In the Shadow of the Sword: The Birth of Islam and the Rise of the Global Arab Empire

Jabiya (Arab settlement), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.1

Jacob (son of Isaac)

Jacob of Serugh

Jamshid (legendary Persian king)

Jericho (Canaanite city), 4.1, 4.2

Jerome (monk), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 6.1

Jerusalem: Babylonian sacking of (586 BC), 2.1, 4.1, 4.2; as Jewish sacred place, 2.2, 4.3; Cyrus permits Jewish return to, 2.3; Roman mastery of, 2.4; as David’s capital, 4.4; sacred Christian sites in, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7; Helena finds True Cross, 4.8, 7.1; as centre of Christian world, 4.9, 4.10; excavations at Christian sites, 4.11, 4.12; as cosmopolitan city, 4.13; construction of churches in, 4.14, 4.15; as possession of the Caesars, 4.16; map of, 4.17; Church of the Resurrection, 4.18, 7.2, 7.3; rock of Golgotha, 4.19, 4.20, 6.1, 7.4; Jewish temples on Temple Mount, 4.21; destruction of second Temple (70 AD), 4.22, 4.23, 4.24; Jews banned from, 4.25; rebuilt as pagan city by Romans, 4.26; use of Temple Mount to humiliate Jews, 4.27; Temple Mount as Jewish centre of world, 4.28; plague epidemic (543), 5.1; Persian removal of True Cross (614), 5.2; sack of by Shahrbaraz (614), 5.3; Jews’ temporary return to Temple Mount, 5.4, 6.2; Heraclius returns True Cross (630), 5.5, 6.3; Arabs revoke ban on Jews, 6.4; Umar’s cleansing of Temple Mount, 6.5, 6.6; Mu’awiya at Temple Mount, 6.7; under Islamic rule, 7.5, 7.6; mosque on Temple Mount, 7.7, 7.8; Dome of the Rock, 7.9, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12

Jesus: Christian debates over nature of, 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 6.1; late Roman politics and, 1.3; views on earthly life, 1.4; secular biographies of, 1.5; Muslim denial of divinity of, 1.6; birth of, 1.7; in Qur’an, 1.8; rabbis of Mesopotamia on, 2.1; Jewishness of early adherents of, 3.5, 3.6; “the Holy Spirit” and, 3.7, 3.8; Jewish scripture and, 3.9; “biographies” of at remove of time, 3.10; sacred sites in Jerusalem, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3; Holy Land and, 4.4, 4.5; foretells End Days, 5.1, 5.2

John of Damascus

Joshua, 4.1, 4.2, 7.1

Judah, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3; Babylonian invasion of (586 BC), 2.4, 4.1, 4.2; see also Holy Land

Judaism: Jewish kings in Arabia, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1; scholars in late antiquity, 1.4, 1.5, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 7.1, 7.2; Jews of Yathrib, 1.6; nineteenth-century scholarly contextualising of, 1.7, 1.8; origins of, 1.9, 1.10, 2.2; origins in Judah, 2.3; Daniel’s vision and, 2.4, 3.3, 3.4, 5.2, 5.3, 6.2; Jews exiled in Mesopotamia, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 3.5, 3.6; Jews as God’s Chosen People, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12; Jerusalem as sacred place, 2.13, 4.2; Jewish origins in Mesopotamia, 2.14, 2.15; Tanakh (compendium of holiest scriptures), 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 6.3; Abraham as father of the Jews, 2.20; Canaan as Promised Land, 2.21, 2.22, 3.10, 4.3; Cyrus permits return to Jerusalem, 2.23; circumcision, 2.24, 3.11; diet restrictions, 2.25, 3.12; law as derived from God alone, 2.26; “exilarch” in Sasanian Empire, 2.27, 2.28, 2.29; Persian toleration of Jews, 2.30, 2.31; Zoroastrian intolerance of, 2.32; Jewish support for Kavad, 2.33; Peroz’s persecution of Jews, 2.34, 2.35; yeshivas (“schools”), 2.36, 3.13, 3.14, 7.3, 7.4; talmud (written record of rabbis’ learning), 2.37, 2.38, 2.39, 3.15, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 7.5; “The Anointed One” (Mashiach or “Messiah”), 2.40, 2.41; minim in Mesopotamia, 2.42, 3.16, 3.17; Roman hostility to, 2.43, 3.18, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 5.4, 6.7, 6.8; Roman conversion to Christianity and, 2.44; proselytes (converts), 3.19, 3.20, 3.21, 3.22; Jews as universal exiles, 3.23; definitions of Jewishness, 3.24, 3.25; synagogues, 3.26, 3.27, 4.11; Jewishness of early Christians, 3.28, 3.29; Paul declares Christians children of Abraham, 3.30; Christian Church’s rejection of, 3.31, 3.32; Jewish-Christian competition for proselytes, 3.33; paradox of enmity with Christianity, 3.34; porous dividing line with Christianity, 3.35; Children of Israel, 4.12; escape from Egypt of Children of Israel, 4.13; Moses as ultimate rabbi, 4.14; Torah received by Moses, 4.15, 7.6; temples on Temple Mount, 4.16; first century rebellions in Holy Land, 4.17, 4.18; Jews banned from Jerusalem, 4.19; use of Temple Mount to humiliate Jews, 4.20; concept of “Shekhinah”, 4.21; Temple Mount as centre of world, 4.22; Roman definitions of (Ioudaismos), 4.23; Roman regulation of, 4.24; Jews as embattled minority in Palestine, 4.25; Samaritans and, 4.26; hybrid beliefs in Holy Land and, 4.27; mysterious scrolls in wilderness, 4.28, 6.9; Sozomen suggests as option for Arabs, 4.29, 6.10; Khusrow II’s invasion and, 5.5; elation at fall of Jerusalem (614), 5.6; temporary return to Temple Mount, 5.7, 6.11; Heraclius decrees compulsory baptism (632), 5.8, 6.12, 6.13; “Dead Sea Scrolls”, 6.14; rejection of Manichaeism, 6.15; rumours of Messiah’s imminent arrival, 6.16, 6.17; rumours of Saracen prophet, 6.18; enthusiasm for Arab capture of Holy Land, 6.19, 6.20; Jews as members of Umma, 6.21; see also rabbis; Torah (“Instruction”) (body of law)

