The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia

Index

italic page numbers refer to illustrations

Abakumov, Viktor, 521

ABC of Communism, The, 9

Abezgauz, Grigorii, 571

abortion, illegal, 110, 264

Academy of Sciences, 208, 502

Adamova-Sliuzberg, Olga, 261, 263, 278–9, 281–2, 286, 301–3, 529, 560–61, 580–81

Adasinskaia, Galina, 39, 347

‘Adventures of a Monkey’ (Zoshchenko), 489

Afinogenov, Aleksandr, 256–7, 374

Agitprop, 143, 504, 505

Agricultural Academy, 165

agriculture

post-Revolution, 51–2

post-war demographic loss, 457

revolution (1917–18), 77, 81

strip-farming, 51, 52

terminal decline, 87

traditional practices, 51, 76, 77

Virgin Lands Campaign, 543–4, 547, 561

See also collectivization, agricultural; famine; land

Akhmatova, Anna, 218, 431, 488–9, 490, 491, 492, 583

Akmolinsk Labour Camp for the Wives of Traitors to the Motherland (ALZhIR), 294, 316–17, 324, 356–61, 364–5, 366, 447, 510, 525, 540, 544

children’s compound, 364

conditions, 357–9

correspondence rules, 359–61

Dolinka orphanage, 317, 358

effect on prisoners, 556–7, 571–2

guards, 364, 630–32

Pioneers, 359

sexual relations in, 364–5

‘special regime’, 357–8, 360, 367–8

teenagers in, 360

Aksyonov, Vasily, 626–7

Aleksandr Nevsky (film), 270

Aleksandrov, Grigorii, 366, 557

Aleksandrova, Irina, 473

Aleksandrova, Valentina, 461

Aleksandrovna, Liudmila, 572

Alekseyeva, Klavdiia, 294–6

Alekseyeva, Liudmila, 597–8

Aliger, Margarita, 199, 400, 407

Alliluev, Fyodor, 177

Allilueva, Nadezhda, 155, 236

Allilueva, Svetlana, 402

All-Russia Centre for the Study of Public Opinion, 641

All-Union Budget Commission, 219

All-Union State Film Institute (VGIK), 260

Altai region, 240, 435, 656

Altman, Iogann, 494, 496, 589

ALZhIR, see Akmolinsk Labour Camp for the Wives of Traitors to the Motherland

Amur labour camp, 90

Andrei Sakharov Public Centre and Museum, 634n

Andronnikov, Iraklii, 406

anketa, see questionnaires

Anna Karenina (Tolstoy), 562

‘anti-cosmopolitan’ campaign, 494–503, 508, 509, 518

anti-Semitism, 420, 508–12, 518, 521, 570, 646, 647, 648

Antonov-Ovseyenko, Sofia, 298–300, 299, 336

Antonov-Ovseyenko, Valentina, 299, 336–8, 337

Antonov-Ovseyenko, Vladimir, 16, 298, 299, 336

apartments, see communal appartments; housing

architecture

collective housing, 9–10

Constructivist, 10, 150, 152

Arctic exploration, 416

Arctic Gulags, 55, 208, 213

Arctic railway, 468

Arkhangelsk, 546

exile to, 116, 143, 216–17, 292, 390, 391, 392, 424, 544, 545, 601

labour camps, 326, 568, 599

arrests

doubts over, 276–81, 283

exposed (1956), 594

families ostracized, 285–92

and labour supply, 423, 427

mass (1930s), 73, 76, 112, 113, 191, 231, 234, 235, 279, 303, 335, 351, 584, 602, 630, 643

‘mistaken’, 141, 272, 273, 275, 278, 279, 284, 305, 309

preparation for, 241–7, 277, 304

review (1939), 279, 280

speaking out against, 231–2, 281–5

wartime, 392

Arsenteva, Zoia, 331–2, 332

Artek holiday camp, 129, 249

Artseulov family, 292–3

asceticism, Bolshevik ideal, 14–19, 30, 158, 161

Avdeyenko, Aleksandr, 192, 193, 195

Averbakh, Leopold, 256

‘Averbakhians’, 281

Axis Powers, threat, 235–6, 371–2, 467

Babak, Marina, 621

Babel, Isaak, 251, 280

Babitskaia, Liuba (née Ivanova, formerly Golovnia), 170, 557, 557–9

Babitsky, Boris, 168, 168, 169, 170, 195, 366, 558

Babitsky, Volik, 168, 170, 170, 366, 367

Babi Yar massacre (1941), 570, 571

Babushkina, Lydia, 598–9, 650

Bagirov, M. D., 585

Baigulova, Elena, 183

Baikal–Amur railway, 468, 581

Baitalsky, Mikhail, 30–31, 180, 641–2

Baku, Institute of Medicine, 585–6

Baltic Factory, 648

Baltic States

Soviet invasion (1939), 372–3

Soviet rule, 537

Bamlag complex, 581, 585

Bargin, Ivan, 424–5

Barinov, Sergei, 358, 368

Basmachi Muslim rebels, 200

Bazanov, Filipp, 216

Begicheva, Natalia, 494, 497

Belarus (Belorussia), 89, 105, 106, 108, 164, 260

anti-Semitism, 509

Jews, emancipation, 69

orphanages, 99, 235

post-war arrests, 467, 468, 469

Belbaltlag labour camp, 113–14

Belikova, Zinaida, 528

Belinsky, Vissarion, 494

Belykh, Gregorii, 12–13

Berg, Raisa, 24

Berggolts, Olga, 523

Beria, Lavrenty

and amnesty (1953–4), 530, 536–7

arrests, review, 279, 280

East German reforms (1953), 537

execution, 537

fear of, 526, 527

and Gulag system, 468, 527, 530

and Norilsk strike, 533

rape of Okunevskaia, 402n

Berlin, Isaiah, 488

Berman, Matvei, 100

Berzin, Eduard, 116–17, 118, 215, 526, 633

Bezgodov, Viktor, 355

Bezymensky, Aleksandr, 286

Bikin transit camp, Khabarovsk, 629–30

Bindel, Riab, 273–4

biographies, spoilt, 199, 401, 462, 476, 598, 647

concealment from authorities, 131, 137, 147, 167, 329, 334, 473–8, 473–9, 563–4, 598, 599, 601, 603, 604

