In the Shadow of the Sword: The Birth of Islam and the Rise of the Global Arab Empire

Index

Abbasid dynasty, 1.1, 7.1, 7.2, bm1.1

Abd al-Malik, Caliph: succeeds Marwan as Amir (685), 7.1; pays tribute to Romans, 7.2, 7.3; invades northern Iraq, 7.4; re-minting of coins, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9; proclaims Muhammad as Prophet of God, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12, 7.13, 7.14; stamping of empire with authentic religion of God, 7.15, 7.16, 7.17, 7.18; builds Dome of the Rock, 7.19, 7.20, 7.21, 7.22; campaign against ibn al-Zubayr (691), 7.23, 7.24; pilgrimage to Arabia (694), 7.25; restores Ka’ba at Mecca, 7.26, 7.27; enshrines Mecca as pivot of cosmos, 7.28; links to Hijaz, 7.29; Arabic language and, 7.30; bureaucratic reforms of, 7.31, 7.32; as “Deputy of God”, 7.33, 7.34, 7.35; death of (705), 7.36

Abraham, 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2; birth in Mesopotamia, 2.1, 2.2; divine revelations to, 2.3, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3; granting of Canaan to, 2.4, 2.5, 4.4, 6.3, 6.4; importance of bloodline of, 2.6, 2.7, 3.3, 3.4, 4.5, 4.6, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 7.3; Zoroastrian view of, 2.8; Christians as children of, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 4.7; sacrifice of Isaac test, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10; Mamre site and, 4.11, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 6.8, 6.9; Hagar as concubine of, 4.15, 6.10, 6.11; in Qur’an, 6.12, 6.13; Dome of the Rock souvenirs, 7.4

Abu Bakr, Caliph

Abu Ishaq (lawyer)

Abu Lahab (figure in Qur’an)

Abu Muslim, 7.1, bm1.1

Adam, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 7.1, 7.2

Aeneas, 3.1, 3.2

agriculture

Ahriman (Persian evil spirit), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4

al-Bukhari (hadith hunter), 1.1, 1.2

Alexander the Great, 1.1, 2.1*, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 5.1, 5.2*, 5.3, 6.1, 6.2; in Qur’an, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5

Alexandria, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2

Al-Hajjaj, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8

Ali ibn Abi Talib, Caliph, 1.1, 6.1; murder of (661), 1.2, 6.2, 7.1; Shi’a (“party”) of, 6.3, 6.4, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6

Ali ibn Bakkar, 7.1, 7.2

Al-Jahiz, 1.1, 1.2

Amalekites

Amida (Roman stronghold), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 3.2, 5.1, bm1.1

Amila (Arabian nomadic tribe)

Anahita (Persian warrior goddess), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3

Anastasius (Roman emperor), 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2

angels, 1.1, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3; Gabriel, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7; at Badr, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11; Gnostics and, 1.12; Daniel and, 2.1, 5.4; Jewish scripture and, 2.2, 2.3; Saint Simeon and, 4.6, 4.7; paganism and, 5.5; matching of image to audience, 5.6; in Qur’an, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 7.1; gender of, 6.6, 6.7; prayers to, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10

the Annunciation

Antioch, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 7.1; Ignatius as bishop of, 3.2, 3.3; Simeon of, 4.4, 4.5, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 6.2, 7.2; destruction of by Khusrow (540), 5.6; plague epidemic (543), 5.7

Apollo

Arabia: Himyar, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5*, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2; Islam defeats paganism in, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8; Muhammad’s transformation of, 1.9; paganism in, 1.10, 6.3; map of, 4.3; Roman province of, 4.4; progress of Christianity into, 5.2, 5.3; Hijaz region of, 5.4, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 7.1, 7.2; increase in power of desert nomads, 5.5; cross-pollination of faiths in, 6.8, 6.9; reputation as breeding ground for heresy, 6.10, 6.11; wilderness as place of exile/sanctuary, 6.12, 6.13; hybrid cults in, 6.14; mass emigration north towards Holy Land, 6.15, 6.16; Roman cataloguing of tribes, 6.17; ancient manuscripts and, 6.18; location of “House of God”, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; Abd al-Malik invades (691), 7.6, 7.7; Mu’awiya’s grip on, 7.8; see also Quraysh people

