Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud

CHAPTER 30: THE GREAT REVERSAL OF VALUES – ROMANTICISM

1. Harold C. Schonberg, Lives of the Composers, London: Davis-Poynter/Macdonald Futura, 1970/1980, page 124.

2. See David Cairns, Berlioz, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1999, pages 263–278, passim, for Berlioz’s friendship with Hiller.

3. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 126.

4. Menuhin and Davis, The Music of Man, Op. cit., page 163.

5. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 126.

6. Jacques Barzun, Classical, Romantic, Modern, London: Secker & Warburg, 1962, page 5.

7. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 124.

8. Berlin, The Sense of Reality, London: Chatto & Windus, 1996. page 168.

9. Ibid., page 168.

10. Ibid., pages 168–169.

11. Ibid., page 168.

12. Ibid., page 169.

13. See Howard Mumford Jones, Revolution and Romanticism, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1974, page 368, for German nationalism in response to Napoleon. And see Gerald N. Izenberg, Impossible Individuality: Romanticism, Revolution and the Origins of Modern Selfhood, 1787–1802, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 1992, pages 45–47 and 94 for the Berlin salons.

14. Berlin, Op. cit., page 170.

15. Ibid., page 171.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid., page 173.

18. Ibid., page 175.

19. See Israel, Radical Enlightenment, Op. cit., page 668, for a view that Vico was a philosophical opponent of naturalism.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid., page 666.

22. Ibid., pages 665 and 344.

23. Ibid., page 344.

24. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 242; see also Hawthorn, Enlightenment and Despair, Op. cit., pages 32–33.

25. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 337.

26. Berlin, Op. cit., page 176.

27. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 229.

28. Berlin, Op. cit., page 178.

29. Ibid., page 179.

30. Barzun, Op. cit., pages 135ff, for a discussion of the development of ideas about the will.

31. Berlin, Op. cit., page 179.

32. Hauser, A Social History of Art, Op. cit., volume 3, page 174.

33. Roger Smith, Op. cit., pages 346–347.

34. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 66.

35. Ibid.

36. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 347.

37. As Ortega y Gasset was to say later: ‘Man has no nature, what he has is his history.’ Ortega y Gasset, ‘History as a system’, in Philosophy and History, Essays Presented to Ernst Cassirer, edited by R. Klibonsky and J. H. Paton, 1936, page 313.

38. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 100.

39. Ibid.

40. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 350.

41. Berlin, Op. cit., page 179.

42. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 242, says that Fichte’s idea of the will may have been an early conception of the super-ego.

43. Berlin, Op. cit., page 180.

44. Ibid., pages 181–182; see also Hawthorn, Op. cit., pages 238–239.

45. Berlin, Op. cit., pages 182–183.

46. Ibid., page 183.

47. Mumford Jones, in his chapter on the romantic genius, Op. cit., page 274, says that it was part of the theory that one best helped society by realising oneself as completely as possible.

48. Berlin, Op. cit., pages 185–186.

49. Ibid., page 187.

50. Despite the nationalism of the Germans, romantics felt that heroes of other cultures might be nearer the ‘invisible nature’ that man shares with the creator. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 279.

51. Berlin, Op. cit., page 188.

52. Chapter XII of Mumford Jones’ Revolution and Romanticism, Op. cit., is entitled ‘The Romantic rebels’.

53. Hauser, Op. cit., page 166.

54. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 346.

55. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 274.

56. Hauser, Op. cit., page 192.

57. Ibid., page 188.

58. Ibid., page 208.

59. Izenberg, Op. cit., pages 142–143.

60. Ibid., page 144.

61. The phrase is Hauser’s, Op. cit., page 210.

62. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 288.

63. Hauser, Op. cit., page 212.

64. Ibid., pages 213–214.

65. Ibid., page 216.

66. Ibid., page 181.

67. In his discussion ‘Two concepts of individuality’, Gerald Izenberg explores the romantics’ view of the differences between males and females. Op. cit., pages 18–53.

68. For poetry as purification see Nicholas Boyle, Goethe: the Poet and the Age, volume 1, The Poetry of Desire, Oxford: The Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1991, pages 329–331.

69. Mumford Jones discusses aspects of this. Op. cit., page 264.

70. Ibid., page 394.

71. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 83.

72. Ibid.

73. See, for example, Alfred Einstein, A Short History of Music, London: Cassell, 1953, page 143.

74. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 86.

75. The Eroica was originally dedicated to Napoleon but, according to legend, Beethoven changed his mind after Bonaparte proclaimed himself emperor. George R. Marek, Beethoven, London: William Kimber, 1970, page 343.

76. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 89.

77. Einstein, Op. cit., page 146. Marek, Op. cit., page 344.

78. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 293.

79. Schonberg, Op. cit., pages 93–94.

80. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 394.

81. Einstein, Op. cit., page 152.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid., page 154.

84. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 98.

85. Ibid., page 109.

86. Barzun, Op. cit., pages 545–546. See also: Baines (editor), Musical Instruments Through the Ages, Op. cit., page 260, for the development of the saxophone.

87. Menuhin and Davis, Op. cit., page 165; Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 391; and see Baines (editor), Op. cit., pages 124–125, for Paganini and the final evolutionary details about the violin; and page 91 for the differences between English and German (Viennese) pianos.

88. It was said he achieved such excellence because he had sold himself to the devil (he had a cadaverous appearance). He never sought to deny this charge. Menuhin and Davis, Op. cit., page 165; and Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 410.

89. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 110.

90. Edward Dent says that romanticism was established by the time Weber appeared on the scene. Winton Dean (editor), The Rise of Romantic Opera, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1976, page 145.

91. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 112.

92. Einstein, Op. cit., page 152.

93. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 119.

94. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 410.

95. Einstein, Op. cit., page 176.

96. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 410.

97. Cairns, Op. cit., volume 2, page 1.

98. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 375.

99. Menuhin and Davis, Op. cit., page 178.

100. Jeremy Siepmann, Chopin: The Reluctant Romantic, London: Gollancz, 1995, pages 132–138, passim.

101. Ibid., page 103. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 153.

102. Menuhin and Davis, Op. cit., page 180.

103. Einstein, Op. cit., page 199.

104. Eleanor Perényi, Liszt, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1974, page 56. See also Baines (editor), Op. cit., page 100.

105. Menuhin and Davis, Op. cit., page 165.

106. Though Alfred Einstein reminds us that Liszt rescued the music of the Catholic Church in the nineteenth century. Op. cit., page 180.

107. Ibid.

108. Perényi, Op. cit., page 11.

109. Einstein, Op. cit., pages 158 and 178.

110. Ibid., page 179.

111. Ibid., page 158.

112. Ibid., page 160.

113. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 183.

114. Ibid., page 214.

115. Menuhin and Davis, Op. cit., page 187.

116. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 325n; and Menuhin and Davis, Op. cit., pages 187–188.

