder for Americans to Rise from Economy’s Lower Rungs,” New York Times, January 5, 2012.

19 Peter Whoriskey, “Executive Incentives,” Wall Street Journal, November 20, 2008, online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/st_ceos_20081111.html.

20 William M. Isaac, “Obama’s Financial Reform Weak and Ineffective,” Forbes, April 22, 2010, www.forbes.com/2010/04/22/financial-reform-barack-obama-chris-dodd-opinions-contributors-william-m-isaac.html.

21 Steven Pearlstein, “Whose Side Is Obama On?” Washington Post, November 25, 2009.

22 Nicholas Confessore, “Obama Seeks to Win Back Wall St. Cash,” New York Times, June 13, 2011.

23 Joseph E. Stiglitz, “Of the 1%, By the 1%, For the 1%,” Vanity Fair, May 2011, www.vanityfair.com/society/features/2011/05/top-one-percent-201105.

24 Jonathan D. Salant and Lizzie O’Leary, “Six Lobbyists Per Lawmaker Work on Health Overhaul (Update 2),” Bloomberg.com, August 14, 2009, www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aqMce51JoZWw.

25 Glenn Greenwald, “White House as Helpless Victim on Healthcare,” December 16, 2009, www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2009/12/16/white_house.

26 Robert Kuttner, “A Wake Up Call,” January 17, 2010, www.huffingtonpost.com/robert-kuttner/a-wake-up-call_b_426467.html.

27 Harold Meyerson, “Who’s Hurt by Paul Ryan’s Budget Proposal,” Washington Post, April 5, 2011.

28 Thomas L. Friedman, “Still Digging,” New York Times, December 7, 2010.

29 Paul Krugman, “The President Is Missing,” New York Times, April 10, 2011.

30 Doug Cameron, “GE’s Immelt Receives Cash Bonus,” Wall Street Journal, March 14, 2011, online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704893604576200850366030310.html; Sheryl Gay Stolberg, “Obama Sends Pro-Business Signal with Adviser Choice,” New York Times, January 21, 2011.

31 Harold Meyerson, “Wall St. Attacks Obama for Tactic It Uses,” Washington Post, April 4, 2012; Zachary A. Goldfarb, “Obama Support for GE, Boeing, JPMorgan Doesn’t Always Go Both Ways,” Washington Post, July 19, 2012.

32 Margaret Talev, “Obama Retakes the Oath of Office After Busy First Day,” McLatchy News, January 21, 2009, www.mcclatchydc.com/2009/01/21/60448/obama-retakes-the-oath-of-office.html.

33 “Obama Administration in Danger of Establishing ‘New Normal’ with Worst Bush-Era Policies, Says ACLU,” July 29, 2010, www.aclu.org/national-security/obama-administration-danger-establishing-new-normal-worst-bush-era-policies-says-a.

34 Charlie Savage, “Court Dismisses a Case Asserting Torture by C.I.A.,” New York Times, September 9, 2010.

35 Jack Goldsmith, “The Cheney Fallacy,” New Republic, May 18, 2009, www.tnr.com/article/politics/the-cheney-fallacy?page=0,0&id=1e733cac-c273-48e5-9140-80443ed1f5e2&p=1.

36 Jonathan Turley, “Taking Liberties: Obama May Prove Disastrous in Terms of Protecting Our Rights,” Los Angeles Times, September 29, 2011.

37 Paul Richter, “State Department Spokesman P. J. Crowley Resigns,” New York Times, March 14, 2011.

38 Marjorie Cohn, “Bradley Manning: Traitor or Hero,” Consortium News, December 24, 2011, www.consortiumnews.com/2011/12/24/bradley-manning-traitor-or-hero.

39 “WikiLeaks Wins Australian Journalism Award,” AFP, November 27, 2011, www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gQRUCe6qxRkV8J7Q8Ix6HUPcD_Eg; Glenn Greenwald, “WikiLeaks Wins Major Journalism Award in Australia,” November 27, 2011, www.salon.com/2011/11/27/wikileaks_wins_major_journalism_award_in_australia.

40 Robert Scheer, “From Jefferson to Assange,” Nation, December 28, 2010, www.thenation.com/article/156909/jefferson-assange.

