In relation to Poland, Andropov, and Chernenko after him, continued to adhere to the political course taken under Brezhnev: to exert constant pressure on Jaruzelski's government to liquidate the Solidarity movement and to suppress all opposition in the country, but to avoid direct Soviet intervention, which might only enflame the situation.
Negotiations on normalization of relations with China, which began successfully enough, turned into protracted talks that produced no political results. The stumbling block, as before, was the Soviet Union's support of China's enemy, Vietnam, and the conflict over Kampuchea.55
Relations with Japan worsened as a result of the installation of new Soviet missiles in the Asiatic part of the USSR close to Hokkaido on the island of Etorofu (Iturup) and the USSR's refusal to negotiate on the question of returning four of the Kurile islands, which had passed to the USSR as a result of Japan's defeat in World War II.56
The USSR's bad relations with the non-Soviet world unexpectedly almost developed into a crisis situation with the Soviets' shooting down of a South Korean passenger plane, KAL-007, on the night of August 31—September 1, 1983. The airliner, on a regularly scheduled flight from New York to Seoul, strayed from its course and, while flying over Soviet territory, was shot down by a Soviet interceptor over the Sea of Japan. The crew and 269 passengers on board were lost. At first the Soviet government concealed the very fact of the airplane's destruction.57 Later it declared that the airplane had been on a spy mission for the CIA and was shot down for violating the "sacred Soviet borders."58 The investigation conducted by an independent international organization of civilian pilots repudiated the Soviet claim of a "spy mission" and established that the deviation from its course was caused by a malfunction of the automatic instruments.59
The Soviet government brushed aside the facts. It was important to show once and for all that the USSR is unshakable—regardless of the facts. Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov, chief of the Soviet general staff, announced
at a press conference in Moscow that the protection of the "sacred, inviolable borders of our country and our political system" was more important than the lives of the airliner's passengers. The destruction of the aircraft and the passengers on board was officially declared an example for imitation and placed on a par with the shooting down of the American (U-2) reconnaissance plane flown by Captain Gary Powers in I960.60 However, the borders of other countries are not quite as sacred to the USSR: Soviet submarines constantly conduct reconnaissance in the territorial waters of Sweden and Norway. (A Soviet submarine was detained in Sweden in 1982, then peacefully released, although Swedish authorities had the right to confiscate and destroy it.61) Soviet fighter planes constantly invade Pakistan's air space from Afghanistan. Pakistan limits its response to protests, which is the normal procedure in peacetime. In the incident with the Korean airliner, the Soviet Union demonstrated that it is fully resolved to thrust its own rules of behavior on the rest of the world. The United Nations was unable to pass a resolution condemning the destruction of the airliner, since the Soviet representative exercised his veto.62 The international organization of civil aviation pilots called for a boycott of Aeroflot. Several countries banned the landing of Soviet aircraft, but the boycott did not last long.63 According to one of the tales spread about Andropov before his advent to power, the KGB chairman objected to the invasion of Afghanistan. It was predicted that under Andropov the conflict would be settled and Soviet troops withdrawn. In fact, the war against the Afghan people became more brutal, with the resort to scorched earth tactics, the slaughter of civilians, and torture and murder under the direction and supervision of Soviet military instructors and KGB torture teams.64
In 1983 the number of Afghan refugees forced to abandon their homeland reached 4 million, one-fourth the population of Afghanistan. Soviet policy in Afghanistan under Andropov became more systematic and refined. No fewer than 10,000 Afghan youths were sent to the USSR to be educated in the proper spirit.65 Bribery and attempts to demoralize tribal leaders and sow discord among the Afghan resistance groups became more persistent. The extremely limited aid rendered to the Afghan resistance by the free world enables the USSR to carry out its policy. Constant pressure is exerted on Pakistan, which finds itself between two fires: the Soviet Union and India, with whom the USSR has a military pact. Although the Afghan resistance has become better organized and the various groups have began to coordinate their military actions, the situation remains extremely serious for the people of Afghanistan.
Soviet dissidents have spoken out in support of Afghanistan's struggle for freedom. They have also undertaken an effort to explain to Soviet soldiers in Afghanistan the real aim of Soviet aggression. Bukovsky, Maksimov, and others helped to establish Radio Free Kabul, a station broadcasting directly to Soviet soldiers in Afghanistan. The station achieved its main aim, according to Bukovsky: the provision of free and uncensored information to the Afghan population and Soviet troops.66
The Soviet people have remained indifferent to the war in Afghanistan, probably because Soviet losses are relatively minor—approximately 2,000 killed per year,67 thus enabling the leaders to pursue this unjust war of aggression against the Afghan people.
The situation in Afghanistan remains unresolved: the Soviet Union is unable to secure victory over the Afghans, and the Afghans are not strong enough to expel the Soviet aggressors from their territory and not united enough politically to create a genuinely national government as a counterweight to Kabul.
In Central America, the activization of a U.S. policy aimed at stopping attempts to Sovietize a number of countries bore fruit. Soviet policy in this region had been notable earlier for a certain caution and inclination to maneuver, because the USSR had only Cuba upon which to rely. The Soviet Union and Cuba tried to exploit for their own purposes the Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua and the rebel movement in El Salvador, which were the results of internal developments and the necessity for and inevitability of change. Serious gaps in U.S. policy in Central America and the widespread anti-Americanism in the region helped the USSR and Cuba in this effort, although only to a limited extent, because suspicion had spread among Latin Americans in regard to Soviet intentions, particularly in view of the extremely insignificant aid the USSR renders to developing countries. At the same time in Cuba, Nicaragua, and El Salvador the "leftists" eagerly imitated Soviet techniques for manipulating the masses.
On the island of Grenada in the early 1980s, Cuba and the Soviet Union managed to begin building a bridgehead. (A Marxist regime under Maurice Bishop had been established there in 1979.) Very soon the Grenadian government entered into secret agreements with Cuba, the USSR, and North Korea on the delivery of weapons, war material, equipment, and training for the Grenadian army.68 Marshal Ogarkov confided to Major Lewison, chief of staff of the Grenadian army, the Soviet Union's growing hopes in relation to Central America: "For more than twenty years there was only Cuba in Latin America. Today there is Nicaragua, Grenada, and a serious battle going on in El Salvador. ... The Soviet Union will facilitate an increase in the battle readiness and fighting capacity of Grenada's armed forces."69
A sharp factional struggle among the top leaders of the ruling New Jewel party flared up in Grenada in 1983. As is the custom in a Marxist-Leninist party, the leaders began to accuse each other of "right opportunism," "lack of ideological principles," "backsliding," and other sins, just as the "big" parties do. Even the finale was similar: Maurice Bishop, the head of the party and government, was killed by his rivals (on October 19, 1983). The bloody events on the island led to armed intervention by the United States and neighboring Caribbean countries. The overwhelming majority of the island's residents (population, 112,000) welcomed deliverance from the rule of the new dictator, Bernard Coard. Large stocks of arms and ammunition, which many times exceeded the needs of the small Grenadian army, were discovered on the island.
Andropov did not prove to be a skillful, flexible politician in his relations with the West. It cannot be ruled out, however, that Foreign Minister Gromyko, who was made deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, continued to exert great influence on foreign affairs. Andropov overrated the significance of the antiwar and pacifist movements in the West. His European policy and its manifestation at the time of the general elections in Germany helped Europeans to understand Soviet intentions— to separate Europe from the United States, Germany from NATO, and peoples from their governments. The Soviet Union's refusal to negotiate on limiting nuclear weapons until the American missiles were removed from Europe demonstrated the Soviet political leadership's confusion and could not be offset by its numerous new initiatives in foreign policy.
Disappointment struck Andropov in another more professional sphere of his activity: the massive dispatch of Soviet spies to the West, which occurred during Andropov's tenure as chief of the KGB, turned into a massive expulsion during his term as general secretary. By the end of January 1984, 135 Soviet spies had been expelled from twenty-one nations (compared to 27 in 1981 and 49 in 1982).70 It is highly probable, however, that the tactic of sending large numbers of Soviet agents to the West allowed the Soviets to camouflage the intrusion of their ace spies into the Western structure.
The attempt to create a Cuban-Soviet strongpoint in Grenada was proof once again that the USSR's basic foreign policy, as before, is to spread the Soviet system wherever favorable circumstances arise. Moscow had learned how to take advantage of the errors and omissions of its opponents, to fan and exploit anti-Americanism and the discontent of people in the developing countries with their social conditions.
The 660 battleships of the Soviet ocean fleet constantly plowing the seas demonstrate the USSR's readiness at any moment to extend its expansionist tentacles further.
In the early 1980s Soviet ideologists, in conformity with the changing conditions and needs of Soviet foreign policy, perfected the concept of the peaceful coexistence of governments with different social systems. A "philosophy of peace" was worked out, and the tasks of the Soviet armed forces were defined in accordance with it. Western statesmen proceed from the premise that the world consists of the Soviet bloc, the free world, and the Third World. The Soviet conception is different: there is no Third World between the Soviet and capitalist worlds. Instead there are former colonial countries whose fate is to align themselves with either one system or the other. Each system seeks to extend itself to these countries. Thus any independent role for these states is out of the question. For the USSR, this is a kind of buffer zone in which it is conducting an offensive.
The Soviet Union is for peace, but against "appeasement." It is for peace inasmuch as the historic victory of socialism is already assured, and socialism means peace. The USSR is not simply for any peace, however, it wants a "just" peace. A new distinction has been introduced: "just" peace and "unjust" peace. Earlier, in Marxist phraseology the only such distinction was drawn between "just" and "unjust" wars. "Unjust peace" is simply the absence of war. Soviet ideology rejects this as an ideal, "for preserving such a peace has its price, which oppressed nations and classes have a right to reject."71 The Soviet Union is struggling, by means that do not exclude military means, for a "just peace," that is, for the victory of socialism throughout the world.
"We are certain," declared Mikhail Gorbachev, at that time one of the candidates for the post of general secretary and at fifty-two years of age in 1984 the youngest member of the Politburo, "that social progress cannot be stopped, that it is impossible to impede the historical process of mankind's transition to socialism. And socialism means peace."72 But "peace," according to the party's new concepts, turns out to be war! While rejecting thermonuclear war as a means for attaining its global aims, the USSR has by no means abandoned any of those aims. As Admiral Sorokin, deputy director of the Main Political Directorate of the Soviet army and navy, declared, one of the most important missions of the Soviet armed forces is "to defend peace throughout the world."73 This is in fact a legitimization of the Soviet right to military intervention wherever the interests of a "just peace," as interpreted by the Soviets, require it.
The very principle of the peaceful coexistence of the two systems, according to the blunt admission of Soviet ideologists, creates "maximally favorable conditions for bringing about progressive changes in the world."74
From this it is perfectly logical for Soviet military doctrine to postulate the existence of two fronts for the capitalist world: the external front, which consists of the USSR, its allies and satellites, and the internal front, made up of members of antiwar movements. The united efforts of the two fronts is the most effective means of action against the "aggressive aspirations of imperialism."75 In other words, against the free world.
LAST OF THE HONOR GUARD
Yuri Andropov, in his carefully worked out plan for attaining supreme power, failed to take into account one factor—his own health. It is not known whether he was fatally ill at the time of his selection as general secretary or whether the stress connected with his new position hastened the progress of his disease. What is known is that on February 9, 1984, as TASS reported the next day, Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov, general secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU and president of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, passed away after a serious illness.
It may be debated whether fifteen months in power is a sufficient length of time for making one's mark on the substance of policy in the Soviet Union, or even for leaving the imprint of one's personality on the forms of administration. It is indisputable that Andropov did not realize the great expectations many had of him. Except for insignificant details, everything remained unchanged.
On February 13, 1984, Konstantin Chernenko (three years older than his predecessor) was chosen to be the new general secretary. After Andropov's death there were three "legitimate" pretenders, that is, two others besides Chernenko (born 1911) who were members of the Politburo and secretaries of the Central Committee: Mikhail Gorbachev (born 1931); and Georgy Romanov (born 1923), who was added to the Secretariat in June 1983. The question was whether to prolong the transitional period or to open the way for the new generation of leaders. The second alternative provided certain advantages from the standpoint of the interests of the state, but it also contained one colossal disadvantage: if the "young" were to come to power, that would inevitably deprive the "not so young" of their share of the power. Chernenko's candidacy was proposed by the oldest member of the Politburo, Nikolai Tikhonov (born 1905), who was chairman of the Council of Ministers. Behind him stood a group of four "not so young" leaders: Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko (born 1909), Defense Minister Dmitry Ustinov (born 1908), Dinmukhamed Kunaev (born 1912), and Viktor Grishin (born 1914).
The selection of Chernenko was the logical result of the party's total power over the country. Since the party ran everything, it was natural that those who ran the party should seek to preserve their power to their biological end. It is also quite natural that when the party's power was still young, in the first decades after the revolution, its leadership was also young. As the party's power aged, so did those who held the power.
The Brezhnev constitution of 1977, which legally institutionalized the supreme, indivisible power of the party in the Soviet Union, also became the basis for the automatic selection of the general secretary as chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The party chief now also took the formal title of chief of state, chairman of the institution that functions as the collective presidency of the country.
Following the lead of Brezhnev and Andropov, Chernenko was elected chairman of the Supreme Soviet on April 11, 1984. He was the first general secretary who had no experience outside of party work. Chernenko, as his official biography states, was born in a Siberian village. Although his last name sounds Ukrainian, the nationality inscribed in his passport is Russian. In his youth he served as a Komsomol official, then was transferred to the party apparatus. During the war he worked as secretary of a number of regional (oblast) party committees and thus did not even see the front. In 1950 a meeting took place that was decisive for his career. While working in the Central Committee apparatus of the Moldavian Communist party, he met Brezhnev. By that time Chernenko had graduated from the higher school of the party organizers under the CPSU Central Committee and had earned a diploma from the pedagogical institute in Kishinev, where he was an important party functionary. From 1950 on, Chernenko was constantly at Brezhnev's side. When Brezhnev became general secretary in 1964, the career of his loyal associate began an irresistible upward course. Chernenko became head of a Central Committee department, then a secretary of the Central Committee, and in 1978 a member of the Politburo.
The one year of Chernenko's activity as general secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU was marked by the adoption of two laws important to the internal life of the Soviet Union. In April 1984 the draft of a law on reform of general education and professional schools, which had been published in January under Andropov, was finally confirmed and adopted. This law on "the school under conditions of developed socialism" stressed the unchanging nature of the final goal: 'The unshakable foundation of Communist education for schoolchildren is the formation in their minds of a Marxist-Leninist world outlook."76 Practical measures aimed at carrying out this goal included: lowering the age at which children enter school, from seven to six, thus strengthening the ideological education of children;
assigning a significant number of schoolchildren to the network for vocational education, in order to reduce the number going to university-level institutions and thus helping to overcome the labor shortage; and lastly, improving the teaching of the Russian language. This third goal was clarified by Marshal Ogarkov: "In the armed forces, as everyone knows, all the regulations, instructions, textbooks, and manuals on military technology and weaponry are written in Russian. Orders and instructions issued by the command are also in Russian."77 The necessity for improved instruction in the language of the military high command was self-evident.
The second major law of Chernenko's year of rule was connected with the chronic problem of agriculture. Chernenko came up with yet another wonderworking method for solving the problem. Speaking at a Central Committee plenum in October 1984, he stressed that the Soviet Union "had to engage in agricultural production... under circumstances that were not at all easy."78 He meant by this that the land of mature socialism, extending all the way from the Pacific Ocean to the Hindu Kush, was located in an unfavorable climatic zone. Chernenko proposed several "genuinely innovative and creative approaches" for a long-term program of land improve- ment-and-reclamation: irrigating land or reclaiming wetlands amounting to millions of hectares; building canals; and diverting "part of the flow of some northern and Siberian rivers, as well as the Danube, in order to irrigate lands in the central and southern parts of the country, beyond the Urals, and in western Siberia."79
In presenting this program, Chernenko proudly announced: "Earlier we could not even dream of posing or resolving such tasks in the countryside."80 This was not exactly true. On November 6, 1951, at an observance of the thirty-fourth anniversary of the October revolution, Beria had proposed an even more grandiose program of land improvement.81 Chernenko was right in only one respect, namely, that in the Stalin era it was impossible to dream of carrying out the project of redirecting southward the northerly flow of the Ob, Irtytsh, and Lena rivers. The project had become technically possible as a result of the harnessing of nuclear power. Bitter disagreements have raged for a quarter of a century over this project. The realization of Stalin's program for "the transformation of nature," including the building of giant dams, canals, and power plants, followed by Khrushchev's virgin lands program, have dealt terrible blows to the environment. The ecological consequences of redirecting the Siberian rivers to the south, which would reduce the amount of water flowing into the Arctic Ocean and raise its temperature, could affect the entire planet more seriously than a nuclear war.
This program of new labors in the style of the pharaohs serves a number of functions. It acts as a substitute for reform while giving the appearance of solving the agricultural problem. And it is the type of project that ideally corresponds to the Soviet model of economic planning, one for which "the enthusiasm of the masses" can be whipped up and in which unskilled labor can be utilized on a large scale, above all, prisoner labor. No small part in all this is played by the desire of the general secretary to link his name with some "great construction project of communism." That is what Stalin and Khrushchev did, and Brezhnev followed the same pattern, seeking to immortalize his name through the construction of the Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM), a railway that makes little sense economically, although it may have some limited military-strategic value.
Chernenko's year in power in fact differed little from preceding years. Rhetoric about the "struggle against corruption" persisted in the mass media, but this campaign ceased to affect even middle-level officials. It descended to the level of the masses. The organs of the judiciary carried out a plan of arrests for alleged corruption, jailing everyone against whom a case could be made, mainly with the help of informers' denunciations. There was a sharp turn for the worse in the penal system, evidenced by the greater stringency introduced into the criminal code under Andropov. This was accompanied by greater cruelty on the part of prison and camp authorities. Torture became an everyday affair, including inhuman beatings of those arrested and special "pressure cells" in which political prisoners were left completely at the mercy of hardened criminals. During the second half of 1984 alone, five prominent dissidents were killed or died from improper medical treatment: the engineer Aleksei Nikitin, one of the founders of the free trade union groups in the USSR; Oleks Tikhy, a teacher and one of the founders of the Ukrainian Helsinki Watch Group; the writer and poet Yuri Litvin, also a member of this group; the journalist Valery Mar- chenko; and the poet Valentin Sokolov, who wrote under the name Valentin Zeka (Valentin the Prison Camp Inmate) because he had spent thirty-four years in the Gulag.
Chernenko inherited from his predecessors a key foreign policy task: to fight American missiles in Western Europe and Reagan's reelection. In November 1984, speaking to leaders of the youth organizations of the socialist countries, Chernenko stated his position:
If the world situation gives cause for alarm, the responsibility falls entirely and completely on imperialist reaction, headed by the United States. It is the United States and its allies who have set themselves the insane goal of attaining military superiority over the socialist states. It is understandable that we cannot allow this, and we will not allow it.®2
Exactly one month later Chernenko received that "prominent representative of American business circles" Armand Hammer and in meeting with him "stressed that the Soviet Union consistently holds to the line of establishing equal and good relations with the United States... and favors the development of mutually advantageous ties in all fields, including trade and economic matters, as long as the obstacles artificially placed in the way are removed."83
One may assume that the "artificial obstacles" were removed, for on February 7—8, 1985, a meeting was held in Geneva between Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko and U.S. Secretary of State Shultz. The Geneva meeting ended with an agreement to resume the disarmament talks which the Soviet Union had walked out of fourteen months earler. While the secret negotiations were going on in Geneva, a U.S. government delegation arrived in Moscow to discuss an expansion of U.S.—Soviet trade, the first since 1978. Simultaneously, the U.S. government had been considering proposing to Moscow another joint space flight like the Apollo—Soyuz mission, which had marked the high point of detente in July 1975.84
Five years had passed since the invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet troops, but that seemed to have been forgotten by the United States, as were the suppression of Solidarity in Poland and the shooting down of the South Korean airliner. One more new cycle of "detente" was setting in.
The honor guard of "iron old men," the nucleus controlling the Politburo, had decided to defend its power to the very last breath.
Chernenko breathed his last in March 1985. His death brought to an end the rule of the second generation of Soviet leaders. The third generation irresistibly moved into power, for even the Politburo cannot grant immortality. A new era had begun, the era of general secretaries who had been born, grown up, and reached the heights of power entirely under the Soviet system. The incurable optimists now link their hopes with this third generation. Great expectations are placed on their presumed liberalism, democratism, and technocratic bent, especially in the West. Mikhail Gorbachev, one of this generation, was elected the new general secretary. His visit to Britain in December 1984 eloquently demonstrated how easy it is to charm Westerners. It was enough for Gorbachev, then the number two man in the Kremlin, to bring with him a wife who differed little in outward appearance from Western women for the conclusion to be drawn that, since Gorbachev did not have a fat wife, all the talk about Soviet totalitarianism must be false.
In the late 1920s Bukharin called Stalin Genghis Khan with a telephone. The Soviet Union has come a long way in the past half century: the new leaders have computers.
CONCLUSION
After celebrating its sixty-fifth anniversary, the state born in October 1917 entered the eight decade of the twentieth century in the form of the last world empire. From Cuba to Vietnam, from Czechoslovakia to Angola, the sun never sets on the zones of Soviet control.
Nearly seventy years is a rather short time compared with the thousand- year history of Russia. However, it was within these terrible, bloody, and difficult years—Lenin's half-decade, Stalin's three decades, Khrushchev's ten years, Brezhnev's eighteen, and the three-year interlude under Andropov and Chernenko—that a system previously unknown to humanity was formed. During its first thirty years, when the world knew only one socialist state, history, geography, and the Russian national character were claimed for the peculiar shape taken by the Soviet Utopia.
After World War II history performed a monstrously cruel experiment: countries were cut in two in such a way that each half lived a totally different life, one in Utopia, the other in reality. The experiment succeeded. Regardless of historical traditions, geography, or national character, each country where a Soviet-style socialist system was installed produced identical results. Tolstoy began Anna Karenina with the observation: "All happy families are alike: every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." All the socialist countries resemble one another in having only one political party, which runs everything and is responsible to no one, a police network that penetrates every fiber of the social fabric, and a low standard of living.
The Soviet Union, the heart of the socialist system, is also its model. The countries which join or are embraced by the Soviet bloc imitate the Soviet model perfectly, just as every human fetus in the mother's womb repeats the biological evolution of the human race. That is why the history of Soviet Union is of such importance.
Nearly seventy years of history, eighteen of which, under Brezhnev, were a time of detente and good relations with the West, have determined the nature of the USSR and have brought out all the inherent traits of Utopia in power. Significant successes in foreign policy have not contributed to the resolution of a single problem within the country. The Soviet system has shown itself incapable of resolving economic, social, or nationality problems.