Judham (Arabian nomadic tribe)

Julian (Roman emperor), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1

Julian (Samaritan leader)

Justin (Roman emperor), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1

Justinian (Roman emperor), 3.1, 3.2; codification of laws, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6; Hippodrome revolt (14 January 532) and, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 5.1; rebuilds Constantinople as Christian capital, 3.10; rebuilding of Dara, 3.11, 3.12; Christian Church and, 3.13, 3.14, 3.15, 4.1; Theodora as consort of, 3.16, 5.2; campaign against paganism, 3.17, 5.3, 6.1; builds Church of Hagia Sophia, 3.18, 4.2, 4.3; Moses’ burning bush site and, 4.4, 4.5; Jerusalem and, 4.6, 4.7; Holy Land and, 4.8, 4.9; builds Church on Mount Berenice, 4.10; military employment of Arabs, 4.11, 4.12; peace treaty with Khusrow (532), 4.13, 5.4, 5.5; map of empire, 5.6; spread of Christianity beyond empire and, 5.7; proper ordering of lost provinces and, 5.8; sets sights on Carthage, 5.9; opens western front (533), 5.10, 5.11, 5.12; military campaigns in west (533-6), 5.13, 5.14; peace offer to Ostrogoths (539), 5.15; sack of Antioch and, 5.16; imposes patriarch on Alexandria, 5.17; closure of last temple to Amun, 5.18; recovers from the plague (542), 5.19; disposal of plague corpses and, 5.20; economic effects of plague epidemic, 5.21, 5.22, 5.23; defeat of Ostrogoths, 5.24; new peace with Khusrow, 5.25; death of (565), 5.26; critics believe him a demon, 5.27

Karin (Parthian dynasty), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 7.1, 7.2

Kavad (King of Persia), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4; support for Mazdak, 2.5, 2.6; forced abdication/imprisonment of (496), 2.7; Hephthalite support of, 2.8, 2.9; returns as king, 2.10; looks for victory over Rome, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13; love of bathing, 2.14; Anastasius refuses “loan” to, 2.15, 3.1; Mesopotamian irrigation and, 2.16, 6.1; siege of Amida, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 3.2, 3.3, bm1.1; campaign against Roman Empire, 2.20, 3.4, bm1.2; defeat of the Karin, 2.21; Khusrow as favoured son, 2.22; death of (531), 2.23; Jewish support for, 2.24; re-militarised Roman frontier and, 3.5; embassies to Constantinople, 3.6, 3.7; puts Edessa under siege (503), 3.8; escaped Samaritans and, 4.1; Lakhmids and, 4.2

Kavus (son of Kavid)

Kayanid kings, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6

Khorasan, 3.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2

Khusrow I (King of Persia), 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2; defeats Kavus, 2.3; forms standing army, 2.4; welcomes exiled Athenian philosophers, 3.3; peace treaty with Justinian (532), 4.1, 5.1, 5.2; Aspebedes’ coup against, 5.3; Gothic agents appeal to (539), 5.4; desert of Strata dispute and (539-40), 5.5; invades Roman Empire (540), 5.6; destroys Antioch (540), 5.7; plague epidemic (from 545) and, 5.8; new peace with Justinian, 5.9; alliance with the Turks, 5.10; final defeat of Hephthalites (557), 5.11; death of (579), 5.12; direct rule over Himyar, 6.1

Khusrow II (King of Persia), 5.1, 5.2; invasion of Roman Empire (603-15), 5.3, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5; advance on Constantinople (626), 5.4; Heraclius captures palaces of (627), 5.5; murder of (626), 5.6

Kufa (city in Iraq), 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; west-facing qibla, 7.6, 7.7; school of Islamic law at, 7.8, 7.9, bm1.1; Abbasids take (749), 7.10

“late antiquity”, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, bm1.1

Lombards

Lot (Abraham’s nephew), 4.1, 6.1

MacCulloch, Diarmaid

Manichaeism, 6.1, 6.2

Marcion (Christian thinker), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