41 Thomas R. Eddlem, “Gingrich Calls Assange an ‘Enemy Combatant,’” New American, December 9, 2010, www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/foreign-policy/5454-gingrich-calls-assange-an-enemy-combatant; Martin Beckford, “Sarah Palin: Hunt WikiLeaks Founder Like al-Qaeda and Taliban Leaders,” Telegraph (London), December 26, 2011, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8171269/Sarah-Palin-hunt-WikiLeaks-founder-like-al-Qaeda-and-Taliban-leaders.html.

42 James C. Goodale, “WikiLeaks Probe: Pentagon Papers Injustice Déjà Vu,” Daily Beast, June 12, 2011, www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2011/06/13/wikileaks-probe-spoils-pentagon-papers-anniversary.html; Trevor Timm, “Cablegate One Year Later: How WikiLeaks Has Influenced Foreign Policy, Journalism, and the First Amendment,” Electronic Freedom Foundation, November 28, 2011, www.eff.org/deeplinks/2011/11/cablegate-one-year-later-how-wikileaks-has-influenced-foreign-policy-journalism.

43 R. Jeffrey Smith, “Classified Pentagon Report Upholds Thomas Drake’s Complaints About NSA,” Washington Post, June 23, 2011.

44 Glenn Greenwald, “Climate of Fear: Jim Risen v. the Obama Administration,” June 23, 2011, www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2011/06/23/risen.

45 Steven Erlanger, “Europeans Criticize Fierce U.S. Response to Leaks,” New York Times, December 10, 2010.

46 Dana Priest and William M. Arkin, “A Hidden World, Growing Beyond Control,” Washington Post, July 19, 2010.

47 Dana Priest and William M. Arkin, “Monitoring America,” Washington Post, December 20, 2010.

48 Charlie Savage, “Senators Say Patriot Act Is Being Misinterpreted,” New York Times, May 27, 2011.

49 Charlie Savage, “F.B.I. Agents Get Leeway to Push Privacy Bounds,” New York Times, June 13, 2011; David K. Shipler, “Free to Search and Seize,” New York Times, June 23, 2011.

50 Jonathan Turley, “Ten Reasons We’re No Longer the Land of the Free,” Washington Post, January 15, 2012.

51 Karen DeYoung, “Familiar Faces and Some Prominent Newcomers,” Washington Post, March 3, 2008.

52 Joshua E. Keating, “The Audacity of What?” Foreign Policy, January 24, 2011, www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/01/24/the_audacity_of_what.

53 Ryan Lizza, “How the Arab Spring Remade Obama’s Foreign Policy,” New Yorker, May 2, 2011, www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/05/02/110502fa_fact_lizza?currentPage=all.

54 Michael Abramowitz, Shailagh Murray, and Anne E. Kornblut, “Obama Close to Picking Clinton, Jones for Key Posts,” Washington Post, November 22, 2008.

55 Eliot Cohen, “What’s Different About the Obama Foreign Policy,” Wall Street Journal, August 2, 2009, www.online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203946904574300402608475582.html.

56 Robert Parry, “The Secret World of Robert Gates,” November 9, 2006, www.consortiumnews.com/2006/110906.html; Robert Parry, “How the War Hawks Caged Obama,” November 30, 2009, www.consortiumnews.com/2009/113009.html; Robert Parry, Secrecy & Privilege: Rise of the Bush Dynasty from Watergate to Iraq (Arlington, VA: Media Consortium, 2004).

57 Mark Landler, “Clinton Speech Offers Policy Overview,” New York Times, September 8, 2010.

58 Elisabeth Bumiller, “Gates on Leaks, Wiki and Otherwise,” New York Times, November 30, 2010.

59 Andrew J. Bacevich, “Hillary Clinton’s ‘American Moment’ Was Nothing But American Blather,” New Republic, September 13, 2010, www.tnr.com/blog/foreign-policy/77612/hillary-clintons-american-moment-was-nothing-american-blather.

60 Charlie Savage, “2 Top Lawyers Lost to Obama in Libya War Policy Debate,” New York Times, June 18, 2011.

61 Charlie Savage, “Mostly in Echo, Rivals Discuss Reach of Power,” New York Times, December 30, 2011; Steve Chapman, “Mirror Images,” Chicago Tribune, January 5, 2012.

62 Simon Jenkins, “U.S. Embassy Cables: The Job of the Media Is Not to Protect the Powerful from Embarrassment,” Guardian, November 28, 2010.

63 Garry Wills, “Obama’s Legacy: Afghanistan,” New York Review of Books, July 27, 2010, www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2010/jul/27/obamas-legacy-afghanistan/.