The second greatest industrial power in the world, as it is often called, is unable to feed its population or maintain a system of foreign trade comparable to that of prerevolutionary Russia: it exports mainly raw materials and imports industrial equipment. Instead of moving toward the proclaimed goal of constructing a classless society, the Soviet state has given birth to an extremely hierarchical caste system. This multinational empire, ruled from Moscow, has not resolved any of the nationality problems in the USSR itself or in the "fraternal" countries. The changing demographic balance could only complicate and aggravate national conflicts.
The eighteen "calm" years under Brezhnev showed that the Soviet Union is incapable of overcoming its internal crisis. Every shift in relation to the median line, whether toward reform or increased repression, disrupted the system's equilibrium and threatened its foundations. It became obvious that the system was blocking and defeating itself, which is especially apparent in the economic sphere. Every reform proved to be unworkable because, on the one hand, decentralization threatened to undermine the system, while on the other hand, excessive centralization ran the risk of total paralysis. The KGB managed to contain the political ferment that developed after Stalin's death, during the years of confusion and hesitation; the mass terror of the Stalin era gave way to a selective, creeping terror under Brezhnev. Psychiatric hospitals and emigration were used to supplement the prisons and camp system: the regime had become more flexible.
The past seventy years of the history of the USSR suggest a question of central importance: is Soviet society a "dead-end" society, incapable of overcoming a natural tendency to inertia and stagnation? Perhaps this is why the Soviet Union finds life-giving energy only in expansionism and an aggressive foreign policy. Thus expansion is becoming the only form of life for mature socialism.
The Soviet leaders are congenitally hostile to the West and reject its right to exist in its present form. They need the West as an object of hatred, however, as potential prey, and at the same time, as the only source of aid in overcoming chronic "temporary" difficulties. Marx's concept of the interdependence between the base and the superstructure has found strange application in the socialist Utopia, which builds its superstructure partly on a base outside of itself, in the West.
The founding fathers of the October revolution took upon themselves the task of creating a "new man," Homo sovieticus. At the Twenty-fifth Party Congress, in 1976, Brezhnev called Soviet man the "most important result of the last sixty years." The general secretary of the CPSU was exactly right. During those sixty years the party's main efforts were concentrated on the Sovietization of its people. At first this process meant that citizens were pressured into believing the official doctrine. Later they were taught to regard their condition as natural and to believe that change would only make matters worse. "The moral enslavement of a population is achieved," wrote Leszek Kolakowski, "not when people, or a substantial part of them, give credence to official ideology, but when they are plunged into despair."1 In 1980, after the invasion of Afghanistan, Andrei Sakharov wrote bitterly:
The people of our country submit uncomplainingly to all the shortages of meat, butter, and much else. They put up with the gross social inequality between the elite and the ordinary citizens. They endure the arbitrary behavior and cruelty of the authorities.... They do not speak out—sometimes they even gloat—about the unjust retribution against dissidents. They are silent about any and all foreign policy actions.2
This is the portrait of Soviet man, the product of seventy years. A population that has lost hope for a better future and lives in fear of tomorrow is an essential factor in the stability of the Soviet system.
A new human community has come into existence in which no one has rights, but each possesses a tiny share of power: he can work poorly, mock the customer if he is a sales clerk, denounce his neighbor, and be arrogant toward little people if he is a civil servant. He can steal, and give and take bribes. This bit of power is always gained by an abuse or infraction of official legislation, to which the state closes its eye.
Mikhail Suslov, who rose to the top during the Great Terror of the 1930s and was the leading ideologist for thirty years, enumerates the characteristic features of Soviet life (although he called them "alien phenomena") in the following order: "drunkenness, hooliganism, parasitism, the desire to take from society as much as possible without giving anything in return, abuse of power, corruption and venality, fraud and waste, bureaucratism, and a soulless attitude toward people."3 The Central Committee secretary placed a "soulless attitude toward people" in last place.
The regime's stability is explained by a new kind of "social contract"; the citizens surrender their freedom to the state, and in exchange the state gives them the right (under its supervision) to abuse their positions and violate the law. At the same time the state guarantees minimal conditions for survival.
Another factor behind the stability of the system is that it rests on a privileged stratum—the party and state bureaucracy, the military brass, the KGB, the corrupt elite of the working class, and an array of dignitaries in science and culture, along with the families and servants of all these people. Those belonging to the Soviet elite enjoy various privileges, but like other Soviet citizens, they have no rights.
The system's stability and its successes in foreign policy are increased because the process of Sovietization is not limited to the USSR and the socialist countries. The Soviet language has spread over the entire world. Political parties far removed from communism imitate it with "central committees" and "politburos." The world sees this political system only in its outer manifestations and concludes that it has been successful, especially in the last ten years. A victor is both frightening and attractive. The Soviet mentality is starting to spread throughout the globe, the idea that one should accept whatever is happening today as one's due, for tomorrow can only be worse. This defeatist attitude, which has already sunk deep roots in Western Europe, is also gaining in Asia. This, for example, was what a Japanese economist, Professor Michio Morishima, had to say about the prospect of a Soviet invasion of Japan: "If the Russians come, let us welcome them calmly with a white flag in one hand and a red flag in the other. Undoubtedly, even under Soviet power, a viable, though socialist, economy could be built if we accepted our defeat with dignity.'4
A final reason for the stability of the Soviet system is that the Western conception of a world balance of power requires it.
Nevertheless, the past, present, and future depend on the human individual. The Soviet Union's future, like that of all humanity, very largely depends on success or failure in the effort to "Sovietize" man. The inhabitants of the Utopia imagined by Zamyatin in We are happy, but the process of their total "Sovietization," their definitive transformation into little cogs in the state machine, cannot be completed without a small operation on the brain.
The history of the Soviet Union is one of a society and state subjugated to a party, that of a state which has enslaved society, and that of a party which seized state power in order to create a human type that would allow it to keep power forever. It is also, however, a history of eloquent human resistance to that enslavement.
The system's successes are evident. But history has not yet come to a halt. To remember the past is to keep hope alive.
CHRONOLOGY
Beginning of World War I.
Workers' demonstrations and protests begin in Petrograd.
1914 August
1917
February 23* February 28
March 2 April 3 July 3
August 26 October 21-25
December 7
1918
January 5 January 6 February 8 March 3
Formation of the Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, and of the Duma Committee (later reorganized as the Provisional Government). Abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. Lenin arrives in Petrograd.
♦Old style (until February 9, 1918).
Armed demonstration of workers and sailors in Petrograd (a dress rehearsal for the coup d'etat). Collapse of the Kornilov rebellion. Bolsheviks seize power in Petrograd. Left SR party joins the new government, the Council of People's Commissars. Birth of the Cheka.
Convocation of the Constituent Assembly. Constituent Assembly dispersed. New style (Gregorian) calendar adopted. Brest-Litovsk peace treaty with Germany.
Beginning of civil war in Russia. Organization of first Soviet concentration camps. British and French forces landed in Murmarsk. Constitution of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR).
April—May June July 1 July 5
July
July 17 Summer
August 30 August 31 Autumn
September 10 September 18
1919 March 4
Autumn
Unsuccessful left SR attempt to overthrow Lenin. They are ousted from the government. Beginning of one-party rule by the Bolsheviks (Communists). Nicholas II and his family executed in Ekateriuburg. Beginning of "war communism": confiscation of grain, prohibition of private trade, total nationalization of the economy. Attempt on Lenin's life. Beginning of Red Terror.
Disintegration of former Russian empire: borderlands oppose Soviet power. Uprisings in Central Russia. Red Army, organized by Trotsky, wins Battle of Ka
zan.
First Soviet law code, on marriage and the family.
Founding of the Third (Communist) International (Comintern).
Red Army proves superior on all fronts of the civil
war.
1920
January February 2
April 26 May 7 June 12 July
August 16-17 September
The Entente lifts its blockade of the Soviet Republic. Signing of peace treaty with Estonia (soon followed by similar treaties with Latvia and Lithuania). Poland goes to war against Soviet Ukraine. Polish troops capture Kiev. Soviet troops liberate Kiev. Red Army enters Polish territory. Trade treaty between Soviet Russia and Great Britain. Defeat of Red Army near Warsaw. Congress of the Peoples of the East in Baku: proclamation of a "holy war against British imperialism."
October 12 Signing of armistice with Poland.
November 9-10 Defeat of Wrangel's army in the Crimea—factual end
of civil war.
1921
Red Army intervenes in Georgia; the Menshevik government of the Georgian Republic surrenders. Bol- shevization of Transcaucasia completed. Adoption of the New Economic Policy (NEP) at the Tenth Party Congress. The prohibition of factious inside of the Party.
Revolt of Kronstadt sailors—highest point of the peasant war, extending throughout Soviet territory. Bloody suppression of the Kronstadt revolt. Peace treaty with Poland signed in Riga. Famine over an area embracing 20 percent of the population.
1922
February 6 April 2
May 26 April 16 June
Formation of the nongovernmental All-Russia Famine Relief Committee. Death of the poet Alexander Blok. Agreement between the Soviet government and the philanthropic American Relief Administration for delivery of food to those suffering from the famine. Dissolution of the nongovernmental Ail-Russian Famine Relief Committee and arrest of its members. Trial of the so-called St. Petersburg Combat Organization—the last major trial organized by the Cheka. Among those shot are prominent Russian scholars and the poet Nikolai Gumilev.
Cheka reorganized as GPU.
Joseph Stalin elected general secretary of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist party. Lenin's first stroke. Rapallo treaty with Germany.
February —March
March 8-16
March 18
Summer
July 21
August 7 August 21
August 31
Trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries. First show trial organized by the GPU, successor to the Cheka.
The Council of People's Commissars established Glavlit-Main Literature and Art Administration, under whose authority "all varieties of censorship" are placed.
Decision to deport intellectuals from the Soviet Republic.
Beginning of currency reform. The State Bank is authorized to issue the "chervonets," a banknote supposedly equal in value to ten prerevolutionary gold rubles.
Lenin's second stroke. The foundation of the USSR.
Introduction of the Soviet government monopoly on vodka and other distilled alcoholic beverages. Lenin's third stroke, effectively removing him from the government.
Adoption of the Constitution of the USSR.
Death of Lenin.
Constitution of USSR goes into effect.
Currency reform completed: the stable ruble helps
revive the economy.
The "Lenin levy"—200,000 new members accepted by the Soviet Communist party.
Leadership of the party and country in the hands of a triumvirate—Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Stalin. France recognizes the Soviet Republic. During 1924 recognition won from Great Britain, Norway, Italy, Austria, Greece, Sweden, China, and Denmark.
Bukharin calls on the peasants to "enrich themselves," expressing the agrarian policy favored by Stalin at that period.
June 8
August October
December 16 December 30
January
March 3 July
January 21 January 31 February —March
October
April
August
The CPSU Central Committee adopts its first resolution "in the area of imaginative literature."
Zinoviev expelled from the Politburo and removed from leadership of Comintern. Stalin begins his rise to one-man rule.
A new code of family law is approved, putting an end to the "bourgeois family" once and for all. Trotsky and Kamenev expelled from the Politburo.
Discussion by the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission of the letter submitted by the United Opposition (led by Trotsky, Zinoviev, and Kamenev) criticizing Stalin's policies. Peasants reduce grain sales to the state, protesting low government procurement prices. Trotsky and Zinoviev expelled from the party.
Stalin's trip to Siberia. He orders the use of "extraordinary measures" to obtain grain forcibly. Trotsky banished to Alma-Ata. Shakhty trail.
Gorky's first visit to the USSR. Bukharin's secret meeting with Kamenev. Sixth Congress of the Comintern: Social Democrats are proclaimed the main enemy ("social fascists").
Trotsky expelled from the USSR. Sixteenth Party Conference approves the First Five- Year Plan, supposed to have begun in October 1928. Armed conflict with China over the Chinese Eastern Railway in Manchuria.
Bukharin removed from the Politburo. The "right
danger" declared the main one.
July 14-23
October October 23
July 29-August 9
Autumn November 12
January
January 16 May—July May—October July 11 July
January —February
April
September-
December
November
December 21
—737 Chronology
November 28 Suicide of the poet Sergei Esenin.
Stalin's fiftieth birthday—beginning of his cult.
December 27
March 2
April 14 August
September
November 15
November- December
March
August
September October
April 23
At a conference of Marxist students of the agrarian question Stalin announced the end of NEP and the changeover to collectivization and "liquidation of the kulak as a class."
Pravda publishes Stalin's "Dizziness from Success," temporarily suspending "total collectivization." Suicide of the poet Vladimir Mayakovsky. Closed trial of a group of bacteriologists headed by Professor Karatygin, accused of infecting horses with the plague. Defendants convicted and sentenced to be shot.
Closed trial of officials of the food industry, headed by Professor Ryazanov, accused of organizing famine. Forty-eight defendants sentenced to be shot. Pravda and Izvestia publish Gorky's article, "If the Enemy Does Not Surrender, He Must Be Destroyed." Trial of the so-called Industrial party, a group of engineers and technicians accused of "wrecking" and conspiring to overthrow the Soviet government.
Trial of Mensheviks accused of wrecking activities in the planning sphere.
Central Committee decree on elementary and secondary schools. All educational reforms in the schools since the revolution are reversed. Collectivization reaches the level of approximately 60 percent of peasant households. Proletarskaya revolutsiya publishes Stalin's article, "Some Questions Concerning the History of Bolshevism." This marks the establishment of Stalin's ideological autocracy.
Central Committee resolution on the reorganization of literary and artistic organizations abolishes all groups, associations, and trends in literature, painting, music, architecture, etc.
Announcement of an "antireligious five-year plan" providing for the elimination of all houses of worship in the USSR by May 1, 1937, and "banishment of the very concept of God."
Law on protection of state property at factories, collective farms, and cooperatives, reinforcing the principle of public (socialist) ownership. It provides for the death penalty in cases of theft of state property or, under mitigating circumstances, ten years in prison camp.
Introduction of an internal passport system of a kind abolished by the revolution. Only urban residents are given the right to a passport. Collective farmers are thus bound to their home villages.
Stalin announces fulfillment of the First Five-Year Plan in four years in all fundamental respects. The last major trial of "wreckers," including seven British engineers.
Diplomatic relations established between the USSR and the United States.
Seventeenth Party Congress, the "Congress of Victors. "
Adoption of a law on "betrayal of the fatherland," providing for the death penalty as the only punishment and making family members collectively responsible for any violations. First Congress of Soviet Writers. The USSR joins the League of Nations. Assassination of Sergei Kirov.
Ration cards for food, introduced in 1930, are withdrawn.
May 15 August 7
December
January
April
November 16
January June 8
August September 18 December 1
January 1 February 1
An "exchange of party cards" is begun, continuing a purge of the party underway since 1931.
Conclusion of an agreement selling the Soviet-controlled Chinese Eastern Railway to Japan. Signing of a treaty with France of mutual assistance in the event of aggression. Signing of a similar treaty with Czechoslovakia. First parade of Soviet gymnasts on Red Square. "Life has become better, comrades; life has become more joyous."
March 23
May 2
May 16 July
July—August
August 30 September
Seventh Congress of the Comintern. Adoption of a new line favoring unification of "all democratic forces" into a "popular front" against fascism. Beginning of Stakhanovism. (A. Stakhanov cuts 102 tons of coal in a day instead of the usual 7 tons.) New ranks are introduced into the Red Army (lieutenant, captain, major, colonel, and marshal).
Publication of notes on proposed history textbooks by Stalin, Zhdanov, and Kirov (written in 1934), completing the process of state takeover of all spiritual life in the USSR.
Pravda publishes "Chaos Instead of Music," blasting Shostakovich's opera Yekaterina Izmailova. Anti-abortion law introduced, along with a new family and marriage code.
Central Committee resolution on distortions in the field of pedagogy, pedology is abolished. First Moscow trial, with Zinoviev, Kamenev, and fourteen "accomplices" as defendants. All sentenced to death.
1936
January 27
January 28 June 27
July 4
August 19-24 October 4
December 5
1937
January 23-30 Second Moscow trial. The seventeen defendants in
clude Pyatakov and Radek; thirteen executed.
Stalin's telegram to the leader of the Spanish Communist party, Jose Diaz, expressing support for the Spanish Republic in its struggle against General Franco (whose rightist rebellion began on July 18). Adoption of a new Soviet constitution.
Stalin's speech at the "February—March plenum" calling for intensified struggle against "enemies of the people."
Announcement of fulfillment of the Second Five-Year Plan in four years and three months. Publication of an order by the Commissariat of Defense on the arrest of a group of top military leaders, including Marshal Tukhachevsky. The order states that all the arrested men were tried and shot. Telegram from Stalin and Zhdanov on the need for Yagoda to be replaced as people's commissar of internal affairs (head of the NKVD). He is replaced by Ezhov.
First elections to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The vote for the "bloc of Communists and nonparty people" is 98.6 percent.
The Russian language becomes a required subject in the schools of all national republics and autonomous regions.
Third Moscow trial, with Bukharin and Rykov as the chief defendants. Eighteen executed, Bukharin and Rykov among them.
Fighting with Japanese forces at Lake Khasan. Publication of the Short Course history of the party. Ezhov removed as head of the NKVD. Beria appointed head of the NKVD.
German occupation of Czechoslovakia (following the Munich pact of September 30, 1938). Negotiations among the Soviet Union, Great Britain, and France on an alliance against Hitler's Germany. Soviet ambassador in Berlin tells the German Foreign Ministry that ideological differences are not an obstacle to an improvement in German—Soviet relations.
March
April 1 June 13
September 25 December 12
March 13
March
July
September December
March 15
April—August April 17
May 3
Litvinov replaced by Molotov as people's commissar of foreign affairs.
May 20
May 11—August 31 August 23
September 1
September 17 September 28
November 1—2
November 30, 1939-March 12, 1940
December 14
Molotov announces to the German ambassador that the USSR desires a better political foundation for German—Soviet relations. Soviet—Japanese battles at Khalkin-Gol. The signing of the nonaggression pact between Germany and the USSR and a secret clause on the partition of Poland and spheres of interest in Eastern Europe.
German invasion of Poland. Beginning of World War II.
Red Army enters eastern Poland. The signing of the Friendship and Border treaty between Germany and the USSR, fixing the border between the two countries, with secret clauses on territorial questions and joint struggle against Polish resistance.
The Soviet Union annexes the western Ukraine and western Byelorusia. Soviet—Finnish war.
Expulsion of the USSR from the League of Nations because of Soviet aggression against Finland.
Soviet—German trade agreement: the USSR agrees to supply agricultural products and raw materials to Germany.
Soviet—Finnish peace treaty.
The Katyn massacre (near Smolensk) of Polish prisoners of war by NKVD.
Antilabor laws in the USSR, increasing the workday to eight hours, establishing a seven-day week, prohibiting workers from changing jobs on their own initiative, and making absenteeism and lateness criminal offenses.
The USSR recovers Bessarabia and annexes Northern Bukovina.
1940
February 11
March 12 April 8-11
June 26
June 28
August 3—6 August 20
Annexation of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. Assassination of Trotsky by a Soviet agent in Mexico.
October 2 The founding of the state reserves labor system.
November 12—14 Molotov negotiates with Hitler in Berlin. November 26 Note from the Soviet government to the German gov
ernment: the USSR agrees to adhere to the Tripartite Pact under certain conditions.
1941
Soviet—Yugoslav friendship and nonaggression treaty. Germany attacks Yugoslavia. Soviet—Japanese neutrality pact. Stalin assumes the post of chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. Numerous warnings to the Soviet government that Germany is preparing to attack the USSR. TASS communiqu6 stating that rumors of Soviet preparations for war against Germany are false and provocative.
German invades the Soviet Union. Beginning of the German—Soviet war.
President Roosevelt's statement about readiness of the United States of America to assist the Soviet Union in its war against Nazi Germany. British military and economic missions arrive in Moscow.
The fall of Minsk.
Formation of the State Committee of Defense. Stalin appeals to the people to defend the fatherland. Agreement between the USSR and Great Britain on joint actions in the war with Germany. Soviet and British troops enter Iran. Conference of Soviet, British, and U.S. representatives on questions of supplying the Soviet Union with arms and strategic materials.
Beginning of the German offensive against Moscow.
Defeat of the Soviet armies near Vyazma.
Mass exodus from Moscow.
Lend-lease for the Soviet Union.
April 5 April 6 April 13 May 6
December 1940- June 1941 June 14
June 22 June 24
June 27
June 28 June 30 July 3 July 12
August 25 September 29— October 1
September 30 October 2-13 October 15-16 November 7 November 15— December 5
Second phase of the German drive on Moscow.
December 5/6— January 7, 1942 December 7
December 11 1942
January 8—April 20 Spring-Summer May 8-15 May 17-28 May 26
June 11 June 28
July 17-
February 2, 1943 August 21 December 27
Soviet counteroffensive in the Battle of Moscow.
Japan attacks U.S. and British possession in the Pacific.
Germany declares war on the United States.
Soviet army offensive on various fronts. Soviet attempts fail to relieve siege of Leningrad. Loss of Soviet forces on the Kerch peninsula. Defeat of the Red Army at Kharkov. Treaty between the USSR and Great Britain agreeing to a military alliance against Germany and its European allies and cooperation and mutual aid after the war.
Soviet—American agreement on principles applicable to mutual aid in waging war against aggression. Beginning of a new German offensive on the Soviet front.
German breakthrough in drive toward the Volga and Caucasus.
Battle of Stalingrad.
German army reaches the Greater Caucasus Range. Creation in Germany of the "Russian National Committee" and the Russian Liberation Army (ROA), commanded by General Vlasov.
1943
Partial lifting of the siege of Leningrad. Surrender of the German forces surrounded at Stalingrad.
Dissolution of the Comintern. Battle of Kursk.
Anglo-American troops land in Italy.
Soviet government authorizes the Russian Orthodox
church to elect a patriarch.
Teheran conference (Roosevelt, Stalin, and
January 12-18 February 2
May 15
July 5-August 23 July 25 September
November 28- December 1
Churchill).
Dissolution of the Karachai Autonomous Region. Karachais deported to eastern parts of the USSR. Dissolution of the Kalmyk Autonomous Republic. Kalmyks deported to the east.
Final raising of the siege of Leningrad, which lasted 870 days.
Dissolution of the Chechen-Ingush Republic. The Chechens and Ingush deported to eastern parts of the
USSR.
The Kabardino-Balkar Autonomous Republic becomes the Kabardinian Autonomous Republic. Bal- kars deported to eastern parts of USSR. Liberation of the Crimea.
Dissolution of the Crimean Tatar Autonomous Republic.