Marwan I, Caliph, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3

Marwan II, Caliph, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3

Maslama (brother of Abd al-Malik)

Maurice (Roman emperor), 5.1, 6.1

Mavia (Arab queen)

Mazdak, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 5.1, 5.2; support for Kavus candidacy, 2.6; defeat and execution of, 2.7, 2.8; attitude to slavery, 7.1

Mecca: remoteness of, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 6.1; Ibn Hisham’s description of, 1.4; Ka’ba, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7*, 1.8, 1.9, 6.2*, 6.3, 7.1, 7.2; as pagan city, 1.10, 1.11, 6.4; Muhammad’s departure from, 1.12; Muhammad’s conquest of, 1.13; absence of in Qur’an, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7; lack of seventh-century accounts of, 6.8; low profile in early decades of empire, 6.9; doubts over as Qur’an’s city of origin, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 7.3, 7.4; idol smashing of Muhammad and, 6.16, 6.17; qiblas reoriented towards (after 694), 7.5; Ka’ba restored by Abd al-Malik, 7.6, 7.7; Abd al-Malik enshrines as centre of cosmos, 7.8; “Black Stone” on wall of Ka’ba, 7.9; range of sacred stones attached to Ka’ba, 7.10

Medina (Yathrib), 1.1, 1.2, 6.1*, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4; Prophet’s flight to (hijra), 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 6.5; “Constitution of Medina”, 6.6, 6.7; as original capital of Empire, 6.8; Mu’awiya refuses to hail accession at, 6.9; distrust of Umayyads in, 7.1, 7.2; Yazid’s sacking of, 7.3; as necessary origin of hadiths, 7.4

Merv (city in Khorasan), 2.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2

Mesopotamia: ancient past of, 1.1; as Persian “jewel in crown”, 2.1, 2.2; irrigation/canal systems, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1; Garden of Eden, 2.6, 2.7; horticultural traditions, 2.8; invasion of Judah (586 BC), 2.9, 4.1, 4.2; exiled Jews in, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 3.1, 3.2; paganism in, 2.14; legacy of learning and divination, 2.15; Jewish origins in, 2.16, 2.17; toleration of Jews in, 2.18, 2.19; Peroz’s persecution of Jews, 2.20, 2.21; centres of scholarship in, 2.22, 2.23, 3.3, 3.4, 6.2, 7.2, 7.3; rabbis assume leadership role, 2.24, 3.5, 3.6; Christianity in, 2.25, 3.7; Romans expelled from, 3.8, 3.9; Roman incursion into (504), 3.10; Jewish-Christian competition for proselytes, 3.11; Jewish-Christian contacts, 3.12; followers of Nestorius in, 3.13; Samaritans escape to, 4.3; plague epidemic (from 545), 5.2, 5.3; Heraclius lays waste to, 5.4; falls to the Saracens, 6.3, 6.4

Mihr (Persian god), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1

Mihran (Parthian dynasty), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 5.1, 5.2

Milan

Mongols

“Monophysites”, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

monotheisms, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3; monos theos, 1.5; Muhammad and, 1.6, 6.4, 6.5; Islam in grand tradition of, 1.7

Moses, 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 7.2

Mu’awiya, Caliph, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4; battle with Ali in Syria, 6.3; becomes Caliph, 6.4; as favourite of God, 6.5, 7.5; pays little heed to the Prophet, 6.6; reaches out to Christians, 6.7; multi-cultural interpretation of “the faithful”, 6.8; as intercessor to God, 6.9, 7.6; ambition to take Constantinople, 7.7; proclaims son Yazid as successor, 7.8; death of (680), 7.9, 7.10; grip on Arabia of, 7.11

Muhammad: Ibn Hisham’s biography of, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 6.1, bm1.1; revelations from God, 1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 6.2; monotheism and, 1.18, 6.3, 6.4; flight to Medina (hijra), 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 6.5; Yathrib and, 1.22; social justice and, 1.23, 1.24, 7.1; state-building and, 1.25, 6.6, 6.7; Umma, 1.26, 1.27, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10; victory at Badr, 1.28, 1.29, 1.30, 1.31; military campaigns, 1.32; conquest of Mecca, 1.33; death of, 1.34, 6.11; Sahabah (“Companions”), 1.35, 6.12, 7.2; later versions of biography of, 1.36, 1.37, 1.38, 6.13, 7.3; veneration of, 1.39; preservation of legacy, 1.40; opacity of within Qur’an, 1.41, 1.42, 6.14; absence of early Muslim references to, 1.43, 1.44, 1.45; lack of extant/contemporary accounts of, 1.46, 1.47, 1.48, 1.49, 6.15, 6.16; contemporary non-Islamic accounts of, 1.50; questioning of existence of, 1.51, 1.52; Mary (mother of Christ) and, 1.53, 1.54; tradition of as illiterate, 1.55, 1.56; coming of as “end of antiquity”, 1.57; praise of tharidat Ghassan, 5.1*; familiarity with Roman imperialism, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19; knowledge of Roman-Persian war, 6.20; other religions and, 6.21; will of God through written word, 6.22; hybrid cults in Arabia and, 6.23; idol smashing in Mecca and, 6.24, 6.25; trade as interest of, 6.26; summoning of Arabs to holy war, 6.27, 6.28; “Constitution of Medina”, 6.29, 6.30; border zone south of Palestine and, 6.31, 7.4; Moses and, 6.32; Jews as members of Umma, 6.33, 6.34; limits of imperial ambitions, 6.35; lessening of influence as Empire expands, 6.36; fading memories of, 6.37, 7.5, 7.6; status of specific shrines and, 7.7; Ibn al-Zubayr proclaims as Prophet of God, 7.8; Abd al-Malik proclaims as Prophet of God, 7.9, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12, 7.13; attitudes to slavery, 7.14, 7.15; views on wealth and consumption, 7.16; authentication of sayings of, 7.17; martial shaping of biography of, 7.18, 7.19; first biographies of, bm1.2; see also Qur’an