concealment from families, 147, 548, 601, 649–50, 652, 653–4

consequences of, 199, 436, 473, 476, 510, 647

remedying, 262, 344–5, 347, 401, 435, 473, 478

wartime relaxation of controls, 435

See also questionnaires

birthrate, decline (1930s), 160

Black Book, The (Grossman & Ehrenburg), 494

black market, 172, 242

black people, 183–4

Bliukher, Marshal V. K., 289

Bobrovskaia, Tsetsiliia, 288

Bolshevik Cake Factory, 138

Bonner, Elena, 14, 36–7, 42, 243, 285, 289, 295–6, 540–41

Bonner family, 14, 36–7, 41–3, 48, 137, 540–41

Borshchagovsky, Aleksandr, 490, 494, 497–501, 501, 502, 622

Botova, Afanasia, 581–2‘bourgeois culture’, 7, 8, 16

bourgeoisie post-war, 470–73

‘Red Terror’ against, 5

repression, 136

return feared, 72–3

Soviet, emergence (mid 30s), 157–63

‘bourgeois specialists’, 42, 55, 73, 113, 153

Bragin family, 435, 437, 526

Brezhnev, Leonid, 155

political clampdown, 605, 616–17, 623

and wartime suffering, 621

Brik, Lilia, 625

Britain

appeasement policy, 371

declares war on Germany (1939), 372

negotiations with Soviet Union (1939), 372

Briukhova, Marfa, 326

Brodsky, Iosif, 646, 648

Bronshtein, Katia (née German), 545n

Bronshtein, Svetlana, 511, 606–7

Bronshtein, Vera, 511, 529

Bubennov, Mikhail, 519

Budkevich family, 14, 245, 286–7, 343–4, 583–4

Bukharin, Nikolai, 9, 309

alleged crimes, 238, 272, 276

on Moscow Master Plan, 150

and NEP, 6–7, 71, 72, 83, 154

recants (1934), 197

Right Opposition, 230

Stalin and, 72, 74, 595

Stalin’s defeat, 71

trial and execution, 238, 297, 309

Bulat family, 335–6, 449

Bulgakov, Mikhail, 194, 489, 622

Bulgakova, Elena, 408, 622, 623

Bulganin, Nikolai, 536, 537

bullying, 393, 528

in orphanages, 319, 335, 340

in school, 289, 307, 334, 348, 417, 512

in university, 348, 354

Bunin, Ivan, 482

burials, 54

Bushuev family, 316–20, 356–9, 455, 456, 458, 475–6, 525, 556–7, 580, 581, 600–601, 601, 606 316, 317, 318, 358, 359, 455, 600

Bykov, Rolan, 185

careerists, 29, 266, 461, 472, 474

carnivals, 159

cattle, numbers, 93

Caucasus, German successes in, 410, 429

Cement (Gladkov), 15

censorship, 623

labour camp letters, 218

relaxation, 561 (1960s), 605, 621

wartime, 371, 383, 443, 464

Central Committee, 230, 231, 458

decree against Akhmatova/ Zoshchenko (1946), 488, 489, 491, 500n

and dissent (1956), 597

Kliueva/Roskin censure, 492

members’ execution or imprisonment (1937–8), 238

Central Control Commission, 35, 36

Central House of Literature, 623, 624

Chapaev (Furmanov), 59

Chaplin, Charles, 482

Chausova, Maria, 164–6, 166

Chechens, 420, 424

Chechik, Elizaveta, 185

Chechneva, Marina, 407

Cheka, 30, 36, 58, 167, 283, 293

See also KGB; MVD; NRVD; OGPU

Cheliabinsk, 43, 167, 394, 405, 460, 462, 476, 511

Cheliuskin, SS, 220

Cherdyn, 39–40, 118, 347–8, 553, 576

Cheremkhovo, Irkutsk, 104, 450

Cherkassy orphanage, 450–52

Cherkesov, Vsevolod, 582

Cherkesova, Elena, 559, 582

Cherkesova, Svetlana, 296–7

Chermoz, 297, 348

‘special settlement’, 103, 353–4, 355

Chernoutsin, Igor, 595–6

childcare, 41–50

grandmothers’ role, 41–5

as mother’s role, 161

children

abandoned, 99, 106–7, 160, 285, 289–92, 329–35

of arrested parents, 221–3, 224–6, 246–7, 249, 285–7, 294–7, 316–69, 435, 436

christening, 44

in communal apartments, 39, 40, 167, 177, 183, 184, 185–6, 204–5

and Communist utopia, 188–90

domestic responsibilities, 324–5

of elite, 276–7

evacuated (1940s), 387, 388–92

in exile, 87–91, 95, 99, 106, 108, 116, 143, 145, 210–11, 216–17, 350, 351, 353, 354, 356, 358–9, 363–4, 462