Crimean Tatars deported to eastern parts of USSR. Anglo-American troops land in France. Establishment of a second front in Europe. Liberation of Minsk.
A new Soviet family law revives the concept of illegitimate children.
Soviet offensive in Poland. Creation in Lublin of a
pro-Soviet rada (council).
Warsaw uprising against German occupation.
Soviet army enters Bucharest. Soviet army enters Sofia. USSR annexes Tuva. Soviet army enters Belgrade.
Formation in Prague of the Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia and its armed forces under the command of General Vlasov. The "Prague Manifesto" is issued.
Franco-Soviet treaty of cooperation and mutual aid. Armed resistance against Soviet authority in the western Ukraine and Byelorussia, as well as Poland and Czechoslovakia.
November December 27-30
1944
January 27 February 23
March 8
April 8—May 12 May 17-18
June 6
July 3 July 8
July—August
August 1— October 2 August 31 September 16 October 11-13 October 20 November 14
December 10 1944-1950
Deportation of 300,000 western Ukrainians and Byelorussians to the interior of the USSR.
Soviet offensive through Poland, the "Vistula-Oder operation."
Yalta conference (Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill). Soviet army takes Budapest. Fighting ends in Hungary. Soviet army enters Vienna. Final Soviet offensive, the "Berlin operation." Capitulation of German forces in Berlin. Troops of the First Division of the ROA, commanded by General Bunyachenko, save Prague from SS troops. Nazi Germany signs in Karlshorst the official document of unconditional surrender. Potsdam conference (Truman, Stalin, and Churchill, then Attlee.)
The United States drops an atomic bomb on Hiroshima.
The Soviet Union declares war on Japan. A second American atomic bomb is dropped on Nagasaki.
Soviet offensive in Manchuria.
Japanese emperor orders his forces to stop fighting. Japan signs the final instrument of unconditional surrender.
August 2
End of World War II. Founding of the United Nations. Nuremberg trials.
Stalin's speech to voters for the USSR Supreme Soviet, considered by some to mark the beginning of the cold war.
Churchill's "iron curtain" speech at Fulton, Missouri, also considered as marking the start of the cold war. Prison uprisings at Kolyma, Ust-Vym, and Dzhez- kazgan.
January 12— February 3 February 4—11 February 13 April 4 April 13 April 16-May 8 May 2 May 7-8
May 8
July 17—August 2 August 6
August 8 August 9
August 9— September 2 August 14 September 2
September 3 October 24 November 20, 1945—October 1,
1946
February 9 March 15
Vlasov and his associates are executed in Moscow.
—747 Chronology
December The USSR builds its first nuclear reactor.
The USSR seeks trusteeship over the former Italian colony of Libya.
1946—1948 Ideological campaign against Western cultural influ
ences and relations with the West. "Zhdanovism."
Famine in the Ukraine and in the central and southern parts of the USSR. September Founding of the Cominform (dissolved in April 1956).
December 14 Ration card system, introduced during the war, is
abolished and a reform of Soviet currency is introduced.
January 13 July 31—August 7
October 10 1949
January 5-10 A session of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Len-
gingrad calls for a struggle against "kowtowing to the West" and for affirmation of the primacy of Russian science.
January 25 Formation of the Council for Mutual Economic As
sistance (Comecon).
Campaign against persons of Jewish origin in science and culture, under the guise of a struggle against "rootless cosmopolitanism."
April 4 Signing of the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO).
September 25 TASS communiqu6 on testing of an atomic bomb in
Assassination in Minsk of Mikhoels, president of the Jewish Antifascist Committee, by agents of the secret police.
Session of the Academy of Agricultural Science at which Soviet agrobiology and genetics are condemned. Lysenko's theories and influence imposed. "Special regime" camps instituted. Revolt of prisoners in the Pechora and Salekhard camps. The "Leningrad affair."
Launching of the first Soviet guided ballistic missile.
the USSR.
748 UTOPIA IN POWER
Formation of the People's Republic of China.
Mass executions of prisoners in the camps of the Gulag. Second revolt of prisoners at Salekhard and revolt at Taishet.
Political trials in socialist countries.
North Korea attacks South Korea. Korean war begins
(lasting until July 27, 1954).
Truman threatens to use atomic weapons in the Korean war.
At a conference of leaders of socialist countries in the Kremlin, Stalin poses the task of preparing for seizure of power in Western Europe during the next three or four years.
More political trials in socialist countries. Prison revolts in Dzhezkazgan and on Sakhalin Island.
Prison revolts in Vozhel and the Krasnoyarsk Region. Execution of the members of the Jewish Antifascist Committee arrested in 1948. Nineteenth Party Congress.
Stalin's speech on tactics by which the Western Communist parties can seize power.
Beginning of the "doctors' plot."
Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR awards
L. Timashuk, provocateur in the "doctors' plot," the
Order of Lenin.
Stalin's death.
Reorganization of power. Malenkov-Beria-Molotov triumvirate.
Communiqu6 from the Ministry of Internal Affairs: the "doctors' plot" was a provocation and the doctors were innocent.
Soviet tanks suppress an open revolt of workers in Berlin.
Arrest and execution of Beria. Second triumvirate: Malenkov, Molotov, and Khrushchev.
Signing of the armistice in Korea.
Soviet government announces its first hydrogen bomb
test.
Khrushchev is elected first secretary of the Central Committee.
Laws reducing agricultural taxes, writing off arrears, and encouraging agricultural development. Beginning of the rehabilitation of the victims of Stalin's terror.
Prison uprising at Kengir, under the leadership of Kuznetsov (lasting forty-two days). The first nuclear power plant in the world goes into operation in the USSR.
Malenkov is retired from his post as chairman of the Council of Ministers. Replaced by Bulganin. Signing of the Warsaw Pact.
Formal reconciliation between the USSR and Yugoslavia.
Khrushchev visits Belgrade.
Negotiations with Chancellor Adenauer in Moscow. Agreement on establishment of diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and West Germany.
Twentieth Party Congress.
April 4
June 17 July 9
July 27 August 20
September
September 7
1953-54
April
June 27
February 8 May 14
May 26—June 2 September 9—] 4
February 14-25 February 25 April 25
Khrushchev's secret report on the crimes of Stalin. Abrogation of the antilabor legislation of 1940.
Resolution by the CPSU Central Committee on "overcoming the personality cult and its consequences."
Law on government pensions.
Establishment of minimum wage.
Repression of Hungarian revolution by Soviet troops.
1957 July 4
October 4 October 26
"Union of Russian Patriots" (Krasnopevtsev group) at Moscow University.
Elimination of so-called antiparty opposition (Malenkov, Molotov, Kaganovich, Shepilov). The Soviet Union launches Sputnik, the earth's first artificial satellite.
1958
February 26 March 27 June
August 24-27 October 23
October.— November December 24
Marshal Zhukov is relieved of all his duties and retired.
Abolition of the machine and tractor stations (MTSs). Massive antireligious campaign in the USSR. Khrushchev becomes chairman of the Council of Ministers.
Execution of Imre Nagy.
Race riots against Chechens and Ingush in Grozny. Pasternak awarded Nobel Prize for Literature for his novel Doctor Zhivago.
Officially sanctioned persecution of Pasternak. School reform.
Sakharov's first appeal to Khrushchev to end H-bomb testing.
Poetry readings begin at the statue of Mayakovsky in Moscow.
June 30
July 14 September 8 October- November 1956-57
Appearance of the samizdat journal Syntax.
Polemic begins between Communist parties of the
Soviet Union and China.
Law establishing the seven-hour workday.
Death of the poet Boris Pasternak.
Soviet specialists recalled from China.
Trial of members of the Ukrainian Union of Workers and Peasants, in Lvov.
Vostok, the first manned space vessel in the world, is launched with Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on board. Talks between Khrushchev and Kennedy in Vienna. Construction of the Berlin Wall. General Grigorenko warns against a new "personality cult."
Appearance of the samizdat journal Phoenix-61. Twenty-second Party Congress. Adoption of a new party program and new party rules. Stalin's body is removed from the Mausoleum.
Trial of the "Baltic Federation," in Riga. Workers protesting against cuts in the standard of living were fired on in Novocherkassk. Soviet Union installs missiles in Cuba, resulting in the Cuban missile crisis. After thirteen days the missiles are removed under U.S. pressure. Novy mir publishes Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich.
Treaty to end nuclear testing in the atmosphere, in space, and under water signed by the USSR, Great Britain, and the United States. Unrest, strikes, and street demonstrations in Krivoi Rog, Grozny, Krasnodar, Donetsk, Murom, and Yaroslavl.
April
May 7 May 30 August
1961
April 12
July August September 7
October 17-31
June 2 October
November
August 5
Worker unrest at the Moskvich Auto Plant in Moscow. Drought and a poor harvest.
November 23 Completion of the Unified Energy System of Siberia.
November 19-23 Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee decides to
divide the party into industrial and agricultural sections.
1964
May 24 Arson in the library of the Ukrainian National Acad
emy of Sciences, destroying some treasures of Ukrainian culture.
October 14 Khrushchev is removed from power and forced to
retire.
Leonid Brezhnev is elected first secretary of the CPSU Central Committee.
1965
February 15 Formation of a provisional organizing committee near
Tashkent for the return of the deported Meskhi people to their homeland. August 28 Decree exonerating the Volga Germans.
1966
Sinyavsky—Daniel trial.
September 11
1967
April
Svetlana Alliluyeva, Stalin's daughter, refuses to return to the USSR.
Numerous protests from prominent scientific and cultural personalities against legalized forms of arbitrary justice and attempts to rehabilitate Stalin. Twenty-third Party Congress: the Politburo is restored, replacing the Presidium of the Central Committee; the post of general secretary is also restored, replacing the "first secretary," and is filled by Brezh
nev.
Trial of Ukrainian teacher Valentyn Moroz. Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet amends the penal code in such a way as to facilitate judicial reprisals against dissidents (articles 190-1 and 190-
February 10-14 March
March 29-April 8
3).
Solzhenitsyn's letter to the Fourth Congress of Soviet Writers opposing censorship.
A decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet exonerates the Soviet Kurds, Turks, and Islamic Armenians (Khemshins), accused of treason during the war.
Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet exonerating the Crimean Tatars accused of treason during the war.
Galanskov—Ginzburg trial.
Trial in Leningrad of the members of the VSKhSON (All-Russia Social Christian Union for the Liberation of the People), organized in 1964. Crimean Tatar celebration in Chirchik (Uzbek republic) dispersed by police and troops. First issue of the Chronicle of Current Events. Publication, in samizdat, of Sakharov's Progress, Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom. A new family code abolishes laws concerning illegitimate children.
The Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact countries invade Czechoslovakia.
Demonstration in Moscow's Red Square by a group of dissidents protesting Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia.
Trial of the Red Square demonstrators.
Bloody skirmishes on the Sino—Soviet border. Andrei Amalrik's book Will the Soviet Union Survive Until 1984? begins to circulate in samizdat. Formation of an action group for the defense of civil rights in the USSR.
Arrest and imprisonment of Grigorenko in a psychiatric hospital.
Demonstration by Crimean Tatars in Moscow.
First issue of The Ukrainian Herald. Sakharov's second letter to the Soviet leadership. Beginning of the Soviet Jewish movement for the right to emigrate to Israel.
Nobel Prize for Literature awarded to Solzhenitsyn. Trial of Soviet Jewish dissidents who attempted to hijack an airplane in Leningrad. Worldwide protest against death sentences for two of them, Dymshits and Kuznetsov. Their sentences are commuted to fifteen years' imprisonment.
Death of Nikita Khrushchev.
Massive searches and arrests in Moscow and the Ukraine, aimed at stopping publication and circulation of the Chronicle of Current Events. Self-immolation in Kaunas of a twenty-year-old Lithuanian worker, Romas Kalenta, to protest persecution of the Lithuanian Catholic church. Protest demonstration in the wake of Kalenta's funeral is bloodily put down by troops. President Nixon visits Moscow. Signing of the first Soviet—American agreement on strategic nuclear arms limitation (SALT I).
Soviet—American agreement on prevention of nuclear war.
March 5 June
October
December 15—31
September 11
January 11—15
May 14
May 18 May 22-30
June 22
August September
February 11-17
Yakir—Krasin trial.
Solzhenitsyn's Letter to the Soviet Leaders.
Demonstration by Volga Germans in Moscow and Tallin, calling for permission to emigrate to West Germany.
Arrest and expulsion of Solzhenitsyn after the publication in Paris of his Gulag Archipelago (in Russian).
Soviet—Cuban intervention in Angola. Signing of the Helsinki accords. Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Sakharov.
Formation of groups to monitor observance of the Helsinki accords (in Moscow, the Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia, and Armenia).
Arrest of members of the Helsinki Group, led by Yuri Orlov.
Brezhnev becomes chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (head of state), while remaining general secretary of the party's Central Committee. Belgrade conference for verification of progress on the Helsinki accords.
World Psychiatric Congress in Honolulu votes to condemn Soviet abuse of psychiatry for political purposes.
Inhabitants of Gorky call for churches to be reopened. Soviet dissident Vladimir Bukovsky is exchanged for Chilean Communist leader Luis Corvalan. Mass hunger strike by prisoners in the camps of Perm. Adoption of the new Constitution of the USSR.
Organization of a free trade union of Soviet workers, in Moscow.
February 12-13
August 1 December
May 13-15
February
June 16
June—July
August 28- September 1
September 6
October 7
February 1
May 18 September 20
Trial of members of the Moscow Helsinki Group. Joint Soviet—Ethiopian communique: 'The Soviet Union considers the Ethiopian revolution an integral part of the world revolutionary process."
Exchange of five Soviet dissident prisoners in the USSR for two Soviet spies arrested in the United States.
Soviet troops invade Afghanistan.
After an open protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Sakharov is exiled to Gorky. Strikes in Gdansk and other Polish cities result in the signing of an agreement between the strikers and a Polish government delegation. Formation of the independent self-governing trade union Solidarity.
Twenty-sixth Party Congress. Start of a new Soviet "peace offensive."
Declaration of martial law in Poland, mass arrests, suppression of Solidarity. The "re-Stalinization" process begins.
Death of Mikhail Suslov (born 1902). CPSU Central Committee adopts a ten-year Agricultural Program, with the goal of guaranteeing the population a stable supply of all types of foodstuffs. Death of Leonid Brezhnev (born 1906). Election of Yuri Andropov as general secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. Law "On the State Border of the USSR."
Law "On Labor Collectives and Their Increased Role in the Management of Enterprises, Institutes, and Organizations."
April 27
December 24-26
January
August
February 24- March 3 December 13
January 25 May
November 10 November 12
November 24
June 17
September 1
Soviet jet fighter shoots down Korean Air Lines jet 007 over Sea of Japan, killing 269.
Death of Yuri Andropov (born 1914).
Election of Konstanin Chernenko as general secretary
of the CPSU Central Committee.
Resolution of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On
Fundamental Directions for Reform of the General
Education and Professional School."
CPSU Central Committee adopts a Program for Land
Improvement, with the goal of decisively resolving
February 9 February 13
April 12 November
January
March 10 March 11
the problems of agriculture. The program envisions
reversing the course of rivers from north to south.
Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko meets with U.S. Secretary of State Shultz. Death of Konstanin Chernenko (born 1911). Election of Mikhail Gorbachev as general secretary of the CPSU Central Committee.
NOTES
CHAPTER ONE
Edmond ТЬёгу, La transformation 4conomique de la Russie, Paris, 1914, p. xiii.
S. N. Prokopovich, Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR (The economy of the USSR), vol. 1, New York, 1952, p. 381.
N. A. Bazili, Rossiia pod sovetskoi vlast'iu (Russia under Soviet rule), Paris, 1937, p. 10.
Istoriia SSR. Epokha sotsializma (History of the USSR: Age of socialism), Moscow, 1975, p. 16.
L. M. Spirin, Klassy i partii v grazhdanskoi voine v Rossii (Classes and parties in the Russian civil war), Moscow, 1968, p. 36.
Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914—1917, London, 1975, p. 18.
ТЬёгу, La transformation, p. xii.
Ibid., p. xix.
See Iu. A Poliakov and I. N. Kiselev, "Naselenie Rossii v 1917 g." (The population of Russia in 1917), Voprosy istorii (Problems of history), no. 6, 1980.
Vasily V. Shulgin, Dni (Days), Belgrade, 1925, p. 59.
ТЬёгу, La transformation, p. xii.
Basile Kerblay, La socUU sovtitique contemporaine, Paris, 1977, p. 146.
Leon Trotsky, The History of the Russian Revolution, London, 1967, p. 64.
Byloe (The past), no. 19, 1922, pp. 101-176.
Materialy po istorii franko-russkikh otnoshenii za 1910—14 gody (Materials on the history of Franco-Russian relations, 1910-1914), Moscow, 1922, p. 698.
Ibid., p. 700 ff.
A. L. Sidorov, Ekonomicheskoe polozhenie Rossii v gody Pervoi mirovoi voiny (Economic conditions in Russia during World War I), Moscow, 1973, pp. 5—6.
Shulgin, Dni, p. 63.
Ibid., p. 85.
Ibid., p. 96. M M. Bok, in Vospominaniia о тоет ottse P. A. Stolypine (Reminiscences of my father, P. A. Stolypin) (New York, 1953, p. 331), states that Nicholas II made this remark during a conversation with his prime minister.
Sidorov, Ekonomicheskoe polozhenie, p. 350.
Stone, Eastern Front, pp. 208-211.
Shulgin, Dni, p. 101.
Spirin, Klassy i partii, p. 38.
William G. Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution: The Constitutional Democratic Party, 1917-1921, Princeton, 1974, p. 18.
Proletarskaia revoliutsiia (Proletarian revolution), no. 4, 1928, p. 67.
Indicative of Lenin's warm attitude toward Malinovsky were the words he wrote to Gorky in January 1913: "Malinovsky, Petrovsky, and Badaev send you warm greetings and best wishes. They are [fine] fellows, especially the first." See Vladimir Lenin, Collected Works, Moscow, 196— , 35:70. (Hereafter cited as CW.)
Aleksandr Shliapnikov, Semnadtsatyi god (The year 1917), 4 vols., Moscow, 1925, 3:187.
Quoted in Mark Aldanov, Sovremenniki (Contemporaries), Paris, 1928, p. 244. The otzovisty were a Bolshevik splinter group which in 1918 demanded the recall (otzyv) of Social Democratic representatives from the Duma.
Aleksandr Spiridovich, Istoriia boVshevizma v Rossii (History of bolshevism in Russia), Paris, 1922, p. 229.
A. E. Badaev, BoVsheviki v Gosudarstvennoi Dume (The Bolsheviks in the Duma), Moscow, 1930, pp. 228-229.
Aleksandr A. Blok, Poslednie dni imperatorskoi vlasti (The last days of imperial rule), Petrograd, 1921, p. 8.
A. M. Anfimov, Rossiiskaia derevnia v gody Pervoi mirovoi voiny (The Russian countryside during World War I), Moscow, 1962, p. 290.
Stone, Eastern Front, pp. 298-299.
Blok, Poslednie dni, p. 28.
Quoted in Bazili, Rossiia, p. 35.
Lenin, "Lecture on the 1905 Revolution," CW, 23:253.
Shliapnikov, Semnadtsatyi god, 1:40.
Blok, Poslednie dni, pp. 45—46.
Ibid., pp. 63, 64.
Nikolai N. Sukhanov, Zapiski о revoliutsii (Notes on the revolution), 7 vols., Berlin- Petrograd-Moscow, 1922-1923, 3:48.
V. Kaiurov, "Shest* dnei revoliutsii" (Six days of revolution), Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, no. 1, 1923, pp. 157-170.
Shulgin, Dni, p. 150.
Shliapnikov, Semnadtsatyi god, 1:119.
Okitabrskoe vooruzhennoe vosstanie, (The armed October uprising), vol. 1, Moscow, 1957, p. 65.
See the first of Lenin's "Letters from Afar," CW, 23:302.
Lenin, CW, 23:292.
Shliapnikov, Semnadtsatyi god, 2:183—184.
Vladimir D. Bonch-Bruevich, Na boevykh postakh fevraTskoi i oktiabrskoi revoliutsii (At combat posts in the February and October revolutions), Moscow, 1931, p. 21.
V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobrarie sochinerii (Complete collected works), 5th ed., Moscow, 1958-1959, 29:199. (Hereafter cited as PSS.)
Erich Ludendorff, Meine Kriegserrinerungen, Berlin, 1919.
Bonch-Bruevich, Na boevykh, pp. 23—24.
Sukhanov, Zapiski, 3:57.
Marc Ferro, La r&olution de 1917, vol. 1, Paris, 1967, pp. 174-190.
Malaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia (Small Soviet encyclopedia), vol. 2, Moscow, 1930, p. 176. The information comes from the article on the All-Union Communist Party (Bolshevik).
Shliapnikov, Semnadtsatyi god, 3:107.
Maksim Gor'kii, Zametki iz dnevnika. Vospominaniia (Notes from a diary: Reminiscences), Berlin, 1924, p. 198.
Leon Trotsky, Lenin, Paris, 1925, p. 117.
History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks): Short Course, New York, 1939, p. 194.
Istoriia KPSS (History of the CPSU), Moscow, 1959, p. 218.
Grigorii Zinoviev, N. Lenin. Vladimir IVich UVianov (Lenin: Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov), Petrograd, 1917, p. 56.
Bonch-Bnievich, Na boevykh, p. 77.
Leon Trotsky, My Life, New York, 1970, p. 313.
Lenin, CW, 25:167.
Ibid., p. 179.
Ibid., p. 216.
Ibid., 35:321.
Mark Aldanov, "Kartiny oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii" (Scenes of the October revolution), Poslednie novosti (Latest news), September 7, 1935.
Shliapnikov, Semnadtsatyi god, 1:50.
Ibid., p. 116.
Aldanov, "Kartiny."
W. S. Woytinsky, Stormy Passage: A Personal History Through Two Revolutions to Democracy and Freedom, New York, 1969, pp. 347—349.
William Henry Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, 1917-1921, 2 vols., New York, 1935, 1:236.
Lenin, CW, 25:289.
History of the CPSU, Short Course, p. 205.
Vsesoiuznoe soveshchanie istorikov (Ail-Union Conference of Historians), Moscow, 1964, p. 281.
Lenin, CW, 26:84.
Proletarskaia revoliulsiia, no. 10, 1922.
Ibid.
Pierre Pascal, Mon journal de Russiet 1916-1918, Paris, 1975, pp. 214, 239. Putilov was one of Russia's leading industrialists.
Lenin, CW, 26:235.
Pravda, November 6, 1918.
