Nemesis: The Last Days of the American Republic

105. Tim Thursday, “CIA Torture Jet Sold in Attempted Cover Up,” Independent Media Centre Ireland, December 9, 2004, http://www.indymedia.ie/newswire.php?story_id-67864&print_page=true; Crewdson, “Mysterious Jets.”

106. Hettena, “Navy Secretly Contracted Jets.”

107. Scott Shane, Stephen Grey, and Ford Fessenden, “Detainee’s Suit Gains Support from Jet’s Log,” New York Times, March 30, 2005; Bob Herbert, “Torture, American Style,” New York Times, February 11, 2005; Mayer, “Outsourcing Torture”; Hilton, “800 lb Gorilla.”

108. Scott Shane, Stephen Grey, and Margot Williams, “CIA Expanding Terror Battle Under Guise of Charter Flights: Planes Owned by Shell Companies Move Suspects,” New York Times, May 31, 2005.

109. Crewdson, “Mysterious Jets.”

110. See “The Broken Promise,” transcript, TV4 Monday, 17th May 2004,” http://www.statewatch.org/news/2004/may/Sweden.pdf.

111. In addition to the TV4 transcript, see Grey, “U.S. Accused of Torture”; Stockman, “Torture Claims Have Mass. Link”; CBS News, “Flying Suspects to Torture”; Tim Reid, “Flight to Torture: Where Abuse Is Contracted Out,” Times Online, March 26, 2005, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/01-10889-1542390-10889,00.html; and Cobain, Grey, and Norton-Taylor, “Destination Cairo.”

112. See Tom Engelhardt, “The CIA’s La Dolce Vita War on Terror,” TomDispatch .com, July 21, 2005, http://www.tomdispatch.com/indexprint.mhtml/?pid=7789.

113. Aidan Lewis, “Italy Judge Orders Arrest of 13 CIA Agents,” Associated Press, June 24, 2005; Barbara McMahon, “Italians Hunt Covert CIA Snatch Squad,” Observer, June 26, 2005; “European Warrant Issued for Arrest of CIA Agents,” Corriere della Serra (Italy), June 27, 2005; Victor L. Simpson, “Italians Discuss Purported CIA Case,” Associated Press, July 28, 2005; Simpson, “Italy to Seek Extradition of CIA Agents,” Associated Press, June 28, 2005; John Crewdson and Alessandra Maggiorani, “Prosecutors in Italy File Request to Extradite 22 CIA Operatives,” Chicago Tribune, November 10, 2005.

114. Craig Whitlock, “Europeans Investigate CIA Role in Abductions,” Washington Post, March 13, 2005; John Crewdson and Tom Hundley, “Abducted Imam Aided CIA Ally,” Chicago Tribune, July 3, 3005.

115. Daniel Williams, “Italy Probes Agency’s Link to CIA in Cleric’s Abduction,” Washington Post, May 12, 2006.

116. Crewdson and Hundley, “Abducted Imam”; “Italy Asks U.S. to Explain CIA’s Role in Kidnapping,” Bloomberg News, June 30, 2005. Because of the involvement of Ramstein Air Base, the Germans are also investigating this abduction: “Deutsche Justiz ermittelt gegen US-Geheimdienst,” Spiegel Online, November 12, 2005, http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/0,1518,384681,00.html.

117. Craig Whitlock, “Italians Detail Lavish CIA Operation,” Washington Post, June 26, 2005; Tracy Wilkinson, “CIA Said to Leave Trail in Abduction,” Los Angeles Times, June 26, 2005.

118. Simpson, “CIA Case”; “European Warrant,” Corriere della Serra.

119. Tim Weiner, “Langley, We Have a Problem,” New York Times, May 14, 2006.

120. Thomas Powers, “Spy vs. Spy,” New York Times, May 10, 2006.

121. Quoted by Weiner, “Langley.”

4: U.S. MILITARY BASES IN OTHER PEOPLE’S COUNTRIES

1. George Cahlink, “Pentagon Certifies Need for Base Closures,” Government Executive Magazine, March 23, 2004.

2. See Laurence M. Vance, “The Problem with BRAC,” LewRockwell.com, September 17, 2005.

3. See maps of the Roman and British Empires in “The Next American Empire,” Economist, March 18, 2004.

4. Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Undersecretary of Defense (Installations and Environment), Base Structure Report, Fiscal Year 2005, p. DOD-78.