Arabian Empire see Islamic Empire

Arabian Nights, bm1.1

Arabic language, 1.1, 4.1, 6.1, 7.1

Arabs: Jewish monarchs in Himyar, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1; the written word and, 1.4; spread of Islam and, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9; in “Age of Ignorance”, 1.10; as Magaritai, 1.11; Mamre site and, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 5.2, 6.2, 6.3; despised as pagans who lived in tents, 4.5; desert lifestyle of, 4.6; suppression of paganism and, 4.7; economic activities and, 4.8, 4.9, 5.3, 6.4, 6.5; military campaigns of Zenobia, 4.10; Nabataean tribe, 4.11, 4.12, 4.13, 6.6; rise of House of Sasan and, 4.14; Thamud confederation, 4.15, 4.16, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9; Rome’s employment of barbarians and, 4.17, 4.18, 4.19, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12; Rome-Persia conflict as opportunity, 4.20, 4.21, 4.22, 6.13; “Saracens” term, 4.23, 6.14; shirkat (partnership), 4.24, 6.15, 6.16, 6.17, 6.18; Lakhmid command of Hira, 4.25, 4.26, 4.27; Lakhmids, 4.28, 4.29, 4.30, 4.31, 4.32, 4.33, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 6.19, 6.20; as Persian mercenaries, 4.34; Arabic origins of emperor Philip, 4.35; cities of the Negev and, 4.36; foederati, 4.37, 4.38, 5.7, 6.21, 6.22, 6.23, 6.24, 6.25, 6.26; Ghassanids, 4.39, 4.40, 4.41, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 6.27, 6.28, 6.29, 6.30, 6.31, 6.32; Roman frontier system and, 4.42, 6.33; Arethas-Mundhir conflict, 4.43, 4.44, 5.11, 5.12; desert spirits/demons and, 4.45, 5.13, 5.14, 6.34, 6.35; al-’Uzza—the “Mighty Queen”, 4.46, 4.47, 5.15, 5.16, 6.36, 6.37; Dushara (god), 4.48, 6.38; conversions to Christianity, 4.49, 4.50; Christian stylites, 4.51; Saracen miracles, 4.52; appearance of in Bible, 4.53; as Children of Ishmael, 4.54, 6.39, 6.40, 7.1; overlaps with Jewish beliefs, 4.55, 6.41; Roman Imperial policy towards, 4.56; opportunities created by plague, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19; climactic triumph of Arethas at Chalcis (554), 5.20; Ghassanids as shields of Christian empire, 5.21, 6.42; overlaps with Christian belief, 5.22; establishment of empire, 6.43; empire defined as Dar al-Islam, 6.44; biblical settings and, 6.45; Saracen invasion of Holy Land/Syria (634-6), 6.46, 6.47; map of early conquests, 6.48; revolt of foederati (582), 6.49; Jewish support for Saracens, 6.50, 6.51; suspicion of great cities, 6.52; status of specific shrines, 7.2; reconstruction of sanctuaries, 7.3; see also Islamic Empire

Arculf (Frankish bishop), 7.1, 7.2, 7.3

Ardashir (founder of Sasanian Empire), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.1, 3.2, bm1.1

Arethas (al-Harith), 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2

Arius and Arianism, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 7.1

Armenia, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 5.1, 6.1

Artemis, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 4.1

asceticism: Christian, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 7.1, 7.2; stylites, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 7.3, 7.4; Umar bin al-Khattab and, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.5; Islamic (Zuhhad), 7.6

Aspebedes, 2.1, 5.1

Athanasius, 3.1, 5.1

Athens, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2

Augustus (Roman emperor), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5

Avars (nomadic tribe), 5.1, 5.2, 5.3

Babylon, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 4.1

Bactria

Badr, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 6.1

Baghdad, bm1.1, bm1.2

Bahram Chobin

Bakka (place in Qur’an), 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3

Bali (Arabian nomadic tribe)