In July 1917, when the press was full of articles denouncing the Bolsheviks as German collaborators, Lenin appealed to the editors of Novaya zhizn for help, asking them to publish a letter by himself, which began: "Permit us, comrades, to turn to your hospitality on account of the forced suspension of our Party paper." Lenin, CW, 25:179.
David R. Francis, Russia from the American Embassy, New York, 1921, pp. 177— 178.
Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, 3:345.
N. Podvoisky, in Vospominaniia о V. I. Lenine v 5 tomakh (Recollections of Lenin in 5 volumes), Moscow, 1969, 2:449^450.
Leon Trotsky, On Lenin, London, 1971, pp. 91—92. Pereverzev was minister of justice
in the Provisional Government; his regime could hardly be considered "tyrannical."
Podvoisky, in Vospominaniia о V. I. Lenine, 2:449-450.
See Lenin's speech of February 28, 1921, in Lenin, CW, 32:153.
Ibid., 26:258-259.
Ibid., 25:281.
Sukhanov, Zapiski, 7:257.
S. P. Melgunov, Как boVsheviki zakhvatili vlast' (How the Bolsheviks seized power), Paris, 1953, p. 158.
Leon Trotskii, "Vospominaniia ob oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii" (Recollections of the October revolution), Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, no. 10, 1922, pp. 61-62.
An skii, Arkhiv russkoi revoliutsii, vol. 1, pp. 48—49.
Protokoly TsK RSDRP(b): Avgust 1917-fevral9 1918 (Minutes of the Central Committee of the Bolshevik party, August 1917-February 1918), Moscow, 1958, p. 136.
Pravda, October 26, 1917.
Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, 3:279.
A. Ia. Grunt, Moskva 1917, revoliutsiia i kontrrevoliutsiia (Moscow 1917, revolution and counterrevolution), Moscow, 1976.
Maksim Gor'kii, "Nesvoevremennye mysli" (Untimely thoughts), Novaia zhizn, January 9, 1918.
Vladimir I. Nevskii, Istoriia RKP (History of the Russian Communist party), pt. 1, Moscow, 1926, p. 448.
Spirin, Klassy i partii, p. 59.
Bonch-Bruevich, Na boevykh, p. 245. (Lenin's biographers have not paid sufficient attention to the fact that Lenin often discussed the most serious questions while "laughing." Apparently he was a very cheerful person, although his was a most peculiar sense of humor.)
Ibid., pp. 243, 245, 249.
Ibid., p. 189.
Novaia zhizn , January 9, 1918.
CHAPTER TWO
Nicholas Berdyaev, The Origins of Russian Communism, Ann Arbor, 1960, p. 93.
Lenin, CW, 25:424—426, 462.
Ibid., 26:522.
Bonch-Bruevich, Na boevykh, p. 254.
Malaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia, vol. 1. See the article on the Brest-Litovsk treaty.
Novaia zhiznJanuary 19, 1918.
Ibid., January 17, 1918.
Bonch-Bruevich, Na boevykh, p. 262.
Ibid., p. 296.
Ibid., p. 302.
Izvestiia, December 8, 1917.
Bonch-Bruevich, Na boevykh, p. 190.
Ibid., pp. 191-192.
Aleksandr Ia. Tairov, "V poiskakh stilia" (In search of style), Teatr i dramaturgiia (Theater and dramaturgy), no. 4, 1936, p. 202.
Evgenii Zamiatin, "la boius'" (I am afraid), in Litsa (Persons), New York, 1955, p. 186.
Sobranie uzakonenii i rasporiazhenii rabochego i krest'ianskogo praviteVstva (Collected laws and decrees of the workers' and peasants' government), Petrograd, 1917, vol. 3.
Lenin, CW, 26:468.
Novaia zhizn, May 21, 1918.
Vestnik truda (Herald of Labor), no. 3, 1920, p. 91.
Professionalnyi vestnik (Trade union herald), no. 7-8, 1918, p. 7.
A. Vol'skii, Umstvennyi rabochii (Intellectual worker), New York, 1968, p. 359.
Kontinent (Continent), no. 2, p. 387. An account of the "emergency conference" was published in pamphlet form in March 1918. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn reprinted it in Kontinent, no. 2, 1975.
Ibid., pp. 415^116.
Trudy I Vserossiiskogo s"ezda sovnarkhozov (Proceedings of the First All-Russia Congress of Economic Councils), Moscow, 1918, p. 380.
Lenin, Sobranie sochinenii (Collected works), 2d ed., 1926, vols., 16, 19; 133—134.
B. Knipovich, Ocherki deiateVnosti Narodnogo komissariata zemledeliia za tri goda, 1917—1920 (Essays on the activities of the People's Commissariat of Agriculture for the three years 1917-1920), Moscow, 1920, p. 9.
Nikolai D. Kondratiev, Rynok khlebov i ego regulirovanie vo vremia voiny i revoliutsii (The grain market and its regulation during the war and revolution), Moscow, 1922, pp. 238-245.
Lenin, CW, 27:242, 245.
Ibid., 33:62.
Ibid., 27:253.
From the original version of "Immediate Tasks of the Soviet Government," published in Russian in the magazine Kommunist (Communist), no. 14, 1962, p. 13.
Lenin, Sobranie sochinenii, 2d ed., Moscow, 1926—1932, 24:569—570.
Lenin, CW, 36:529.
Ibid., 28:143.
Bonch-Bruevich, Na boevykh, p. 356.
Lenin, PSS, 27:150.
Ibid., 24:441.
Ibid., 24:443.
Ibid., 25:212.
Ibid., 27:268-269.
Ibid., 36:200.
Bonch-Bruevich, Na boevykh, p. 153.
Hermann Rauschning7 Gesprache mit Hitler, 1940, p. 143.
Khleb i revoliulsiia. ProdovoVstvennaia politika Kommunbticheskoi partii i sovetskogo praviteVstva v 1917—22 gg. (Bread and revolution: The food policy of the Communist party and Soviet government, 1917—22), Moscow, 1972, p. 41.
Lenin, CW, 35:558.
Trotsky, On Lenin, p. 115.
Martyn I. Latsis (Sudrabs), ChK v borbe s kontrrevoliutsiei (The Cheka in the struggle against the counterrevolution), Moscow, 1921, p. 8.
Pavel Malkov, Zapiski komendanta moskovskogo kremlia (Memoirs of the commandant
of the Moscow Kremlin), Moscow, 1962, p. 163. Malkov writes with pride that he personally shot Kaplan.
Yakov Kh. Peters, "Vospominaniia о rabote v VChK v pervyi god revoliutsii" (Recollections of Cheka work in the first year of the revolution), Byloe, no. 47, 1933, p. 123.
EzhenedeVnik VChK (Cheka weekly), no. 1, 1918, p. 11.
Latsis, ChK v borbe, p. 54.
Leon Trotskii, Как vooruzhalas* revoliutsiia (How the revolution armed), vol. 1, Moscow, 1923, p. 216.
Leon Trotskii, Sochineniia (Works), vol. 17, Moscow, 1926, pt. 1, pp. 290—291.
Trotskii, Как vooruzhalas\ vol. 1, pp. 232—233.
Cf. Lenin, CW, 36:489. (My rendering of Lenin's Russian differs here from the rather inadequate official translation, which gives, for example, "suspects" for "suspicious elements." The Russian text is in Lenin, PSS, 5th ed., 50:143—144—Tr.)
EzhenedeVnik VChK, no. 1, p. 11.
Iz istorii VChK, 1917-1921 (From the history of the Cheka, 1917-1921), Moscow, 1958, p. 58.
Lenin,CW, 27:33.
Sobranie uzakonenii (Collected statutes), no. 44, 1918, p. 536.
Latsis, ChK v borbe, p. 56.
Izvestiia, July 19, 1918.
Dekrety sovetskoi vlasti (Decrees of the Soviet government), vol. 4, Moscow, 1968, p. 627.
"Stenogramma vystupleniia F. E. Dzerzhinskogo na 8-m zasendanii VTsIK 17 fevralia 1919 g." (Stenogram of F. E. Dzerzhinsky's speech at the eighth session of the All- Russia Central Executive Committee, February 17, 1919), in Istoricheskii arkhiv (Historical archive), no. 1, 1958, pp. 6—11.
EzhenedeVnik VChK, no. 2, p. 11.
Central Committee resolution of December 12, 1918, in reference to a report by Dzerzhinsky on "malicious articles about the Cheka that have appeared in the press."
Krasnaia kniga VChK (Red book of the Cheka), ed. P. Makintsian, vol. 1, Moscow, 1920, p. 111.
Ibid., p. 208.
Ibid., p. 210.
I. I. Vatsetis, "Miatezh levykh eserov" (The left SR revolt) in Prometei (Prometheus) (Moscow), no. 4, 1967, p. 250. Also, Krasnaia kniga VChK, p. 211.
Vatsetis, Miatezh, p. 253.
Krasnaia kniga VChK, p. 231.
Pravda, July 8, 1918.
Andrei Belyi, Peterburg (Petersburg), Moscow, 1978, p. 23.
Decree of March 20, 1917, in Sbornik ukazov i postanovlenii Vremennogo PraviteVstva (Collected laws and decrees of the Provisional Government), vol. 1, Petrograd, 1917, pp. 46-49.
Joseph Stalin, (Sochneniia) (Works), Moscow, 1947, 4:5.
D. Doroshenko, Istoriia Ukrainy 1917-1923 (History of the Ukraine, 1917-1923), Uzhgorod, 1932, pp. 44^15.
See S. A. Piontkovskii, Grazhdanskaia voina v Rossii: Khrestomatiia (The civil war in Russia: Readings), Moscow, 1925, p. 344.
Quoted by Ivan Koshelivets', in "Mykola Skrypnik," Suchasnist* (Present day), 1972, p. 21.
Ibid., p. 20.
Dekrety sovetskoi vlasti (Decrees of the Soviet government), vol. 1, Moscow, 1957, p. 40.
I. L. Groshev and О. I. Chechenkina, Kritika burzhuaznoi faVtsifikatsii natsional'noi politiki KPSS (Critique of the bourgeois falsification of CPSU nationalities policy), Moscow, 1974, p. 89.
Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, Cambridge, 1964, p. 90.
Ibid., p. 16.
Spirin, Klassy i partii, p. 418.
A. Stavrovskii, Zakavkaz's posle oktiabria (Transcaucasia after October), Moscow- Leningrad, 1925, p. 38.
V. I. Lenin, Sochineniia (Works), 4th ed. Moscow, 1941—1967, vol. 17.
Ibid., 20:29.
S. Gililov, V. I.Lenin—organizator sovetskogo mnogonatsional'nogo gosudarstva (V. I. Lenin, organizer of the Soviet multinational state), Moscow, 1960, p. 25.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 4:85-89.
Ibid., p. 32.
A. A. Gordeev, Istoriia kazakov (History of the Cossacks), pt. 3, Paris, 1970, p. 271.
Znamia truda (Banner of labor), May 16, 1918.
F. Popov, Chekho-slovatskii miatezh i samarskaia uchredilka (The Czechoslovak uprising and the Samara constituent assembly government), Samara, 1939, pp. 44—46.
See, for example, Izvestiia, April 9, May 11, and May 19, 1918, for coverage of revolts prompted by hunger in Pavlov-Posad, Rybinsk, Zvenigorod, and Kolpino.
Krasnaia kniga VChK, pp. 101—115, 123.
Leon Trotsky, Terrorism and Communism, Ann Arbor, 1961, p. 58.
Trotskii, Как vooruzhalas', 1:123-124.
E. Gorodetskii, "O zapiskakh N. M. Potapova" (On N. M. Potapov's Memoirs), Voenno- istoricheskii zhurnal (Military-historical journal), 1968, no. 1.
Petrogradskaia pravda (Petrograd truth), April 21, 22, 1918.
Trotskii, Как vooruzhalas\ 1:135.
Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Armed, London, 1954, pp. 429—430.
Anton I. Denikin, Ocherki russkoi smuty (Sketches of the Russian turmoil), vol. 3, Berlin, 1926, p. 146.
Mikhail V. Frunze, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Selected works), Moscow, 1934. p. 228.
Leon Trotskii, Sochineniia (Works), 21 vols., Moscow-Leningrad, 1926, 17(2):326.
Leon Trotsky, Stalin: An Appraisal of the Man and His Influence, New York, 1941, p. 284.
Robert Bruce Lockhart, Memoirs of a British Agent, London, 1952, p. 287.
Denikin, Ocherki, 5:146.
Ibid., p. 118.
G. K. Gins, 4tSibir', soiuzniki i Kolchak" (Siberia, the Allies, and Kolchak), in Kolchakovshchina. Iz belykh memuarov (The Kolchak regime: From White memoirs), Leningrad, 1930, p. 29.
This decree of the Workers' and Peasants' Government of the Ukraine, dated February 11, 1919, is quoted by M. Kuban in, Makhnovshchina (The Makhno movement), Leningrad, 1928, p. 54.
Vladimir P. Muliutin, Sotsializm i seVskoe khoziaistvo (Socialism and agriculture), quoted in Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 59.
Joachim I. Vatsetis, "Vospominaniia" (Memoirs), Pamiat*. Istoricheskii sbornik (Memory: A historical anthology), no. 2, Moscow, 1977; Paris, 1979, p. 69.
See Deutscher, Prophet Armed, p. 436.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 4:118.
Pravda, September 20, 1963.
"Tsirkuliarnoe pis'mo Orgbiuro TsK RKP(b) vsem otvetstvennym rabotnikam v ka- zach'ikh voiskakh" (Circular letter of the Orgburo of the Bolshevik party Central Committee to all responsible officials in Cossack regions), quoted in M. Bernshtam, "Storony v grazhdanskoi voine 1917—1921 gg." (The sides in the civil war, 1917— 1921), Vestnik russkogo khristianskogo dvizheniia (Herald of the Russian Christian movement) (Paris, New York, Moscow), no. 128, 1979, p. 301.
Ibid., p. 317.
See Vatsetis, "Vospominaniia," p. 72.
Lenin, CW, 44:166.
Vladimir G. Korolenko, "Iz dnevnikov 1917-1921 gg." (From diaries of 1917-1921), Pamiat*, no. 2, p. 392.
See Internatsionalisty. Trudiashchiesia zarubezhnykh stran—uchastniki borby za vlast* Sovetov na iuge i vostoke respubliki (Internationalists: Laborers from foreign countries who helped fight for Soviet power in the southern and eastern parts of the republic), Moscow, 1971; L. I. Zharov and V. M. Ustinov, InternatsionaTnye chasti Krasnoi armii v boiakh za vlast* Sovetov v gody inostrannoi voennoi interventsii i grazhdanskoi voiny v SSSR (The international units of the Red Army in the battles for Soviet power during the foreign military intervention and civil war in the USSR), Moscow, 1960; LcUyshskie strelki v borbe za sovetskuiu vlast* v 1917—1920 gg. Vospominaniia i dokumenty (The Latvian rifles in the struggle for Soviet power, 1917—1920: Memoirs and documents), Riga, 1962.
Adolf Jozwienko, "Misja Marchlewskiego w 1919 roku na tie stosunkow polsko- radziechich" (Marchlewski's 1919 mission against the background of Polish—Soviet relations), in Z badan nad wplywem i znaczeniem rewolucji rosyjskich 1917 roku (Research on the influence and significance of the Russian revolutions of 1917), Wroclaw, 1968.
L'internationale communiste, December 25, 1919.
Trotskii, Как vooruzhalas*, 3:165.
Karl Radek, "0 kharaktere voiny s beloi Pofshei" (The nature of the war with White Poland), Pravda, December 11, 12, 1920.
N. E. Kakurin and V. A. Melikov, Voina s belopoliakami (War with the White Poles), Moscow, 1925, p. 475.
Lenin, CW, 25:238.
See Adolf Jozwienko, Polska a "biala" Rosja (od listopada 1918 do kwietnia 1920) (Poland and "White" Russia, November 1918 to April 1920), Wroclaw, 1979, p. 235.
Trotskii, Как vooruzhalas', 2(2): 166.
L. 0. Frossard, De Jauris d Lenine. Notes et souvenirs d*un militant, Paris, 1930, p. 137.
G. V. Kuz'min, Razgrom interventov i belogvardeitsev v 1917—22 (The smashing of the interventionists and White Guards, 1917—22), Moscow, 1977.
Ibid., p. 357.
Sergei S. Kamenev, Zapiski о grazhdanskoi voine i voennom stroiteVstve (Notes on the civil war and on building the military), Moscow, 1963, p. 167.
Compare Norman Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, London, 1972, p. 92. According to this British historian's estimates, the French loans to Poland during its war with the USSR (375 million francs) were comparable to the amount the French army had spent in a single day during World War I.
Karl Radek, Vneshniaia politika sovetskoi Rossii (Foreign policy of Soviet Russia), Moscow-Leningrad, 1923, p. 61.
Davies, White Eagle, p. 174.
Ibid., p. 169.
Maxime Weygand, Memoires, vol. 2, Paris, 1957, p. 166.
Lord D'Abernon, The Eighteenth Decisive Battle of World History, London, 1931, pp. 8-9, 11.
See Peter Arshinov, History of the Makhnovist Movement, Detroit and Chicago, 1974.
Kuz'min, Razgrom, p. 366.
Kommunisty Urala v gody grazhdanskoi voiny (The Communists of the Urals during the civil war), Sverdlovsk, 1959, p. 172.
Spirin, Klassy i partii, p. 262.
I. Ia. Trifonov, Klassy i klassovaia borba v SSSR, (Classes and the class struggle ill the USSR), Leningrad, 1964, p. 73.
A. I. Khriashcheva, Gruppy i klassy v krest'ianstve (Groups and classes within the peasantry), Moscow, 1924, p. 62.
Trifonov, Klassy, p. 54.
Lenin, CW, 28:56.
Ibid., 30:482-483.
P. G. Sofinov, Ocherki istorii VChK (Essays in the history of the Cheka), Moscow, 1960, p. 82.
Mikhail I. Kalinin, Za eti gody (During these years), vol. 2, Moscow, 1926, p. 92.
The text of Mironov's letter has not been published in Russian. It is quoted in French in Roy Medvedev, La Revolution cToctobre 4tait-elle ineluctable? Paris, 1976, pp. 134—180. Lengthy excerpts in English may be found in Sergei Starikov and Roy Medvedev, Philip Mironov and the Russian Civil War, New York, 1978, pp. 145— 153.
M. Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 61.
Report by Iakov A. Iakovlev on "The Struggle Against Banditry," to the Fifth Ukraine- wide Party Conference in 1920, quoted in ibid., p. 61.
G. Lelevich, Strekopytovshchina (The Strekopytov revolt), Moscow, 1923, p. 36.
Chapan was the term for the type of peasant's smock or blouse worn in this region.
B. Chistov, "Chapannoe vosstanie. Istoricheskaia spravka" (The Chapan revolt: A historical review), in A. Veselyi, Chapany (The Chapan rebels), Kuibyshev, 1936.
The Muslim peasants who fought the Soviet authorities from 1918 to 1927 were labeled basmachi ("bandits"). The peasant rebels referred to themselves as beklar kharekati ("freedom fighters movement").
Mikhail V. Pokrovskii, Kontrrevoliutsiia za 4 goda (Four years of counterrevolution), Moscow, 1922, p. 4.
Trifonov, Klassy, pp. 3—4, 259.
N. Kakurin, Как srazhalas* revoliutsiia (How the revolution fought), 2 vols., Moscow- Leningrad, 1925-1926, 2 vols., 2:137.
From a leaflet issued by the Political Directorate of the Red Army's Western Front, quoted in Trifonov, Klassy, p. 112.
Trifonov, Klassy, p. 260.
Ibid., p. 265.
Leonidov, "Esero-banditizm v Tambovskoi gubernii i bor'ba s nim" (SR banditry in Tambov Province and the struggle against it), Revoliutsiia i voina (Revolution and war), no. 14-15, 1922, p. 168.
Trifonov, Klassy, pp. 215—216.
Antonovshchina: Sbornih statei i vospominanii (The Antonov revolt: Collected articles and memoirs, published by the Bureau of Party History of the Tambov Province Committee of the Bolshevik party), Tambov, 1923, p. 24.
On February 6, 1921, Lenin sent Sklyansky a note suggesting he use armored trains, armored cars, and airplanes against the "bandits." Lenin, CW, 35:474.
D. Smirnov, Zapiski chekista (Notes of a Cheka agent), Minsk, 1972.
Antonovshchina, pp. 45—46.
Trifonov, Klassy, pp. 94, 212, 219. The Soviet historian Trifonov had access to party archives that are rarely made available. In Siberia, by order of the Siberian Revolutionary Committee (revkom) of February 12, 1921, the local population was made responsible for the protection of railroad tracks. Hostages were taken who, in the event of repeated attacks on the rail lines, could be shot and their property confiscated.
Mikhail Tukhachevskii, Voina i revoliutsiia (War and revolution), no. 7, 1927, p. 16.
Iz istorii VChK. Sbornik dokumentov (From the history of the Cheka: Collected documents), Moscow, 1957, p. 437.
Lenin, CW, 30:483.
G. V. Sharapov, Razreshenie agrarnogo voprosa v Rossii posle pobedy Oktiabrskoi revoliutsii (Resolution of the agrarian problem in Russia after the victory of the October revolution), Moscow, 1961, p. 165.
Trifonov, Klassy, pp. 96—97.
Ibid., p. 98.
Trifonov, Klassy, p. 110.
Kubanin, Makhnovshchina, p. 63.
Nestor Makhno, Pod udarami kontrrevoliutsii (Under the blows of the counterrevolution), vol. 2, Paris, 1936, pp. 125-126.
Fedor Dan, Dva goda skitanii (1919-1921) (Two years of wandering, 1919-1921), Berlin, 1922, p. 122.
The decree is in Pravda, January 22, 1921.
Dan, Dva goda, p. 107.
The full text of the Petropavlovsk resolution is in English in Paul Avrich, Kronstadt 1921, New York, 1974, pp. 73—74. For the Russian text, see Pravda о Kronshtadte (The truth about Kronstadt), Prague, 1921, p. 9.
The text of the March 2 order is in the documentary collection of writings by Lenin and Trotsky entitled Kronstadt, New York, 1979, pp. 65-66. See also Pravda о Kronshtadte, p. 13.
The text of Trotsky's order of March 5 is in English in Kronstadt, p. 67.
The English text of this proclamation is in Avrich, Kronstadt 1921, pp. 241—243. For the Russian, see Pravda о Kronshtadte, p. 23.
I. A. Shchetnikov, Sorvannyi zagovor (The foiled plot), Moscow, 1978, p. 93.
Krasnyi mech (Kiev), August 18, 1919.
Avrich, Kronstadt 1921, p. 217.