family life, 11–14, 162–9, 175, 177–9, 228

fear, 352

games, 24–5

in Gulag, 99

homeless, 99

ignorance of Great Terror, 276–7

image of absent parents, 548, 550, 551–2

as informers, 107, 122–6, 124–5, 129, 261

Jewish, 66, 70

‘kulak’, 90, 99, 131, 142–7, 353, 436, 479, 480–81, 656

learning through play, 24

loss of parents, 319, 390–92

names changed, 316, 327, 342

parents, denunciation, 122–6, 129–30

and parents’ arrest, 208–9, 274–5, 300–305, 307–8, 309, 313–14, 390–92, 439

and parents’ guilt, 53, 77, 274–5, 307, 322, 342, 344, 345, 347, 444, 445

parents’ history concealed from, 391–2, 646–7, 652, 654

patriarchal families, 53, 77

political indoctrination, 20–22, 24–5, 27, 273–4

post-war life, 458

poverty, 458

private family housing, 168–9

and relative’s arrest, 300–305

released from orphanages, 547–8

renunciation of parents, 130–32, 300–304, 343–4, 349, 475–7

reunited with parents, 108, 449–54, 544–58, 560, 561–5, 571

rules of listening and talking, 38–40, 254

on the run, 107–10, 343

rural, 126–9

schooldays, 294–8

silenced, 254

social acceptance, desire for, 341, 343, 345–7, 349, 352–3, 354, 355–6

of specialists, 211, 213, 216–17

values, change in, 32–3, 50

See also orphans; Pioneers

children’s homes, orphanages, 99, 316, 317, 329

children released, 547–8

conditions in, 318–19, 320, 335–43

damage by, 335

identity, erasure, 125–6, 316, 327, 342

in labour camps, 363, 364

labour in, 342

moral system, 341

population, 99

as recruiting ground, 341

runaways, 343

Soviet propaganda, 341

children’s labour colonies, 329

child support, 161

China, Cultural Revolution, 37

Christmas, 146n

Chubar, Vlas, 301

Chuianov, A. S., 412

Chukovskaia, Lydia, 484–5

Chukovsky, Kornei, 482, 485, 622

Church, Russian Orthodox

campaign against, 5, 7, 68, 127, 349

land, redistribution, 51–2, 77

public confession and penance, 33

relaxation of controls (1943–8), 435, 437

role in marriage and divorce, 10

violent assault against, 85

wartime, 414

See also priests; religion

churches, destroyed, 85

cities

and famine (1930s), 98

housing shortage, 120–22, 172, 174

migration to (1930s), 98–9, 118–19, 126–7, 128

purging, 98–9

wartime destruction, 457

workers and NEP, 7

Civil War (1918–20), 4, 13, 18, 32, 34, 35, 38, 54, 58, 200, 240–41

campaigns against ‘kulaks’, 34, 87

casual relationships in, 10

class war, rural, 78n

grain requisitioning, 49, 72

hostages, 58

peasant wars, 93

Polish invasion, 164, 240

private trade outlawed, 65

romance of, 59, 73, 92, 416

shortages, 6, 73

class identity, manipulation, 136–47

class war, 74

halted by NEP, 62

rural, 78n, 124

coal, production, 83, 110, 113, 159n, 426

Code on Marriage and the Family (1918), 10

Cold War, 464, 481

and defence of Soviet culture, 488, 499

and fear of foreigners, 492–3

military demands, 458

collectivization, agricultural, 81–93

criticism of, 85, 129, 438, 441

and disrepair, 96

failure, 96–7

Komsomol and, 77, 79

in NEP, 83

peasant resistance to, 84–5, 92–3

second wave (1930), 93

taxation policies, 83

temporary halt (1930), 93

as trauma, 128–9

workers’ livestock, 158

See also kolkhoz

Comintern, 311

leadership reshuffle (1935), 230

Piatnitsky at, 228, 229–32

purge (1937), 540

Stalin and, 230–31, 234

communal apartments, 9, 152–3, 172–86

conversation in, 253

‘corridor system’, 177–9

elder, post of, 179–80

impact on residents, 186

kitchens, 182

lack of privacy, 180, 182–4

as microcosm of Communist society, 179

mutual surveillance and, 180–82

nostalgia for, 185

and sense of comradeship, 184–5

shared responsibilities, 179

squabbles in, 181–2

toilets, 183–4

communal living, 9–10, 51, 152, 167, 172–86, 176–7

Communism

consumerism and, 158

defence, 30

and Fascism, 236, 373

future rewards, 159, 188

instilling, 20–22

‘march towards’, 191, 616

NEP and, 7

private life and, 4

violent leaps towards, 4–5, 91–2

War Communism, 5, 6

Communist Party, Communists (Bolsheviks)

agrarian policies, 215

belief in, 33–4

collective leadership, 536, 594

‘condensation’ policy, 9, 174–5

Congresses, 11; (1925), 36; (1927), 72; (1934), 193; (1961), 538 (1956), 575, 593–6, 597–9, 614, 615, 646