64 Karen DeYoung, “Afghan Conflict Will Be Reviewed,” Washington Post, January 13, 2009.

65 White House Press Release, February 17, 2009, www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Statement-by-the-President-on-Afghanistan.

66 Elisabeth Bumiller and Mark Mazetti, “A General Steps from the Shadows,” New York Times, May 12, 2009; Tom Engelhardt, The American Way of War: How Bush’s Wars Became Obama’s (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2010), 141.

67 Eric Schmitt and Mark Mazetti, “Switch Signals New Path for Afghan War,” New York Times, May 12, 2009.

68 Bob Woodward, “Obama: ‘We Need to Make Clear to People That the Cancer Is in Pakistan,’” Washington Post, September 29, 2010.

69 David E. Sanger and Eric Schmitt, “Pakistani Nuclear Arms Pose Challenge to U.S. Policy,” New York Times, February 1, 2011.

70 K. Alan Kronstadt, “Pakistan-U.S. Relations,” February 6, 2009, Congressional Research Service, www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33498.pdf.

71 Tim Reid, “We’ll Bomb You to Stone Age, US Told Pakistan,” Times (London), September 22, 2006, www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article647188.ece.

72 Woodward, “Obama: ‘We Need to Make Clear to People That the Cancer Is in Pakistan.’”

73 David Kilcullen and Andrew McDonald Exum, “Death from Above, Outrage down Below,” New York Times, May 17, 2009.

74 Saed Shah and Peter Beaumont, “Human Face of Hellfire—Hidden Cost of America’s Remote-Controlled Missiles,” Guardian (London), July 18, 2011; Jemima Khan, “Under Fire from Afar: Harrowing Exhibition Reveals Damage Done By Drones in Pakistan,” Independent (London), July 29, 2011.

75 Mehdi Hasan, “U.S. Drone Attacks Are No Laughing Matter, Mr. Obama,” Guardian (London), December 29, 2010.

76 Glenn Greenwald, “Bravery and Drone Pilots,” July 10, 2012, www.salon.com/2012/07/10/bravery_and_drone_pilots.

77 Nico Hines, “Obama Schmoozes the Fourth Estate with Gags and Gaffes at Charity White House Bash,” Times (London), May 3, 2010; Jamie Crawford, “Pakistani View of U.S. Reaches New Low,” CNN, June 29, 2012, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/06/29/pakistani-view-of-u-s-reaches-new-low/?iref=allsearch.

78 Scott Shane, “C.I.A. Is Disputed on Civilian Toll in Drone Strikes,” New York Times, August 12, 2011.

79 Chris Woods and Christina Lamb, “Obama Terror Drones,” Bureau of Investigative Journalism, February 4, 2012, www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2012/02/04/obama-terror-drones-cia-tactics-in-pakistan-include-targeting-rescuers-and-funerals.

80 Karen DeYoung, “Secrecy Defines Obama’s Drone War,” Washington Post, December 20, 2011; Jo Becker and Scott Shane, “Secret ‘Kill List’ Proves a Test of Obama’s Principles and Will,” New York Times, May 29, 2012.

81 Tom Junod, “The Lethal Presidency of Barack Obama,” Esquire, July 9, 2012, www.esquire.com/features/obama-lethal-presidency-0812-3.

82 Ibid.

83 Akbar Ahmed and Frankie Martin, “Deadly Drones Come to the Muslims of the Philippines,” Al-Jazeera, March 5, 2012; Tom Engelhardt, “Obama’s Bush League World,” July 12, 2011, www.tomdispatch.com/post/175416/tomgram%3A_engelhardt%2C_making_earth_a_global_free-fire_zone.

84 Glenn Greenwald, “Excuses for Assassination Secrecy,” July 12, 2012, www.salon.com/2012/07/12/excuses_for_assassination_secrecy.

85 Glenn Greenwald, “Obama’s Killings Challenged Again,” July 18, 2012, www.salon.com/2012/07/18/obamas_killings_challenged_again.

86 Greg Miller and Julie Tate, “Since Sept. 11, CIA’s Focus Has Taken Lethal Turn,” Washington Post, September 2, 2011.

87 Michael Hastings, “The Rise of the Killer Drones: How America Goes to War in Secret,” Rolling Stone, April 26, 2012, www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-rise-of-the-killer-drones-how-america-goes-to-war-in-secret-20120416?print=true.

88 Charlie Savage, “Relatives Sue Officials Over U.S. Citizens Killed by Drone Strikes in Yemen,” New York Times, July 18, 2012.