See, for example, Shcetinikov, Sorvannyi zagovor, p. 102; Avrich, Kronstadt 1921, p. 231.
CHAPTER THREE
Istorik-marksist (Marxist historian), no. 2, 1940, p. 12.
S. I. Iakubovskii, Ob"edinitel'noe dvizhenie za obrazovanie SSSR, 1917—1922 (The unification movement for the founding of the USSR, 1917—1922), Moscow, 1947, p. 99.
Filipp Makharadze, Sovety i borba za sovetskuiu vlast* v Gruzii, 1917—1921 (The Soviets and the struggle for Soviet power in Georgia, 1917—1921), Tiflis, 1928, p. 223.
See Pipes, Formation, p. 236. S. S. Kamenev's February 17, 1921, letter discussing this matter was addressed to Sklyansky, then transmitted to Lenin; it is reproduced in The Trotsky Papers, 1917—1922, ed. by Jan. M. Meijer, 2 vols., The Hague, 1964-1971, 2:378-379.
G. Zhvaniia, "V. I. Lenin i partiinaia organizatsiia Gruzii v period ЬогЪу za sovetskuiu vlast'" (V. I. Lenin and the Georgian party organization during the struggle for Soviet power), Zaria vostoka (Dawn of the East) (Tiflis), April 21, 1961.
Noi Zhordania, Moia zhizn (My life), Stanford, 1968, p. 109.
Lenin, CW, 33:62.
Ibid., 32:215-216.
Statement by Aleksandr D. Tsiurupa, commissar of food supply, Pravda, April 30, 1925.
Piontkovskii, Grazhdanskaia voina, p. 456.
Lenin, CW, 33:96.
Yuri Larin, "Proizvodstvennaia propaganda i sovetskoe khoziaistvo na rubezhe che- tvertogo goda. Doklad na s"ezde politprosvetov, 4.11.1920" (Production propaganda and the Soviet economy at the beginning of the fourth year: Report to the Congress of Political Education Workers, November 4, 1920).
Trotsky, "Report on the Organization of Labor" (presented to the Third All-Russia Congress of Trade Unions, April 4, 1920), quoted in his Terrorism and Communism, Ann Arbor, 1961, pp. 132-176.
Ibid., p. 144.
Ibid., p. 142.
Iu. A. Poliakov, 1921: Pobeda nad golodom (1921: Victory over famine), Moscow, 1975, pp. 14, 19-20.
Mikhail Osorgin, Vremena (Times), Paris, 1955, p. 159.
Poslednie novosti, April 19, 1930.
A. Beliakov, Iunost' vozhdia (The Great Leader's youth), Moscow, 1960, p. 82.
Lenin, Letter to Nikolai Semashko, July 12, 1921, CW, 45:208-209.
Elizaveta Kuskova, "Mesiats soglashatel'stva" (A month of collaborationism), Volia Rossii (The will of Russia), nos. 3—5, 1928.
Lenin, PSS, 52:80, 322-323.
Lenin, CW, 45:89.
Quoted in Kuskova, "Mesiats soglashatel'stva."
Great Soviet Encyclopedia, English ed. New York, 1973, 1:338.
Prokopovich, Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR, 1:59.
M. Maksudov, "Losses Suffered by the Population of the USSR, 1918-1958," in Samizdat Register II, New York, 1981, pp. 220-276.
Poslednie novosti, November 11, 1921.
Maksim Gor'kii, 0 russkom krest'ianstve (On the Russian peasantry), Berlin, 1922, pp. 43—44.
Ibid., pp. 40—41.
Krasnaia gazeta (Red gazette), September 6, 1921.
Quoted in Elizaveta Drabkina, "Zimnii pereval" (Winter crossing), Novyi mir (New world), no. 10, 1968, p. 62.
G. Z. Besedovskii, Na puliakh к termidoru (On the road to Thermidor), Paris, 1930, pp. 121-122.
Radek, Vneshniaia politika Sovetskoi Rossii, pp. 76—77.
Karl Radek, Piat9 let Kominterna (Five years of the Comintern), 2 vols., Moscow, 1924, 1:228.
Lev Kamenev, "Leninizm ili trotskizm" (Leninism or Trotskyism), in Ob "Urokakh oktiahria99 (On [Trotsky's] "Lessons of October"), Leningrad, 1924, p. 3.
Lenin, PSS, 31:465.
Ibid., 27:112.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 6:37.
Nikolai Aseev, Stikhotvoreniia ipoemy (Verse and narrative poems), Leningrad, 1967, p. 465.
Andrei Platonov, Chevengur, Ann Arbor, 1978, pp. 135, 137.
I. S. Kondurushkin, Chastnyi kapital pered sovetskim sudom (Private capital before the Soviet court of justice), Moscow-Leningrad, 1927, p. 48.
Mikhail Bulgakov, Ranniaia neizdannaia proza (Early unpublished prose), Munich, 1976, p. 53.
Pravda, April 17, 1921.
Dvenadtsatyi s"ezd RKP(b). Stenograficheskii otchet (Twelfth Party Congress: Stenographic record), pp. 144—145.
Lenin, CW, 33:287-288.
Ibid., p. 274-275.
S. I. Liberman, Dela i liudi (Deeds and people), New York, 1944, p. 115.
Aleksandra Kollontai, "Rabochaia oppozitsiia" (The Workers' opposition), quoted in Emelian Iaroslavskii, Kratkaia istoriia VKP(b) (Brief history of the All-Union Communist party [Bolshevik]), Moscow, 1930, p. 348.
Lenin, CW, 33:309.
Trotskii, Sochineniia (Works), 17(2):325.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 5:71.
Yurii Libedinskii, Nedelia, in Nashi dni (Our days), vol. 2, Moscow, 1922, pp. 108— 109.
Ibid, p. 111.
Ibid., pp. 110—111. In later editions, Libedinskii expurgated his novel of all such realistic details from the Soviet life of the early 1920s.
Gor'kii, "Nesvoevremennye mysli" Novaia zhizn, November 7 (20), 1917.
Pravda, November 12, 1921.
Ibid., March 21, 1926.
Rosa Luxemburg, The Russian Revolution, Ann Arbor, 1961, pp. 71—72.
Lenin, CW, 33:279.
Ibid., 31:49.
Ibid.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 5:386.
Merle Fainsod, Smolensk Under Soviet Rule, Cambridge, 1958, pp. 42-43.
See, for example, E. E. Kruze, Polozhenie rabochego klassa v Rossii v 1900—1914 (The condition of the working class in Russia, 1900—1914), Leningrad, 1976.
Pravda, November 15, 1923.
Ibid., November 22, 1923.
Anastas Mikoian, V nachale dvadtsatykh (The early twenties), Moscow, 1975, p. 250.
Fainsod, Smolensk, p. 43.
Nikita Struve, Les chr4tiens en U.R.S.S., Paris, 1963, p. 20.
Voprosy istorii religii i ateizma (Problems in the history of religion and atheism), Vol. 5, Moscow, 1968, pp. 16-20.
Kuskova, "Mesiats soglashaterstva."
Pravda, November 17, 1922.
Vestnik RSKhD (RSKhD Herald) (Paris, New York), no, 98, 1970, p. 57. Cf. Uncensored Russia, New York, 1970, pp. 319-320.
Vestnik RSKhD, no. 98, 1970, p. 56.
Struve, Les chr6tiens, p. 32.
Anatolii Levitin and Vadim Shavrov, Ocherki po istorii russkoi tserkovnoi smuty (Essays in the history of the turmoil in the Russian church), 3 vols., 1977, 1:54. [r86]
Mikhail Gorev, "Agoniia tserkovnoi kontrrevoliutsii" (Death agony of the clerical counterrevolution), Izvestiiay June 2, 1922.
Lenin, PSS, 51:48.
Ibid., p. 52.
D. L. Golinkov, Krushenie antisovetskogo podpoVia v SSSR (The downfall of the anti- Soviet underground in the USSR), vol. 2, Moscow, 1980, p. 115.
Compare the accounts in Sofinov, Ocherki; Golinkov, Krushenie; and the collection of documents, V /. Lenin i VChK (Lenin and the Cheka), Moscow, 1975, p. 640.
Liberman, Delat p. 93.
Lenin, PSS, 53:169.
Victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary London, 1967, p. 150.
Il'ia Erenburg; "Rvach" (Self-seeker), in Sobranie sochinenii (Collected works), vol. 2, Moscow, 1964, p. 79.
Pravda, March 1, 1923.
Golinkov, Krusheniet pp. 156—157.
Lenin, CW, 45:555.
I. Voznesenskii, "Imena i sud'by. Nad iubileinom spiskom AN" (Names and destinies: On the anniversary listing of members of the Academy of Sciences), in Pamiat*, no. 1 (circulated in Moscow in 1976; reprinted in New York, 1978), p. 377.
Lenin, CW, 45:555.
Ibid., 33:358.
Ibid., 42:418.
Ibid., 33:358-359.
Leszek, Kolakowski, Glowne nurty marksizmu (Main currents of Marxism), vol. 2, Paris, 1977, p. 518.
G. Fediukin, Velikii oktiabr i intelligentsiia (Great October and the intelligentsia), Moscow, 1972, p. 287.
Lenin, CW, 32:455.
P. E. Kovalevskii, Zarubezhnaia Rossiia (Russia abroad), Paris, 1972, p. 12.
99. I. Ia. Trifonov, Likvidatsiia ekspluatatorskikh klassov v SSSR (The elimination of the exploiting classes in the USSR), Moscow, 1975, p. 169.
Fediukin, Velikii oktiabr, p. 233.
Ibid., p. 271.
I. Gurovich, Zapiski emigranta (Notes of an emig^), Petrograd-Moscow, 1923, p. 166.
D. Aminado, Poezd na tret'em puti (Train on track three), New York, 1954, pp. 282— 283.
Ibid.
N. Ustrialov, V borbe za Rossiiu (In the struggle for Russia), Harbin, 1920, p. 63.
Ibid., p. 21.
Ibid., p. 47.
Ibid., p. 34.
Ibid., p. 55.
Ibid., p. 36.
Ibid., p. 69.
Ibid., p. 48.
Ibid., p. 36.
Ibid., p. 55.
Vasilii Shulgin, 1920 god (The year 1920), Sofia, 1922, pp. 275-276.
N. Ustrialov, Pod znakom revoliutsii (Under the sign of revolution), Harbin, 1927, p. 26.
Ibid., p. 15.
Ibid., p. 28.
Ibid.
Bol*shaia sovetskaia enlsiklopediia, 1st ed., Moscow, 1926—1947, 64:162.
Ustrialov, Pod znakomt p. 70.
Izvestiia, October 13, 1921.
Pravda, October 14, 1921.
Ustrialov, Pod znakom p. 70.
Ibid., p. 102.
Ibid., p. 142.
Pravday September 3, 1922.
Ustrialov, Pod znakomy p. 111.
Stalin, Sochineniiay 5:244, 245.
I. P. Trainin, SSSR i natsionaTnye problemy (The USSR and nationality problems), Moscow, 1924, p. 26.
Lenin, CW, 36:606.
Mariia Skrypnik, Vospominaniia ob Il'iche (Memories of Ilyich [Lenin]), Moscow, 1965, pp. 68-69.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 5:301—312.
V. V. Pentkovskaia, "Rol* V. I. Lenina v obrazovanii SSSR" (Lenin's role in the formation of the USSR), Voprosy istorii, no. 3, 1956, p. 17.
Kommunisty no. 10, 1956, p. 37.
Zh. L. Zlatopol'skii, Obrazovanie i razvitie SSSR как soiuznogo gosudarstva (The formation and development of the USSR as a state based on union), Moscow, 1954, pp. 132-133.
Lenin's "Letter to the Congress" in the official Soviet-approved English translation, is in Lenin, CW, 36:593ff.
Lenin, CW, 32:61.
Ibid., 30:476.
Ibid., 33:315.
Boris Souvarine, "Staline: Pourquoi et comment," Est et Ouest, no. 602, November 1-15, 1977.
Leon Trotskii, Uroki oktiabria (Lessons of October), Moscow, 1924, p. 28.
Quoted in Iaroslavskii, Kratkaia istoriia, pp. 391—393. Cf. the English version in E. H. Carr, The Interregnum, 1923-1924, Baltimore, 1969, pp. 375-376.
Boris Souvarine, Staline: Apergu historique du bolchevisme, Paris, 1977, p. 352.
Liberman, Dela> p. 80.
Iaroslavskii, Kratkaia istoriiay p. 387.
See Leon Trotsky, Challenge of the Left Opposition, 1923-1925, New York, 1975, p. 161.
V. Kolbanovskii, "Izuchenie mozga Lenina" (The study of Lenin's brain), Molodaia gvardiia, (Young guard), no. 2, 1929, p. 81.
Marietta Shaginian, Dnevniki (Diaries), Leningrad, 1930, p. 39.
BoVshevik (Bolshevik), no. 8, 1925.
Leningradskaia pravda (Leningrad truth), July 26, 1925.
M. Larsons, Na sovetskoi sluzhbe Zapiski spetsa (In the Soviet service: Notes of a specialist), Paris, 1930, p. 70.
Kondurushkin, Chastnyi kapital, p. 220.
Pravda, September 4, 1922.
Stalin, Sochineniiat 9:192.
Quoted in G. Furman, "Antialkogol'naia nedelia" (Anti-alcohol week), Revoliutsiia i kuTtura (Revolution and culture), no. 18, 1929, p. 72.
Ibid., p. 73.
Kondurushkin, Chastnyi kapitalt p. 221.
Clara Zetkin, Lenin on the Emancipation ofWomeny Moscow, n.d., p. 102.
Lev Gumilevskii, Sobachii pereulok (Dogs' alley), Riga, 1928, pp. 204—205.
Nikolai Bukharin and Evgeny Preobrazhenskii, Azbuka kommunizma (The ABCs of communism), Moscow, 1928, p. 126.
A. Goikhberg, Zakon о brake (Marriage law), Moscow, 1922, p. 63.
Malaia sovetskaia entsiklopedia, vol. 10.
V. N. Shulgin, Pedagogikaperekhodnogoperioda (Pedagogy in the transitional period), Moscow, 1927, p. 97.
V. Katan'ian, "Protokoly о nesostoiatel'nosti" (Record of Bankruptcy), Molodaia gvar- diiat no. 17, 1930, p. 103.
Malaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia, vol. 1.
Pravda, December 2, 1925.
Lenin, PSSt 33:55.
Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR (sbornik dokumentov) 1917—1973, (Popular education in the USSR [collected documents] 1917-1973), Moscow, 1974, p. 377.
Mikhail Koltsov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia v 3 tomakh (Selected works in 3 volumes), Moscow, 1957, 1:578.
Struve, Les chr6tiensy p. 39.
Lev Regel'son, Tragediia russkoi tserkvi, 1917—1945 (Tragedy of the Russian church, 1917-1945), Paris, 1977, p. 118.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 10:133.
Za rubezhom. Khronika semi Zernovykh (Abroad: The Zernov family's chronicle), Paris, 1926, p. 72.
Pavel Miliukov, Emigratsiia na pereput'e (The emigration at the crossroads), Paris, 1926, p. 72.
Iskhod к vostoku (Exodus to the East), Sofia, 1921, p. iv.
Ibid., p. 1.
Ibid., p. 2.
Ibid., p. vii.
Ibid., p. 83.
V. S. Varshavskiy Nezamechennoe pokolenie (The unnoticed generation), New York, 1966, p. 53.
Evraziistvo (opyt sistematicheskogo izlozheniia) (Eurasianism—an attempt at a systematic exposition), n.p., 1926, p. 47.
G. Fedotov, I est* i budet (That which is shall be), Paris, 1932, p. 133.
Vladimir Nabokov, "Godovshchina" (Anniversary), Rul* (The helm) (Paris), November 18, 1927.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 9:192.
The speaker was Glebov-Avilov, of the oppositional Leningrad delegation. See the stenographic record of the Fourteenth Congress: Chetyrnadtsatyi s"ezd VKP(b). Sten- ograficheskii otchet, Moscow, 1926, p. 791.
"Letter of the Thirteen," L. Trotskii, in Challenge of the Left Opposition, 1926-1927, New York, 1980, p. 761.
Pravda, November 28, 1923.
Ibid., December 5, 1923.
Ibid., November 22, 1923.
Ibid., November 18, 1923.
Chetyrnadtsatyi s"ezdy p. 570.
Ibid., pp. 600-601.
Izvestiia, October 22, 1923.
Partiia v tsifrovom otnoshenii. Materialy po statistike lichnogo sostava partii (The party in figures: Statistical material on the composition of the party's personnel), Moscow, 1925, pp. 93-94.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 7:379—380.
Ibid., 5:382.
Ibid., 6:275.
Severnaia kommuna (Northern Commune), March, 14, 1919. (This passage was not included in Lenin's collected works.)
This passage was included in the second and third Russian editions of Lenin's works, but omitted from the fourth and fifth.
Writings of Leon Trotsky, 1930-31, p. 57.
Writings of Leon Trotsky, 1932, p. 336.
Writings of Leon Trotsky, 1932-33, p. 279.
Leon Trotsky, Their Morals and Ours, New York, 1973.
This contradiction was noted by Kolakowski, Glowne nurty marksizmu, 3:204.
E. H. Carr, Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926, vol. 1, Baltimore, 1970, p. 263.
Pravda, November 28, 1925.
E. A. Preobrazhenskii, Novaia ekonomika (New economics), vol. 1, pt. 1, Moscow, 1924, pp. 101-140.
Chetyrnadtsatyi s"ezd4 pp. 150—151.
Stalin, Voprosy leninizma (Problems of Leninism), 9th Russ. ed., Moscow, 1933, p. 160. This text was deleted from later editions.
Bolshevik, no. 8, 1925.
Ustrialov, Pod znakom, p. 194.
Ibid., pp. 234-235.
Ibid., p. 239.
Ibid., p. 236.
Ibid., pp. 268-269.
Pravday November 14, 1922.
Stalin, Sochineniiat 7:250.
Piatnadtsatyi s"ezd VKP(b). Stenograficheskii otchet (Fifteenth Party Congress: Stenographic record), Moscow, 1928, pp. 251—252.
Piatradtsatyi s"ezd, p. 261.
Stalin, Sochineniiay 10:190.
Souvarine, Staliney p. 352.
Novaia zhizn\ April 26, 1918.
Izvestiiat August 14, 1922.
V. V. Gorbunov, V. /. Lenin i ProletkuTt (Lenin and Proletcult), Moscow, 1974, p. 5.
Quoted in Ibid., p. 146.
Voprosy istorii KPSS (Problems in CPSU history), no. 1, 1958, p. 33.
Proletarskaia kuTtura (Proletarian culture), no. 20—21, 1921, p. 33.
A. Blok, Dnevnik (Diary), ed. P. N. Medvedev, vols. 1-2, Leningrad, 1928.
A. Blok, Sobranie sochinenii v 8 tomakh (Collected works in 8 volumes), Moscow, 1962, 6:166.
Arkhiv A. M. Gorkogo. Neizdannaia perepiska (The Gorky archive: Unpublished correspondence), vol. 14, Moscow, 1976.
Quoted in Marietta Shaginian, Literaturnyi dhevnik (Literary diary), Moscow-Petro- grad, 1923, p. 168.
Vospominaniia о V.I. Lenine v 5 tomakh (Recollections of Lenin in 5 volumes), Moscow, 1969, 5:13.
Viktor Shklovskii, Khod konia (sbornik statei) (Knight's move [collection of essays]), Moscow-Berlin, 1923, p. 16.
Pravda, November 8, 1921.
"Za glubokuiu razrabotku istorii sovetskoi literatury" (For profound research work on the history of Soviet literature), Kommunisty no. 12, 1956.
E. Zamyatin, A Soviet Heretict Chicago, 1970, pp. 51—52.
Е. Zamyatin, Wey New York, 1972.
Zamyatin, Soviet Hereticy p. 57.
Quoted in Malevichy Amsterdam, 1970, p. 51.
Quoted in a denunciatory speech by I. Lezhnev in the stenographic record of the First Soviet Writers' Congress, Pervyi s**ezd sovetskikh pisatelei. Stenograficheskii otchety (First Soviet Writers' Congress: Stenographic record), Moscow, 1934, p. 174.
A. Blok, Sobranie sochineniiy 6:166.
Petr S. Kogan, Literature, etikh lety 1917-1923 (The literature of these years, 1917- 1923), Ivanovo-Voznesensk, 1924, p. 79.
Zamyatin, Wey p. 5.
Compare the analysis of "Chekist literature" in Michael Heller, Kontsentratsionnyi
mir i sovetshaia literature, (The concentration camp world and Soviet literature), London, 1974.
Kogan, Literature, etikh let, p. 73.
Sud'by sovremennoi intelligenstii (Fates of the modern intelligentsia), Moscow, 1925, p. 3.
Ibid., p. 7.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 17.
See the Central Committee statement addressed to the intelligentsia in the newspaper Kommunisticheskii trad (Communist labor), December 14, 1920.
Sud'by, pp. 18-19.
Ibid., p. 31.
Ibid., p. 34.
Ibid., p. 24.
Ibid., p. 25.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 24.
Ibid., p. 27.
Fediukin, Velikii oktiabr\ p. 357.
Pravda, August 1, 1925.
Zhurnalist (Journalist), no. 8-9, 1925.
Literaturnoe nasledstvo (Literary heritage), vol. 65, Moscow, 1958, p. 40.
CHAPTER FOUR
N. Valentinov (Volsky), Doktrina pravogo kommunizma (The doctrine of right-wing communism), Munich, 1960, p. 44.
Ibid., p. 67.
Ekonomicheskaia zhizri (Economic life), November 2, 1926.
Ibid.
Bolshevik, September 13, 1926.
Boris Pilniak, "Krasnoe derevo" (Mahogany), in ОраГпуе povesti (Frowned-upon tales), New York, 1955, p. 185.
Molodaia gvardiia, no. 5, 1929, pp. 2—6.
Ibid., no. 10, 1929, pp. 83-92.
Pravda, January 12, 1923.
Mikoian, V nachale dvadtsatykh (The early twenties).
Kratkaia istoriia sovetskogo kino (Brief history of the Soviet cinema), Moscow, 1969, p. 132.
A. Tishkov, Pervyi chekist (The first Chekist), Moscow, 1968, p. 128.
Kommunist, no. 5, 1957, p. 23.
Tishkov, Pervyi, p. 126.
N. Valentinov (Volsky), NEP i krizis partii posle smerti Lenina (NEP and the party crisis after Lenin's death), Stanford, 1971, p. 101.
Ibid., p. 102.
According to the magazine Planovoe khoziaistvo (Planned economy) (no. 2, 1926, p. 132), the number of unemployed in the USSR was 1,728,364.