117. Charles Osborne (selector, translator and editor), The Letters of G. Verdi, London: Gollancz, 1971, page 596.

118. Mumford Jones, Op. cit., page 216.

119. Einstein. Op. cit., page 172.

120. Mary-Jane Phillips-Matz, Verdi, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993, page 204.

121. Ibid., page 715.

122. Einstein, Op. cit., page 185.

123. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 230 and ref.

124. Ibid., page 232.

125. Einstein, Op. cit., page 185.

126. Ibid., page 187; but see also: Nike Wagner, The Wagners, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000, page 25, for ‘the Tannhäuser problem’.

127. The Nibelungenlied (new translation by A. T. Hatto), London: Penguin Books, 1965.

128. Einstein, Op. cit., page 188.

129. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 239.

130. John Louis Di Gaetani, Penetrating Wagner’s Ring, New York and London: Associated Universities Press, 1978, pages 206–207, for his views about the Rhine, for example.

131. Einstein, Op. cit., page 190; and see Baines (editor), Op. cit., pages 258–259, for some of the new instruments available at Bayreuth.

132. Schonberg, Op. cit., page 244.

133. Einstein, Op. cit., page 191.

134. Nike Wagner, Op. cit., page 172.

135. Einstein, Op. cit., page 192.

136. Di Gaetani, Op. cit., pages 219–238. See also: Erik Levine, Music in the Third Reich, London: Macmillan, 1994, page 35, for Hitler’s sponsorship of Wagner research.

CHAPTER 31: THE RISE OF HISTORY, PRE-HISTORY AND DEEP TIME

1. Frank McLynn, Napoleon, London: Jonathan Cape, 1997, page 171.

2. Jacques Barzun, From Dawn to Decadence, 500 Years of Western Cultural Life, New York and London: HarperCollins, 2000, pages 442–444.

3. Ibid., page 442.

4. Ibid., pages 395–396.

5. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 372.

6. Ibid., page 373.

7. Ibid., page 374.

8. Boorstin, The Seekers, Op. cit., page 210, for Bertrand Russell’s and Benjamin Franklin’s criticism of Hegel.

9. Paul R. Sweet, Wilhelm von Humboldt: A Biography, volume 2, Columbus: Ohio University Press, 1980, pages 392ff.

10. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 379.

11. This was very modern in itself, but Humboldt went further, arguing that some languages – German inevitably, and despite Napoleon’s successes – were more ‘suited’ to ‘higher’ purposes. This was the beginning of what would turn into a very dangerous idea.

12. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 382.

13. Ibid., page 385.

14. Ibid., page 387.

15. David Friedrich Strauss, The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, edited and with an introduction by Peter C. Hodgson, London: SCM Press, 1972, page xx.

16. See John Hadley Brooke, Science and Religion, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1991, page 266, for a discussion of Strauss and the difference between myth and falsehood. See also Strauss/Hodgson, Op. cit., page xlix.

17. Vincent Cronin, Napoleon, London: Collins, 1971, page 145.

18. C. W. Ceram, Gods, Graves and Scholars, London: Gollancz, 1971 pages 207–208.

19. Ian Tattersall, The Fossil Trail, Op cit., page 14. H. Schaafhausen, ‘On the crania of the most ancient races of Man’. Translated, with an introduction by G. Bush, in Natural History Review, volume 1, 1861, pages 155–176.

20. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea, Op. cit., page 65.

21. Ibid., page 65.

22. Ibid., page 75.

23. Ibid., page 26.

24. Suzanne Kelly, ‘Theories of the earth in Renaissance cosmologies’, in Cecil J. Schneer (editor), Towards a History of Geology, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1969, pages 214–225.

25. Bowler, Op. cit., page 31.

26. Ibid., page 37.

27. Ibid., page 40.

28. Ibid., page 44.

29. Charles Gillispie, Genesis and Geology, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1949; Harper Torchbook, 1959, page 48.

30. Ibid., pages 41–42.

31. Nicholas Steno, The Prodromus of Nicholas Steno’s Dissertation concerning a Solid Body Enclosed by Process of Nature within a solid. Original 1669, translated into English by J. G. Winter in 1916, as part of the University of Michigan Humanistic Studies, volume 1, part 2, reprinted by Hafner Publishing Company, New York, 1968. John Woodward, ‘An Essay Toward a Natural History of the Earth and terrestrial Bodyes’, originally London 1695, reprinted New York: Arno Press, 1977.

32. Gillispie, Op. cit., page 42. Jack Repcheck, The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth’s Antiquity, London: Simon & Schuster, 2003, who says that Hutton’s prose was ‘impenetrable’ and that, at the time, people were not very interested in the antiquity of the earth.

33. See, for example, Gillispie, Op. cit., page 46.

34. Ibid., page 68.

35. Ibid., page 84.

36. Bowler, Op. cit., page 110.

37. Gillispie, Op. cit., page 99.

38. Bowler, Op. cit., page 116.

39. Gillispie, Op. cit., page 101.

40. Bowler, Op. cit., page 116.

41. Ibid., page 119.

42. Brooke, Op. cit., page 203, says that on one occasion Buckland ‘detained’ the British Association for the Advancement of Science until midnight, ‘expatiating’ on the ‘design’ of the great sloth.

43. Gillispie, Op. cit., page 107.

44. Bowler, Op. cit., page 110.

45. Ibid., page 124 for a table.

46. Gillispie, Op. cit., pages 111–112 and 142.

47. Bowler, Op. cit., page 130.

48. Ibid., page 132.

49. Ibid., pages 134ff.

50. Gillispie, Op. cit., page 133.

51. Bowler, Op. cit., page 138.

52. Gillispie, Op. cit., page 210.

53. Ibid., page 212.

54. Ibid., page 214.

55. Secord, Victorian Sensation, Op. cit., page 388.

56. Ibid., chapter 3, pages 77ff.

57. Ibid., page 526, for the publishing histories of Vestiges and the Origin compared.

58. Edward Lurie, Louis Agassiz: A Life in Science, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960, pages 97ff, for Agassiz’ development of the concept of the Ice Age.

59. J. D. Macdougall, A Short History of Planet Earth, New York and London: John Wiley & Sons, 1996, page 210.

60. But there was something else too. Among the moraines were found considerable quantities of diamonds. Diamonds are formed deep in the earth and are brought to the surface in the molten magma produced by volcanoes. Thus, here was further evidence of the continuous action of volcanoes, reinforcing the fact that the discovery of the great Ice Age(s) confirmed both the antiquity of the earth and the uniformitarian approach to geology. Ibid., pages 206–210.

61. Peter J. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988, page 13.

62. Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, Op. cit., page 349. See also: Moynahan, Op. cit., page 651.