Basilides, 3.1, 3.2, 6.1

Basra (city in Iraq), 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6

Belisarius (Roman general), 3.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4

Berbers, 1.1, 5.1, 7.1

Bethlehem, 4.1, 4.2

Bible, Christian: non-divinity of, 1.1; nineteenth-century scholarly contextualising of, 1.2, 1.3; theory of evolution and, 1.4; dating of writing of, 1.5; appearance of Arabs in, 4.1; Old Testament as foreshadowing of Christ, 6.1; mentions of datable rulers, 6.2; references to in Qur’an, 6.3; see also New Testament

Bihafarid (prophet)

Britain, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 3.1

Byzantium see Constantinople; Roman Empire, New (Constantinople)

Caesarea (port in Palestine), 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

calendars, 1.1, 1.2

Caliphate, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5; title of “Caliph”, 1.6, 7.1; peak of power, 1.7; lack of references to Muhammad, 1.8; as last empire of antiquity, 1.9; map(s) of under Umayyads, 7.2; see also Islamic Empire

Callinicos (architect)

Canaan, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 4.1, 6.1, 6.2

Carthage, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 7.1

Chalcedon, Council of (451), 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1

Christian Church: “heretics” and, 1.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2; “baptism”, 3.5; globe-spanning bureaucracy, 3.6; local congregations, 3.7, 3.8; development of role of bishop, 3.9; as “catholic”/universal, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12; as “welfare state”, 3.13; drive for single orthodoxy, 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 4.4; “false” gospels, 3.18, 4.5; truth derived from high antiquity, 3.19; Jewish scriptures and, 3.20; rejection of Judaism, 3.21, 3.22; rabbi-bishop “sibling rivalry”, 3.23; in Constantinople, 3.24, 3.25, 3.26, 3.27, 4.6; as uneasy coalition, 3.28; Nicaean Council (325), 3.29, 3.30, 3.31, 3.32, 3.33, 4.7, 4.8, 5.3, 5.4, 6.3, 6.4, 7.1; bargain with Constantinople over heresy, 3.34; bishops’ independence from Constantinople, 3.35; Council of Chalcedon (451), 3.36, 4.9, 4.10, 5.5; “Monophysites”, 3.37, 4.11; splits after Chalcedon, 3.38; presumption of as eternal and unchanging, 3.39; monks, 4.12; use of Temple Mount to humiliate Jews, 4.13; heresy in the Holy Land, 4.14; Roman Empire and global spread of, 5.6; Vandals in Carthage and, 5.7; prayers to angels and, 6.5; idolatry forbidden in, 6.6