5. Amy Holmes, “The Bases of Empire: The Impact of U.S. Military Installations on Germany and Turkey,” Institute for Global Studies, Johns Hopkins University, February 19, 2004, pp. 7, 17-18.

6. Arkin, Code Names, pp. 6-7.

7. “Enough Time for Iraq to Implement UN Resolutions—[Foreign Minister Marwan] Muasher,” Jordan Times, August 11, 2002; and Arkin, Code Names, pp. 4,10.

8. Mark Sappenfield and Patrik Jonsson, “As Military Realigns Bases, the South Wins,” Christian Science Monitor, May 16, 2005.

9. William M. Arkin, “War Plans Meaner, Not Leaner,” Los Angeles Times, March 21, 2004.

10. Martin Sieff, “Analysis: Bush Pushes Global Force Reform,” Linked Press International, November 25, 2003; Alan Bock, “Repositioning on the Titanic,” Antiwar.com, August 20, 2004; David Isenberg, “Reshaping Washington’s Global Footprint,” Asia Times, August 20, 2004, http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/FH20AaO1.html.

11. The White House, “President Speaks at Veterans of Foreign Wars Convention,” http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/08/20040816-12.html.

12. See Douglas J. Feith, Undersecretary of Defense for Policy, Department of Defense, Strengthening U.S. Global Defense Posture, Report to Congress, September 2004, http://www.defensecommunities.org/ResourceCenter/Global_Posture.pdf.

13. “Pentagon to Close 35 Percent of Overseas Bases; ’Forward Operating Sites’ to Replace Cold War-era Bases,” Associated Press, September 23, 2004.

14. Jan Erickson and Leonard Tengco, “Congress Endangers Military Women’s Health with Ban,” National Organization for Women, May 28, 2003, http://www.now.org/issues/military/052803ban.htmPprintable; Johnson, Sorrows of Empire, pp. 105-6.

15. Diana B. Henriques, “Temptation Near for Military’s Problem Gamblers,” New York Times, October 19, 2005.

16. Quoted by Michael T. Klare, “Imperial Reach: The Pentagon’s New Basing Strategy,” Nation, April 25, 2005, pp. 13-14.

17. Mark Mazzetti, “Pax Americana: Dispatched to Distant Outposts, U.S. Forces Confront the Perils of an Unruly World,” U.S. News & World Report, October 6, 2003. Also see Eric Schmitt, “Pentagon Seeking New Access Pacts for Africa Bases,” New York Times, July 5, 2003.

18. Commission on Review of Overseas Military Facility Structure, Report to President and Congress, Washington, DC, May 9, 2005, http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/dod/obc.pdf, p. 7.

19. Edward Harris, Associated Press, “U.S. Green Berets Train Mali Troops to Guard Desert Interior Against Terrorists, Bandits,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 17, 2004; Martin Plaut, “U.S. to Increase African Military Presence,” BBC News, March 23, 2004; Michael Peel, “U.S. Urged to Turn Attention to Oil-Rich States in Africa,” Financial Times, April 1, 2004.

20. Pepe Escobar, “The Algerian Connection,” Asia Times, July 29, 2005; Commission on Review of Overseas Military Facility Structure, Report, pp. Fl 1, F12, H11.

21. Vernon Loeb, “New Bases Reflect Shift in Military,” Washington Post, June 9, 2003.

22. Mark Sappenfield, “Pentagon Stirs Tensions in Foreign Base Shuffle,” Christian Science Monitor, August 1, 2005, http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0801/p02s01-usmi.htm.

23. Thomas Donnelly and Vance Serchuk, “Toward a Global Cavalry: Overseas Rebasing and Defense Transformation,” AEI National Security Outlook, July 1, 2003, http://www.aei.org/include/pub_print.asp?pubID=17783.

24. David Morris, “Senators Seek to Shutter Overseas Military Bases,” GovExec.com, April 29, 2003; Office of Senator Dianne Feinstein, “Senators Hutchison and Feinstein Introduce Legislation Creating an Overseas Military Base Commission,” April 29, 2003; “S. 949, The Overseas Military Facility Structure Review Act,” Congressional Record (April 29, 2003), p. S5495; Office of Senator Tim Johnson (Democrat from South Dakota), “Johnson Urges Study of Overseas Military Bases,” May 2, 2003.