63. Pietro Corsi, The Age of Lamarck: Evolutionary Theories in France 1790–1830, Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1988, pages 121ff. Ernst Mayr, the eminent historian of biology, says that Lamarck presented his view of evolution with far more courage than Darwin was to do fifty years later. Mayr, Op. cit., page 352.

64. Corsi, Op. cit., pages 157ff, for those who did and did not agree with Lamarck.

The rise of the Great Chain of Being, which was discussed in the Introduction, also formed part of the intellectual climate of the mid-nineteenth century. It was an ancient idea, which gave it credibility to begin with, but it was not really a scientific idea and therefore did not long outlive Darwin’s innovations. See Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea, Op. cit., pages 59ff for nineteenth-century ideas about the Great Chain and page 61 for a diagram.

65. These other factors included industrial capitalism – the notion that people should be free to compete in business activities, because in that way the good of the community and the selfish interests of individuals coincide.

66. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 36.

67. Ibid., page 41.

68. Barry Gale, ‘Darwin and the concept of the struggle for existence: a study in the extra-scientific origins of scientific ideas’, Isis, volume 63, 1972, pages 321–344.

69. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 57.

70. Secord, Op. cit., page 431.

71. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 42. Martin Fichnan, ‘Ideological factors in the dissemination of Darwinism’, in Everett Mendelsohn (editor), Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984, pages 471–485.

72. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 43.

73. Mayr, Op. cit., page 950. Ross A. Slotten, The Heretic in Darwin’s Court: The Life of Alfred Russel Wallace, New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

74. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 152.

75. Mayr, Op. cit., page 501.

76. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 162.

77. Ibid., page 187.

78. Ibid., page 67.

79. Secord, Op. cit., page 526.

80. Mayr, Op. cit., page 510.

81. Even T. H. Huxley, ‘Darwin’s bulldog’, who did so much to advance the cause of evolution overall, never made much of natural selection.

82. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea, Op. cit., page 24.

83. See: Peter Watson, A Terrible Beauty: The People and Ideas That Shaped the Modern Mind, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000/The Modern Mind: An Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century, New York: HarperCollins, 2001, page 371, for a summary of the evolutionary synthesis. See also: Ernst Mayr and William B. Provine (editors), The Evolutionary Synthesis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990/1998.

84. Secord, Op. cit., pages 224 and 230.

85. Mayr, Op. cit., page 654.

86. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea, Op. cit., page 271.

87. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 132.

88. Ibid., page 135.

89. Ibid.

90. Lewis Morgan, Ancient Society, London: Macmillan, 1877.

91. This whole debate, however, was coloured by racist thinking. For example, a new science of ‘craniometry’ emerged in which the brain sizes of different races were compared. The leading figures here were S. G. Morton in America and Paul Broca in France, who both thought they had demonstrated that the ‘lower’ races had smaller brains and that this accounted for their lower intelligence and their more primitive position on the ladder of cultural evolution.

92. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 144.

93. Ibid., page 145.

94. Ibid.

95. See Brooke, Op. cit., page 147 for the background to Dubois’ trip to the Far East.

96. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution, Op. cit., page 174.

97. Ibid., page 175.

CHAPTER 32: NEW IDEAS ABOUT HUMAN ORDER: THE ORIGINS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND STATISTICS

1. D. Gerould, The Guillotine: Its Legend and Lore, New York: Blast Books, 1992, page 25.

2. Ibid., page 33.

3. See Barzun, From Dawn to Decadence, Op. cit., pages 519ff, for other reactions to the French Revolution.

4. Ibid., page 428.

5. Ken Alder, The Measure of All Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey That Transformed the World, London: Little Brown/Abacus, 2002/2004, page 96.

6. Ibid., pages 314–325.

7. Hawthorn, Enlightenment and Despair, Op. cit., page 67.

8. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 423.

9. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 218.

10. Roger Smith, Op. cit., pages 423–424.

11. Saint-Simon saw society as composed of nobles, industriels, and ‘bastard classes’. In other words, he had a healthy dislike of the bourgeoisie. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 68.

12. John Marks, Science and the Making of the Modern World, London: Heinemann, 1983, page 196.

13. Ibid., page 197.

14. Ibid., pages 198–199.

15. Ibid.

16. Charlotte Roberts and Margaret Cox, Health and Disease in Britain: From Prehistory to the Present Day, Stroud, England: Sutton, 2003, pages 338–340. Roy Porter cautions that though we now equate tuberculosis with consumption, in fact the latter often included asthma, catarrh etc. Roy and Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650–1850, London: Fourth Estate, 1988, page 146.

17. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 427. Boorstin, The Seekers, Op. cit., page 222.

18. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 201.

19. Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Biography, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pages 192ff, for the rupture with Saint-Simon.

20. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 429.

21. Ibid., page 430.

22. Pickering, Op. cit., pages 612–613 and 615.

23. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 431.

24. Comte had a high opinion of his accomplishments and towards the end of his life signed himself: ‘The founder of Universal Religion, Great Priest of Humanity.’

25. See ‘The vogue for Spencer’, in Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, Boston: Beacon Books, 1944/1992, pages 31ff.

26. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 438.

27. Ibid., page 446.

28. L. A. Coser, Masters in Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Sociological Context, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1971, page 281. Harold Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society: England Since 1880, London and New York: Routledge, 1989/1990, page 49.

29. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 555.

30. Hawthorn, Op. cit., pages 147ff, for the disputes ‘smouldering’ at the Verein.

31. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 556.

32. Ibid., pages 556–557.

33. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 157.

34. Anthony Giddens, introduction to Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, London and New York: Routledge, 1942 (reprint 1986), page ix.

35. Reinhard Bendix, Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait, London: Heinemann, 1960, page 70. For Weber’s political views, see Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 154f.

36. Roger Smith, Op. cit., pages 561–562.

37. Giddens, Op. cit., pages ixff.

38. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 563.

39. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 186.

40. David Frisby, Georg Simmel, London: Tavistock Publications, 1984, page 51.

41. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 546.

42. Ibid. See Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 122, for the links to pragmatism (see Chapter 34 below).

43. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 547.

44. Steven Lukes, Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1973, pages 206ff.

45. Ibid., page 207, for the difference between egoism, anomie and altruism.

46. Marks, Op. cit., page 208.

47. Roberts and Cox, Op. cit., page 537. ‘The germ theory of disease’, Alexander Hellemans and Bryan Bunch, The Timetables of Science, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991, page 356.

48. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 535.

49. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., volume 4, page 1140.

50. Alder, Op. cit., page 322.

51. Alan Desrosières, The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning, translated by Camille Naish, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998, page 75.

52. Ibid., pages 73–79 and 90–91.

53. Lisanne Radice, Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Fabian Socialists, London: Macmillan, 1984, page 55.