Christianity: slaughter of Christians at Najran, 1.1, 1.2*, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2; defeat of Yusuf, 1.3, 1.4, 4.3, 5.2; Eusebius and, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9; dominance of Christian sources, 1.10; scholars in late antiquity, 1.11, 1.12; debates over nature of Christ, 1.13, 1.14, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 6.3; Roman conversion to, 1.15, 2.1, 3.5, 3.6, 6.4; Bible as not divine, 1.16; contextualising of ancient texts, 1.17; nineteenth-century scepticism, 1.18, 1.19, 1.20; birth of Christ, 1.21, 1.22; attitude to pre-Christian times, 1.23; fifth-sixth century writings, 1.24; invisibility of pagans in Christian histories, 1.25*; incubation of in late antiquity, 1.26; in Mesopotamia, 2.2, 3.7; Constantinople rebuilt as Christian capital, 3.8; Jewishness of early adherents, 3.9; Jewish scripture and, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14; Paul declares Christians children of Abraham, 3.15; global reach of, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18, 3.19, 3.20; mission to the Gentiles, 3.21; nature of the Holy Spirit, 3.22, 3.23; tradition of charity, 3.24; concept of “Trinity”, 3.25, 3.26, 3.27, 6.5, 6.6, 7.1; wide spectrum of beliefs, 3.28, 3.29, 3.30; missionaries eastbound, 3.31, 7.2; Syriac as lingua franca in Near East, 3.32; scholarship at Edessa, 3.33; Jewish-Christian competition for proselytes, 3.34; paradox of enmity with Judaism, 3.35; obeying of the Torah and, 3.36; porous dividing line with Judaism, 3.37; converts to, 3.38, 3.39; healing of the sick and, 3.40; attitudes to idolatry, 3.41; judicial murders of Christians in Rome, 3.42; full-scale persecution in Roman Empire, 3.43, 3.44; “witnesses” (martyrs), 3.45; miracle of the seven sleepers, 3.46, 3.47, 6.7; disdain for paganism, 3.48, 3.49; proper knowledge of God and, 3.50; asceticism, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 7.3; Moses’ burning bush site and, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9; Moses as Christian, 4.10; pilgrimages to Holy Land, 4.11, 4.12; definitions of Jewishness (Ioudaismos), 4.13; Samaritans and, 4.14, 5.3; Arab conversions to, 4.15, 4.16; Saracen miracles, 4.17; imperial sponsored missions to east and south, 5.4; lost western empire and, 5.5; Alexandria and, 5.6; harbingers of the End Days (mid-sixth century), 5.7; Ghassanids as shields of Christian empire, 5.8, 6.8; progress into Arabia, 5.9, 5.10; overlaps with Arab belief, 5.11; Daniel’s vision and, 5.12, 5.13, 6.9; Jews blamed for fall of Jerusalem (614), 5.14; Heraclius as warrior of Christ, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17; Old Testament as foreshadowing of Christ, 6.10; references to in Qur’an, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14; rejection of Manichaeism, 6.15; loss of Holy Land to Arabs, 6.16; Jews blamed for fall of Holy Land, 6.17, 6.18; rumours of Saracen prophet, 6.19; Mu’awiya reaches out to, 6.20; Abd al-Malik’s challenge to, 7.4; attitudes to slavery, 7.5; anti-Christian regulations in Islamic Empire, 7.6; in Iraq, 7.7; impregnable orthodoxy of shrunken empire, 7.8; fate of Constantinople and, 7.9

Cilicia, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6

circumcision, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1

Constantine, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 4.1, 4.2, 7.1, 7.2; founding of Constantinople, 3.4, 3.5; conversion to Christianity, 3.6, 3.7, 6.1; summons Nicaean Council (325), 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 7.3

Constantinople: founding of, 3.1; expansion of, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4; treasures/trophies/statuary in, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 4.1; architecture and topography, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 4.2, 7.1; relations with Rome, 3.18; Senate House, 3.19, 3.20, 3.21, 3.22; the Palladium and, 3.23, 3.24, 3.25, 3.26, 4.3, 7.2; fall of Rome and, 3.27; Kavad’s embassies to, 3.28, 3.29; map of, 3.30; as cockpit of global affairs, 3.31, 3.32; imperial palace, 3.33, 3.34, 3.35, 3.36; civilian nature of supreme power, 3.37; power of the written word and, 3.38; Hippodrome, 3.39, 3.40, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 7.3; revolt (14 January 532), 3.41, 3.42, 5.5; rebuilt as Christian capital, 3.43; fortifications at, 3.44, 7.4; Christian Church and, 3.45, 3.46, 3.47, 3.48, 4.4; Church of Hagia Sophia (537), 3.49, 4.5, 4.6, 5.6, 6.1, 7.5; Syrian ascetics and, 4.7; Christian relics at, 4.8, 4.9; as Christian capital of the world, 4.10; fears of pagan-Jewish alliance, 4.11; Ostrogoths and, 5.7; plague epidemic (542), 5.8; earthquake (557), 5.9; threatened by barbarian army (559), 5.10; Phocas marches on (602), 5.11; Theodore predicts End Days, 5.12; advance on by Shahrbaraz (626), 5.13; Byzantine navy, 5.14; Persians and Avars repulsed, 5.15, 5.16; expurgation of paganism under Maurice, 6.2; besieged by Mu’awiya (674-8), 6.3; Mu’awiya’s ambition to take, 7.6; fate of as future of the world, 7.7; Arab advance on (716-7), 7.8; contraction of, 7.9; siege of (717), 7.10; see also Roman Empire, New (Constantinople)