control systems, 34–40

education policy, 20–25

ethos, dominance, 32

family policies, 8–9, 160–64, 166

flee German army (1941), 380

and Great Terror, 272–3

identity, 33

judgement, acceptance, 272–3

leaders, purge, 238, 464–5

membership numbers, 3n

mistrust of peasants, 81–2

morality, 33

and NEP, 71–2

officials, NKVD servants, 264

officials, shift of power from, 422, 432

and peasants, 50, 51, 77, 83–6

and personal appearance, 158–9

Plenum (1953), 537

portrayed as ‘big family’, 162

religion, campaign against, 68, 127

seize power (1917), 3

seen as Jews, 420, 508

as self-policing collective, 37

as source of all justice, 272

as source of Truth, 190–91

in troikas, 283

unity, repentance and, 244

weakened influence, wartime, 422, 432, 434–46

work and discipline, ethos, 168

See also Central Committee; Party members; Soviet regime

comradeship

communal apartments and, 184–5

wartime, 420–21

‘condensation’ policy, 9, 174–5

confession, public, 33

confessions, extraction, 272–3

Conquest, Robert, 98

conscript labour, 467–8

Constituent Assembly, 38n

Constructivism, 10, 150, 152

consumer culture, Soviet (mid-30s), 158–9, 166

consumer goods, 467

demand (1928–), 119

post-war shortage, 457, 458–9

consumer industries, 466n

investment in, 157–60

conversations, private, 36–40, 183–4, 251–5

Cooper, Gary, 482

cooperative sector, 466n

Cossacks, 429

cremation, 54n

Crimea, Soviet Germans, 651

Crimean Tatars, 420, 424

Criminal Code, 82, 204

criminal responsibility, age of, 99, 247–8, 329

currency reform (1947), 467

Czechoslovakia

German invasion (1939), 371, 372

Soviet invasion (1968), 541n, 623

dachas, 161, 163, 165, 169, 184

Dallag Gulag complex, 553

Dalstroi (Far Northern Construction Trust), 117, 215, 602, 632, 633

dancing, 159

Daniel, Iulii, 605

Daniets, Aleksandr, 430–31

Danilova, Natalia, 253

Darvina, Anna, 429

death certificates, fabricated, 582

Decembrists, 543

Degtiarev, Aleksandr, 578

Delibash, Elizaveta, 349–53, 351, 645–8

Delibash, Nina, 349, 350

Democratic Party (Norilsk), 531–2

Denikin, Anton, 218

denunciation, 35–40, 259, 261–2

by children, 122–6, 128, 129–30

denouncers confronted, 583–9

forgiveness for, 586–7

for living space, 173

lovers, unwanted, 265

motivated by malice, 263–5

rhetoric of, 137

Russian culture of, 36

Diakonov, Volodia, 271

diary-writing, 255–8, 280, 309

Dimitrov, Georgi, 229

disappearances, 87, 272, 276, 278, 280, 305, 646

‘dissidents’, persecution, 605

dissimulation, as survival skill, 472–8, 563–4, 598

Ditsklan, Aleksei, 210

divorce, 160, 161, 173, 305

Dmitrov labour camp, 213

Dmitruk, Vasilina, 427–9

Dobriakova, Alina, 184

Doctors’ Plot (1948), 521, 522, 527, 528, 529, 627

Doctor Zhivago (Pasternak), 431, 593&n

Dolgun, Aleksandr, 634

Dolmatovsky, Yevgeny, 29, 199, 269–70, 409

Simonov’s denunciation, 269–70, 369

Dovzhenko, Aleksandr, 442

Drabkin, Iakov, see Gusev, Sergei

Drabkina, Elizaveta, 1–2, 3, 4, 349, 430–31

Drozdov family, 26, 214–15, 217, 252, 365, 469–70, 526, 565–6, 579, 632–3

Dubcek, Alexander, 623

Dubov family, 137–8

Dudarev family, 305–7, 583

Dudinka, 427

Dudintsev, Vladimir, 592, 615

dug-outs, living in, 100, 101, 110, 173, 189, 397, 457, 576

Dunsky, Iurii, 529, 566

Dzerzhinsky, Feliks, 283, 284

Dzhugashvili, Iakov, 411

Dzhugashvili, Vasily, 395, 402

Eastern China Railway, 240

East Germany, Soviet rule, 537

economy

agricultural sector, terminal decline, 87

boom (1950s), 561

civilian and Gulag, merging, 468

forced labour in, 467

market, return to (1921), 5, 6–7

mixed, 6–7, 65, 71, 466n

planned, 5–6, 81, 171, 423, 466–7, 471

post-war, 457–8, 466–7

prisoners’ contribution, 638, 640

reform, discussion of, 444

ruin (1921), 5

tempo, speeding up, 187

wartime, 423, 425–31,466

See also New Economic Policy (NEP)

‘economy of favours’ (blat), 172, 182

education, Bolshevik policy, 20–25

Ehrenburg, Ilia, 335, 410, 421, 459, 492, 494, 495, 590–91

attacked, 494, 495n

and hate campaign (1941), 414

Simonov and, 591, 625–6

Eidinov, Aleksandr, 515

Eikhmans, Fyodor, 210

Eisenstein, Sergei, 270

Eismont, N. B., 154

Elagin family, 478–9

Eliashov family, 16–18, 188, 462–4

elite (Soviet),

children of, 276–7

dachas granted to, 161, 163, 165

family and political allegiance, 248

Party members as, 32–3, 68

post-war, 470–73

resentment of, 263–4, 274, 508

Emergency Measures (1928), 82

emigrés, return, 482

‘enemies of the people’, 91

belief in, 137, 145, 262, 272, 273, 274–6

children of, 145, 257, 274–5, 435, 452, 473, 474, 510

denunciation, 277, 473, 474

evidence fabricated, 231

families helped, 292–8

families ostracized, 285–92

families separated, 316, 335

hidden, 278

purge (1937–8), 352

See also arrests

Engels, Friedrich, 155n

engineers

acceptance of planned economy, 471

arrest, 113

demand for, 118, 153, 471

purged (1928–32), 153

Epshtein family, 511–12

Erofeev family, 626–7

Estonia, 372–3, 469, 470, 531

Estonians, post-war arrests, 467, 468, 469

Etinger, Iakov, 521

etiquette, 158–9eviction, 57, 107, 115, 141, 174, 219, 250, 256, 266, 286, 288, 290, 291, 292, 305, 308, 324, 367, 509, 660

executions (1930s), 238–9, 241, 248, 285, 311

exiles, 192, 201, 248, 292

children, 106, 108, 116, 143, 145, 297, 320, 350, 351, 353, 354, 356, 358–9, 363–4, 462