54. Not everyone was in favour of the new approach. In Britain the new register of births, marriages and deaths was criticised on all sides. Counting births irritated the Church of England, which thought that not counting baptisms showed too much respect for Nonconformists; Unitarians thought it somehow disrespectful to God to count people who were going to join their maker; and many people thought the size of their family was in any case a private matter. M. T. Cullen, The Statistical Movement in Early Victorian Britain, Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester, 1975, pages 29–30.

55. David Boyle, The Tyranny of Numbers, London: HarperCollins, 2000, pages 64–65.

56. Ibid., page 72.

57. Ibid., page 74.

58. Desrosières, Op. cit., pages 232ff.

CHAPTER 33: THE USES AND ABUSES OF NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM

1. Schulze, States, Nations and Nationalism, Op. cit., page 69.

2. Anthony Pagden, People and Empires, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001, page 89.

3. Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World, London: Allen Lane/Penguin, 2003/2004, page 63. See also: Pagden, Op. cit., page 92.

4. Ibid., page 94.

5. Ibid., page 97.

6. Ibid., page 98. Ferguson, Op. cit., page 85, for the wealth of New Englanders.

7. The notion of ‘protection’, however, meant that the East India companies did need to involve themselves in politics. See Jürgen Osterhammel, Colonialism, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 2003, page 32. See also: Ferguson, Op. cit., page 163.

8. Pagden, Op. cit., pages 100–101.

9. Jeremy Bernstein, Dawning of the Raj: The Life and Times of Warren Hastings, London: Aurum, 2001, pages 208ff. See also: Ferguson, Op. cit., page 38.

10. Pagden, Op. cit., page 104. Ferguson, Op. cit., pages xxiii and 260. David Armitage, in The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2002) says that Protestant arguments about property were important in the idea of Empire.

11. Seymour Drescher, in From Freedom to Slavery: Comparative Studies in the Rise and Fall of Atlantic Slavery, London: Macmillan, 1999, page 344, notes that Jews took little part in slavery.

12. Pagden, Op. cit., page 111.

13. Ibid., page 112.

14. Ibid., page 113. And see Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 537ff, for other papal bulls on slavery.

15. Pagden, Op. cit., page 114.

16. Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire, London: Little Brown/Abacus, 1994/1998, page 185. Drescher, Op. cit., pages 69–71, for the anti-slavery campaign before and around Wilberforce.

17. Pagden, Op. cit., page 117.

18. Schulze, Op. cit., page 197.

19. Ibid., page 198.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid., page 199.

22. Ibid., page 200.

23. Ibid., page 204.

24. Ibid., page 205.

25. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1981, page 41, which explores the way the trades unions began to interfere in imperial ideology.

26. Friedrich Meinecke, Cosmopolitanism and the National State, translated by Robert B. Kimber, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1970, pages 25–26.

27. Ibid., page 136.

28. Michael Morton, Herder and the Poetics of Thought, Pittsburgh: Pennsylvania University Press, 1989, page 99.

29. Schulze, Op. cit., page 232.

30. Ibid., page 233.

31. Wolfgang J. Mommsen (editor), Imperialismus, Hamburg, 1977, page 371.

32. William J. Stead (editor), The Last Will and Testament of C. J. Rhodes, London: Review of Reviews Office, 1902, pages 57 and 97f. James, Op. cit., page 169.

33. Osterhammel, Op. cit., page 34.

34. Raoul Girardot, Le nationalisme français, 1871–1914, Paris, 1966, 179.

35. Schulze, Op. cit., page 237.

36. Fritz Stern, Einstein’s German World, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 1999, page 3.

37. William R. Everdell, The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth-Century Thought, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997, page 166.

38. William Johnston, The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History 1848–1938, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1972/1983, page 183.

39. Gordon A. Craig, Germany: 1866–1945, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1978/1981, pages 39ff. Eva Kolinsky and Wilfried van der Will (editors), The Cambridge Companion to Modern German Culture, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1998, page 5.

40. Ibid., pages 43ff. Kolinsky and van der Will, Op. cit., page 21.

41. See, for instance: Giles Macdonogh, The Last Kaiser, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000/Phoenix, 2001, page 3. Kolinsky and van der Will, Op. cit., pages 22–23.

42. Craig, Op. cit., page 56. Kolinsky and van der Will, Op. cit., pages 4 and 50.

43. Ibid., 218.

44. Ibid., pages 218–219.

45. Schonberg, Lives of the Composers, Op. cit., pages 239ff.

46. Craig, Op. cit., page 218.

47. J. W. Burrow, The Crisis of Reason: European Thought, 1848–1914, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000, page 158.

48. They were destroyed in 1945 when the Nazis burned Immendorf castle, where they were stored during the Second World War.

49. Carl E. Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson/New York: Knopf, 1980, pages 227–232.

50. Burrow, Op. cit., pages 137–138.

51. See Craig, Op. cit., page 188.

52. Burrow, Op. cit., page 188.

53. Pagden, Op. cit., page 147.

54. Ibid., page 148.

55. Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, Op. cit., page 171.

56. See Tony Smith, Op. cit., pages 63–65, for why Russia, at that point, could not have been a nation of the future.

57. Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea, Washington, DC, and Baltimore: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, page 292.

58. Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1997, page 193.

59. Ibid., page 196.

60. Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 5.

61. Ibid., pages 51–70.

62. Ibid., pages 143ff.

63. Hannaford, Op. cit., pages 291–292.

64. Hawkins, Op. cit., page 132.

65. Hannaford, Op. cit., pages 289–290.

66. Hawkins, Op. cit., page 185.

67. Ibid.

68. Hannaford, Op. cit., page 338.

69. Ibid.

70. Johnston, Op. cit., page 364.

71. Hawkins, Op. cit., pages 126–127.

72. Ibid., page 178.

73. Ibid., page 62.

74. Ibid., page 201.

75. Hannaford, Op. cit., page 330.

76. A. L. Macfie, Orientalism, London: Longman, 2002, page 179.

77. Ibid., page 180.

78. Ibid.

79. Ibid.

80. Tony Smith says that pre-British India was some 500 years behind Europe, economically speaking, when the British arrived. Macfie, Op. cit., page 75.

81. Ibid., page 181.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid., page 182.

84. Quoted in Ferguson, Op. cit., page 39. Bernstein, Op. cit., page 89, says that Nathaniel Halhed (aged twenty-three in 1771) was the first to point out the relation between Bengali and Sanskrit.

85. Hastings also funded several expeditions: Bernstein, Op. cit., pages 145ff.

86. Macfie, Op. cit., page 53.

87. See Tony Smith, Op. cit., page 74, for a discussion of what the British destroyed in India.

88. Macfie, Op. cit., page 56.

89. Ferguson, Op. cit., pages 365–371.

90. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, London and New York: Chatto & Windus/Vintage, 1993/1994, pages xiff.