“Constitution of Medina”, 6.1, 6.2

Ctesiphon (capital city of Persian Empire), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 5.2, bm1.1; falls to the Saracens, 6.1

Cyril (bishop of Jerusalem)

Cyrus (King of Persia), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 5.1, 6.1

Dahag (demon king), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 4.1

Damascus, 5.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, bm1.1

Daniel, 1.1, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 6.1; fourth beast of, 3.4, 5.2, 5.3, 6.2, bm1.1

Dara, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 5.2

Darwin, Charles, 1.1, 1.2

David, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 6.1

Dead Sea, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1

“Dead Sea Scrolls”

Decius (Roman emperor), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6

demons, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3; Muhammad and, 1.3, 6.1; Dahag (demon king), 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 4.1; Kayanid kings and, 2.7, 2.8; Zoroastrians and, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11; Jewish scripture and, 2.12; Pagan Rome and, 2.13, 3.2, 3.3, 4.2; Christian Rome and, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 6.2; asceticism and, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9; Arab desert spirits, 4.10, 5.1, 5.2, 6.3, 6.4; Justinian’s “diabolic nature”, 5.3

Dioscorus (Alexandrian patriarch)

Dushara (pagan god), 4.1, 5.1, 6.1

earthly life/mortal affairs, 1.1; divine providence, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4; theory of evolution and, 1.5, 1.6; debates over divine manifestation and, 1.7, 1.8; Jesus’ views on, 1.9; poverty, 1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1; social justice, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 5.3, 7.2; pre-Islamic immorality, 1.16; effects of Persian civil war, 2.1; Mazdak and, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5; fall of empires, 2.6; Christian Church as “welfare state”, 3.1; pillar climbers as tourist attractions, 4.1; tourist boom in Holy Land, 4.2, 4.3; Syrian prosperity, 5.4; public welfare, 5.5; plague epidemics, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, 5.12

Ebionites, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1

Eden, Garden of, 2.1, 2.2

Edessa (“the Blessed City”), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1; fall of to Khusrow II (610), 5.2; Mu’awiya and, 7.1

Egypt, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 5.1; enslavement of tribes of Israel, 4.1; Alexandria, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2; Monophysites (Copts) in, 5.4, 5.5, 6.3; plague epidemic (541-2), 5.6; annexed by Khusrow II, 5.7; Roman loss of to Arabs, 6.4; Arabs enter (639), 6.5; in Islamic Empire, 6.6, 6.7

End Days, 6.1, 6.2, bm1.1; Zoroastrians and, 2.1, 5.1, 5.2; harbingers of (mid-sixth century), 5.3; Constantinople and, 5.4; in Qur’an, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6; ibn al-Zubayr and, 7.1; Dome of the Rock and, 7.2; fate of Constantinople and, 7.3, 7.4

Ephesus, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1

Epiphanius, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2

Ethiopia, 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1

Eudocia (empress of Theodosius II)

Eusebius, The History of the Church, epi.1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

evolution, theory of, 1.1, 1.2

Fredegar (chronicler)

Gabriel, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6

Galilee, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1

Gaul, 1.1, 3.1, 3.2, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3

Gibbon, Edward, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

Gibraltar

Gnostics, 1.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 6.1, 6.2

Gog and Magog, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2

Goths, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 5.1; Visigoths, 1.1, 5.2, 7.1, 7.2; Christianity and, 3.5, 5.3, 6.1; Ostrogoths, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 6.2

Greeks, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 6.1; mythology, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 4.2, 6.2; Athens, 3.7, 4.3, 4.4