“Mukhtar the Deceiver”, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4

Mundhir (Lakhmid chieftain), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1; rampage through Syria (529), 4.8; death of at Chalcis (554), 5.3, 5.4, 6.2

Mus’ab (brother of ibn al-Zubayr), 7.1, 7.2

Nabataea, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 6.1, 6.2

Najran, 1.1, 1.2*, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2

Nazorean sect, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

Negev desert, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2

“Nehemiah” (“son of Hushiel”), 5.1, 6.1

Nero (Roman emperor), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

Nessana (Negev settlement)

Nestorius and Nestorians, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1

New Testament, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1; “gospels”, 1.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5; Athanasius prescribes list of books, 3.6, 5.1

Nicaean Council (325), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1

Nisibis (Persian city), 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3

Noah and the Flood

nomads, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 5.1, 7.1; Arab, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 5.2; Avars, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5; largely unaffected by plague, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9; see also Hephthalites

Ohrmazd (Persian god), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 6.1, 7.1; lighter of the great fires, 2.8; struggle with Ahriman, 2.9, 2.10; revelations to Zoroaster, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13; Mihr and, 2.14, 2.15

Ostrogoths, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 6.1

paganism: in Mecca, 1.1, 1.2, 6.1; Islam defeats in Arabia, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5; invisibility of in Christian histories, 1.6*; in Mesopotamia, 2.1; cult of Sin, 2.2, 6.2, 7.1; in Roman Empire, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6; Greek mythology, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 4.1, 6.3; in Persian Empire, 3.11; Christian disdain for, 3.12, 3.13; Julian reasserts, 3.14, 4.2; Constantinople outlaws, 3.15, 3.16; turning of blind eye to in Constantinople, 3.17; Justinian’s campaign against, 3.18, 5.1, 6.4; pillar climbers, 4.3; survival of in Holy Land, 4.4, 4.5; tent dwelling Arabs and, 4.6; effect on Arabs of suppression of, 4.7; Arab desert spirits/demons, 4.8, 5.2, 5.3, 6.5, 6.6; Alexandria and, 5.4, 5.5; overlaps with Christian belief, 5.6; scattered outposts remaining, 6.7; expurgation of in Constantinople under Maurice, 6.8; manuscripts in libraries, 6.9; in Damascus, 7.2; in Harran, 7.3

Palestine see Holy Land

Palladium, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1, 7.1

Pallas Athena, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

Palmyra (oasis city), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.1

Parthians, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1; Mihran dynasty, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 5.3, 5.4; Karin dynasty, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 7.1, 7.2; Sasanian-Parthian civil war (630), 5.5

Saint Paul, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1, 7.1; rejection of the Torah, 3.5, 3.6; letters of, 3.7, 3.8; travel westward, 3.9; in Ephesus, 3.10, 3.11; execution of in Rome, 3.12

Paul (patriarch of Alexandria)

Pelusium (Egyptian port)

Pergamum (city)

Peroz (King of Persia), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 4.1, 7.1; re-writing of Iranian history by, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12*; Roman subsidies/tribute and, 2.13; crumbling of Jewish compact and, 2.14; persecution of Jews, 2.15, 2.16

Persepolis, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3†, 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 6.1