91. Ibid., page xxiv.

92. Ibid., pages 8–12.

93. Ibid., page 85.

94. For some of the weaknesses in Said’s work, see: Valerie Kennedy, Edward Said: A Critical Introduction, Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 2000, pages 25 and 37. Said considers only novels: see Roger Benjamin, Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism and North Africa, 1880–1930, Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 2003, especially pages 129ff, for travelling scholarships for artists. And see: Philippe Jullian, The Orientalists: European Painters of Eastern Scenes, Oxford: Phaidon, 1977, who, in his chapter on the influence of artists, says they helped launch the ‘desolate East’ (page 39).

95. Said, Op. cit., page 75.

96. Ibid., page 102.

97. Ibid., page 104.

98. Ibid., page 108.

99. Edmund Wilson, ‘The Kipling that nobody read’, in The Wound and the Bow, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947, pages 100–103.

100. A different view was advanced by Noel Annan in his essay ‘Kipling’s place in the history of ideas’, where he presents the notion that Kipling’s vision of society was similar to the new sociologists – Durkheim, Weber and Pareto – who ‘saw society as a nexus of groups; and the pattern of behaviour which these groups unwittingly established, rather than men’s wills or anything so vague as a class, cultural or national tradition, primarily determined men’s actions. They asked how these groups promoted order or instability in society, whereas their predecessors had asked whether certain groups helped society to progress.’ Said, Op. cit., page 186 and Noel Annan, ‘Kipling’s place in the history of ideas’, Victorian Studies, volume 3, number 4, June 1960, page 323.

101. Said, Op. cit., page 187.

102. Ibid., page 196.

103. Redmond O’Hanlon, Joseph Conrad and Charles Darwin, Edinburgh: Salamander Press, 1984, page 17.

104. D. C. R. A. Goonetilleke, Joseph Conrad: Beyond Culture and Background, London: Macmillan, 1990, pages 15ff.

105. Kingsley Widner, ‘Joseph Conrad’, in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Detroit: Bruccoli Clark, volume 34, 1988, pages 43–82.

106. Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness, Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood/Penguin, 1902/1995.

107. Goonetilleke, Op. cit., pages 88–91.

108. Conrad, Op. cit., page 20.

109. Goonetilleke, Op. cit., page 168.

110. Richard Curle, Joseph Conrad: A Study, London: Kegan Paul, French, Trübner, 1914.

111. In Occidentalism (London: Atlantic Books, 2004) Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit identify the opposite sentiment to Orientalism, ‘the hostile stereotypes of the western world that fuel the hatred at the heart of such movements as al Qaeda’. They root this variously in pan-Germanic movements of the nineteenth century, which affected national feeling in the Arab world and in Japan in the twentieth century, in Persian Manicheanism, and in the differences between the Catholic and Greek orthodox Churches, with the latter, in Russia, fuelling an anti-rationalistic mentality.

112. Melvyn Bragg, The Adventure of English, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2003, page 1.

113. Ibid., page 3. But see also Geoffrey Hughes, A History of English Words, Oxford: Blackwell, 2000, page 99.

114. Bragg, Op. cit., page 28.

115. Hughes, Op. cit., pages xvii–xviii, for a chronology of English; and see also: Barbara A. Fennell, A History of English, Oxford: Blackwell, 2001, pages 55–93.

116. Bragg, Op. cit., page 23.

117. Osterhammel, Op. cit., pages 103–104, for a discussion of how colonisers affect (and often destroy) the language of the colonised.

118. Bragg, Op. cit., page 52.

119. Ibid., page 58.

120. Ibid., page 52.

121. Ibid., page 67.

122. M. T. Clanchy, England and Its Rulers (second edition), Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.

123. Not all conquerors impose their languages: See Osterhammel, Op. cit., page 95, for the different experiences of the Spanish and Dutch (in Indonesia) in this regard.

124. Bragg, Op. cit., page 85.

125. Ibid., page 101.

126. Hughes, Op. cit., pages 153–158.

127. Bragg, Op. cit., page 148.

128. Boorstin, The Americans: Op. cit., pages 275ff, for American ‘ways of talking’.

129. John Algeo (editor), The Cambridge History of the English Language, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, volume VI, 2001, pages 92–93 and 163–168 passim. See also Bragg, Op. cit., page 169.

130. Bragg, Op. cit., page 178.

131. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 287, says another derivation may have come from Old Kinderhook, the nickname for Martin van Buren, in his presidential campaign. He was supported by Democratic OK Clubs in New York.

132. Bragg, Op. cit., page 241.

133. For English around the world, see: Robert Burchfield, The Cambridge History of the English Language, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, volume V, 1994, especially chapter 10.

CHAPTER 34: THE AMERICAN MIND AND THE MODERN UNIVERSITY

1. Boris Ford (editor), The New Pelican Guide to English Literature, volume 9, American Literature, London: Penguin Books, 1967/1995, page 61.

2. Commager, The Empire of Reason, Op. cit., page 16f.

3. Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America, London: HarperCollins/Flamingo, 2001.

4. Menand, Op. cit., pages x–xii. See too Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 168, who also identifies what he calls ‘a renaissance’ in American thought.

5. Morison et al., Growth of the American Republic, Op. cit., page 209.

6. Menand, Op. cit., page 6. Harvey Wish, Society and Thought in Modern America, London: Longmans Green, 1952, adds Veblen, Sumner, Whitman, Dreiser and Pulitzer, Louis Sullivan and Winslow Homer to this list.

7. Brogan, The Penguin History of the United States, Op. cit., page 300. See also Boorstin, The Americans: The National Experience, Op. cit., page 251.

8. Menand, Op. cit., page 19.

9. Ibid., page 26. See also Luther S. Luedtke, Making America: The Society and Culture of the United States, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992, page 225, for the pivotal role of Emerson for writers.

10. Menand, Op. cit., page 46.

11. Mark DeWolfe Howe, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes: The Shaping Years, volume 1, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957–1963, two volumes, page 100.

12. Menand, Op. cit., page 61.

13. Brogan, Op. cit., pages 325ff, for a good brief introduction to the weaponry and tactics of the Civil War.

14. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 209. See also Albert W. Alschuler, Law Without Values: The Life, Work and Legacy of Justice Holmes, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000, pages 41ff, ‘The battlefield conversion of Oliver Wendell Holmes’.

15. Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 32, for the impact of Darwin on Holmes.

16. Holmes famously said that anyone who was anyone should have produced a noteworthy achievement by the time he or she was forty. He himself just made it: The Common Law appeared when he was 39.

17. Menand, Op. cit., page 338.

18. Howe, Op. cit., volume 2, page 137.

19. Menand, Op. cit., page 339.

20. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 209.

21. Menand, Op. cit., page 339.

22. Ibid., page 340.

23. Ibid., page 341.

24. Howe, Op. cit., volume 2, page 140.

25. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 209.

26. Menand, Op. cit., page 342.

27. Alschuler, Op. cit., page 126.

28. Menand, Op. cit., page 344.

29. He had, he said, a pessimistic view of humanity. Alschuler, Op. cit., pages 65 and 207.

30. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 201–210.