89 Sudarsan Raghavan, “In Yemen, U.S. Airstrikes Breed Anger, and Sympathy for Al-Qaeda,” Washington Post, May 29, 2012.

90 “As Nature Is Displaying More Bipolar Behaviour—Floods One Day, Drought the Next—and Man Is Traversing More into the Realm of Boundless Greed and Shamelessness, Mutants Calling Themselves Politicians Are Saying Things Unplugged from Logic and Unlinked,” Nation (Thailand), December 15, 2011.

91 John Markoff, “War Machines: Recruiting Robots for Combat,” New York Times, November 29, 2010.

92 Tom Engelhardt, The American Way of War: How Bush’s Wars Became Obama’s (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2010), 172–174; Elisabeth Bumiller and Thom Shaker, “War Evolves with Drones, Some Tiny as Bugs,” New York Times, June 20, 2011.

93 William Wan and Peter Finn, “Global Rush Is On to Match U.S. Drones,” Washington Post, July 5, 2011.

94 Becker and Shane, “Secret ‘Kill List’ Proves a Test of Obama’s Principles and Will.”

95 Thom Shanker, “Joint Chiefs Chairman Readjusts Principles on Use of Force,” New York Times, March 3, 2010.

96 Richard A. Oppel, Jr., “Tighter Rules Fail to Stem Deaths of Innocent Afghans at Checkpoints,” New York Times, March 26, 2010; Ben Kiernan and Taylor Owen, “Roots of U.S. Troubles in Afghanistan: Civilian Bombing Casualties and the Cambodian Precedent,” Asia-Pacific Journal, June 28, 2010, www.japanfocus.org/-Ben-Kiernan/3380.

97 Peter Baker, “How Obama Came to Plan for ‘Surge’ in Afghanistan,” New York Times, December 6, 2009.

98 Steve Rendell, “In Afghan Debate, Few Antiwar Op-Eds,” FAIR, December 2009, www.fair.org/index.php?page=3949; “Wavering on Afghanistan?” Washington Post, September 22, 2009.

99 Craig Whitlock, “Gen. Cartwright, Poised to Lead Chiefs, Had His Shot Derailed by Critics,” Washington Post, May 28, 2011.

100 World Food Program data, www.wfp.org/countries/afghanistan; Anthony H. Cordesman and Adam Mausner, “Is a ‘Population-centric’ Strategy Possible?” Center for Strategic & International Studies, April 26, 2010, csis.org/publication/agriculture-food-and-poverty-afghanistan; John Hanrahan, “About Living Standards in Afghanistan,” December 3, 2009, niemanwatchdog.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ask_this.view&askthisid=00435; Karin Brulliard, “Affluent Afghans Make Their Homes in Opulent ‘Poppy Palaces,’” Washington Post, June 6, 2010.

101 David Wildman and Phyllis Bennis, Ending the US War in Afghanistan: A Primer (Northampton, MA: Olive Branch Press, 2010), 72–74.

102 Anthony H. Cordesman, “What’s Our Long-Range Afghan Plan?,” Washington Post, September 23, 2011.

103 Atiq Sarwari and Robert D. Crews, “Afghanistan and the Pax Americana,” in The Taliban and the Crisis of Afghanistan, ed. Robert D. Crews and Amin Tarzi (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 315–16.

104 “Afghan Life Expectancy Rising as Healthcare Improves, Survey Shows,” Guardian (London), November 30, 2011.

105 Wildman and Bennis, Ending the US War in Afghanistan: A Primer, 88–90, 94; Dana Burde, “It Takes a Village To Raise a School,” New York Times, September 17, 2010.

106 Karl Eikenberry, memo to Hillary Clinton, November 6, 2009, documents.nytimes.com/eikenberry-s-memos-on-the-strategy-in-afghanistan.

107 Nicholas D. Kristof, “The Afghanistan Abyss,” New York Times, September 6, 2009.

108 Andrew Shurtleff, “Former CIA Station Chief in Afghanistan Calls for Withdrawal,” Daily Progress, www.votersforpeace.us/press/index.php?itemid=3419.

109 Conn Hallinan, “Afghanistan: Killing Peace,” January 12, 2011, dispatchesfromtheedgeblog.wordpress.com; Wildman and Bennis, Ending the US War in Afghanistan: A Primer, 160.