escape, 105–10

and family, value, 218

‘kulaks’, 85, 87–91, 93, 94, 95, 99–106, 186

parcels sent to, 142, 203, 278, 311, 331, 332, 359, 360, 361

‘specialists’, 214–15, 216

factories

transported east (1941), 388, 423

wartime destruction, 457

Factory Apprentice Schools (FZU), 63, 64, 118, 138, 139, 153

Fadeyev, Aleksandr, 3n, 461n, 482, 494–5&n, 495, 496, 498, 589–90

Fadeyev, Seryozha, 129

Faivisovich family, 326, 568–70 (569), 599–600, 644–5

family

as basic unit of state, 162

bourgeois, 8

collective responsibility for crime, 248–9, 300–307, 308

disintegration, 99

egotism of, 82

eradication, 8–9, 10–11, 160

patriarchal, 50, 53

‘petty-bourgeois’, 20

as primary unit of production and consumption, 9

reconstitution (1945–6), 449

renouncing, 130–32

restoration, 161–4

sexual politics, 164

stability under pressure, 540–48

trust, Great Terror and, 298–313

value placed on, 218

family life

influences on, 48–50

prisoners and, 216–17, 220–26

famine (1921), 5–6, 43, 49 (1932–3), 81, 98, 103–4, 273

post-war, 457

Far Eastern Army, 289

Far Eastern Timber Trust, 289

farming, see agriculture

Far North labour camps, 112, 113, 123, 357, 362, 467, 515, 517

Fascism, struggle against, 37, 192, 200, 230, 236, 373, 374

fashion, 159

fear, 255, 603, 652

children’s, 352

inherited, 645–51

and ostracism, 285–92

of rearrest, 605–6

survivors’, 643

February Revolution (1917), 3

Feuchtwanger, Leon, 482

Fillipova, Aleksandra, 559‘

filtration camps’, 469, 531

Finland, Soviet invasion (1939), 372–3

Finns

in labour army, 424

social exclusion, 137

Firin, Semyon, 192–3

First World War (1914–18), 57, 175, 227, 236, 491

Fischer, Markoosha, 263–4

Five Year Plans, 5–6, 72

‘achievements’, 151, 187, 192, 194

arguments for, 72, 74

capital, raising, 172

hopes of, 200

industrialization programme, 564

‘storm’ production, 187

targets set, 187, 641 (1928–32), 63, 67, 81, 416; asceticism, 158; construction projects, 111, 152; FZUs, 153; growth rates, 111–12; hardships, complaints about, 154; launch, 137; promise of, 111; propaganda, 91, 92, 111, 114, 131; specialists, demand for, 153; target figures, 83, 111–12, 153; vydvizhentsy, 155 (1933–7), 157; efficiency aim, 159n; slogan, 160 (1946–51), 467; construction projects, 467, 468; propaganda, 467; targets set, 467 (1971–5), 640

Fomin, Vladimir, 44

forced labour, 111–12, 151, 467–70

See also slave labour

foreigners

contact with, 493, 558

fear of, 492–3

France

appeasement policy, 371

719

declares war on Germany (1939), 372

negotiations with Soviet Union (1939), 372

Popular Front government (1936), 230

Franco, General Francisco, 230

freedom of expression

post-war, 458, 459

‘thaw’ and, 597–9

wartime, 437–40, 443–6

Frenkel, Naftaly, 112, 114, 564, 565

Frid, Valerii, 26, 242, 259–60, 529, 566

Froebel, Friedrich, 24

Frunze Military Academy, 616

Furmanov, Dmitry, 59

Fursei, Anastasia, 390, 391

Fursei, Georgii, 390, 391, 391, 544, 545, 546

Fursei, Marianna, 389–92, 391, 544–7

Fursei, Nikolai, 389–90FZU, see

Factory Apprentice Schools

Gabaev family, 388–9

Gaidar, Arkadii, 417

Gaister, Inna, 326, 360, 474, 605–6, 607

childhood, 49, 50, 69, 163, 286, 324–5

domestic responsibilities, 324–5

Jewish background, 69, 510

parents’ arrest, 286, 324, 474, 475

schooldays, 297–8

at university, 474

Gaister family, 49, 69, 163, 324, 326, 510, 529

Galitsky, Pavel, 155n

games, childrens’, 24–5, 32–3

Garmash family, 650

Gavrilov, Boris, 45

Gefter, Mikhail, 432

‘generation of 1941’, 416, 419

generation split (1920s), 40–41

German army battle for Stalingrad, 412, 413

containment, 229

drive south-east, 410

hatred of, 414

Karlshorst, surrender, 446

retreat, 421–2, 441

and Russian winter, 393

siege of Leningrad (1941–4), 334–5, 381, 386–7, 388–9, 419, 444, 648

Soviet counter-offensive (1941–2), 393

German family, 389–91, 491, 545

Germany

Britain and France declare war (1939), 372

invasion of Czechoslovakia, 371, 372

invasion of Poland (1939), 372

invasion of Russia (1941), 379–87

Japanese pact (1936), 236

military aggression, 235

Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939), 372, 373, 374, 381

potential war with, 235–6, 270

Rhineland occupation, 235

See also German army

Gershtein, Emma, 252–3

Gershtein, Margarita, 253–4

Ginzburg, Moisei, 10

Ginzburg, Yevgeniia, 243, 271, 634, 635, 636, 638

Girl of My Dreams, The (Okudzhava), 552–3

Gladkov, Fyodor, 15, 484

glasnost (1980s), 580, 581, 595, 623, 631, 632, 646, 652

Glavlit, 623

Gliner, Zina, 390

Goldenshtein family, 390–92, 544, 546

gold production, 113, 117, 210

Golovina, Antonina, 50, 52–3, 79, 81, 94, 586, 655 exiled, 94–5, 99–103

family reunited, 121, 122

identity, concealment, 65, 147, 652–3

returns to Obukhovo (1995), 654–6

schooldays, 145–7, 147

at university, 436–7

Golovin family, 43, 50–53, 76–81, 86&n, 94, 99–103, 113, 121, 145, 417n, 586, 655–6

exiled, 94–5, 101–3, 121

forgive denouncer, 586

reunited, 121–2

Golovko, Semyon, 429, 533–4

Golovnia, Anatoly, 166–8, 168, 169, 195, 254, 366–9, 557

FILMS: The Deserter, 166, 195; Mother, 166; Storm Over Asia, 166

Golovnia, Liuba (née Ivanova, later Babitskaia), 43, 167–70, 168, 366, 367–9, 557–9