31. Menand, Op. cit., page 346.

32. Ibid.

33. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 209.

34. Menand, Op. cit., page 79.

35. Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 127. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 199.

36. See his self-portrait sketch on page 140 of: Gary Wilson Allen, William James: A Biography, London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1967.

37. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 297.

38. This, says Menand, ‘marked the beginning of the professionalisation of American science’. Op. cit., page 100.

39. Linda Simon, Genuine Reality: A Life of William James, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998, page 90.

40. Menand, Op. cit., page 127.

41. Ibid., page 146.

42. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 199.

43. Allen, Op. cit., page 25.

44. Menand, Op. cit., page 154.

45. Ibid.

46. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 198.

47. Menand, Op. cit., page 180.

48. Ibid., page 186.

49. Joseph Brent, C. S. Peirce: A Life, Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1993, page 208.

50. Hofstadter, Op. cit., pages 124ff, for the links between Herbert Spencer and pragmatism.

51. Menand, Op. cit., page 196.

52. Brent, Op. cit., page 96.

53. Menand, Op. cit., page 197.

54. Ibid., page 199.

55. Ibid., page 200.

56. Brent, Op. cit., page 274. See Hofstadter, Op. cit., pages 128ff, for the influence of Peirce and Spencer on James. See also Boorstin, The Americans, Op. cit., page 260.

57. Menand, Op. cit., page 352.

58. Ibid.

59. Simon, Op. cit., pages 348ff for James’ debt to Peirce.

60. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 199.

61. Menand, Op. cit., page 355.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid., page 357.

64. See Allen, Op. cit., page 321, for his reservations.

65. Menand, Op. cit., pages 357–358.

66. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being, Op. cit.

67. See for example: Ellen Key, The Century of the Child, New York: Putnam, 1909.

68. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 201.

69. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 223.

70. This lack of structure ultimately backfired, producing children who were more conformist, precisely because they lacked hard knowledge or the independent judgement that the occasional failure helped to teach them. Liberating children from parental ‘domination’ was, without question, a form of freedom. But, in the twentieth century, it was to bring its own set of problems.

71. Morison et al., Op. cit., pages 198–199.

72. Menand, Op. cit., page 360.

73. Ibid., page 361. See also: Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 136.

74. Menand, Op. cit., page 361.

75. Robert B. Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy, New York: Cornell University Press, 1991, page 349.

76. Morison et al., Op. cit., pages 199–200.

77. Fergal McGrath, The Consecration of Learning, Dublin: Gill & Son, 1962, pages 3–4.

78. Ibid., page 11.

79. Negley Harte, The University of London: 1836–1986, Dublin: Athlone Press, 1986, pages 67ff.

80. John Newman, The Idea of a University, London: Basil Montague Pickering, 1873/New Haven, Connecticut Yale University Press, 1996, page 88.

81. Ibid., page 123.

82. Ibid., page 133.

83. George M. Marsden, The Soul of the American University, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994, page 80.

84. Ibid., page 91. Daniel Boorstin says that a characteristic of American colleges was that they were less places of instruction than of worship – worship of the growing individual, and this is what links the two parts of this chapter: pragmatism and universities. See Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience, New York: Vintage, 1973, which also has a useful discussion of the shape of US education, including the many new degrees devised, pages 479–481.

85. Marsden, Op. cit., pages 51–52.

86. Brooks Mather Kelley, A History of Yale, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974, pages 162–165. Yet at Yale, as late as 1886, ancient languages occupied a third of the students’ time. See Caroline Winterer, The Culture of Classicism, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002, pages 101–102.

87. Ibid., page 88. See Morison et al., Op. cit., pages 224–225, for statistics on the growth of American universities.

88. Marsden, Op. cit., page 153.

89. Abraham Flexner, Universities: American, English, German, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1930, page 124.

90. Samuel Eliot Morison (editor), The Development of Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1930, pages 11 and 158.

91. Thomas P. Hughes, American Genesis, London: Penguin, 1990, page 14.

92. Ibid., page 241.

93. Ibid., page 16. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 53.

94. Hughes, Op. cit., page 105.

95. Gillian Cookson, The Cable: The Wire That Changed the World, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2003, page 152.

CHAPTER 35: ENEMIES OF THE CROSS AND THE QURʾAN – THE END OF THE SOUL

1. A. N. Wilson, God’s Funeral, London: John Murray, 1999, page 133.

2. Ibid., page 160.

3. Ibid., page 4.

4. Ibid., page 189.

5. Ibid., page 193.

6. This is confirmed by a survey of influential books among ‘freethinkers’ published in 1905. See Edward Royle, Radicals, Secularists and Republicans, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980, page 173.

7. Wilson, Op. cit., page 20.

8. Ibid., page 22.

9. Ibid., page 35.

10. Owen Chadwick, The Secularisation of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press/Canto, 1975/1985, page 21.

11. Ibid., page 23.

12. Ibid., page 27.

13. Alfred Cobban, In Search of Humanity: The Role of the Enlightenment in Modern History, London: Cape, 1966, page 236. See also Hawthorn, Enlightenment and Despair, Op. cit., pages 82–84.

14. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 28.

15. Ibid., pages 29–30; and Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 87.

16. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 37.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid., page 38.

19. But polarisation cut both ways. ‘The Pope of 1889 was far more influential than the Pope of 1839 because the later Pope was surrounded by the press [as] the earlier Pope was not.’ Ibid., page 41.

20. David Landes says the poor ‘entered the market as little as possible’. Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., page 127.

21. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 46.

22. Ibid., page 47.

23. Again, Marx ranked highly with Gibbon on the list of influential books referred to earlier (see note 6 above). Royle, Op. cit., page 174.

24. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 57. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 85, discusses the differences between Protestantism and Catholicism and what this meant for Marxism.

25. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 59.

26. Ibid., page 89.

27. Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 24, observes that Protestants were more likely to become atheists.

28. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 92.

29. Ibid., page 97.

30. Ibid., page 144.

31. Cobban, Op. cit., page 110. On Carlyle: Boorstin, The Americans, Op. cit., pages 246–247.

32. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 145.

33. Ibid., page 151.

34. Royle, Op. cit., page 220.

35. Ibid., page 17.

36. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 155. Boorstin, The Americans, Op. cit., page 195.

37. For the general pessimism of the nineteenth century about the eighteenth century, see Cobban, Op. cit., page 215.

38. Chadwick, Op. cit., pages 158–159.

39. Ibid., page 159.

40. See Royle, Op. cit., for the organisation of secularisation in Britain and its revival in 1876. For France, see Jennifer Michael Hecht, The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism and Anthropology in France, New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.