Persian Empire: extent of dominion, 1.1, 2.1; collapse of, 1.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1; comparisons with Caliphate, 1.3; Arab conquest of former provinces, 1.4; facial hair in, 2.2; Hephthalite threat to, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7; campaigns against Hephthalites, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 7.2; military and royal insignia, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15; farr (mark of kingly divinity), 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22; supernatural mystique of royalty, 2.23, 2.24, 2.25; rule of King Peroz, 2.26, 2.27, 2.28, 2.29, 2.30, 2.31, 2.32; Parthians and, 2.33, 2.34, 2.35, 2.36, 2.37, 2.38, 5.1, 5.2, 6.4; fifth-century re-writing of Iranian history, 2.39, 2.40, 2.41, 2.42, 2.43*; sacred fire temples, 2.44, 2.45, 2.46, 5.3, 6.5, 6.6, 7.3, 7.4; rule of King Kavad, 2.47, 2.48, 2.49, 2.50; social upheaval after civil war, 2.51; millennium prophet awaited, 2.52; “Adherents of Justice”, 2.53; forced abdication/imprisonment of Kavad (496), 2.54; Kavad returns as king, 2.55; monuments to golden age, 2.56; “Place of a Hundred Pillars” (Persepolis), 2.57; conflict with Roman Empire, 2.58, 2.59, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.4, 5.5, 6.7, 6.8; subsidies/tribute from Rome, 2.60, 2.61, 3.4; Mesopotamia as “jewel in crown”, 2.62, 2.63; Ctesiphon as cockpit of, 2.64; de-militarisation of Roman frontier, 2.65; slavery in, 2.66, 7.5; Khusrow forms standing army, 2.67; urination in public and, 2.68; re-militarised Roman frontier and, 3.5, 3.6; embassies to Constantinople, 3.7, 3.8; paganism in, 3.9; Arab mercenaries and, 4.1; Justinian-Khusrow peace treaty (532), 4.2, 5.6, 5.7; plague epidemic (from 545), 5.8, 5.9; alliance with the Turks, 5.10; final defeat of Hephthalites (557), 5.11; Hormizd deposed and murdered, 5.12; Khusrow II’s invasion of Roman Empire (603-15), 5.13, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13; fall of Jerusalem to Shahrbaraz (614), 5.14; Heraclius’ counteroffensive against (624-9), 5.15; Sasanian-Parthian civil war (630), 5.16; rejection of Manichaeism, 6.14; direct rule over Himyar, 6.15; Saracen victory at Qadisiyya, 6.16, 6.17; Saracen capture of Ctesiphon, 6.18; Saracen invasion of, 6.19; see also Sasan, House of (Persian dynasty); Zoroastrians

Peter, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

Petra (city)

Philip (Roman emperor), 3.1, 4.1

Phocas (Roman emperor), 5.1, 5.2

plague epidemics, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 6.1; nomads largely unaffected by, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11; returns to Galilee (600), 5.12; in Iraq, 7.1

Posidonius (Greek polymath), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

poverty, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 3.1, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1

Puin, Gerd-Rüdiger, 6.1, 6.2

Pumpedita (Mesopotamian city), 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 7.1

Qadisiyya, battle at, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

Qur’an: tradition of Uthman as compiler, 1.1, 6.1, 7.1; scholars of, 1.2, 1.3, 6.2, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, bm1.1; the Prophet’s opacity within, 1.4, 1.5, 6.3; authentication by “isnads”, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11; “tafsir”, 1.12; as word of God, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 6.4, 6.5; eternal and divine nature of, 1.16, 6.6, 6.7; date of Badr and, 1.17; modern doubts over origins of, 1.18, 1.19, 6.8; dating of composition of, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12; Christian writings and, 1.23; Jewish writings and, 1.24, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16; the Annunciation in, 1.25; birth of Christ in, 1.26; Jibril (Gabriel) in, 1.27; Biblical characters in, 1.28, 1.29, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19; Mary (mother of Christ) in, 1.30; traditional version of origins, 1.31, 6.20; “muhajirun” (emigrants) concept, 6.21, 6.22, 6.23, 6.24, 6.25; story of Abraham in, 6.26, 6.27; absence of Mecca in, 6.28, 6.29, 6.30; absence of commentaries pre-ninth Christian century, 6.31; Jewish/Christian beliefs and, 6.32, 6.33, 6.34, 6.35; low profile in early decades of empire, 6.36, 6.37, 7.7; secular enquiry into origins of, 6.38, 6.39, 6.40; global standard/single text (est. 1924), 6.41*; fragments found in Sana’a, 6.42, 6.43; unified bedrock of, 6.44; appears in written record (early eighth century), 6.45; sense of awe amongst transcribers, 6.46, 6.47; ambiguous material in, 6.48; scarcity of datable characters/events, 6.49; Mushrikun in, 6.50, 6.51, 6.52, 6.53, 6.54, 6.55, 6.56, 7.8, 7.9; clues in to date of composition, 6.57; references to Roman-Persian war, 6.58, 6.59; End Days in, 6.60, 6.61, 6.62, 6.63; Alexander the Great (Dhu’l Qarnayn) in, 6.64, 6.65, 6.66; focus on prophets not kings, 6.67; miracle of the seven sleepers in, 6.68; as record of specific moment in history, 6.69, 6.70, 6.71; jizya (poll tax on infidels), 6.72, 7.10, 7.11; Nasara (Christians) in, 6.73; allusions to fabulously distant past, 6.74; “Dead Sea Scrolls” and, 6.75; “the People of the Trench” in, 6.76; Greek mythology and, 6.77; doubts over Mecca as city of origin, 6.78, 6.79, 6.80, 6.81, 6.82, 6.83, 7.12, 7.13; offences relating to cattle in, 6.84; scarcity of place names in, 6.85; Bakka’s significance in, 6.86, 6.87, 6.88, 6.89, 7.14, 7.15, 7.16; habits of worship in, 6.90; allusions to Sodom and Gomorrah, 6.91; descriptions of Quraysh in, 6.92, 6.93, 6.94; earthly profits and, 6.95, 6.96, 6.97; traces of decaying imperial frontier in, 6.98, 6.99; absence of hijra term in, 6.100; absence of inscriptions from before Abd al-Malik’s reign, 7.17; early Christian comment on, 7.18; Abd al-Malik’ role in compilation, 7.19; Al-Hajjaj’s role in compilation, 7.20; jihad concept, 7.21; see also Muhammad