25. Commission on Review of Overseas Military Facility Structure, Report, p. M9.

26. Ibid., p.M7.

27. Ibid., p.M2.

28. Ibid.; Robert Burns, Associated Press, “Panel Urges Slow Return of Troops to Bases,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 9, 2005.

29. William Pfaff, “U.S. Military Abroad: More Bases Won’t Curb Terrorism,” International Herald Tribune, August 2, 2003.

30. Tom Engelhardt, “Bases, Bases Everywhere,” TomDispatch.com, June 1, 2005, p. 4, http://wvvw.tomdispatch.com/indexprint.mhtml?pid=3025; James Sterngold, “After 9/11, U.S. Policy Built on World Bases,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 21, 2004.

31. Robin Wright and Ann Scott Tyson, “U.S. Evicted from Air Base in Uzbekistan,” Washington Post, July 30, 2005.

32. Raymond Whitaker, “A UK Diplomat Says Britain Is Part of a Worldwide Torture Plot,” Independent, February 20, 2005; Grey, “U.S. Accused of ’Torture Flights’”; Lutz Kleveman, “The New Great Game,” Guardian, October 20, 2003; Will Dunham, “Pentagon Set to Pay Uzbekistan for Use of Air Base,” Reuters, September 20, 2005.

33. See Christian Deitch (a former Peace Corps volunteer in Kyrgyzstan), “Kyrgyzstan: Democracy Stalled?” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, January-February 2005, pp. 16-17, 72; Justin Burke, “Kyrgyzstan Revolution: Be Careful What You Wish For,” EurasiaNet, March 25, 2005; Ariel Cohen, “Kyrgyzstan’s Tulip Revolution,” Washington Times, March 27, 2005; Andrea Peters, “U.S. Money and Personnel Behind Kyrgyzstan’s ’Tulip Revolution,’” World Socialist Web site, March 25, 2005; Simon Forrester, “Political Change in Kyrgyzstan,” INTRAC: International NGO Training and Research Centre, April 25, 2005 (the writer is a member of the INTRAC Representative Office in Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan); Martin Sieff, United Press International, “U.S. Bases Face Flak,” Washington Times, July 16, 2005.

34. Ann Scott Tyson and Robin Wright, “Crackdown Muddies U.S.-Uzbek Relations,” Washington Post, June 4, 2005; “Uzbekistan Restricts U.S. Military’s Use of Air Base,” Agence France-Presse, June 15, 2005; Vince Crawley, “Uzbekistan Sets January Deadline for Withdrawal from Base,” Air Force Times, August 1, 2005; “U.S. Confirms Uzbek Base Departure,” BBC News, September 27, 2005; Will Dunham, “U.S. Pulls Out of Uzbekistan Base After Eviction,” Reuters, November 21, 2005.

35. Bruce Pannier, “Kyrgyzstan: Bishkek Presents New Air-Base Terms to U.S.-Led Coalition,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, January 25, 2006; “Kyrgyzstan Reportedly Wins Massive Rent Hike for U.S. Base,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, February 15, 2006; Isabel Gorst, “U.S. Facility Faces Eviction from Kyrgyzstan,” Financial Times, May 19, 2006; “Kyrgyzstan: Negotiations Over U.S. Base End Inconclusively,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, June 1, 2006.

36. Stephen Graham, “U.S. Army to Leave 13 Bases in Germany,” Associated Press, July 29, 2005. See also Steve Liewer, “Building Continues as if the U.S. Is Staying in Germany: Army Spending Millions to Upgrade Bases Bound for German Hands,” Stars & Stripes, September 6, 2005.

37. Commission on Review of Overseas Military Facility Structure, Report, pp. F7, F8.

38. Bertrand Benoit, “U.S. Bases Undermine Sovereignty, Says Lafontaine,” Financial Times, August 29, 2005.

39. “Last Spanish Combat Troops Leave Iraq,” MSNBC, April 27, 2004, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4845463/; Michael R. Gordon, “A Pentagon Plan to Sharply Cut G.I.’s in Germany,” New York Times, June 4, 2004.

40. Tracy Wilkinson, “Sardinia Says It’s Time for the U.S. Navy to Leave Port,” Los Angeles Times, July 17, 2005; Brian Wingfield, “U.S. to Shut Base in Italy That Aids Nuclear Subs,” New York Times, November 25, 2005.