41. Ibid., page 177.

42. When, near the end of the century, Josef Bautz, a Catholic professor of theology in Münster, argued that volcanoes are a proof of the existence of purgatory, he was roundly mocked and lampooned as the ‘professor of hell’. Chadwick. Op. cit., page 179. Most parents no longer believed in hell, says Chadwick, but they told their children they did, as a convenient form of control.

43. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 212.

44. Ibid., page 215.

45. Ibid., page 220. Like Comte, Renan thought positivism could be the basis for a new faith. Hawthorn. Op. cit., pages 114–115.

46. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 224.

47. Lester R. Kurtz, The Politics of Heresy, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986, page 18.

48. Hecht, Op. cit., page 182. See also: Kurtz, Op. cit., page 18.

49. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 123.

50. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 25.

51. Ibid., page 27.

52. Moynahan, The Faith, Op. cit., page 655.

53. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 30.

54. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 655.

55. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 30.

56. Ibid., pages 30–31.

57. ‘Liberals and intransigents in France, 1848–1878’, Chapter III of Alec R. Vidler, The Modernist Movement and the Roman Church, New York: Garden Press, 1976, pages 25ff.

58. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 33.

59. Ibid.

60. Vidler, Op. cit., pages 42 and 96.

61. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 34.

62. Ibid., page 35.

63. Ibid.

64. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 659, for a vivid account of that day (including extraordinary weather).

65. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 37.

66. Ibid., page 38.

67. Vidler, Op. cit., pages 60–65 and 133f.

68. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 41.

69. Ibid., page 42.

70. ‘The Biblical Question’, Chapter X, in Vidler, Op. cit., pages 81ff. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 661, says Leo ‘warmed’ to democracy and freedom of conscience. But only by comparison with Pius.

71. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 44.

72. Ibid., page 45.

73. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 661, for the Kulturkampf in Germany that left all the sees in Prussia vacant and more than a million Catholics without access to the sacraments.

74. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 50.

75. Ibid., page 148.

76. See Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, Op. cit., chapter 18, ‘The culture of imperialism and reform’, pages 299ff. And: Erik J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, London: I. B. Tauris, 1993, pages 52–74.

77. Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Op. cit., especially chapters II, III, IV, V, VII, VIII, IX and X.

78. The Times (London), 29 April 2004. See also: Aziz Al-Azmeh, Islams and Modernities (second edition), London: Verso, 1996, especially chapter 4, pages 101–127.

79. Hourani, Op. cit., page 307, and pages 346–347.

80. The Times, 29 April 2004. Al-Azmeh, Op. cit., pages 107–117. See also: Francis Robinson, ‘Other-worldly and This-Worldly Islam and the Islamic Revival’, Cantwell Smith memorial Lecture, Royal Asiatic Society, 10 April 2003.

81. The study of Machiavelli became popular in the Islamic world, as a way to understand tyrants and despots.

82. The Times, 29 April 2004. Al-Azmeh, Op. cit., pages 41ff. Hourani, Op. cit., pages 254, 302 and 344–345. See also: Tariq Ramadan, Western Muslims and the Future of Islam, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

The reform movement ended, more or less, with the First World War, when so many lost faith with the culture of science and materialism. In the Islamic world, the post-war scenario saw two parallel strands. Modernism continued in many areas but, beginning in Egypt with the Muslim Brotherhood, a more militant strand of Islam began to take root. Throughout the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, when Marxism and socialism became the official ruling doctrines, religion was downgraded and no accommodation was sought with Islam. This climaxed in the Six-Day War with Israel, in 1968, which the Muslim countries lost decisively. This was seen in the Islamic world as a great failure of socialism, and it was now that fundamental and militant Islam began to fill the political vacuum created.

CHAPTER 36: MODERNISM AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE UNCONSCIOUS

1. Ronald Clark, Freud: The Man and the Cause, New York: Random House, 1980, pages 20 and 504.

2. Everdell, The First Moderns, Op. cit., page 129.

3. Mark D. Altschule, Origins of Concepts in Human Behavior: Social and Cultural Factors, New York and London: John Wiley, 1977, page 199. Peter Gay, Schnitzler’s Century: The Making of Middle Class Culture 1815–1914, New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2002, pages 132 and 137.

4. Guy Claxton, The Wayward Mind: An Intimate History of the Unconscious, London: Little, Brown, 2005, passim.

5. Henri F. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1970, pages 56–70.

6. Ibid., pages 124–125.

7. Ibid., page 142.

8. Reuben Fine, A History of Psychoanalysis, New York: Columbia University Press, 1979, pages 9–10.

9. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 145.

10. The work of the historian Peter Gay, especially his four-volume The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1984, views the whole of the nineteenth century as in some way culminating in Freud. His book tackles sex, gender, taste, learning, privacy, changing notions of the self, and is much too wide-ranging to be sensibly distilled in a book like this one. Gustave Gely’s book From the Unconscious to the Conscious, London: Collins, 1920, argues the opposite theory: that evolution has resulted in consciousness.

11. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 205.

12. Ibid., page 212.

13. Ibid., page 219.

14. Ibid., pages 218–223.

15. An entirely different tradition, too tangential in the author’s view, is David Bakan’s Sigmund Freud and the Jewish Mystical Tradition, Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand, 1958.

16. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 208.

17. Ibid., page 209.

18. Quoted in: Bryan Magee, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983, pages 132–133.

19. Ernest Gellner, The Psychoanalytic Movement, London: Paladin, 1985, pages 21ff.

20. Allen Esterson, Seductive Mirage, Chicago and La Salle, Illinois: Open Court, 1993, page 224.

21. Ernest Jones, Sigmund Freud: Life and Work, London: Hogarth Press, 1953/1980, volume 1, page 410.

22. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 358.

23. Elton Mayo, The Psychology of Pierre Janet, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951, pages 24ff, offers a succinct account.

24. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 296.

25. Ibid.

26. Giovanni Costigan, Sigmund Freud: A Short Biography, London: Robert Hale, 1967, page 100.

27. Johnston, The Austrian Mind, Op. cit., page 235.

28. Esterson, Op. cit., pages 2–3. Johnston, Op. cit., page 236.

29. Johnston, Op. cit., page 236.

30. Costigan, Op. cit., page 42.

31. Ibid., pages 68ff.

32. Ibid., page 70.

33. Clark, Op. cit., page 181.

34. Ibid., page 185.

35. Gregory Zilboorg, ‘Free association’, International Journal of Psychoanalysis, volume 33, 1952, pages 492–494.

36. See also: Hannah Decker, ‘The medical reception of psychoanalysis in Germany, 1894–1907: three brief studies’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, volume 45, 1971, pages 461–481.

37. Albrecht Hirschmüller, The Life and Work of Josef Breuer, New York and London: New York University Press, 1978/1989, page 131.

38. See: Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen (translated by Kirby Olson in collaboration with Xavier Callahan and the author), Remembering Anna O. A Century of Mystification, New York and London: Routledge, 1996, pages 29–48.