Quraysh, 1.1, 1.2*, 1.3, 1.4, 6.1, 6.2; as guardians of Ka’ba, 1.5; Umayyad dynasty, 1.6, 6.3; absence of in Roman registers, 6.4; derivation of name, 6.5, 6.6; doubts over Mecca as city of origin, 6.7; Abbasid dynasty, 7.1

rabbis, 1.1, 2.1; talmud (written record of learning), 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1; assume leadership role in Mesopotamia, 2.5, 3.2, 3.3; disagree on definitions of Jewishness, 3.4; refusal to engage with minim, 3.5, 3.6; rabbi-bishop “sibling rivalry”, 3.7; Moses as ultimate rabbi, 4.4; in Palestine, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7; Galilee as stronghold of, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10; converts to Islam, 7.2

Rahman, Fazlur, 1.1, 1.2

Rav Yehudai (rabbi), 7.1, 7.2

Ravenna, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4

relics, Christian, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7; True Cross, 4.8, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 7.1

Renan, Ernest, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

Roman Empire, Eastern, New (Constantinople): pacification of Himyar, 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 5.1; Arab conquest of former provinces, 1.3, 5.2; conflict with Persian Empire, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.3, 5.4, 6.1, 6.2; founding of, 3.4; fall of western empire and, 3.5; subsidies/tribute to Persia, 3.6; frontier policy, 3.7, 3.8, 4.2, 4.3, 5.5, 6.3; re-militarisation of Persian frontier, 3.9, 3.10; Kavad’s embassies to Constantinople, 3.11, 3.12; imperial bureaucracy, 3.13, 3.14; Justinian’s codification of laws, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18; victory at Dara (530), 3.19, 5.6; Persian frontier, 3.20; Christian Church and, 3.21, 4.4, 4.5, 5.7, 5.8; Julian reasserts paganism, 3.22, 4.6; splits in Church after Chalcedon, 3.23; use of Temple Mount to humiliate Jews, 4.7; definitions of Jewishness (Ioudaismos), 4.8; regulation of empire’s Jews, 4.9; Samaritan revolts and (484-529), 4.10, 4.11; foederati (Barbarian mercenaries), 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 5.9, 5.10, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9; “Saracens” term for Arabs, 4.15, 6.10; Arab settlements, 4.16; Justinian-Khusrow peace treaty (532), 4.17, 5.11, 5.12; Mundhir’s activities and, 4.18, 4.19, 4.20; spread of Christianity to east and south, 5.13; map of in Justinian’s reign, 5.14; Christianity in lost western regions, 5.15; rule in former western provinces, 5.16; Justinian’s campaigns in west, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19; Khusrow’s invasion of (540), 5.20; plague epidemic (from 541), 5.21, 5.22, 5.23, 5.24, 5.25, 5.26, 5.27; economic effects of plague epidemic, 5.28, 5.29; harbingers of the End Days (mid-sixth century), 5.30; invaded by barbarian army (559), 5.31; nomads outnumber locals after plague, 5.32; Ghassanids as shields of Christian empire, 5.33, 6.11; weakness on southern frontiers, 5.34; frontier with Persia as supreme priority, 5.35; Maurice’s backing of Khusrow II, 5.36; Maurice cuts army pay, 5.37; Phocas overthows Maurice (602), 5.38, 5.39; Khusrow II invades (603-15), 5.40, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16; marks of ruin after Persian invasion, 5.41; compulsory baptism of Jews and Samaritans decreed (632), 5.42, 6.17, 6.18; Muhammad’s familiarity with, 6.19; rejection of Manichaeism, 6.20; Saracen invasion of Holy Land/Syria (634-6), 6.21, 6.22; Arab foederati revolt (582), 6.23; Saracen victory at the Yarmuk, 6.24, 6.25; spectacular violence in name of God, 6.26; loss of Alexandria (642), 6.27; Abd al-Malik pays tribute to, 7.1, 7.2; Cilicia as cordon sanitaire, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; decay and impoverishment of, 7.6, 7.7; impregnable orthodoxy of shrunken empire, 7.8; victory at Acroinum (740), 7.9, 7.10; Haroun al-Rashid’s campaign against (806), bm1.1; see also Constantinople