Golovnia, Oksana, 43, 44, 167, 168, 169, 170, 254, 366–7, 557, 558–9

Golovnia, Pyotr, 166, 167

Gorbachev, Mikhail, 595, 623

Gorbatov, Anatoly, 272

Gorbatov, Boris, 402&n, 502–3

Gordon, Iosif, 485–6, 574–5

Gordon, Marianna, 460

Gordon, Nina, 485–6, 574–5

Gorky, Maksim, 4, 22, 124, 125, 499

and labour camps, 194

and White Sea Canal, 192–3, 194

Goslitizdat (State Publishing House), 195

Gosplan, 49, 163, 466

Gotman, Elfrida, 650–51, 651

Gotman, Rudolf, 424

graffiti, anti-Soviet, 154

grain

crisis (1927–8), 82

harvests, 97–8

hoarding, 78n

requisitioning, 49, 72, 78n, 81, 82, 92

shortage (1920s), 72

state procurement, 72, 97, 98

grandparents

child care, 13, 41

as correspondents, 326

religious faith, 44–6

rescue abandoned children, 317, 318–23, 325–7, 336, 350, 351

as transmitters of traditional values, 41–4

Grankina, Nadezha, 273

‘Great Break’ (1928–32), 84, 136, 153, 160

‘Great Patriotic War’, 652

in collective memory, 637

commemoration, 617, 618–20

See also Second World War

Great Terror (1937–8), 37, 74, 154, 218, 234–66, 268, 272

collective responsibility of family, 248–9, 300–307, 308

communication in, 251–5, 255–8, 313

and family trust, 298–313

ignorance of, 276–7

justification of, 239–40, 272, 275–6

loyalty and, 191

as mass murder, 234

military purges, 237–9, 383, 422, 615

opposition to, 282–5

origins, 234–6

and orphan numbers, 335

people’s view of, 272–81

propaganda, 261, 273

recantations in, 268–9

silent collusion in, 203–4, 266–7

victims, and Stalin’s death, 525–30

See also arrests; executions; informers; ‘kulak operation’; labour camps; purges; ‘show trials’

Grigorevna, Rakhil, 298

Gromov, Vladimir, 136–7Gromyko, Andrei, 155

Grossman, Vasily, 409–10, 490n, 494, 619

Guberman, Samuil, 231n

Gudzenko, Semyon, 608

Gulag Archipelago

(Solzhenitsyn), 634, 635

Gulag system, 192

abolition, 529–30, 534, 536

amnesty (1956), 424

Arctic, 55, 213

Beria’s plans for, 527, 530

change in prisoners’ values and priorities, 218

children in, 99

cities, 426

and civilian economy, merging, 468

economic motive, 112

as form of industrialization, 116–17, 214, 467–70

labour force, 81, 467, 468

legal justification for, 206

legitimation of, 193

letters from, 218, 220–22

mass release (1945–6), 449

material incentives in, 468, 470

memoirs, 633–7

mortality, wartime, 426

officials, 631, 632–3

population growth, 208, 234, 467

relaxation (1950), 516–17

‘special installations’, 629

specialists in, 214

in wartime economy, 423, 425–31

See also labour camps; prisoners; ‘special settlements’

Gumilyvov, Nikolai, 268

Gurevich, Mikhail, 558

Gusev, Sergei (Iakov Drabkin), 1–2, 3–4, 36, 430

Hasek, Jaroslav, 622

hierarchy, see social hierarchy

higher education

entry to, 63, 435–6, 473, 510

lishentsy barred, 66, 74

post-war expansion, 471

unreliables, weeding out, 478–9

See also universities Hindus, Maurice, 96

History of European Philosophy (Aleksandrov), 492

History of the CPSU, The, 343

Hitler, Adolf, 191, 235, 371–4, 386–7,

holidays, 12, 46, 159, 161, 163

homelessness, 99, 457

‘honour courts’, 492

‘hooliganism’, 575

housekeepers, 13

housing

austerity, 14–19, 161

‘condensation’ policy, 9, 174–5

lishentsy barred, 74

nationalization, 74

ownership rights, NEP, 71

policy change (1930s), 152–3

postwar crisis, 457, 458

private family, 153, 160–61, 162–3, 168–9

private ownership, abolition, 74

shortage (1930s), 120–22, 172, 174

See also communal apartments; eviction

How the Steel Was Tempered (Ostrovsky), 43n

Hungary, Uprising (1956), 575, 614, 616

Iagoda, Genrikh, 112, 113, 237, 238

Iakir, General, 237–8, 272

Iakovlev, Aleksandr, 595

Iakovlova, Nina, 38–9

Iakutsk rebellion (1927), 208

Ianin, Vladimir, 275

Ianson, N. M., 113

Iaroslav jail, 430

Iaskina, Olga, 641

Ideology and Utopia

(Mannheim), 187

Ielson-Grodziansky family, Dina, 361, 362, 554–5

Ilin family, 244–5, 449–54, 561–3

individualism

eradication, 1, 2, 3–4, 8–9, 30

peasants, 50

industrialization, 67, 72, 81, 111, 564

industrial terror (1928–32), 153

industry internal market proposal, 444

labour force, 5, 81, 83, 98, 355, 423–5, 467, 526

post-war priorities, 458

wartime reorganization, 422–3

inflation, 1920s, 72

informers, 251, 258–71, 478–81

children, 107, 122–6, 129

confronted by victims, 583–9

forced, 259

material rewards, 265–6

motives, 39, 259, 261–3, 264–6, 478–80, 587

recruitment, 144, 259–61, 262, 267

registered, 258

‘reliables’, 258–9

voluntary, 259

Institute of Foreign Trade, 13

Institute of Librarians, 156

Institute of Peat, 165

Institute of Red Professors, 49

Institute of Steel, 67

Inta labour camp, 529, 536, 566

intelligentsia

attacks on, 5, 241, 487–94, 494, 506, 648

barred from universities, 63

children of, 471

and Fadeyev, 589

and freedom of speech, 597–9

‘lishentsy’, 39n

NEP and, 7

and political reform, 443

proletarian, 153

public service ethos, 55

and Soviet regime, 53–64, 190, 488

support for Bolsheviks, 593

values, 15, 16, 296, 485, 591

women, 11

Internationale, 17, 92, 414

internationalism, 67, 487, 494, 509

International Society of Workers’ Aid (MOPR), 64

Ioganson, Boris, 653, 654

Iosilevich, Aleksandr, 349, 350

Isaev, Mikhail, 276

Israel, 493, 494, 509, 515

Iurasovsky, Alexei, 648–9

Iusipenko, Mikhail, 358, 364, 631–2, 632

Ivanishev, Aleksandr, 58, 60, 63, 203, 394–5, 405

arrest, 139–41, 142, 202, 278

and Laskin family, 516

military principles, 58–9, 200, 406

Ivanisheva, Aleksandra (née Obolenskaia), 56–8, 60, 201, 202, 203, 394–5, 513, 514