39. Morton Schatzman, ‘Freud: who seduced whom?’, New Scientist, 21 March 1992, pages 34–37.

40. Esterson, Op. cit., page 52.

41. Anthony Clare, ‘That shrinking feeling’, The Sunday Times, 16 November 1997, page 8–10.

42. T. J. Clark, The Painting of Modern Life, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 1984, page 25.

43. Ibid., page 30.

44. Ibid., pages 23ff.

45. Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society, Op. cit., page 80, for a table. For the same thesis applied to Germany, see: Geoffrey Cocks and Konrad H. Jarausch (editors), German Professions: 1800–1950, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane (editors), Modernism: A Guide to European Literature, 1890–1930, London: Penguin Books, 1976/1991, page 47.

46. Ibid., page 68.

47. Ibid., page 100.

48. Johnston, The Austrian Mind, Op. cit., pages 23 and 32; and Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna, Op. cit., page 19.

49. Schorske, Op. cit., page 19.

50. Bradbury and McFarlane (editors), Op. cit., page 37.

51. Robert Ferguson, Henrik Ibsen, London: Richard Cohen Books, 1996, page 321.

52. Everdell, The First Moderns, Op. cit., page 290. Franz Servaes, ‘Jung Berlin, I, II, III’, in Die Zeit (Vienna), 21 and 28 November, 5 December 1896.

53. Bradbury and McFarland (editors), Op. cit., page 499.

54. This was based on Ibsen’s anger towards his own countrymen. Ferguson. Op. cit., pages 269ff.

55. John Fletcher and James McFarlane, ‘Modernist drama: origins and patterns’, in Bradbury and McFarlane (editors), Op. cit., page 502.

56. Ibid., page 504.

57. Sandbach, Op. cit., page viii.

58. Ibid., page ix.

59. Frederich Marker and Lise-Lone Marker, Strindberg and Modernist Theatre, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2002, page 31; James McFarlane, ‘Intimate theatre: Maeterlinck to Strindberg’, in Bradbury and McFarlane (editors), Op. cit., pages 524–525.

60. Marker and Marker, Op. cit., pages 23ff.

61. Bradbury and McFarlane (editors), Op. cit., page 525.

62. André Malraux, Picasso’s Masks, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976, pages 10–11.

63. Everdell, Op. cit., page 252; Fletcher and McFarlane, Op. cit., page 503.

64. Burrow, The Crisis of Reason, Op. cit., page 148.

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid., page 148.

67. Ibid., page 149.

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid., pages 162–163.

70. Roger Smith, The Fontana History of the Human Sciences, Op. cit., page 851 and ref.

71. Ibid., page 852 and ref.

72. Ibid., page 853. Curtis Cate, Nietzsche’s biographer, says he anticipated Freud, Adler and Jung in realising that an individual’s attitude to his or her past is essentially ambivalent. This can act as a stimulant, or the opposite. But the past can provide inspiration, a force for the will. Curtis Cate, Friedrich Nietzsche, London: Hutchinson, 2002, page 185.

73. Burrow, Op. cit., pages 189–190.

74. See Everdell, Op. cit., pages 1–12, for a discussion of what modernism is ‘and what it probably isn’t’. And page 63 for Seurat’s Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte as a candidate for the first modernist masterpiece. Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane, ‘The name and nature of modernism’, in Bradbury and McFarlane (editors), Op. cit., page 28.

75. Bradbury and McFarlane (editors), Op. cit., page 50.

76. James McFarlane, ‘The Mind of Modernism’, in Bradbury and McFarlane (editors), Op. cit., page 85.

CONCLUSION: THE ELECTRON, THE ELEMENTS AND THE ELUSIVE SELF

1. The Cavendish prize-winners included J. J. Thomson (1906), Ernest Rutherford (1908), W. L. Bragg (1915), F. W. Aston (1922), James Chadwick (1935), E. V. Appleton (1947), P. M. S. Blackett (1948), Francis Crick and James Watson (1962), Anthony Hewish and Martin Ryle (1974), and Peter Kapitza (1978). See: Jeffrey Hughes, ‘ “Brains in their finger-tips”: physics at the Cavendish Laboratory, 1880–1940’, in Richard Mason (editor), Cambridge Minds, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press/Canto, 1994, pages 160ff.

2. See the photograph on page 243 of: J. G. Crowther, The Cavendish Laboratory, 1874–1974, London: Macmillan, 1974.

3. Mason (editor), Op. cit., page 162.

4. Crowther, Op. cit., page 48.

5. Steven Weinberg, The Discovery of Subatomic Particles, New York: W. H. Freeman, 1983/1990, page 7.

6. Mason (editor), Op. cit., page 161.

7. Paul Strathern, Mendeleyev’s Dream: The Quest for the Elements, London: Hamish Hamilton, 2000, pages 3 and 286. See also: Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986, page 30.

8. Ibid., page 31.

9. Ibid., pages 41–42.

10. Ibid., pages 38–40.

11. Ibid., pages 50–51 and 83–85.

12. Roy Porter, Flesh in the Age of Reason, London: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, 2003, pages 69ff.

13. Ibid., page 30. Wahrman, The Making of the Modern Self, Op. cit., pages 182–184.

14. Bradbury and McFarlane (editors) Op. cit., page 86; and Arnold Hauser, A Social History of Art, Op. cit., volume IV, page 224. In Augustine’s Invention of the Inner Self (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003), Phillip Cary argues that Augustine invented the concept of the self as a private inner space and in so doing inaugurated the Western tradition of inwardness.

15. Burrow, Op. cit., pages 137–138.

16. Ibid., page 153.

17. Robinson, ‘Symbols at an Exhibition’, Op. cit., page 12.

18. P. B. Medawar, The Hope of Progress, London: Methuen, 1972, page 68.

19. John Maddox, What Remains to Be Discovered, London: Macmillan, 1998, page 306.

20. John Cornwell (editor), Consciousness and Human Identity, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998, page vii. See: Simon Blackburn, ‘The world in your head’, New Scientist, 11 September 2004, pages 42–45; and Jeffrey Gray, Consciousness: Creeping Up on the Hard Problem, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Benjamin Libet, Mind Time: The Temporal Factor in Consciousness, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2004.

21. See, for example, J. R. Searle, The Mystery of Consciousness, London: Granta, 1996, pages 95ff.

22. Roger Penrose, Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

23. Ibid., page 87.

24. Cornwell (editor), Op. cit., pages 11–12. Laura Spinney, ‘Why we do what we do’, New Scientist, 31 July 2004, pages 32–35; Emily Suiger, ‘They know what you want’, Ibid., page 36.

25. Robert Wright, The Moral Animal, New York: Pantheon, 1994, page 321.

26. Olaf Sporns, ‘Biological variability and brain function’, in Cornwell (editor), Op. cit., pages 38–53.

27. John Gray, Straw Dogs, London: Granta, 2002, page 151.