110 Alissa J. Rubin, “Girl, 12, Killed in NATO Raid on Wrong Afghan Home,” New York Times, May 13, 2011.

111 Tariq Ali, “Operation Enduring Disaster: Breaking with Afghan Policy,” November 16, 2008, www.tomdispatch.com/post/175003/tariq_ali_flight_path_to_disaster_in_afghanistan.

112 Matthew P. Hoh, letter to Ambassador Nancy J. Powell, September 10, 2009, Washington Post, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/hp/ssi/wpc/ResignationLetter.pdf?sid=ST2009102603447.

113 Chris Hedges, “Opium, Rape and the American Way,” November 2, 2009, www.truthdig.com/report/item/20091102_opium_rape_and_the_american_way/.

114 “Losing Afghanistan?” Economist, August 20, 2009, www.economist.com/node/14258750?story_id=14258750

115 “UN Afghanistan Survey Points to Huge Scale of Bribery,” BBC News, January 19, 2010, news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8466915.stm; Alfred W. McCoy, “America and the Dictators: From Ngo Dinh Diem to Hamid Karzai,” April 16, 2010, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175233.

116 Scott Shane and Andrew W. Lehren, “Leaked Cables Offer Raw Look at U.S. Diplomacy,” New York Times, November 28, 2010; Scott Shane, Mark Mazzetti, and Dexter Filkins, “Cables Depict Afghan Graft, Starting at Top,” New York Times, December 2, 2010; Declan Walsh, “Flower Power,” Guardian, August 16, 2008, www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2008/aug/16/drugstrade.afghanistan; Dexter Filkins, Mark Mazzetti, and James Risen, “Brother of Afghan Leader Said to Be Paid by C.I.A.,” New York Times, October 28, 2009.

117 Alissa J. Rubin and Matthew Rosenberg, “U.S. Efforts Fail to Curtail Trade in Afghan Opium,” New York Times, May 26, 2012.

118 James Risen, “Propping Up a Drug Lord, Then Arresting Him,” New York Times, December 11, 2010; “New Measures Against the Afghan Opium Tsunami,” United Nations Information Service, October 31, 2007, www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2007/unisnar1013.html; Alfred W. McCoy, “Can Anyone Pacify the World’s Number One Narco-State? The Opium Wars in Afghanistan,” March 30, 2010, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175225.

119 Walsh, “Flower Power”; Brulliard, “Affluent Afghans Make Their Homes in Opulent ‘Poppy Palaces.’”

120 Jean MacKenzie, “Funding the Afghan Taliban,” August 7, 2009, www.globalpost.com/dispatch/taliban/funding-the-taliban; Hugh Gusterson, “Why the War in Afghanistan Cannot Be Won,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September 21, 2009, www.thebulletin.org/web-edition/columnists/hugh-gusterson/why-the-war-afghanistan-cannot-be-won.

121 Dexter Filkins, “Convoy Guards in Afghanistan Face an Inquiry,” New York Times, June 6, 2010.

122 Rod Nordland, “Afghan Bank Commission Absolves President’s Brother in Fraud Case,” New York Times, May 29, 2011.

123 Ben Farmer, “U.S. Diplomat Claims UN Tried to Gag Him,” Telegraph (London), October 4, 2009, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/6259530/US-diplomat-claims-UN-tried-to-gag-him.html.

124 Rod Nordland, “Afghan Votes Come Cheap, and Often in Bulk,” New York Times, September 17, 2010.

125 Bob Woodward, “Military Thwarted President Seeking Choice in Afghanistan,” Washington Post, September 27, 2010.

126 Bob Woodward, “Biden Warned Obama During Afghan War Review Not to Get ‘Locked into Vietnam,’” Washington Post, September 28, 2010; Bob Woodward, Obama’s Wars, 247, 311.

127 “Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States,” www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Exec.htm.

128 Paul R. Pillar, “Who’s Afraid of a Terrorist Haven?,” Washington Post, September 16, 2009.

129 “Fareed Zakaria Criticizes ‘Disproportionate’ Afghanistan War on CNN,” July 4, 2010, www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/07/04/fareed-zakaria-criticizes_n_635170.html.

130 George F. Will, “The War That Wasn’t,” Washington Post, May 3, 2011.

131 Andrew J. Bacevich, “Obama’s Afghanistan Speech and Strategy,” Washington Post, December 2, 2009.

132 Christopher Drew, “One Million Dollars to Keep One Soldier in Afghanistan for One Year,” New York Times, November 16, 2009.