Roman Empire: veneer of indestructibility, 1.1; legal system, 1.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4; loss of western half of, 1.3, 1.4, 3.5, 3.6, 5.1, 5.2; conversion to Christianity, 1.5, 2.1, 3.7, 3.8, 6.1; Caliphate built on foundations of, 1.6; in Muslim histories, 1.7; Hephthalite mercenaries threaten, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4; Persian frontier, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 3.9; subsidies/tribute to Persia, 2.8, 2.9; Ctesiphon as target for, 2.10; de-militarisation of Persian border, 2.11; Kavad’s campaign against, 2.12, 3.10, bm1.1; rule of Jerusalem, 2.13; rise and expansion of, 3.11; feelings of inferiority in the East, 3.12; maps of, 3.13, 3.14; conquests in the West, 3.15; paganism in, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18, 3.19, 3.20, 3.21; cultural inferiority to Greeks, 3.22; free men granted citizenship, 3.23; as bringer of peace, 3.24; golden age, 3.25; barbarians in northern reaches, 3.26, 3.27; foederati (Barbarian mercenaries), 3.28, 3.29, 4.1, 5.3; frontier policy, 3.30; threat from Goths, 3.31, 3.32, 3.33; expulsion from Mesopotamia, 3.34, 3.35; conflict with Persian Empire, 3.36; Valerian captured by Shapur, 3.37, 3.38, 4.2; hauling back from the brink (third century), 3.39; fiscal revolution in, 3.40; founding of Constantinople, 3.41; development of Dara (from 505), 3.42; incursion into Mesopotamia (504), 3.43; role of violence in, 3.44; rebuilding of Dara, 3.45; hostility to Judaism, 3.46; judicial murders of Christians, 3.47; full-scale persecution of Christians, 3.48, 3.49; Jerusalem as possession of, 4.3; naming of Holy Land as “Palestine”, 4.4; Arabs kingdoms, 4.5; Arab foederati, 4.6, 4.7; employment of barbarians, 4.8, 4.9, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4; castra (camps of frontier system), 4.10; strata (paved roads), 4.11, 6.5, 6.6; retaking of Rome (536), 5.4; cataloguing of Arabian tribes, 6.7; slavery in, 7.1, 7.2

Rome: the supernatural and, 3.1, 3.2; origins in Troy, 3.3, 3.4; the Palladium and, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7; millennium celebrated in (248 AD), 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 4.1; history of civil bloodshed in, 3.11, 3.12; coup (244), 3.13; relations with Constantinople, 3.14; fall of to Goths, 3.15; Circus Maximus, 3.16; Belisarius retakes for empire (536), 5.1; siege of (537-8), 5.2; effects of Justinian’s “victory” in, 5.3

Romulus, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

Rushdie, Salman

“Sabaeans” (people featured in Qur’an), 6.1, 7.1

Samaritans, 1.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

Sarah (wife of Abraham), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4

Sasan, House of (Persian dynasty), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 3.1; Mesopotamia as “jewel in crown”, 2.9, 2.10; Ctesiphon as cockpit of, 2.11; Khusrow becomes king, 2.12; Veh-Ardashir as first capital city, 2.13, 2.14; Jewish “exilarch” in, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17; toleration of Jews, 2.18, 2.19; crumbling of Jewish compact, 2.20; Peroz’s persecution of Jews, 2.21, 2.22; Valerian captured by Shapur, 3.2, 3.3, 4.1; implications for Arabs of rise of, 4.2; deposition of Hormizd, 5.1; Shahrbaraz betrayal of, 5.2; Sasanian-Parthian civil war (630), 5.3; collapse of, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1; founding of, bm1.1

Schacht, Joseph, 1.1, 1.2

scientific enquiry, 1.1, 1.2

Seleucia (Babylon), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 4.1

Serapis (god)

Sergius (Roman patrician), 6.1, 6.2

Shahrbaraz (Mihranid warlord), 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4

Shapur I (King of Persia), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 6.1

Sheba, 4.1, 4.2

Sicily, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3

Simeon of Antioch, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 7.1

Simeon the “stylite”, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4

Simon Peter, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

Slavs (nomadic tribes), 5.1, 5.2

social justice, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 5.1, 7.1

Sodom and Gomorrah, 4.1, 6.1

Sogdians

Solomon, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3

Sozomen (scholar), 4.1, 5.1, 6.1

Spain, 1.1, 3.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 7.1

Sri Lanka (Taprobane)

stylites, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 7.1, 7.2

Sukhra (head of the Karin)

Suleiman, Caliph, 7.1, 7.2

Sunna (body of laws): origin in hadiths, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3; compilers’ suspicion of Caliphate, 1.4, bm1.1; length of time taken over, 1.5; doubts over authenticity, 1.6; traditional version of origins, 1.7; as binding force, 4.1; authentication of, 7.1; school of Islamic law at Kufa, 7.2, 7.3, bm1.2; influence of Torah on, 7.4; Medina as origin of, 7.5; warrior-scholars, 7.6

Sura (Mesopotamian city), 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, bm1.1

synagogues, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1

Syria: Arab invasion and conquest, 1.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3; stories of Alexander in, 1.2, 6.4, 6.5; Persian Empire and, 2.1, 2.2; Monophysites in, 3.1, 3.2; ascetics of, 4.1, 5.1, 7.1, 7.2; Roman frontier policy and, 4.2, 4.3, 5.2; Mundhir rampages through (529), 4.4; prosperity of, 5.3; Khusrow’s invasion of (540), 5.4, 5.5; battle at Chalcis (554), 5.6; effects of plague on, 5.7; annexed by Khusrow II, 5.8, 6.6; Ghassanids foederati roam across, 6.7; Mu’awiya as governor of, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, 7.3; Mu’awiya-Ali battle in, 6.11; support for Umayyad cause, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6; Islamic anti-Christian regulations, 7.7; lifestyles of Arab ruling classes, 7.8, 7.9; unrest during Hisham’s reign, 7.10, 7.11; see also Antioch