Gurgan Plain, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 7.1

hadiths (quotations of the Prophet), 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 5.1*, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, bm1.1; as basis of Sunna, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6; authentication of, 1.7, 1.8, 7.2; “isnads” (chains of informants), 1.9, 1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 7.3; doubts over authenticity, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18; fakes, 1.19, 1.20, 1.21; Medina as necessary origin, 7.4; jihad concept, 7.5

Hagar (Abraham’s concubine), 4.1, 6.1, 6.2

Haroun al-Rashid, bm1.1, bm1.2

Harran (Mesopotamian city), 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2

Hebron

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

Helena (mother of emperor), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 7.1

Hephthalites, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 7.1; Persian campaigns against, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 7.2; support of Kavad, 2.11, 2.12; mercenaries support Kavad against Rome, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15; Turks as threat to, 2.16; final defeat of (557), 5.1

Hera

Heraclius (Roman emperor), 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5; Khusrow II’s invasion and, 5.3, 6.6; as warrior of Christ, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6; counteroffensive against Persia (624-9), 5.7; captures Khusrow II’s palaces (627), 5.8; returns True Cross to Jerusalem (630), 5.9, 6.7; decrees compulsory baptism of Jews and Samaritans (632), 5.10, 6.8, 6.9; Saracen invasion of Holy Land/Syria and, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12; destroys Persian fire temples, 6.13, 7.1; retreat north-westwards from Antioch, 7.2

Herakleopolis

Hijaz region of Arabia, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.1, 7.2

Himyar, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5*, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2

Hindu Kush, 2.1, 7.1

Hira (city), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4

Hisham, Caliph, 7.1, 7.2

Holy Land: Arab conquest of, 1.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3; Jesus and, 4.1, 4.2; New Testament and, 4.3; Christian pilgrimages to, 4.4, 4.5; tourist boom after Constantine’s conversion, 4.6, 4.7; Christian settlers in, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 4.11; as holy to peoples everywhere, 4.12; cosmopolitan nature of, 4.13, 4.14; first century rebellions against Roman rule, 4.15, 4.16; Romans name as “Palestine”, 4.17; rabbis in Palestine, 4.18, 4.19, 4.20, 4.21; Jews as embattled minority in, 4.22; map of, 4.23; city of Tiberias, 4.24, 4.25, 4.26, 5.1, 6.4; Galilee as stronghold of rabbis, 4.27, 4.28, 4.29; hybrid beliefs in, 4.30, 4.31; Samaritan revolts (484-529), 4.32, 4.33; Jerusalem-Jericho road (“Bloody Way”), 4.34; wilderness on borders, 4.35, 4.36, 4.37, 6.5; Christian ascetics in remote areas, 4.38, 4.39; eastern-border monasteries (lavras), 4.40, 4.41; “polytheists” in, 4.42; mysterious scrolls in wilderness, 4.43; survival of paganism in, 4.44, 4.45; plague in Galilee (600), 5.2; border zone heads south, 5.3; effects of plague on, 5.4; annexed by Khusrow II, 5.5, 6.6; raids on by barbarian horsemen (632), 5.6; Roman loss of to Arabs, 6.7; Arab mercenaries patrol frontier, 6.8; Arab mass emigration north towards, 6.9, 6.10; Saracen invasion of (634), 6.11, 6.12; Muhammad and southern border zone, 6.13, 7.1; Jewish enthusiasm for Arab capture of, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16; as obsession for Islamic Empire, 6.17; Islamic anti-Christian regulations, 7.2

Homer, the Iliad, 1.1

Hormizd (King of Persia)

Hunayn

Huns, 2.1, 2.2

Husayn (grandson of the Prophet), 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3

Ibn al-Mubarak

ibn al-Zubayr, Abdullah, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4; “House of God”, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.11; End Days and, 7.12; sends Mus’ab to Iraq, 7.13, 7.14; proclaims Muhammad as Prophet of God, 7.15; Abd al-Malik’s campaign against (691), 7.16, 7.17; death of (692), 7.18