133 Robert Dreyfuss, “Getting Out in 2010,” Nation, June 17, 2010, www.thenation.com/blog/getting-out-2011.

134 Dana Milbank, “A Deadline Written in Quicksand, Not Stone,” Washington Post, December 3, 2009.

135 Woodward, Obama’s Wars, 354.

136 Karen DeYoung and Scott Wilson, “With bin Laden Dead, Some Escalate Push for New Afghan Strategy,” Washington Post, May 11, 2011; Wildman and Bennis, Ending the US War in Afghanistan: A Primer, 72–74.

137 David E. Sanger and Thom Shanker, “Military Seeks to Make Case Against Too-Hasty Reduction of Troops,” New York Times, June 7, 2011; Thom Shanker and John H. Cushman, Jr., “Reviews Raise Doubt on Training of Afghan Forces,” New York Times, November 6, 2009.

138 Thomas L. Friedman, “What’s Second Prize?” New York Times, June 22, 2010.

139 Rod Nordland, “Afghans Plan to Stop Recruiting Children as Police,” New York Times, January 29, 2011; Ernesto Londono, “Afghanistan Sees Rise in ‘Dancing Boys’ Exploitation,” Washington Post, April 4, 2012.

140 Tony Perry, “U.S. Troops in Afghanistan Suffer More Catastrophic Injuries,” Los Angeles Times, April 6, 2011.

141 T. Christian Miller and Daniel Zwerding, “Brain Injuries Remain Undiagnosed in Thousands of Soldiers,” June 7, 2010, www.propublica.org/article/brain-injuries-remain-undiagnosed-in-thousands-of-soldiers.

142 Wildman and Bennis, Ending the US War in Afghanistan: A Primer, 28.

143 Leo Shane III, “Study: Wars Could Cost $4 Trillion to $6 Trillion,” Stars and Stripes, September 29, 2010, www.stripes.com/blogs/stripes-central/stripes-central-1.8040/study-wars-could-cost-4-trillion-to-6-trillion-1.120054.

144 James Risen, “U.S. Identifies Vast Riches of Minerals in Afghanistan,” New York Times, June 13, 2010.

145 George A. Dorsey, “Ikyber Pass Key of Nations’ Fate,” Chicago Tribune, January 24, 1911.

146 “Americans Acquire Afghanistan Oil,” New York Times, May 8, 1928.

147 James Risen, “World’s Mining Companies Covet Afghan Riches,” New York Times, June 17, 2010.

148 Joshua Partlow, “Afghan Minister Accused of Taking Bribe,” Washington Post, November 18, 2009.

149 Jane Perlez, Eric Schmitt, and Carlotta Gall, “Pakistan Is Said to Pursue Foothold in Afghanistan,” New York Times, June 24, 2010; Joshua Partlow, “Haqqani Insurgent Group Proves Resilient Foe in Afghan War,” Washington Post, May 29, 2011; Jane Perlez, “Official Admits Militancy’s Deep Roots in Pakistan,” New York Times, June 2, 2010.

150 Alissa J. Rubin, “Pakistan Urged Afghanistan to Distance Itself from the West, Officials Say,” New York Times, April 28, 2011.

151 Michael Cooper, “Mayors See End to Wars as Fix for Struggling Cities,” New York Times, June 18, 2001.

152 Jane Perlez, David E. Sanger, and Eric Schmitt, “Nuclear Fuel Memos Expose Wary Dance with Pakistan,” New York Times, November 30, 2010.

153 John T. Bennett, “Pressure Builds to End Afghan War,” May 4, 2011, thehill.com/homenews/administration/159123-pressure-builds-to-end-the-afghan-war.

154 George Zornick, “Senator Dick Durbin Questions Sending ‘One More’ Soldier to Die in Afghanistan,” May 3, 2011, www.thenation.com/blog/160377/senator-dick-durbin-questions-sending-one-more-soldier-die-afghanistan.

155 Rod Nordland, “Karzai Takes Another Shot at NATO Coalition,” New York Times, June 19, 2001.

156 Ray Rivera and Ginger Thompson, “Karzai Is Testing U.S. Patience, Envoy Says,” New York Times, June 20, 2011.

157 Ray Rivera and Ginger Thompson, “U.S. Envoy Responds to Karzai’s Criticisms,” New York Times, June 19, 2011.

158 Laura King, “Karzai Quote Taken Wrong Way, Aide Says,” Los Angeles Times, October 25, 2011.

159 Alissa J. Rubin and Taimoor Shah, “Attack Kills Police Officers in Afghanistan,” New York Times, September 29, 2011.

160 “NATO: Militant Attacks in Afghanistan Up 11 Percent in Past Three Months,” Washington Post, July 27, 2012.