criticizes Simonov, 403–6, 514

and Laskin family, 394–5, 516

and Serova, 404

Ivanov, Vsevolod, 622

Ivanova, Elizaveta, 338

Ivanova, Marina, 162–3

Ivanova, Tamara, 193

Izmail-Zade, Ibragim, 585–6

Iznar, Natalia, 571–2

Izvestiia, 201, 486

JAFC, see Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee

Japan

border conflict, 371

imperial ambitions, 371

occupies Manchuria, 235, 371

rumoured invasion of Siberia, 240

Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (JAFC), 493–4, 496n, 515

Jews

as ‘alien outsiders’, 509

Babi Yar massacre (1941), 570, 571

blamed for Stalinist excesses, 420

Bolsheviks as, 420

campaigns against, 493–503, 518, 521, 570, 625, 646, 647, 648

denied exit visas, 646

flee German army (1941), 380

Germans murder, 382

identity, 68, 614

nationality, 509–10

religious observance, 65, 68, 69

seen as spies, 521

and Soviet regime, 64, 67–9, 70, 75

university education, 65n

urbanization, 67–8

writers, pseudonyms, 519–20

See also‘anti-cosmopolitan’ campaign; anti-Semitism; Yiddish culture

justice

belief in, 278, 279

Party as source, 34, 272

Kaganovich, Lazar, 151, 231, 232, 239–40, 538, 594, 604

Kalinin, Mikhail, 154, 156, 300, 442

Kamenev (Lev Borisovich Rosenfeld), 72, 197, 230, 237, 248

Kaminskaia, Nina, 189–90, 276–7

Kandalaksha labour camp, 313

Kaplan, Lipa, 265

Kaplan, Rakhil, 49, 510, 529

Karaganda labour camps, 314–15, 316–17, 365, 552, 566, 631

See also Akmolinsk Labour Camp…

Karelia, 113, 223

Kariakin, Vasily, 175

Karpetnin, Aleksandr, 262

Karpitskaia, Anna, 11–13, 48, 264

Karpitskaia, Marksena, 333–5, 334, 445–6, 649, 650

Kashin, Boris, 650

Kataev, Valentin, 193

Katyn massacre, 373

Kazakhstan

anti-Semitism, 420

labour camps, 87, 357, 553–4, 631

mortality (1930–33), 98

‘special settlements’, 93

Virgin Lands Campaign, 543–4, 547

Kazan jail, 271, 273, 301–3

Kem labour camp, 209

Kerch offensive (1942), 395, 410

Kerensky, Aleksandr, 196n

KGB, 605–7

See also Cheka; MVD; NKVD; OGPU

Khabarovsk, 289, 290

labour camp, 386, 629

Railway Institute, 333

Khachaturian, A. I., 492

Khalkin Gol, battle (1939), 370–71, 373, 374, 410

Khaneyevsky family, 175, 176, 177, 184, 648

Kharkov, Ukraine, 218, 258, 399

Kharkov University, 69, 301

Khataevich, Mendel, 84–5

Kherson, Noble Assembly, 166, 167

Khrushchev, Nikita, 239, 497

‘anti-Soviet plot’, 536

and Beria, 536, 537

denunciation of Stalin (1956), 575, 593–6, 597–9, 614, 615, 646

growing power, 536, 537, 538, 594

and Simonov, 591

and Stalin Factory Affair, 515 ‘Thaw’, 433, 486, 504, 561, 562, 593, 599, 604–5, 611, 616, 619

Kiev

Babi Yar massacre (1941), 570, 571

German capture (1941), 387

Gorky Tank Factory, 527

recaptured (1943), 422

Kipling, Rudyard, 268

Kirov, Sergei, 169, 192, 201, 234–5, 236, 264, 265

Kirov Ballet, 648

Kirov mine, Khakasin, 104

Kirsanov, Semyon, 400

Kliueva, Nina, 492

Kogan, Rebekka, 69

Kogan, Rita, 417–19

Kolchak, Admiral Aleksandr, 4, 227–8

Kolchina, Klavdiia, 293

Kolibin, Pronia, 129

kolkhoz (collective farms), 76, 88

brigades, 96–7

campaign for, 79

failure of, 96, 97–8

forced organization, 84, 85, 128

grain stealing, 129

growth, 83

‘kulaks’ and, 86, 103, 118

opposition to, 76–7, 84, 85, 93, 94, 124, 128, 154

peasants leave, 93, 98

post-war demographic loss, 457

production, 83, 96–7

refusal, 106, 128

second wave, 93–4

strikes on, 442

TOZy, 83

Virgin Lands Campaign, 544, 547, 561

voting for, 81, 85, 128

workers’ livestock, 158

Kolobkov, Viacheslav, 242

Koltsov, Mikhail, 267, 485

Kolyma gold-fields, 56, 117, 208

Kolyma labour camps, 55, 206, 223, 265, 268, 281, 402n, 435, 567, 570, 576, 602–3, 636, 638, 650