Syriac language, 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 3.2, 6.1

Ta’if (oasis town in Hijaz)

Tanakh (compendium of holiest Jewish scriptures), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 6.1; as Christian “Old Testament”, 3.4

Taprobane (now Sri Lanka)

Tertullian (Christian philosopher), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3*, 3.4

Thamud confederation, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

Theoderic (Ostrogoth commander), 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 7.1; state-building and, 7.2

Theodora (consort of Justinian), 3.1, 5.1

Theodore

Theodoret (bishop from Antioch), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 6.1

Theodosiopolis, 2.1, 2.2

Theodosius I (Roman emperor)

Theodosius II (Roman emperor), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 7.1

Tiridates III (Parthian king), 3.1, 3.2

Torah (“Instruction”) (body of law), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2; secret Torah, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 7.1; Jewishness as obedience to, 3.2; Paul’s rejection of, 3.3, 3.4; Christian Church’s rejection of, 3.5; Christian obeying of, 3.6; received by Moses, 4.3, 7.2; Qur’an and, 6.1, 6.2; influence on Sunna, 7.3

Troy, 3.1, 3.2, 7.1

Turks, 2.1, 5.1, 5.2

ulama (scholarly legal experts), 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, bm1.1

Ulfilas (bishop of Gothic extraction)

Umar bin al-Khattab, Caliph, 1.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2; piety and asceticism of, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.3; historicity of as beyond dispute, 6.5; hailed as lover of Israel, 6.6, 6.7; proclaimed al-Faruq (“the Redeemer”), 6.8; murder of (644), 6.9

Umayyad dynasty, 1.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; fall of (750), 1.2, 7.6; as “deputies of God”, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9; map(s) of Caliphate under, 7.10; Christianity in Iraq and, 7.11; ulama and, 7.12, 7.13; renewed gaze on Constantinople, 7.14; failures in 717–40 period, 7.15, 7.16; unrest during Hisham’s reign, 7.17; Abbasid threat to, 7.18, 7.19; factional blood-letting amongst, 7.20; Abbasid burning of exhumed corpses, bm1.1; see also individual Caliphs

Ur (Abramic city)

Uthman, Caliph, 1.1, 6.1, 7.1; “qur’an” and, 1.2, 6.2, 7.2

Valerian (Roman emperor), 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 5.1

Vandals, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 6.1

Veh-Ardashir (Sasanian capital city), 2.1, 2.2

Virgil, Aeneid, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1, 6.1

Visigoths, 1.1, 5.1, 7.1, 7.2

Walid, Caliph, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4

Wasit (Islamic city in Iraq)

Yathrib (Medina) see Medina (Yathrib)

Yazdegird (King of Persia), 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1

Yazid (brother of Mu’awiya)

Yazid, Caliph, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3

Yemen

Yusuf As’ar Yath’ar (Himyarite king), 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2

Zamasp (brother of Kavad), 2.1, 2.2

Zaranj (fortress)

Zayd (figure in Qur’an)

Zenobia (Queen of Palmyra)

Zera, Rabbi

Zeus

Zoilus (patriarch of Alexandria)

Zoroastrians: beliefs of, 1.1, 2.1; Fire of the Stallion, 2.2, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1; Mihr and, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 3.1, 5.2, 6.2, 7.2; sacred fire temples, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 5.3, 6.3, 6.4, 7.3, 7.4; Asha (truth and order), 2.9, 2.10, 2.11; Zoroaster’s revelations from Ohrmazd, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14; royal power and, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18; mowbeds’ political power, 2.19, 2.20; mathra (word of God), 2.21; mowbeds put Zoroaster’s sayings into writing, 2.22, 2.23, 2.24, 6.5; birth and origins of Zoroaster, 2.25, 2.26*, 2.27, 6.6; mowbeds’ demotion of Mihr’s fire, 2.28; End Days and, 2.29, 5.4, 5.5; millennium prophet awaited, 2.30; mowbeds and Kavad’s abdication, 2.31; chronicling of the past, 2.32, 2.33; mowbeds and memories of Alexander, 2.34; mowbeds and downfall of Mazdak, 2.35; support for Khusrow candidacy, 2.36; Khusrow supports, 2.37; Jews as “spawn of Dahag”, 2.38; mowbeds’ hostility to Jews, 2.39; suspicion of Christianity, 3.2; Bahram Chobin’s rebellion and, 5.6; mowbeds and Bahram Chobin, 5.7; Islamic attitudes to, 6.7, 7.5; rejection of Manichaeism, 6.8; mowbeds and Fire of the Stallion, 7.6; obedience of women and, 7.7; mowbeds and collapse of Sasanian power, 7.8; collapse of Sasanian power and, 7.9; converts to Islam, 7.10; mowbeds converting to Islam, 7.11, 7.12; use of toothbrushes and, 7.13; see also Ohrmazd (Persian god)