Ibn Hisham, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 6.1, bm1.1

Ibn Ishaq, 1.1, 1.2, 6.1, bm1.1

Ibn Khaldun, A Universal History, 1.1

Ibn Mujahid

Ignatius, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

Iran, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3*, 2.4, 7.1; revolt against Islamic Empire, 6.1; eastern frontiers of, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4; see also Persian Empire

Iraq, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 7.1; revolt against Yazid, 7.2; ibn al-Zubayr sends Mus’ab to, 7.3, 7.4; Abd al-Malik invades (689), 7.5; Abd al-Malik’s re-minting of coins, 7.6, 7.7; Al-Hajjaj as governor of, 7.8; great garrison cities of, 7.9, 7.10, 7.11; new Islamic cities in, 7.12; lifestyles of Arab ruling classes, 7.13; slave markets in, 7.14; free market in faiths in, 7.15, 7.16; ulama (scholarly legal experts), 7.17, 7.18, 7.19, 7.20, 7.21, bm1.1; Shi’a uprising in (740), 7.22; Kharijite revolt (745), 7.23, 7.24, 7.25; see also Mesopotamia

Isaac (son of Abraham), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5

Isaiah (prophet)

Ishmael (son of Abraham and Hagar), 4.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.1, 7.2

Islam: faith leading to glory, 1.1, 1.2; remoteness of Mecca and, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 6.1; shirk (mortal offence), 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5; Muslim calendar, 1.10, 1.11; social justice and, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 7.1; consecration of Mecca, 1.15; non-Arabic believers, 1.16; Muslim chronicles, 1.17, 1.18, 6.6; spread beyond Arabia, 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 1.23; “golden age”, 1.24; Sahabah (“Companions”) of Muhammad, 1.25, 6.7, 7.2; era of the Rashidun ends (661), 1.26; decline following “golden age”, 1.27; “qur’an” (recitation), 1.28; scholars of “qur’an”, 1.29; eighteenth century Muslim jurists, 1.30; “gate of interpretation” closed in eighteenth century, 1.31; depth and detail of Muslim writings on origins of, 1.32, 6.8; nineteenth century issues over Hadiths, 1.33; reliability of historical tradition, 1.34; hadiths as problematic source for origins of, 1.35, 1.36; lack of extant/contemporary accounts of origins, 1.37, 1.38, 6.9; history as literature, 1.39; absence of early Muslim references to Muhammad, 1.40, 1.41, 1.42; modern debate origins of, 1.43; denial of Jesus’ divinity, 1.44; modern sensitivity over, 1.45, 6.10; Western scholars’ questioning of traditional narratives, 1.46; scholarly need for veracity of early sources, 1.47; as culmination of “late antiquity”, 1.48; attitude to pre-Islamic times, 1.49; Jahiliyyah (“Age of Ignorance”), 1.50; origins in late antiquity Near East, 1.51, 1.52; fifth-sixth century sources, 1.53; secular enquiry into origins of, 6.11, 6.12; attitudes to Zoroastrians, 6.13, 7.3; ibn al-Zubayr’s “House of God”, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 7.10; location of “House of God”, 7.11, 7.12, 7.13; qiblas reoriented to the south (after 694), 7.14; faith proclaimed/named as Islam, 7.15; self-confidence of, 7.16; attitudes to slavery, 7.17, 7.18; natives eager to convert to, 7.19; Zoroastrian converts to, 7.20, 7.21; influence of Zoroastrian converts, 7.22, 7.23; rabbi converts to, 7.24; Caliphate-lawyer conflict, 7.25; ascetics (Zuhhad), 7.26; fate of Constantinople and, 7.27; warrior-scholars, 7.28, 7.29; jihad concept, 7.30