Kolyma Tales (Shalamov), 117–18, 607

Komi labour camps, 106, 107, 607–8, 651

Komsomol (Communist Youth League), 28–30, 39, 45, 126, 303, 304, 343–4, 480, 560, 561

admission to, 29, 47, 191, 197, 347

civic defence, 444

and collectivization, 77–81, 84

commitment to proletariat, 10

conformist culture, 344, 461‘cult of struggle’, 73

domination by ‘careerist’ elements, 461

and ‘enemies of the people’, 274–5, 344

ethos (1920s), 30–31

exclusion from, 35, 40, 142, 143, 146, 397

function, 20, 29, 79, 80

hypocrisy of, 615 lishentsy barred, 67

membership, 28

militarism, 417

organizers (Komsorg), 296

portrayed as ‘big family’, 162

privileges, 28

propaganda, 344

purge meetings, 473

renunciation, pressure, 300, 343

‘reviews’, 27

self-criticism, spirit of, 269

and social acceptance, 347, 352–3, 354

student recantations, 268

and Virgin Lands Campaign, 547

volunteer labour, 469

war against ‘kulaks’, 87, 92‘work plans’, 27

Komsomolskaia Pravda, 162, 519

Kondratiev, Nikolai, 223–6, 225

Kondratiev, Viacheslav, 417, 431–2, 433, 448, 618

Kondratieva, Elena (‘Alyona’), 224–6, 225

Kondratieva, Yevgeniia, 224

Konev, Marshal, 418, 465

Konstantinov family, 320–23 (322), 365–6, 567–8, 568

Kopelev, Lev, 92, 191, 575, 606

Korchagin, Ivan, 630–31, 631

Korchagin, Pavel, 43n

Koreans in labour army, 424

seen as spies, 240

social exclusion, 137

Korenkov, Konstantin, 35

Korneichuk, Aleksandr, 497, 592

Kornilov, Vladimir, 41

Korsakov, Vladimir, 648

Kosaryov, Aleksandr, 376

Kosheleva, Galina, 338

Kosior, Stanislav, 248

Kosterina, Nina, 304–5Kostikova, Antonina, 47

Kosygin, Aleksei, 155

Kotlas labour camps, 100, 107, 108, 248, 424

Kovach, Nikolai, 338–41, 343, 547 Krasnaia zvezda newspaper, 383, 397, 399, 401, 506

Krasnodar, 457, 528, 645

Krasnoe Selo, 252, 565

Krasnoiarsk, 427

Krasnokamsk brick factory, 576

Krasnokamsk pulp-and-paper mill, 424, 437

Krasnovishersk, 214–15pulp-and-paper mill, 117, 118

Kremenchug, 62, 141

Kresty jail, 294

Krivitsky, Aleksandr, 519, 625

Krivko, Anna, 301

Kronstadt mutiny (1921), 5, 6, 13

Kropotina, Valentina, 89–90, 90, 479–81, 481

Kruglov family, 253

Krupskaia, Nadezhda, 4, 22, 27, 227, 232

Kruzhkov, Vladimir, 520

Kuibyshev government evacuated to (1941), 392

hydro-electric station, 468

informers, 258‘kulak operation’ (1937–8), 234, 240, 283, 338

‘kulaks’

arrests, 112, 113

banned from front-line service, 355

barred from Pioneers/ Komsomol, 26, 142

campaign against, 34, 79–81, 82, 84–93, 479, 480–81

children of, 90, 99, 131–2, 142–7, 353, 436, 479, 480–81, 656

exclusion, 142

exiled, 82, 85, 87–91, 93, 94, 95, 99–106, 112, 113

industry of, 86, 96

‘malicious’, 82, 87, 88

‘reforging’, 118, 193, 194, 211, 212, 213, 215, 353

returning, arrest and execution (1937–8), 240

runaway, 105, 106–8

as ‘rural bourgeoisie’, 51, 73, 86

social exclusion, 136, 137

use of term, 78n, 86

wartime conscription, 424–5

Kurgan region, 88, 103

Kurin, Leonid, 416

Kursk, 637

battle (1943), 421

post-war gender imbalance, 457

Kuzmin, Kolia, 79, 80, 81, 94–5, 96, 586

Kuznetsov, Aleksei, 466

labour army, 5, 355, 423–5, 467, 526

labour camps, 112–18

children’s homes in, 363, 364, 599–600

conditions, 100, 106, 110, 114–15, 118, 357, 362, 516–17, 530, 532–3

correspondence, 142, 203, 218, 220–22, 224–6, 278, 311, 322, 359, 360–61, 368

as economic venture, 117–18, 208, 423, 425–31, 576

effect on prisoners, 553–60, 563, 571–2

friendships, 565–72

guards, 468, 629–32

knowledge of, 438

legal justification for, 206

‘malicious kulaks’ sent to, 82, 87, 88

marriages, 566–71

material rewards, 196, 468, 470

mortality, 218, 426

murders (1937–8), 234

patriotic pride, 447

penal, 113–15

population growth, 113, 208, 234

prisoners released, 535–7, 538, 540, 542, 552–73

and ‘reforging’, 101, 117, 193–4, 196, 206–7, 207, 215

sexual relations in, 362, 364–6

and Stalin’s death, 529–31, 532–4

strikes and protests (1953–4), 529–34

torture in, 303

‘trusties’, 361

victims’ silence, 560, 564, 565, 599–604, 605–7

voluntary workers, 213, 214–15, 469, 567, 576

See also Gulag system

‘labour-educational colonies’, 99

labour force, 5, 81, 83, 98, 355, 423–5, 467, 526

See also labour camps Large Soviet Encyclopedia, 117

Laskin, Boris, 611

Laskin, Iakov, 382

Laskin, Mark, 67, 280, 447, 524

Laskin, Moisei, 65

Laskin, Samuil, 64, 65–6, 447, 514, 535, 539, 539–40

in exile, 71, 74–5

fish business, 64, 66, 75, 512

Jewish background, 64, 65, 68–9, 516

Laskin family, 64–9, 67, 382, 408, 447, 487, 512, 514, 535, 539, 539–40, 611–12, 614

and Simonov, 518, 612

Laskina, Berta, 65, 68, 69, 74, 447, 512, 513, 514, 514, 515, 516, 535, 539, 614

Laskina, Fania, 65, 66, 67, 68, 74, 148, 148, 152, 394, 447, 512, 515, 518, 539 Laskina, Sonia, 65, 66–7, 74, 394, 408, 447, 514, 517, 540

release from Vorkuta, 535, 572, 573

and Simonov, 514–15

at Stalin Factory, 512, 539

in Vorkuta, 515–17, 566

Laskina, Yevgeniia (Zhenia), 65, 67, 74, 394, 405, 408, 447, 497, 514, 515, 516–17, 517, 540

marriage to Simonov, 198, 369–70, 370, 377, 394, 401, 402