Quoted in Valentinov (Volsky), Doktrina, p. 74.
BoVshevik, no. 14, 1926.
Pravda, August 14, 1926.
Ibid., October 7, 1926.
Ante Ciliga, The Russian Enigma, London, 1979, p. 22.
Izvestiia, March 22, 1925.
Quoted in Valentinov (Volsky), Doktrina, p. 79.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 11:171.
Pilniak, OpaVnye povesti, pp. 208—209.
Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 60.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 11:63.
Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: Stcdins Purge of the Thirties, rev. ed., New York, 1973, pp. 730-731.
Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stcdins Crimes, London, 1954, p. 21.
Pravda, May 19, 1920.
Ibid., May 18, 1928.
Iaroslavskii, Kratkaia istoriia, pp. 355—356.
Walter Krivitsky, I Was Stalin's Agent, London, 1939, p. 39.
Ibid., p. 65.
G. S. Agabekov, Zapiski chekista (Notes of a Cheka agent), Berlin, 1930, p. 104.
Anthony C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1917— 1930y Stanford, 1972, p. 320.
Ibid., pp. 263-265.
Ibid., pp. 325-326, 347-348.
Sutton, Western Technology,; p. 348.
Ekonomicheskaia zhizn\ August 29, 1929.
Ivy Lee, USSR: A World Enigma, London, 1927.
Bob Considine, An American in Moscow: The Extraordinary Life of Doctor Armand Hammer, New York, 1975, p. 82.
Quoted in Robert C. Tucker, "The Emergence of Stalin's Foreign Policy," Slavic Review; vol. 36, no. 4, 1977, p. 567.
Rene Fulop-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism, New York, 1927, p. 243.
Ruth Epperson-Kennel, Theodore Dreisier and the Soviet Union, New York, 1969, pp. 69-70.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 12:112.
Sud'by sovremennoi intelligentsia p. 41.
Itogi desiatiletiia sovetskoi vlasti v tsifrakh (Statistical balance sheet of a decade of Soviet power), Moscow, 1927, p. 116.
M. N. Gernet, Istoriia tsarskoi tiurmy (History of the tsarist prison), 5 vols., Moscow, 1960-1963, 4:23.
Lenin, CW, 4:23.
Fulop-Miller, Mind, p. 270.
Boris Cederholm, Au pays du Nep et de la Tscheka, Paris, 1928.
George Popov, La Tscheka, Paris, 1926.
Il'ia Erenburg, Zhizn i gibeV Nikolaia Kurbova (The life and death of Nikolai Kurbov), Berlin, 1923, p. 98.
Istoriia sovetskogo gosudarstva i prava (History of the Soviet state and Soviet law), vol. 2, Moscow, 1968, p. 575.
Pravda, December 18, 1927.
Izvestiia, June 9, 1927.
Nikolai Bukharin, "Lenin i problema kuTturnoi revoliutsii" (Lenin and the problem of the cultural revolution), in Put* к sotsializmu v Rossii (The road to socialism in Russia), New York, 1967, p. 375.
Alfred Fabre-Luce, Russie 1927, Paris, 1927, p. 264.
CHAPTER FIVE
KPSS v rezoliutsiiakh (The CPSU in resolutions), vol. 4, Moscow, 1970, p. 227.
Agabekov, Zapiski, p. 152.
Lev Kassil', "Na zlobu dnia sed'mogo" (On the topic of the seventh day), Molodaia gvardiia, no. 1, 1930, p. 99.
Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, London, 1972, p. 145.
Ibid., p. 146.
Biulleten oppozitsii (Bulletin of the opposition), no. 29—30, 1932, p. 34. Cf. Writings of Leon Trotsky 1932, New York, 1973, p. 208.
Problemy ekonomiki (Problems of economics), no. 10—11, 1929, p. 27.
Fain sod, Smolensky p. 315.
Fedor Gladkov, Energiia (Energy), Moscow, 1936, p. 375.
Fainsod, Smolensky p. 315.
Margaret Buber-Neumann, Vom Potsdam nach Moskau. Stationen eines Irrwegsy Stuttgart, 1957, p. 322.
See Fainsod, Smolensky pp. 311—313.
Ciliga, Russian Enigmay p. 108.
Fainsod, Smolensky pp. 311—312.
Stalin, Sochineniiat 12:14.
Ibid., p. 12.
Solzhenitsyn gives a profound analysis of the Moscow show trials—political, sociological, and psychological— in The Gulag Archipelagoy 3 vols., New York, 1973— 1978.
Emelian Iaroslavskii, "Mechty Chaianovykh i sovetskoi deistviternosti" (The dreams of the Chayanovs and Soviet reality), Pravday October 18, 1930.
S. Krylov, "Kondrat'evshchina i pravyi uklon" (The Kondratievites and right-wing deviation), Pravday October 10, 1930.
Planovoe khoziaistvoy no. 5—6, 1933, p. 15.
Krivitsky, Stalin s Agenty p. 187.
In 1966 Solzhenitsyn spent eight hours along the canal and found that there was virtually no traffic on it. See The Gulag Archipelago 2:100—102.
Stalin, Sochineniiat 13:183.
Piatiletnii plan (The five-year plan), vol. 1, Moscow, 1928, pp. 104—105.
Josif Stalin, "Report to the Seventeenth Congress," January 26, 1934.
Ekonomicheskaia gazetay (Economic Gazette), June 18, 1932.
Krivitsky, Stalin*s Agenty pp. 135—158.
Sutton, Western Technologyt vol. 2, p. 249.
Pravday February 2, 1935.
Stalin, Sochineniiat 12:125-126.
Ibid., p. 140.
Ibid., p. 146.
Ibid., p. 169.
Ibid., p. 170.
Istoriia SSSR v 10 tomakh, 8:551.
Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 4, 1962, pp. 61-65.
Quoted in Stalin, Sochineniia, 12:134.
Istoriia KPSS (History of the CPSU), Moscow, 1960, p. 423.
Istoriia 555/?, 8:550.
Ibid., p. 571.
Krivitsky, Stalin's Agent, p. 11.
Maksim Gor'kii, Sobranie sochinenii v 30 tomakh (Collected works in 30 volumes), Moscow, 1949-1956, 25:228.
Istoricheskie zapiski (Historical notes), no. 76, p. 20.
Sel'skoe khoziaistvo SSSR. Ezhegodnik (USSR Agriculture: Yearbook), Moscow, 1935, p. 217.
Narodnoe khoziaistvo Kazakhskoi SSR (Economy of the Kazakh SSR), Alma-Ata, 1957, p. 141.
Pravda, May 26, 1964.
Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, Boston, 1974, p. 112. (Hereafer cited as The Last Testament.)
S. Dmitrievskii, Sovetskie portrety (Soviet portraits), Berlin, 1932, p. 57.
Krivitsky, Stalin's Agent, pp. 10—11.
Stalin, Problems of Leninism, Moscow, 1953, p. 530.
Pravda, October 2, 1932.
Stalin, "Report to the Seventeenth Congress of the CPSU," in Problems of Leninism, p. 637.
Istoricheskie zapiski, no. 76, p. 52.
Fainsod, Smolensk, p. 187.
William Henry Chamberlin, Russia's Iron Age, Boston, 1934, p. 157.
Istoriia SSSR, 8:587-588.
Ibid., p. 594.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 13:191.
Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, London, 1951, pp. 447^48.
Pravda, January 29, 1935.
Orlov, Stalin's Crimes, p. 42.
B. Ts. Urlanis, Problemy dinamiki naseleniia (Problems of population dynamics), Moscow, 1974.
Conquest, Great Terror, p. 46.
I. G. Diadkin, Otsenka neestestvennoi smertnosti naseleniia SSSR v 1927—1958 gg. (An estimate of the nonnatural mortality rate in the USSR, 1927—1958), Moscow, 1976-1978.
Mikhail Bakunin, Narodnoe delo (The people's cause), London, 1862, p. 19.
Ivan Bunin, Okaiannye dni (Accursed days), London, 1973, pp. 71—72.
S. Dmitrievskii, Stalin, Berlin, 1931, p. 312.
Ibid., p. 313.
Dmitrievskii, Sovetskie portrety, p. 106.
Robert C. Tucker, "The Rise of Stalin's Personality Cult," American Historical Review, vol. 84, no. 2, 1979, pp. 348-349.
Dmitrievskii, Sovetskie portrety; p. 142.
Ibid., p. 143.
Ibid.
Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 217
Krivitsky, Stalin's Agent, p. 203.
"Stalin как teoretik," Biulleten* oppazitsii (Paris), no. 14, August 1930, pp 24-37. Cf. "Stalin as Theoretician," in Writings of Leon Trotsky, 1930, New York, 1975, pp. 308 ff.
Biulleten oppozitsii, no. 14, 1930, p. 16.
Quoted in Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Outcast: Trotsky, 1929-1940, London, 1963, p. 175.
Pravda, February 4, 1931.
Dmitrievskii, Stalin, p. 8.
Ibid., p. 281.
Ibid., p. 297.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 304.
Ibid., p. 335.
Dmitrievskii, Sovetskie portrety, p. 128.
Dmitrievskii, Stalin, p. 312.
Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 629.
Henri Barbusse, Stalin: A New World Seen Through One Man, New York-London, 1935, pp. 282-283.
Dmitrievskii, Stalin, p. 335.
Barbusse, Stalin, p. 283.
Agabekov, Zapiski, pp. 178-179.
Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived, New York, 1945.
Ibid.
Buber-Neumann, Von Potsdam nach Moskau, p. 284.
Communist International, vol. 10, no. 11, June 15, 1933, p. 367.
Writings of Leon Trotsky 1938-39, New York, 1974, p. 20-21.
Writings of Leon Trotsky 1939-40, New York, 1973, p. 190.
Quoted in Warren Lerner, Karl Radek: The Last Internationalist, Stanford, 1970, p. 121.
Popov, La Tscheka, p. iv.
Koestler, Arrow in the Blue, p. 345.
Vasilli Rozanov, Izbrannoe (Selections), Munich, 1970, p. 494.
Literaturnaia gazeta (Literary gazette), January 13, 1930.
Arthur Koestler, "The Initiates," in The God That Failed, New York, 1954, p. 61.
A Russian edition of the Webbs' book was published in Moscow in 1937.
See George Bernard Shaw, The Rationalization of Russia, ed. Harry M. Geduld, Bloomington, 1964, p. 31.
Ella Winter, Red Virtue: Human Relationships in the New Russia, New York, 1933, p. 39.
Nation, July 1934, quoted in David Caute, Les compagnons de route, 1917—1968, Paris, 1979.
Peter G. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 1917—1933, Cambridge, 1967, p. 197.
Caute, Compagnons, p. 85.
Filene, Americans, p. 141.
Margaret Buber-Neumann, La revolution mondiale, Paris, 1970, p. 301.
Caute, Compagnons, p. 86.
Serge, Memoirs, p. 301.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 13:104-105.
Ibid., p. 109.
Ibid., pp. 111-112.
Istoriia sovetskopo gosudarstva i prava, vol. 2, Moscow, 1968, p. 494.
Svod zakonov (Register of laws), no. 62, 1932, p. 360.
Istoriia sovetskogo gosudarstva i prava, 2:588.
Istoriia SSSR, 8:584.
Malaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia, vol. 6.
Pravda, October 2, 1932.
Ibid., July 7, 1932.
Boris Souvarine, "Derniers entretiens avec Babel," Contrepoint, no. 30, 1979.
Svod zakonov, no. 22, 1930, p. 248.
See Mikhail Heller, "Poet i vozhd'" (The Poet and the Leader), Kontinent, no. 16, 1978.
Peoples Commissariat of Defense, Stenograficheskii otchet (Stenographic record), Moscow, 1937, p. 384.
A. Karaganov, "Istoriia odnoi p'esy" (History of a certain play), Znamia, (Banner), no. 1, 1963.
Voznesenskii, "Imena i sud'by," p. 386.
Ibid., p. 397.
Tucker, "Rise of Stalin's Personality Cult," p. 364.
Pravda, January 12, 1932.
Gor'kii, Sobranie sochinenii, 27:333.
Arthur Koestler, The Invisible Writing, London, 1969, p. 329.
Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 455.
Spravochnik partiinogo rabotnika (Party worker's handbook), no. 7, 1930, pp. 410— 422.
Literaturnaia gazeta, June 10, 1929.
Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, no. 1, 1929, pp. 61-62.
Literaturnaia gazeta, September 2, 1929.
The resolution was written in red pencil on the back of a letter dated February 24, 1935, from Lily Brik. See Pamiat', no. 1, p. 310.
Souvarine, "Derniers entretiens."
Gor'kii, Sobranie sochinenii, 25:230.
Ibid., p. 235.
Ibid.
Orlov, Stalin's Crimes, p. 275.
Gor'kii, Sobranie sochinenii, 25:453.
Ibid.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 12:173.
Gor'kii, Sobranie sochinenii, 28:238.
Ibid., p. 460.
Pervyi s"ezd sovetskikh pisatelei, p. 550.
Ibid., p. 277.
Ibid.
See Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, vol. 2, ch. 3.
Pervyi s"ezd sovetskikh pisatelei, p. 234.
Ibid., p. 277.
Ibid., p. 16.
Ibid., p. 681.
"Dokument ideologicheskoi bor'by" (Document of the ideological struggle), Iskusstvo kino (Art of the cinema), no. 4, 1964, pp. 14—15.
"Vsesoiuznoe tvorcheskoe soveshchanie rabotnikov sovetskoi kinematografu" (All- Union Creative Conference of Soviet Cinematographers), in Za boVshoe kinoiskusstvo (For a great cinematic art), Moscow, 1935, p. 65.
Gor kii, Sobranie sochinenii, 27:434.
Pervyi s"ezd sovetskikh pisatelei, p. 1.
Gor'kii, Sobranie sochineniit 27:434.
Ibid., p. 509.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 422.
CHAPTER SIX
Elisabeth Lermolo, Face of a Victim, New York, 1955.
Krivitsky, Stcdin's Agent, p. 19.
Conquest, Great Terror, p. 72.
Pravda, December 6, 18, 1934.
Lermolo, Face, pp. 264—265.
Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 296.
Pravda, August 29, 1929.
Dmitrii Manuilskii, Itogi sotsialisticheskogo stroiteVstva v SSSR (Results of socialist construction in the USSR), Moscow, 1935, p. 4.
Stalin, Problems of Leninism, pp. 688-689.
Lenin i Stalin о sovetskoi konstitutsii. Sbornik statei, rechei i dokumentov (Lenin and Stalin on the Soviet constitution: Collected articles, speeches, and documents), Moscow, 1936, pp. 176-177.
Pravda, May 4, 1935.
Ibid., August 1, 1935.
Ibid., August 2, 1935.
Caute, Compagnons, pp. 85, 127.
Pravda, May 8, 1936.
Lenin's figures were published in 1899 in his book The Development of Capitalism in Russia (Lenin, CW, vol. 3).
Narodno-khoziaistvennyi plan na 1935 god (The Soviet economic plan for 1935), 2d ed., Moscow, 1935, p. 533.
Legkaia industriia (Light industry), May 9, 1937.
See Bazili, Rossiia pod sovetskoi vlast'iu, p. 284.
Ibid., p. 286.
ЮёЬег Legay, Un mineur franqais chez les russes, Paris, 1937, p. 79.
The October 1935 and May 1936 issues of the magazine Za industrializatsiiu (For industrialization) contain material on the wages of Stakhanovites.
Pravda, September 23, 1935.
Biulleten oppozitsii, no. 52—53, October 1936.
Izvestiia, May 1, 1936.
Ibid., January 1, 1936.
Quotes in Joachim Fest, Hitler: Eine Biographie, vol. 2, Frankfurt, 1976, p. 973.
Pravda, May 28, 1936.
See A. S. Makarenko, Sochineniia (Works), vol. 5, Moscow, 1951, p. 112.
Gor'kii, Sobranie sochinenii, 27:440.
Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite, Ann Arbor, 1975, p. 22.
Pravda, June 22, 1936.
Ibid., November 26, 1936.
Nicolaevsky, Power, pp. 16—17.
Ibid, p. 20.
Kolakoweki, Glownye nurty, 2:527.
N. Valentinov (Volsky), "Piatakov о bol'shevizme" (Pyatakov on bolshevism), Novyi; zhurnal (New York), no. 52, 1958, p. 149.
Nicolaevsky, Power, p. 25.
Pravda, June 18, 1936.
Mark Popovskii, Upravliaemaia nauka (Controlled science), London, 1978, p. 25.
Ibid., p. 26.
Ibid., p. 28.
Ibid., p. 267.
Bukharin, Put9 к sotsializmu, p. 213.
Nicolaevsky, Power, p. 17.
L. 0. Tsederbaum-Dan, "Vospominaniia" (Memoirs), Novyi zhurnal, no. 75, 1964.
Pravda, December 30, 1936.
Ibid., July 5, 1936.
Malaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia, vol. 6.
Rabochii i teatr (The worker and the theater), no. 1, 1932, pp. 6—7.
Pravda, January 28, 1936.
Arkady Belinkov, Sdacha i gibeV sovetskogo intelligenta: Iurii Olesha (The surrender and destruction of a Soviet intellectual: Yurii Olesha), Madrid, 1976, p. 172.
Leon Trotsky, The Stalin School of Falsification, New York, 1972, p. xxxiii.
Pravda, January 27, 1936.
Апс1гё Gide, Retour de I'URSS, Paris, 1936, p. 49.
Rabochii i teatr, no. 1, 1934, p. 14.
"0 p'ese 4Bogatyri' Dem'iana Bednogo" (On Demian Bednyi's play Bogatyri), in Protiv fal'tsifikatsii narodnogo proshlogo (Against the falsification of the national past), Moscow-Leningrad, 1937, pp. 3—4.
Vsesoiuznoe soveshchanie istorikov (All-Union Conference of Historians), Moscow, 1964, p. 338.
George Orwell, 1984, New York, 1962, p. 128.
Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf Munich, 1927, p. 468.
Mikhail N. Pokrovskii, Marksizm i osobennosti istoricheskogo razvitiia Rossii (Marxism and the peculiarities of Russia's historical development), Leningrad, 1925, p. 82.
Mikhail N. Pokrovskii, "K voprosu ob istoricheskom razvitii Rossii" (On the question of Russia's historical development), Pod znamenem marksizma (Under the banner of Marxism), no. 5-6, 1924, p. 93.
Pokrovskii, Marksizm i osobennosti, pp. 78—79.
Pravda, August 22, 1937.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 13:104.
Pravda, June 26, 1937.
Sergei Eizenshtein, Izbrannyeproizvedeniia v 6 tomakh (Selected works in six volumes), Moscow, 1964-1971, 6:159.
Ibid., p. 500.
Iskusstvo kino, no. 3, 1964, pp. 4—9.
Petr Pavlenko, Na vostoke (In the East), Moscow, 1937, pp. 438^139.
Francis Courtade and Pierre Cadars, Histoire du стёта nazi, Paris, 1972, p. 62.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 8:152.
Natsional'no-gosudarstvennoe stroitefstvo v SSSR v perekhodnyi period ot kapitalizma к sotsializmu, 1917—1936 (Nation-state building in the USSR in the period of transition from capitalism to socialism, 1917—1936), Moscow, 1968, p. 447.
Ibid., p. 450.
Partiinoe stroiteVstvo (Party building), no. 5, 1933, p. 16.
Koshelivets', "Mykola Skrypnik," p. 195.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 13:361.
Pravda, January 2, 1934.
Malaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia, Moscow, 1940, vol. 9.
Istoriia SSSR. Epokha sotsializma (History of the USSR: Age of socialism), 3rd enl. ed., Moscow, 1974, p. 321.
Pravda, August 2, 1940.
Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, Boston, 1970, p. 89.
See "Un Caligula au Kremlin," Bulletin d^tudes et d* informations politique^ international (Paris), no. 102, January 16—31, 1954.
Souvarine, Staline, p. 488.
Krivitsky, Stalin s Agent, p. 168.
S. Uranov, О nekotorykh priemakh verbochnoi raboty inostrannykh razvedok (On some recruiting techniques of foreign intelligence agencies), Moscow, 1937, p. 8. This work was published by the Central Committee's "Party Press" (Partizdat) in a run of 1,050,000 copies.
Vladimir and Evdokiia Petrov, The Empire of Fear, London, 1956, p. 71.
Krivitsky, Statins Agent, pp. 166-168.
Souvarine, "Derniers entretiens."
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny Sovetskogo Soiuza 1941—45 v 6 tomakh (History of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union, 1941-45, in 6 volumes), Moscow, 1960-1965, 6:124.
Gunter Peis, Naujocks, Vhomme qui dtclencha la guerre, Paris, 1961, p. 88.
Pravda, August 24, 1936.
Orlov, Stcdins Crimes, p. 164.
Ibid., pp. 129-130.
Conquest, Great Terror, p. 705.
Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, 1:439.
Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, New York, 1978, pp. 226-229.
John Toland, Adolf Hitler, Paris, 1978, vol. 1, pp. 363-64.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, pp. 88—89.
Lidiia Libedinskaia, Zelenaia lampa (Green light), Moscow, 1966, p. 374.
Guy Hentsch, Staline negociateur, Neuch&tel, 1967, pp. 42—43.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 99.
Stalin, Problems of Leninism, pp. 778—779.
Fitzroy Maclean, Eastern Approaches, London, 1965, p. 96.
Stalin, Sochineniia, 7:14.
Le Figaro, May 7, 1939. Cf. Est et Guest, no. 628, 1979.
Krivitsky, Stalin's Agent, p. 39.
Seventh Congress of the Comintern: Stenographic Report of the Proceedings, Moscow, 1939, p. 588.
Evgeny Gnedin, Iz istorii otnoshenii mezhdu SSSR i fashistslcoi Germanii. Dokumenty i sovremennye kommentarii (From the history of relations between the USSR and fascist Germany: Documents and contemporary commentary), New York, 1977, pp. 22-27.
Gustav Hilger and Alfred Meyer, The Incompatible Allies: A Memoir-History of German-Soviet Relations, 1918-1941, New York, 1953, p. 262.
Krivitsky, Stalin's Agent, p. 38.
Novyi grad (New town), no. 10, 1935, p. 129.
Ibid., p. 131.
Krivitsky, Stalin's Agent, p. 254.
Krasnaia zvezda, (Red star), October 22, 1965.
A. Shneider, Zapiski starogo moskvicha (Notes of an old Muscovite), Moscow, 1966, pp. 118-119.
Georgii Fedotov, Rossiia, Evropa i my (Russia, Europe, and ourselves), vol. 2, Paris, 1973, pp. 288-289.
Kirill Khenkin, "Ispanskii bloknot" (Spanish notebook), Kontinent, no. 16, pp. 266— 267.