161 Human Rights Watch, “Afghanistan: Rein in Abusive Militias and Afghan Local Police,” September 12, 2011, www.hrw.org/news/2011/09/12/afghanistan-rein-abusive-militias-and-afghan-local-police.

162 UN News Centre, “Systematic Torture in Afghan Detention Facilities—UN Report,” October 10, 2011, www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39985.

163 Jack Healy, “Afghanistan Sees Increase in Cultivation of Poppies,” New York Times, October 12, 2001.

164 Tim Arango, “Premier Places Power-Sharing at Risk in Iraq,” New York Times, December 22, 2011; “Iraq Withdrawal: After Troops Leave, A Substantial American Presence,” International Business Times News, December 9, 2011; Farirai Chubvu, “Iraq—Uncle Sam’s Unfinished War,” Herald (Harare, Zimbabwe), December 15, 2011; Michele Keleman, “Huge Embassy Keeps US Presence in Iraq,” National Public Radio, December 11, 2011.

165 David Brown, “Study Claims Iraq’s ‘Excess’ Death Toll Has Reached 655,000,” Washington Post, October 11, 2006.

166 David Gilmour, The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002), 251.

167 “Obama’s Speech to Troops at Fort Bragg,” New York Times, December 15, 2011; Michael S. Schmidt, “Junkyard Gives Up Secret Accounts of Massacre,” New York Times, December 15, 2011.

168 Greg Jaffe, “A War Without an Iconic Ending,” Washington Post, December 25, 2011.

169 Thom Shanker, “Warning Against Wars Like Iraq and Afghanistan,” New York Times, February 26, 2011.

170 Helene Cooper and Ethan Bronner, “Focus Is on Obama as Tensions Soar Across Mideast,” New York Times, May 19, 2011.

171 David D. Kirkpatrick and Michael Slackman, “Egyptian Youths Drive the Revolt Against Mubarak,” New York Times, January 27, 2011.

172 Helene Cooper and Mark Landler, “Obama’s Peace Tack Contrasts with Key Aide, Friend of Israel,” New York Times, May 22, 2011.

173 Thomas L. Friedman, “The Arab Awakening and Israel,” New York Times, November 30, 2011.

174 Ira Chernus, “Israel and the Palestinians Through the Looking Glass,” May 26, 2011, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175397/tomgram%3A_ira_chernus,_ass-backwards_in_the_middle_east.

175 Ethan Bronner, “A Former Spy Chief Questions the Judgment of Israeli Leaders,” New York Times, June 4, 2011; Gareth Porter, “Obama Seeks To Distance U.S. from Israeli Attack,” January 3, 2012, ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=106361.

176 Shibley Tehlami and Steven Kull, “Preventing a Nuclear Iran, Peacefully,” New York Times, January 16, 2012.

177 Simon Romero, “Colombia Leader Seeks Wide-Ranging Changes, and Looks Beyond the U.S.,” New York Times, March 5, 2011.

178 Tom Phillips and Virginia Lopez, “US Not Invited as Chávez Launches Latin Group,” Guardian (London), December 3, 2011; “Venezuela: New Regional Group Meets,” New York Times, December 3, 2011; “New Americas Summit Dominated by Criticism of US,” Agence France Press, December 2, 2011.

179 Sibylla Brodzinsky, “Cuba and Drug Policy Headline Summit of the Americas,” Christian Science Monitor, April 16, 2012; Scott Wilson, “Americas Summit Ends Without an Agreement,” Washington Post, April 16, 2012; Noam Chomsky, “Cartagena Beyond the Secret Service,” In These Times, May 2, 2012, inthesetimes.com/article/13136/cartagena_beyond_the_secret_service_scandal.

180 Francisco Toro, “The Incredible Shrinking State Department,” International Herald Tribune, July 5, 2012.

181 Nick Turse, “Empire of Bases 2.0,” January 9, 2011, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175338; Engelhardt, The American Way of War, 53.

182 David Vine, “The Lily-Pad Strategy,” July 15, 2012, www.tomdispatch.com/post/175568/tomgram%3A_david_vine%2C_u.s._empire_of_bases_grows/?utm_source=TomDispatch&utm_campaign=d027c16bb5-TD_Vine7_15_2012&utm_medium=email#more.