Islamic Empire: as God’s will, 1.1, 1.2, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1; Muslim accounts of, 1.3; title of “Caliph”, 1.4, 7.2; Abbasid dynasty, 1.5, 7.3, 7.4, bm1.1; origins of in history of late antiquity, 1.6; conquest of former Roman provinces, 1.7, 5.1; conquest of former Persian provinces, 1.8; fall of Persian Empire and, 6.3; as threat to Roman Empire, 6.4; capture of Roman provinces, 6.5; Arab empire defined as Dar al-Islam, 6.6; low profile of Mecca in early decades of, 6.7; low profile of Qu’ran in early decades of, 6.8, 6.9, 7.5; Saracen invasion of Holy Land/Syria (634-6), 6.10, 6.11; map of early conquests, 6.12; Saracen victory at the Yarmuk, 6.13, 6.14; victory over Persians at Qadisiyya, 6.15, 6.16; Mesopotamia falls to, 6.17; Saracen capture of Ctesiphon, 6.18; Umar as supreme exemplar of, 6.19; Quraysh motives and, 6.20; initial aims of Muhajirun/Quraysh, 6.21, 6.22; Palestine as transcendent prize, 6.23; evolving pretensions of, 6.24; Arabs enter Egypt (639), 6.25; capture of Alexandria (642), 6.26; conquest of Persia, 6.27; inherited bureaucrats and officials from Rome/Persia, 6.28, 6.29, 7.6, 7.7; tax/tribute from conquered provinces, 6.30, 6.31, 7.8, 7.9; lessening of Prophet’s influence, 6.32; centralised administration, 6.33, 7.10, 7.11; Medina as original capital of, 6.34; capital moved to Kufa, 6.35; factionalism/fragmentation in, 6.36, 7.12, 7.13, 7.14; Mu’awiya-Ali battle in Syria, 6.37; Kharijites (deserters), 6.38, 6.39, 7.15, 7.16, 7.17, 7.18, 7.19, 7.20, 7.21; siege of Constantinople (674-8), 6.40; coinage of, 6.41, 7.22, 7.23, 7.24, 7.25, 7.26; peace under Mu’awiya, 6.42; rule of Jerusalem, 7.27, 7.28; cannibalising of Roman monuments, 7.29; doctrines and beliefs within, 7.30; revolt against Yazid, 7.31; revolt of Husayn, 7.32; revolt of Ibn al-Zubayr, 7.33, 7.34; plague and famine in Iraq, 7.35; Abd al-Malik invades Iraq (689), 7.36; Abd al-Malik and authentic religion of God, 7.37, 7.38, 7.39, 7.40; Abd al-Malik invades Arabia (691), 7.41, 7.42; Arabic language and, 7.43; bureaucratic reforms of Abd al-Malik, 7.44, 7.45; Abd al-Malik as “Deputy of God”, 7.46, 7.47, 7.48; map(s) of Caliphate under Umayyads, 7.49; mosque in Damascus, 7.50, 7.51, 7.52; advance into Spain, 7.53; expansion of (up to 715), 7.54; eastern frontiers of Iran, 7.55, 7.56, 7.57; slavery in, 7.58, 7.59, 7.60; slave revolts in, 7.61, 7.62; anti-Christian regulations, 7.63; lifestyles of Arab ruling classes, 7.64; natives eager to convert to Islam, 7.65; advance on Constantinople (716-7), 7.66; siege of Constantinople (717), 7.67; defeat at Acroinum (740), 7.68, 7.69; failures in 717-40 period, 7.70, 7.71; grinding stalemate in war with Rome, 7.72; revolt in North Africa (739), 7.73; unrest during Hisham’s reign, 7.74; Kharijite revolt (745), 7.75; capital moved to Harran, 7.76; unrest in Khorasan, 7.77; Abu Muslim rebellion (747), 7.78, bm1.2; Haroun al-Rashid’s campaign against Rome (806), bm1.3; see also Caliphate

Istakhr (Persian city), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 6.1, 6.2

Italy, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3; liberation of Rome (536), 5.4; Ostrogoths destroy Milan (539), 5.5; siege of Rome (537-8), 5.6; Justinian’s peace offer to Ostrogoths (539), 5.7; Belisarius seizes Ravenna (539), 5.8; plague epidemic (543), 5.9; Justinian’s “victory” in, 5.10; invasion of the Lombards (559), 5.11; slave revolts in, 7.1