Elisabeth K. Poretsky, Our Own People, Ann Arbor, 1970, pp. 238-240.
A copy of the letter is in the Russian Museum in San Francisco. It is quoted in Petr Balakshin, Final v Kitae. Vozniknovenie, razvitie i ischeznovenie Beloi emigratsii na Dal'nem Vostoke (Finale in China: Rise, development, and disappearance of the White emig^ community in the Far East), 2 vols., San Francisco, 1955, 2:125—126.
CHAPTER SEVEN
Estimates on the number of prisoners in Soviet camps in 1939 vary from 8 million to 17 million. We have taken the lower figure, which is probably too low but quite eloquent nevertheless.
Nardnoe khoziaistvo SSSR v 1962 g. Statisticheskii sbornik (The Soviet economy in 1962: Collected statistics), Moscow, 1963, p. 52; G. S. Kravchenko, Voennaia eko- nomika SSSR, 1941-1945 (The war economy of the USSR, 1941-1945), Moscow, 1963, pp. 21-22.
Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR v 1962 g., p. 71.
Kravchenko, Voennaia ekonomika, p. 36.
Aleksandr Nekrich, 1941t 22 iiunia (June 22, 1941), Moscow, 1965, p. 70.
Ibid.
Kravchenko, Voennaia ekonomika, pp. 63—64.
Ibid.
Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal (Military-history journal), no. 2, 1962, p. 81.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 84.
G. A. Ozerov, Tupolevskaia sharaga (The Tupolev Prison Institute), Frankfurt, 1973.
Conquest, Great Terror, p. 706.
The text of the "State Plan for the Economic Development of the USSR in 1941," never published in the USSR, was found in the Smolensk archives in the form of a supplement attached to a decree of the Sovnarkom and Central Committee, dated January 17, 1941. The Russian text has been published in the United States as Gosudarstvennyi plan razvitiia narodnogo khoziaistva SSSR na 1941 god (State plan for the development of Soviet agriculture for 1941), American Council of Learned Societies Reprints, no. 30, Baltimore, Md., n.d. (Hereafter cited as Gosudarstvennyi plan.)
Gosudarstvennyi plan, pp. 141—147.
Ibid., pp. 727, 15.
Ibid., p. 17.
Ibid., pp. 44, 49, 61, 67, 69, 71, 86, 89, 93, 136.
Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold, New York, 1949.
Gosudarstvennyi plan, pp. 483—484.
Ibid., p. 546.
S. Swianiewicz, Forced Labour and Economic Development, London, 1965, p. 39.
Izvestiia, August 2, 1940.
Vneshniaia politika SSSR (Foreign policy of the USSR), vol. 18, Moscow, 1973, pp. 249—250, doc. no. 148: transcript of conversation between Stalin, Molotov, and Eden.
See the papers of the British Foreign Office, file 24845, p. 47, doc. 371: N. Butler to 0. Sargeant, Washington, D.C., September 13, 1940.
Hilger and Meyer, Incompatible Allies, p. 256.
Ibid., p. 257.
Karlheinz Niclauss, Die Sowjetunion und Hitlers Machtergreifung, Bonn, 1966, pp. 120-121.
Documents on German Foreign Policy, (hereafter DGFP), series C., vol. 2, p. 83, doc. no. 47.
Vneshniaia politika SSSR, vol. 16, p. 714, doc. 405.
Ibid., p. 743, doc. 424.
Ibid., p. 793.
Istoriia KPSS, p. 453.
DGFP, series C., vol. 2, pp. 338-339, 352-353, docs. 176, 181.
Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 585.
Ibid., p. 592.
Foreign Office, file 24845, doc. 371, p. 47.
Walter Krivitsky, In Stalin's Secret Service, New York, 1939, p. 2.
Ibid., p. 10.
DGFP, series C., vol. 3, p. 455, doc. 299: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Ministry, October 3, 1934.
Vneshniaia politika SSSR, 18:249.
DGFP, series C, vol. 5, pp. 453—454, doc. 211: Schacht's notes on his meeting with Kandelaki and Friedrichsohn, July 15, 1935.
DGFP, series C, vol. 4, pp. 931—933, doc. 472: memorandum by Roedinger, Berlin, December 21, 1935.
Gnedin, Iz istorii otnoshenii mezhdu SSSR i fashistskoi Germaniei, Akhronika, N.Y., 1977, p. 37.
Krivitsky, In Stalin's Secret Service, p. 15.
Ibid.
According to a letter by Herbert Goering about his uncle Hermann's meeting on May
1936, with Kandelaki and Friedrichsohn, in J. W. Bruegel, ed., Stalin undHitler: Pact gegen Europa, Vienna, 1973, pp. 37—38.
Hencke's notes on his meeting with Bessonov, July 3, 1936, in Bruegel, Stalin und Hitler, p. 38.
Schacht's notes on his meeting with Kandelaki and Friedrichsohn, Berlin, February 6, 1937, in Bruegel, Stalin und Hitler, pp. 39^Ю.
Krivitsky, In Stalin's Secret Service, pp. 214—215.
Neurath to Schacht, February 11, 1937, in Bruegel, Stalin und Hitler.
Foreign Office, no. 371, file 20346, 1936, Soviet Union, doc. 477lg: Collier to Chilston, January 29, 1936.
See, for example, The Guardian (Manchester), February 7, 1936.
Foreign Office, no. 371, file 20346, 1936, Soviet Union, doc. 90/6/36: February 11, 1936.
Vneshniaia politika SSSR, vol. 10, p. 164, doc. 98; pp. 174—176, doc. 110.
Le livre jaune franqais, Paris, 1939, p. 38, doc. 28.
Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 756.
Nazi-Soviet Relations 1939—1941: Documents from the Archives of the German Foreign Office, ed., Raymond James Sontag and James Stuart Beddie, Washington, D.C., 1948, p. 76.
Izvestiia, September 1, 1939.
Times (London), April 1, 1939; Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, vol. 346, col. 13, and vol. 347, cols. 952—953.
Izvestiia, March 22, 1939.
Documents on British Foreign Policy (hereafter DBFP), series 3, vol. 6, pp. 12—15, doc. 9: British Ambassador Henderson to Lord Halifax, the foreign minister, Berlin, June 9, 1939; ibid., pp. 389-391, 407—410, docs. 354, 370: transcript of conversation between British Minister of Trade Hudson and Wohltat, July 20, 1939. See also, Dokumenty i materialy kanuna Vtoroi mirovoi voiny (Documents and materials from the eve of World War II), vol. 2: The Dirksen Archive (1938-1939), Moscow, 1948.
DBFP, series 3, vol. 6.
Fal'tsifikaiory istorii (Falsifiers of history), Moscow, 1948, p. 43.
Peter Kleist, Zwischen Hitler und Stalin, 1939-1945. Bonn, 1950, p. 28.
66 Akten zur deutschen auswartigen Politik 1918—1945 (hereafter ADAP), series D (1937— 1945), vol. 6, p. 222, doc. 215: Weizsaecker's memorandum of April 17, 1939.
Ibid., p. 346, doc. 325: Tippelskirch to Weizsaecker, Moscow, May 4, 1939.
Ibid., p. 464, doc. 424: memorandum by Schulenburg, Moscow, May 20, 1939.
Ibid., p. 502, doc. 450: memorandum of the German Foreign Ministry, Berlin, May
1939.
Ibid., pp. 607-608, doc. 529: Notes by Wermann, head of the political department of the German Foreign Ministry, Berlin, June 15, 1939.
Izvestiia, June 16, 1939.
DBFP, series 3, vol. 6, pp. 12—15, doc. 9: Henderson to Halifax, Berlin, June 9, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 387—391, 407—410, docs. 354, 370. See also Dokumenty i materialy kanuna Vtoroi mirovoi voiny, vol. 2, docs. 13, 24, 29.
ADAP, series D, \ A. 6, pp. 673—674, doc. 579: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, Moscow, June 29, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 698-699, doc. 607: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, July 3, 1939.
DBFP, series 3, vol. 6, app. 5, pp. 763—764, 777.
Ibid., p. 628, doc. 647: Seeds to Halifax, August 13, 1939.
ADAP, series D, vol. 6, pp. 846—849, doc. 729: Schnurre's memorandum on his conversation with Astakhov and Babarin, Berlin, July 27, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 854-855, doc. 736: Weizsaecker to Schulenburg, Berlin, July 29, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 883-884, doc. 760: Ribbentrop to Schulenburg, August 3, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 892-893, doc. 766: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, Moscow, August 4, 1939.
ADAP, series D, vol. 7, pp. 14—16, doc. 18: Schnurre's memorandum on his meeting with Astakhov, Berlin, August 10, 1939.
Ibid., p. 48, doc. 50: Schnurre to Schulenburg, Berlin, August 14, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 51—52, doc. 56: Ribbentrop to Schulenburg, Berlin, August 14, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 63—64, doc. 70: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, Moscow, August 16, 1939; pp. 72—76, doc. 79: Schulenburg's memorandum, Moscow, August 16, 1939; pp. 82—83, doc. 88: Schulenburg to Weizsaecker, Moscow, August 16, 1939.
Ibid., p. 70, doc. 75: Ribbentrop to Schulenburg, Berlin, August 16, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 95—96, doc. 105: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, August 18, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 124—125, doc. 132: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, August 19, 1939.
Pravda, August 21, 1939.
ADAP, series D, vol. 7, p. 31, doc. 142: Hider to Stalin, Berlin, August 20, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 140-141, doc. 159: Stalin to Hider, Moscow, August 21, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 206-207, doc. 229: text of the additional secret protocol signed in Moscow by Molotov and Ribbentrop, August 23, 1939.
Nazi-Soviet Relations, p. 76.
Ibid., p. 74.
Pravda, September 1, 1939.
Ibid., August 24, 1939.
ADAP, series D, vol. 8, pp. 3—4, doc. 5: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, September 5, 1939.
Izvestiia, September 18, 1939.
ADAP, series D, vol. 8, pp. 34—35, doc. 46: Schulenburg to German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, September 10, 1939.
Ibid., pp. 53—54, doc. 70: Ribbentrop to Schulenburg, Berlin, September 15, 1939.
Ibid., p. 60, doc. 78: Schulenburg to German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, September 16, 1939.
Ibid.
Ibid., pp. 74—76, doc. 94: memorandum by Gustav Hilger, counselor at the German Embassy, Moscow, September 18, 1939.
Photos of this parade appeared in the book Deutschlands Sieg in Polen (Germany's victory in Poland), Berlin, 1940.
For the texts of the Soviet-German Border and Friendship Treaty and the secret protocol, see ADAP, series D, vol. 8, pp. 127—130, docs. 157—161.
Izvestiia, November 1, 1939.
Ibid.
Ibid., December 25, 1939.
Istoriia Estonskoi SSR (History of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic), ed. G. I. Naan, 2d ed., Tallin, 1958, pp. 595-597.
ADAP, series D, vol. 10, p. 19, doc. 20: Schulenburg to German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, July 26, 1940.
Ibid., series D, vol. 8, pp. 151—152, doc. 178: memorandum by Weizsaecker, Berlin, October 2, 1939.
Izvestiia, November 29, 1939.
113 Ibid., December 3, 1939.
C. Leonard Lundin, Finland in the Second World War, Bloomington, 1957, p. 58.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 155.
Anthony F. Upton, Finland in Crisis, 1940-1941, Ithaca, 1964, pp. 22, 24.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 156.
Nekrich, 1941, 22 iiunia, p. 84.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 6:125.
Vasilii Morozov, "Soviet-German Pact of 1939 Seen in Retrospect," Soviet News, June 5, 1979; Istoriia vneshnei politiki SSSR (History of USSR foreign policy), ed. Andrei Gromyko and Boris Ponomarev, vol. 1, Moscow, 1975, p. 393.
Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (hereafter IMT), vol. 39, Nuremburg, 1947, doc. 090-TC, p. 107.
ADAP, series D, vol. 6, pp. 607-608, doc. 529.
D. M. Proektor, Voina v Evropey 1939-1941 (The War in Europe, 1939-1941), Moscow, 1963, p. 30.
Istoriia vneshnei politiki SSSR, 1:374.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 1:480.
FaUtsifikatory istorii, p. 53.
See for example Stalin's remarks to the Eighteenth Party Congress, Problems of Leninism, p. 754.
Izvestiia, August 2, 1940.
Ibid., August 23, 1940.
ADAP, series D, vol. 9, p. 257, doc. 226: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, May 10, 1940.
Ibid., pp. 495—496, doc. 471: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, June 18, 1940.
Churchill, The Second World War, 2:134-135.
I. M. Faingar, Ocherk razvitiia germanskogo monopolisticheskogo kapitala (Outline of the development of German monopoly capital), Moscow, 1958, p. 26.
F. Friedensberg, "Die sowjetischen Kriegslieferungen an das Hitler reich," Viertel- jahrsheft zur Wirtschaftsforschung, no. 4, 1962, pp. 331—338.
Gerhard L. Weinberg, Germany and the Soviet Union, 1939—1941, London, 1954, p. 74.
Ibid., p. 78.
ADAP, series D, vol. 11, bk. 1, p. 25, doc. 22: Wermann to Schulenberg, Berlin, September 5, 1940.
IMT, 34:679.
Ibid., pp. 680-681.
Weinberg, Germany, p. 84.
DGFP, series D, vol. 8, docs. 74, 87, 138, 142, 203, 318; also, Foreign Relations
of the United States: Diplomatic Papers (hereafter FR), 1939, 1:519-521, 529, 535- 537.
Franz Haider, Kriegstagebuch, vol. 2, Stuttgart, 1963, p. 32; Walter Warlimont, Im Hauptquartier der deutschen Wehrmachtt 1939-1945, Frankfurt, 1962, p. 126.
Haider, Kriegstagebuch, p. 80.
ADAP, series D, vol. 11, bk. 2, pp. 889-890, doc. 638.
Ibid., bk. 1, p. 235, doc. 166: Ribbentrop to Schulenburg, Berlin, October 9, 1940.
Ibid., pp. 248-253, doc. 176: Ribbentrop to Stalin, Berlin, October 13, 1940.
Ibid., pp. 455—461, doc. 326: memorandum on the conversation between Hitler and Molotov, Berlin, November 12, 1940.
ADAP, series D, vol. 11, bk. 2, pp. 597-598, doc. 404: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, November 26, 1940.
FR, 1941, 1:714, 723.
E. L. Woodward, British Foreign Policy in the Second World War, London, 1962, p. 148.
Churchill, Second World War, 3:320.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 1:478.
Ibid., p. 479.
Hilger and Meyer, Incompatible Allies, p. 328.
Otto von Bismarck, Mysli i vospominaniia (Thoughts and recollections), vol. 1, Moscow, 1940, pp. xvi—xvii.
ADAP, series D, vol. 12, pt. 2, p. 467, doc. 351: Tippelskirch, сЬш^ё d'affaires at the German embassy in Moscow, to the German Foreign Ministry, April 15, 1941.
Ibid., pp. 502—503, doc. 381: Tippelskirch to the German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, April 22, 1941.
Ibid., pp. 447—448, doc. 333: Schulenburg to the German Foreign Ministry, Moscow, April 13, 1941.
Ibid., pp. 688-689, doc. 521: Schnurre's memorandum on the state of Soviet—German trade relations, Berlin, May 15, 1941.
Izvestiia, June 14, 1941.
Barton Whaley, Codeword Вarbarossa, Cambridge, 1973, pp. 24-129.
A. Nikitin, "Perestroika raboty voennoi promyshlennosti SSSR v pervom periode Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny" (The Reorganization of the Soviet war industry in the first phase of the Great Patriotic War), Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 1, 1963, p. 61.
Georgii Zhukov, Vospominaniia i razmyshleniia (Recollections and reflections), Moscow, 1969, p. 219.
CHAPTER EIGHT
Zhukov, Vospominaniia, p. 243.
Ibid.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 2:14.
Rodion Malinovskii, "Dvadtsatiletie nachala Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny," (Twentieth anniversary of the start of the Great Patriotic War), Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 6, 1961, pp. 6-7.
I. V. Boldin, Stranitsy zhizni (Pages from a life), Moscow, 1961, p. 86.
M. Zakharov, "NachaTnyi period Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny i ego uroki" (The opening phase of the Great Patriotic War and its lessons), Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 7, 1961, p. 9.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 6:25.
V. A. Anfilov, Bessmertnyi podvig (The immortal feast), Moscow, 1971, p. 122.
For details, see Nekrich, 1941, 22 iiunia, p. 154.
Anfilov, Bessmertnyi podvig, p. 191.
Zhukov, Vospominaniia, p. 382.
Anfilov, Bessmertnyi podvig, p. 199.
Haider, Kriegstagebuch, 3:148.
Leonid Volynskii, "Skvoz* noch'" (Through the night), Novyi mir, no. 1, 1963, p. 117. The same version of events appears in the book by R. G. Umanskii, Na boevykh rubezhakh (On the fighting lines), Moscow, 1960, pp. 60-61. The death of the commander of a front is no small matter. In the Soviet army it is not customary or acceptable for a commander to take his own life. Consequently the September 1964 issue of Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal ran an unsigned article entitled, "The Truth About the Death of General Kirponos" (pp. 61—69), asserting that he died from battle wounds that proved fatal.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza v period Otechestvennoi voiny (Foreign policy of the Soviet Union during the Patriotic war), 3 vols., Moscow, 1946—1947, 1:29.
N. A. Kirsanov, Po zovu rodiny. DobrovoVcheskie formirovaniia Krasnoi armii v period Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny (At the call of the homeland: Volunteer formations in the Red army during the Great Patriotic War), Moscow, 1974, pp. 15, 22, 25. The author of this study of the popular militia asserts that no less than 4 million persons served in such units during the war, nearly 2 million of them fighting at the front in the summer and fall of 1941. These figures seem inflated.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, pp. 168—169.
On the work of the State Committee for Defense, see Sanford R. Lieberman, "The Party Under Stress: The Experience of World War II," in Soviet Society and the Communist Party, ed. Karl W. Ryavec, Amherst, 1978, pp. 108—133.
Nikolai Voznesenskii, Voennaia ekonomika SSSR v period otechestvennoi voiny (The war economy of the USSR during the Patriotic War), Moscow, 1947, pp. 42—43.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 2:160.
For further details, see Aleksandr Nekrich, The Punished Peoples, New York, 1978; and Robert Conquest, The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities, London, 1960.
Kh. Salimov, Naselenie Srednei Azii (The Population of Central Asia), Tashkent, 1975, p. 92.
David J. Dallin and Boris I. Nikolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia, New Haven, 1947, pp. 263-264.
For a detailed account, see Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, 3:7—36.
Conquest, Great Terror, pp. 478—480.
Velikaia otechestvennaia voina Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1941—45. Kratkaia istoriia (The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union, 1941—45: A brief history), Moscow, 1970, p. 115. (Hereafter Kratkaia istoriia.)
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 2:240.
Kurt von Tippelskirch, Geschichte des zweiten Weltkriegs, Bonn, 1951; the statistics are cited from the Russian translation, Istoriia Vtoroi mirovoi voiny, Moscow, 1956, p. 200.
Kratkaia istoriia, p. 120.
Zhukov, Vospominaniia, 1974, 2:35.
Walther Hubatsch, ed., Hitlers Weisungen fur die Kriegsfuhrung 1939—1945: Doku- mente des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht, Frankfurt am Main, 1962, p. 171, doc. 39.
Zhukov, Vospominaniia, 1974, 2:46—47.
Kirill Meretskov, Na sluzhbe narodu (Serving the people), Moscow, 1971, p. 259.
Ibid., pp. 260-261.
Kratkaia istoriia, p. 158.
Franz Haider, War Diaries, Russ. ed., vol. 3, pt. 2, Moscow, 1971, p. 250, entry for May 19, 1942.
Zhukov, Vospominaniia, 1974, 2:66—67.
Ibid., p. 69.
A. M. Vasilevskii, Delo vsei zhizni (A whole life's work), Moscow, 1974.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, pp. 185—186.
Zhukov, Vospominaniia, 1974, 2:69.
Tippelskirch, Geschichte, p. 232.
Ibid., pp. 178, 184, 194, 200.
Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 1941—1945, London, 1957, p. 424, n.2.
K. Kromiadi, "Sovetskie voennoplennye v Germanii v 1941 godu" (Soviet prisoners of war in Germany in 1941), Novyi zhurnal, no. 32, 1953, p. 194.
Dallin, German Rule, pp. 427, 424.
Kratkaia istoriia, pp. 155—157.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestevennoi voiny, 2:430.
Conquest, Great Terror, p. 655.
Kratkaia istoriia, pp. 594—595.
Voznesenskii, Voennaia ekonomika SSSR, p. 42.
Niurnbergskii protsess (The Nuremburg Trial), vol. 5, Moscow, 1958, p. 30.
1MT, 26:622, doc. 1058-PS.
Hitlers Table Talk, 1941—1944, trans. Norman Caneron and R. H. Stevens, London, 1953, p. 424.
Reuben Ainsztein, Jewish Resistance in Nazi-Occupied Eastern Europe, London, 1974, p. 239. See also, Chernaia kniga (Black book), ed. Vasilii Grossman and Il'ia Er- enburg, Jerusalem, 1980.
Ainsztein, p. 239.
Istoriia SSSR, 10:390.
Joachim Hoffmann, Deutsche und Kalmyken, 1942—1945, Freiburg, 1974, p. 136.
M. Luther, "Die Krim unter deutscher Besatzung im zweiten Weltkriegs," Studies in East European History, vol. 3, Berlin, 1956, p. 61; E. Kirimal, Der nationale Kampf der Krimturken, Emsdetten, 1952, p. 311.
Dallin, German Rule, p. 143.
Nekrich, Punished Peoples, pp. 28—31.
Kratkaia istoriia, p. 595.
Ibid. pp. 598-599.
These are approximate figures. Cf. ibid., p. 579.
J. K. Zawodny, Death in the Forest, South Bend, 1962, p. 10.
Izvestiia, April 16, 1943.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza v period Otechestvennoi voiny, 1:346—359.
Churchchill, Second World War, 4:760-761.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza v period Otechestvennoi voiny, 1:397—400.
Izvestiia, January 24, 1944.
Churchill, Second World War, 4:761.
Jan Abramski and Ryszard Zywiecki, Katyn, Warsaw, 1977, p. 14.
Zawodny, Death, p. 109.
Ibid., p. 158.
Harvey Fireside, Icon and Swastika, Cambridge, 1971, p. 166.
Dallin, German Rule, p. 424, n. 2.
ZhurnalMoskovskoi Patriarkhii (Journal of the Moscow Patriarchate), no. 1, September 12, 1943, p. 7.