183 Charles M. Blow, “For Jobs, It’s War,” New York Times, September 27, 2011.

184 “Don’t Take Peaceful Approach for Granted,” Global Times, October 25, 2011, www.globaltimes.cn/NEWS/tabid/99/ID/680694/Dont-take-peaceful-approach-for-granted.aspx.

185 Hillary Clinton, “America’s Pacific Century,” Foreign Policy, November 2011, www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/10/11/americas_pacific_century?page=full.

186 Matthew Franklin, “Obama Pledges Leadership,” Australian, November 18, 2011; Peter Harcher, “Toothless Among Asian Tigers,” Sydney Morning Herald, July 21, 2012.

187 “Philippines Launches Its Most Modern Warship,” Nation (Thailand), December 15, 2011.

188 Bill Gertz, “Military to Bolster Its Forces in Pacific,” Washington Times, February 18, 2011.

189 Celia W. Dugger, “U.S. Envoy Extols India, Accepting Its Atom Status,” New York Times, September 7, 2001; “A Bad Deal,” New York Times, September 9, 2008; Peter Baker, “Senate Approves Indian Nuclear Deal,” New York Times, October 2, 2008.

190 Plenary Session of the U.S.-India Strategic Dialogue, June 3, 2010, www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/06/142623.htm.

191 “Arms Race Growing in Asia,” Toronto Star, December 3, 2011.

192 Jim Yardley, “Malnutrition Widespread in Indian Children, Report Finds,” New York Times, January 10, 2012.

193 Frank Ching, “China-US Power Play That Confuses Audiences,” New Straits Times (Malaysia), September 29, 2011.

194 Paul McLeary, “Securing the Western Pacific,” Defense Technology International, June 1, 2010.

195 Greg Torode, “Beijing Wary as New US Military Strategy Emerges,” South China Morning Post, April 25, 2011.

196 “Hu Tells Navy to Prepare to Fight,” Hobart Mercury (Australia), December 8, 2011.

197 Greg Jaffe, “U.S. Model for a Future War Fans Tensions with China and Inside Pentagon,” Washington Post, August 1, 2012.

198 Jane Perlez, “Clinton Makes Effort to Rechannel the Rivalry with China,” New York Times, July 7, 2012.

199 Christopher Hellman, “The Real U.S. National Security Budget,” March 1, 2011, www.tomdispatch.com/post/175361/tomgram%3A_chris_hellman%2C_%241.2_trillion_for_national_security/.

200 Eric Margolis, “Obama the President Is Fighting Battles His Country Cannot Afford,” Toronto Sun, February 7, 2010, www.torontosun.com/comment/columnists/eric_margolis/2010/02/05/12758511-qmi.html; Lawrence Wittner, “How Much Is Enough? America’s Runaway Military Spending,” August 23, 2010, www.huffingtonpost.com/lawrence-wittner/how-much-is-enough-americ_b_683600.html.

201 William Wan, “Panetta, in Speech in Singapore, Seeks to Lend Heft to U.S. Pivot to Asia,” Washington Post, June 1, 2012; Leon E. Panetta, Speech to Shangri-La Security Dialogue, June 2, 2012, www.defense.gov/Speeches/Speech.aspx?SpeechID=1681.

202 Jane Perlez, “Panetta Outlines New Weaponry for Pacific,” New York Times, June 2, 2012.

203 Harcher, “Toothless Among Asian Tigers.”

204 Greg Jaffe, “Obama Announces New, Leaner Military Approach,” Washington Post, January 5, 2012.

205 Amanda Andrews, “America Is in Urgent Need of Its Own ‘Perestroika,’ Says Gorbachev,” Telegraph (London), March 12, 2009, www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/g20-summit/4980262/America-is-in-urgent-need-of-its-own-peristrokia-says-Gorbachev.html; Anton Fedyashin, “Gorbachev’s Great Expectations,” Washington Post, April 13, 2009.

206 “Rising Share of Americans See Conflict Between Rich and Poor,” Pew Research Center Publications, January 11, 2012, pewresearch.org/pubs/2167/rich-poor-social-conflict-class.

207 Binyamin Appelbaum, “Family Net Worth Drops to Level of Early ’90s, Fed Says,” New York Times, June 11, 2012; Joseph E. Stiglitz, “The 1 Percent’s Problem,” Vanity Fair, May 31, 2012, www.vanityfair.com/politics/2012/05/joseph-stiglitz-the-price-on-inequality.

208 Turley, “Ten Reasons We’re No Longer the Land of the Free.”