William C. Fletcher, The Russian Orthodox Church Underground, 1917—1970, London, 1971, pp. 161-164.
Fireside, Icon, p. 87.
Dallin, German Rule, p. 480.
Fireside, Icon, p. 112.
Wilfried Strik-Strikfeldt, Against Stalin and Hitler, London, 1970, p. 30.
Fireside, Icon, p. 119.
William C. Fletcher, A Study in Survival: The Church in Russia, 1927—1943, New York, 1965, p. 115.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiiua v period Otechestvennoi voiny, 1:729.
Fletcher, Study in Survival, p. 107.
Zhurnal Moskovskoi Patriarkhii, no. 1, 1943, p. 16.
Ibid., no. 3, 1943, pp. 22-25.
Metropolitan Nikolai, "Verkhovnyi vozhd' strany i Krasnoi armii" (Supreme leader of the country and the Red army), Zhurnal Moskovskoi Patriarkhii, no. 1, 1944, p. 14.
Franz von Papen, Memoirs, London, 1952, p. 479.
For details, see A. M. Nekrich, Vneshniaia politika Anglii 1939—1941, (England's Foreign Policy, 1939-1941), Moscow, 1963.
Harvey Cantril, Public Opinion 1935-1946, Princeton, 1956, p. 276.
Winston Churchill, The Unrelenting Struggle, Boston, 1942, pp. 171-174.
H. Nicolson, Diaries, 1939-1945, London, 1970, pp. 173-174.
For the text of the agreement, see Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza v period Otechestvennoi voiny, 1:131—132.
Ibid., pp. 139-144.
Ibid., pp. 176-178.
Basil K. Liddell Hart, ed., History of the Second World War, London, 1970, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 1057-1058.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 6:48, 62.
100. The abundance of works, both Soviet and Western, on the history of the "second front" is so great that only the essential aspects need be included here. The official positions of the U.S., British, and Soviet governments are presented in the State Department publication Foreign Relations for the appropriate years, and in a two- volume documentary collection issued by the Soviet Foreign Ministry, Perepiska pred- sedatelia Soveta Ministrov SSSR s prezidentami SShA i prem'er-ministrami Velikobritanii vo vremia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny 1941 — 1945 gg. (Correspondence of the chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers with the presidents of the U.S.A. and the prime ministers of Britain during the Great Patriotic War, 1941—1945), Moscow, 1957. (Hereafter Perepiska.) See also Churchill's memoirs, Second World War, vols. 2—4.
Questions of strategy are analyzed in detail in the multivolume official British publication Grand Strategy, by J. R. M. Butler, John Ehrman, and I. M. A. Gwyer,
London, 1957—1964. An abridged translation of this work was published in the USSR by Voenizdat (Military Publishing House), 1959-1967.
Kratkaia istoriia, p. 566.
Josif Stalin, "26-aia godovshchina Velikoi oktiabr'skoi sotsialisticheskoi revoliutsii" (26th anniversary of the Great October Socialist revolution ), in Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza v period Otechestvennoi voiny, 1:118.
Kratkaia istoriia, p. 318.
Perepiska, 1:258, doc. 323: Stalin to Churchill and Roosevelt, August 22, 1944.
"Sprava Polska w czasie drugiej wojny Swiatowej na arenie mi^dzynarodowej." Zbior Dokumentow. Warszawa 1965, N54, S. 613-621.
Foreign Relations, 1944, 3:1335: Roosevelt to Mikolajczyk, November 17, 1944.
Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 6, London, 1954, p. 198.
Ibid., p. 442. See also George Ehrman, BoVshaia strategiia oktiabr 1944—avgust 1945 [The Grand Strategy, October 1944-August 1945], Moscow, 1958, pp. 161- 162.
E.R. Stettinius, Roosevelt and the Russians: The Yalta Conference, New York, 1949, p. 25.
Krymskaia konferentsiia rukovoditelei trekh soiuznykh derzhav—Sovetskogo Soiuzat Soedinennykh Shtatov Ameriki i Velikobritanii (4-11 fevralia 1945 g.) (The Crimean Conference of the Leaders of the Three Allied Powers—The Soviet Union, the United States of America, and Great Britain), Moscow, 1979, p. 47. (Hereafter cited as Krymskaia konferentsiia).
The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1955, p. 668.
Ibid.
Ibid., pp. 669-670.
Stettinius, p. 113.
Sotsialistickeskii vestnik, No. 1—2, January 10, 1944, p. 2.
The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, p. 720.
Krymskaia konferentsiia, p. 93.
Stettinius, p. 220.
Krymskaia konferentsiia, p. 83.
Ibid., p. 211.
Ibid., p. 64.
The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, p. 589; Stettinius, p. 112.
The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, p. 589.
Stettinius, p. 112.
Ibid., pp. 112-113.
Churchill, p. 392; The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, p. 923.
Kratkaia istoriia, p. 460.
Ibid., p. 466.
V. I. Iukshinskii, Sovetskie kontsentratsionnye Iageri v 1945—1955 gg. (Soviet concentration camps, 1945—1955), Munich, 1958, pp. 29—30.
Dallin, German Rule, p. 531.
IMT, vol. 38, p. 88, doc. 221-L.
Gerald Reitlinger, The House Built on Sand, New York, 1960, pp. 310-311.
Sven Steenberg, Wlassow, Verrater oder Patriot? Cologne, 1968, p. 80.
Patrik von zur Miihlen, Zwischen Hackenkreuz und Sowjetstern, Dusseldorf, 1971, p. 60.
According to Western sources, no less than 8,000 Russians from German units joined the French Resistance. See Nikolai Tolstoy, Victims of Yalta, London, 1977, p. 57.
Ibid.
For a detailed account, see Strik-Strikfeldt, Against Stalin and Hitler.
For material on Vlasov's biography, see Strik-Strikfeldt, Against Stalin and Hitler; and V. M. Shatov, Materialy i dokumenty osvoboditeVnogo dvizheniia narodov Rossii v gody Vtoroi mirovoi voiny, 1941 — 1945 (Materials and documents of the liberation movement of the peoples of Russia during World War II, 1941—1945), New York, 1966.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 181.
Parizhskii vestnik, (Paris herald), June 12, 1943.
Dallin, German Rule, p. 558.
Parizhskii vestnik, July 31, 1943.
The text of the manifesto is in V. Osokin, Andrei Andreevich Vlasov, New York, 1966, p. 28.
Boris Nikolaevskii, "0 'staroi' i 'novoi' emigratsii" (On the 'old' and 'new' emigrations), pt. 2, Sotsialisticheskii vestnik (Paris), no. 2, 1948, p. 33.
See, for example, Parizhskii vestnik, June 5, 1943.
George Fischer, Soviet Opposition to Stalin, Cambridge, 1952, app. 3, pp. 188—193.
Iu. Pis'mennyi, "Ob odnom voprose, sviazannom s Manifestom" (On one question concerning the manifesto), in Shatov, Materialy, pp. 151—154.
Nikolaevskii, "O 'staroi,'" p. 35.
Fischer, Soviet Opposition, pp. 96—97.
Iu. Koreiskii, "Poezdka v Verkhniuiu Sileziiu" (Journey to Upper Silesia), in Shatov, Materialy, p. 69.
Fischer, Soviet Opposition, pp. 100—103.
Petro Grigorenko, Memoirs, New York, 1982, p. 94.
See Petro Grigorenko, V podpoVe mozhno vstretit9 toVko krys (In the underground you meet only rats), New York, 1981, p. 216.
Foreign Relations of the United States: "The Conference of Berlin 9 (The Potsdam Conference), vol. 1, Washington, D.C., 1945, pp. 41—42.
Arthur Bryant, Triumph in the West, London, 1959, p. 478.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza. 1946 god (Foreign policy of the Soviet Union: 1946), Moscow, 1952, p. 40.
Kratkaia istoriia, p. 542.
Ibid., p. 553.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza v period Otechestvennoi voiny, 3:458—475.
These figures were first made public by Khrushchev in 1961.
Istoriia SSSR, 10:390.
All figures on losses in World War II are taken from Liddell Hart, History of the Second World War, vol. 6, no. 16, pp. 2682-2683.
Sovetskaia voennaia entsiklopediia (Soviet military encyclopedia), vol. 8, Moscow, 1980. p. 539.
N. N. Voronov, Na sluzhbe voennoi (In military service), Moscow, 1963, p. 174.
Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 6, 1965, pp. 7—8.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza v period Otechestvennoi voiny, 1:43.
Vneshniaia politika SSSRt 1949 (Foreign policy of the USSR, 1949), Moscow, 1953, p. 28.
Svetlana Alliluyeva, Only One Year, New York, 1970, p. 392.
CHAPTER NINE
"Agreement Between the USA and the Soviet Union Concerning Liberated Prisoners of War and Civilians," in Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers: The Conferences of Malta and Yalta, 1945, Washington, D.C., 1955, pp. 985-987, also pp. 694-696, 946.
Nicholas W. Bethell, The Last Secret, New York, 1974.
Tolstoy, Victims, p. 185.
N N. Krasnov-mladshii, Nezabyvaemoe 1945—1956. Russkaid zhizn (Unforgettable times, 1945—1956: Russian life), San Francisco, 1958, p. 79.
Sotsialisticheskii vestnik, no. 8, 1946, pp. 186—188; V. Novikov, "Vstrechi s sovetskimi poddannymi vo Frantsii" (Meetings with Soviet citizens in France), Novyi zhurnal, no. 12, 1946, pp. 207-222.
Izvestiia, December 9, 10, 1947.
Tolstoy, Victims, p. 409.
Fischer, Soviet Opposition, pp. 114—115.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny, 5:107.
V. Kubijovic, "Ukraine During World War II," in V. Kubijovic, ed., Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia, vol. 1, Toronto, 1963, pp. 872-873.
Ibid., pp. 879, 886.
For details, see John A. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 1939—1945, New York, 1955, pp. 77-102.
Yaroslav Bilinsky, The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine After World War //, New Brunswick, 1964, pp. 130-132.
M. Prokop, "The Ukrainian Insurgent Army," in Kubijovic, Ukraine, vol. 2, 1971, pp. 1089-1090.
Bilinsky, Second Soviet Republic, pp. 101—109.
V. Holubnichy, "Ukraine Since World War II, 1945—1962," in Kubijovic, Ukraine, 1:903.
Bilinsky, Second Soviet Republic, p. 132.
FR, 1947, 3:224-225, 237-238.
Harry S. Truman, Public Papers, 1948, Washington, D.C., 1964, pp. 178-179.
Istoriia vneshnei politika SSSR 1945—1975 (History of Soviet foreign policy, 1945— 1975) vol. 2, Moscow, 1976, pp. 137-141.
Mirnyi dogover s Italiei (The Peace Treaty with Italy), Moscow, 1947.
Istoriia vneshnei politiki SSSR, pp. 38—39; Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace, Boston, 1977, pp. 143, 150.
23 Vneshniaia politika SSSR, 1948 god, pt. 1, Moscow, 1950, p. 203.
Freundschaft DDR-UdSSR. Dokumenten und Materialen, Berlin, 1965; Obrazovanie GDR. Dokumenty i materialy (The formation of the GDR: Documents and materials), Moscow, 1950, pp. 13—16.
Documents on American Foreign Relations, vol. 13, Princeton, 1953, p. 483.
For details, see Vladimir Dedijer, The Battle Stalin Lost, New York, 1972.
Ibid., pp. 190—191; see also Milovan Djilas, Conversations with Stalin, New York, 1962, pp. 178-186.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, app. 4, p. 600.
Soveshchanie Informatsionnogo biuro kommunisticheskikh partii v Varshave, iiuri 1948 (Conference of the Information Bureau of the Communist parties, June 1948), Moscow, 1948.
Lenin, PSS, 40:43.
Times, March 6, 1946.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1946, pp. 167—170.
Walter Bedell Smith, My Three Years in Moscow, New York, 1950, pp. 52—54.
Ministerstvo Inostrannykh Del SSSR (USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Sovetskii Soiuz i berlinskii vopros. Dokumenty (The Soviet Union and the Berlin question: Documents), Moscow, 1948.
See, for example, Istoriia vneshnei politiki SSSR, 1945—1975, vol. 2, pp. 156—160.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 368.
Ibid., p. 369.
Ibid., p. 370.
Vneshniaia politika SSSR, 1950 god (Foreign policy of the USSR, 1950), 1953, p. 189.
Istoriia vneshnei politiki SSSR, 1945—1975, vol. 2, p. 165.
Ibid.
Truman, Public Papers, 1950, p. 727.
Naselenie SSSR. Spravochnik (Population of the USSR: Statistical handbook), Moscow, 1974, p. 8.
Ibid., p. 11.
Vedomosti Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR, (Gazette of the Supreme Council of the USSR), September 9, 1945.
Report of a special government commission, quoted in Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1945 god (Foreign policy of the Soviet Union, 1946), Moscow, 1949, p. 36.
Istoriia SSSR. Epokha sotsializma (History of the USSR: Age of socialism), Moscow, 1957, p. 653.
Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR. Staiisticheskii sbornik (Economy of the USSR: Collected Statistics), Moscow, 1956, pp. 63, 65.
Ibid., p. 75.
Ibid., p. 46.
Ibid.
Izvestiia, September 25, 1949.
For details, see Zhores A. Medvedev, Soviet Science, New York, 1978, p. 52.
Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, London, 1972, p. 319.
Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR, pp. 62-69.
B. Nosik, Po Rusi iaroslavskoi (Through the Old Russian Yaroslavl region), Moscow, 1968, pp. 164-178.
Sbornik zakonov SSSR 1938-1967 (Registry of laws of the USSR, 1938-1967), vol. 2, Moscow, 1968, pp. 165-173.
Ibid., pp. 409—418.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 233.
Ibid., p. 235.
Akademiia nauk Latviiskoi SSR, Institut istorii (Latvian Academy of Sciences, Institute of History), Istoriia Latviiskoi SSR. Sokrashchennyi kurs (History of the Latvian SSR: Abridged course), 2d rev. and enl. ed., Riga, 1971, pp. 706—707.
Istoriia SSSR. Epokha sotsializma, 1974, p. 413.
Akademiia nauk Latviiskoi SSR, Institut istorii i materiaTnoi kul'tury (Latvian Academy of Sciences, Institute of History and Material Culture), Istoriia Latviiskoi SSR (History of the Latvian SSR), vol. 3, Riga, 1958, p. 644.
Ibid.
J. Zhiugzhdyi, ed., Istoriia Litovskoi SSR. Uchebnik dlia VII-VIII klassov (History of the Lithuanian SSR: Textbook for grades 7 and 8), Kaunas, 1963, p. 116.
Akademiia nauk Belorusskoi SSR, Institut istorii (Academy of Sciences of the Be- lorussian SSR, Institute of History), Istoriia Belorusskoi SSR (History of the Belorussian SSR), vol. 2, Minsk, 1961, p. 532.
Istoriia SSSR. Epokha sotsializma, 1974, p. 411.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuzat 1945 god, p. 36.
Naselenie SSSR. Statisticheskii sbornik (Population of the USSR: Collected statistics), Moscow, 1974, p. 53.
KPSS v rezoliulsiiaJch, 6:176.
Robert Conquest, Power and Policy in the USSR, New York, 1961, p. 113.
Istoriia Uzbebkoi SSR (History of the Uzbek SSR), 4 vols., Tashkent, 1967-1968, 4:171.
Quoted in Sotsialisticheskaia zakonnost* (Socialist legality), no. 9, 1950, p. 3.
Istoriia Sibiri (History of Siberia), vol. 5, Leningrad, 1969, p. 185.
N. S. Khrushchev, "Doklad na plenume TsK KPSS 15 dekabria 1958 g." (Report at the December 15, 1958, plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU), in StroiteVstvo kommunizma v SSSR i razvitie seVskogo khoziaistva (The building of communism in the USSR and agricultural development), vol. 2, Moscow, 1962, p. 344.
Ibid., p. 345.
Iu. B. Arutiunian, "Osobennosti i znachenie novogo etapa razvitiia sel'skogo khoziaistva SSSR" (Specific features and significance of the new stage of development of agriculture of the USSR), in Istoriia sovetskogo krest'ianstva i kolkhoznogo stroiteVstva v SSSR. Materialy nauchnoi sessiit 18—21 aprelia 1961 g. (History of the Soviet peasantry and collective farm construction in the USSR: Materials form a scholarly conference, April 18—21, 1961), Moscow, 1963, p. 409.
Ibid.
Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR, p. 123.
Ibid., p. 124.
Istoriia SSSR. Epokha sotsializma, 1974, p. 681. In subsequent editions these figures were deleted. See also Khrushchev, StroiteVstvo kommunizma, 1:20.
See Nove, Economic History, p. 300.
Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR, p. 100.
Greorgii Malenkov, Otchetnyi doklad XIX sezdu partii о rabote TsentraTnogo Komiteta VKP(b) (Report to the Nineteenth Party Congress on the work of the Central Committee), Moscow, 1952, p. 48.
Abram Bergson, The Real National Income of Soviet Russia Since 1928, Cambridge, 1961, table H-l, p. 422.
Janet G. Chapman, Real Wages in Soviet Russia Since 1928, Cambridge, 1963, p. 139.
Ibid., p. 145.
Ibid., pp. 145-147.
Ibid., p. 176.
Ibid., pp. 55-57.
Khrushchev, StroiteVstvo kommunizma, 2:344.
Naum Jasny, The Soviet 1956 Statistical Handbook: A Commentary, East Lansing, 1957, p. 149.
Arvid Brodersen, The Soviet Worker, New York, 1966, p. 132.
Vo glave zashchity sovetskoi rodiny. Ocherk deiatel'nosti KPSS v gody Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny (Heading the defense of the Soviet homeland: Outline of the activities of the CPSU during the Great Patriotic War), Moscow, 1975, p. 362.
Istoriia Velikoi otechestvennoi voiny Sovetskogo Soiuza, 6:366.
Ibid., p. 365.
Leonard Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, New York: 1960, p. 440.
Brodersen, Soviet Worker, p. 228.
Rigby, Communist Party Membership in the USSR 1917—1967, p. 453. According to Professor Rigby's estimates, 32.1 percent of those joining the party during the war could be classified as blue collar workers, 25.3 percent as peasants, and 42.6 percent as white collar workers (p. 239).
Brodersen, Soviet Worker, p. 234.
Vneshniaia politika Sovetskogo Soiuza v period otechestvennoi voiny, 2:45.
Pravda, June 27, 1945.
For details, see Mark Popovskii, Upravliaemaia nauka, pp. 29—30; and Zhores A. Medvedev, The Rise and Fall of T. D. Lysenko, New York, 1969.
For details, see 0 polozhenii v biologicheskoi nauke. Stenograficheskii otchet sessii Vsesoiuznoi Akademii sel'skokhoziaistvennykh nauk imeni V. /. Lenina, 31 iilulia—7 avgusta 1948 g. (On the situation in biological science: Stenographic record of the session of the V. I. Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, July 31— August 7, 1948), Moscow, 1948.
107 Kul'tura i zhizn' (Culture and life), September 11, 1948.
Ibid., July 17, 1950.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid., August 21, 1948.
Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR (Bulletin of the USSR Academy of Sciences), no. 2, 1949, pp. 99-102, 130-134.
Khrushchev, The Last Testament, pp. 63-67.
See Documents on Polish—Soviet Relationst 1939—1945y vol. 1, 1939-1943, London, 1961, doc. 298, pp. 503-504; and The Case of Henry Erlich and Victor Alter, New York, 1943.
Ivzestiia, February 19, 1946.
Mikhail Zoshchenko, Izbrannoe (A Selection), Ann Arbor, 1960, pp. 316—324.
Pravda, August 22, 1946.
Literaturnaia gazeta, December 22, 1948.
Kul'tura i zhizn', January 11, 1951.
Pravda, December 28, 1947.
Kul'tura i zhizn', February 21, 1948.
Ibid., February 29, April 19, April 21, 1948.
Pravda, January 28, 1949.
Literaturnaia gazeta, February 26, 1949.
Voprosy istorii, no. 11, 1947.
Ibid., no. 4, 1951.
Conquest, Great Terror.
R. Roeder, Katorga, (Forced Labor), London, 1958, p. xiii.
Swianiewicz, Forced Labour, p. 44.
B. Iakovlev (in collaboration with A. Burtsov), Kontsentratsionnye lageri SSSR (The concentration camps of the USSR), Munich, 1955, pp. 65-68.
Ibid., p. 80.
Ibid., p. 92.
Ibid., p. 96.
Ibid., p. 167.
Ibid., p. 185. Iukshinskii, (Sovetskie lageri, p. 52) gives the figure 70,000.
V. P. Artem'ev, Rezhim i okhrana ispravitel'no-trudovykh lagerei MVD (The regimen and guard system in the corrective labor camps of the MVD), Munich, 1956, p. 11.
Ibid.
Ibid., pp. 38-39.
Iakovlev, Kontsentratsionnye, p. 37.
Ibid., p. 36.
Ibid., p. 38.
Artem'ev, Rezhim, p. 78.
Ibid., p. 69.
Iakovlev, Kontsentratsionnye, p. 38.
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, 3 vols., New York, 1973—1975, 3:108.
Ibid., pp. 222-223.
Ibid., p. 65.
U.S. Senate, USSR Labour Camps. Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, 93rd Cong., 1st Sess., pt. 3, February 2, 1973, Washington, D.C., p. 175.
Solzhenitsyn, Arkhipelag Gulag, 1918-1956, V-VI-VII, pp. 244-245. Gulag, 3:233- 234.
Joseph Schomler, Vorkuta, London, 1954, pp. 166—167.
Ibid., p. 96.
Ibid.
Paul Barton, L'institution concentrationnaire en Russe (1930—1957), Paris, 1959, p. 287.
Solzhenitsyn, Gulag, 3:230.
Iakovlev, Kontsentratsionnye, p. 166.
Solzhenitsyn, Gulag, 3:230.
Ibid., p. 230.
Ibid., pp. 229-230.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 265 ff.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, pp. 308—309.
See Aleksandr Nekrich, "The Arrest and Trial of I. M. Maisky," Survey, no. 100— 101, 1976, pp. 313-320.
Schapiro, The CPSU, p. 723.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 246.
Ibid., p. 262.
Ibid., p. 264.
Ibid., p. 263.
Ibid.
Yehoshua A. Gilboa, The Black Years of Soviet Jewry, 1939-1953, Boston, 1971, pp. 52—53.
Author's personal archive.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 261.
Pravda, January 13 and 18, 1953.
Ibid., January 21, 1953.
Literaturnaia gazeta, January 13, 1953.
Aleksandr Nekrich, Otreshis9 ot strakha. Vospominaniia istorika (Forsake fear: Memoirs of a historian), London, 1979, p. 115.
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