41. Kent Harris, “Life Isn’t Just Sun and Sand for Soldiers at Camp Darby in Italy,” Stars & Stripes, May 12, 2002; Richard Owen, “Italians Alarmed at Discovery of Huge U.S. Munitions Base,” Times Online, January 18, 2003; “Anti-War Protesters Block U.S. Military Train in Italy,”Agence France-Presse, February 23, 2003; “Italian Protests Block Arms Trains,” BBC News, February 24, 2003.

42. Liza Porteus, “Pentagon Ponders Overseas Military Shift,” Fox News, May 16, 2003; Associated Press, “U.S. to Take Over Bases in Romania,” CNN.com, December 6, 2005.

43. Steve Liewer, “Plans Slow for Base Closures in Europe,” Stars & Stripes, December 8, 2003; Oana Lungescu, “U.S. Briefs Allies on Army Revamp,” BBC News, December 8, 2003; William J. Kole, Associated Press, “Romania Base Focus of Secret Prison Probe,” Guardian, November 24, 2005.

44. Holmes, “Bases of Empire,” p. 9.

45. Judy Dempsey, “U.S. Rejects German Calls to Withdraw Nuclear Weapons,” New York Times, May 3, 2005.

46. For details on the Echelon espionage network, see Johnson, Sorrows of Empire, pp. 165-67. See also Holmes, “Bases of Empire.”

47. Mark Landler, “After 60 Years, the Yanks Fly Out, Leaving Just the Ghosts,” New York Times, October 21, 2005. See also Jim McDonald, Associated Press, “U.S. Hands Historic Rhein-Main Air Base to Germany after 60 Years,” San Diego Union-Tribune, October 11, 2005.

48. See, in particular, Office of the Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Strategic Communication (Washington, D.C.: September 2004).

49. Peter J. Katzenstein, A World of Regions: Asia and Europe in the American Imperium (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), pp. 3, 246-47.

50. Ibid., p. 245.

51. Karen Kwiatkowski, “Our Inscrutable Iraq Policy: Why We Did It, What to Do Now, and What Happens Next,” LewRockwell.com, October 24, 2005, p. 3.

52. Joshua Hammer, “Digging In: If the U.S. Government Doesn’t Plan to Occupy Iraq for Any Longer than Necessary, Why Is It Spending Billions of Dollars to Build ’Enduring’ Bases?’” Mother Jones, March-April 2005.

53. Commission on Review of Overseas Military Facility Structure, Report, p. G7.

54. Quoted by Bradley Graham, “Iraq, Afghan Commitments Fuel U.S. Air Base Construction,” Washington Post, September 17, 2005. See also Tom Engelhardt, “Can You Say ’Permanent Bases’? The American Press Can’t,” Tom Dispatch.com, February 14, 2006, http://www.tomdispatch.com/index.mhtml?pid=59774.

55. Quoted by Sam Graham-Felsen, “Operation: Enduring Presence,” AlterNet, July 28, 2005, http://www.alternet.org/module/printversion/23755.

56. Eric Schmitt, “Pentagon Construction Boom Beefs Up Mideast Air Bases,” New York Times, September 18, 2005.

57. Hammer, “Digging In.”

58. Bradley Graham, “Commanders Plan Eventual Consolidation of U.S. Bases in Iraq,” Washington Post, May 22, 2005.

59. Christine Spolar, “14 ’Enduring Bases’ Set in Iraq,” Chicago Tribune, March 23, 2004.

60. Graham, “Eventual Consolidation.”

61. Commission on Review of Overseas Military Facility Structure, Report, p.G13.

62. See Engelhardt, “Bases, Bases Everywhere.”

63. See Global Security’s Web site, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/iraq.htm, and http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/iraq-intro.htm.

64. See Ariana Eunjung Cha, “Baghdad’s U.S. Zone a Stand-in for Home,” Washington Post, December 6, 2003.

65. Chris Hughes, “Exclusive: Billion Dollar Bunker,” Mirror.co.uk, January 3, 2006, http://www.mirror.co.uk/printable_version.cfm?objectid=165410848csiteid=94762; Barbara Slavin, “Giant U.S. Embassy Rising in Baghdad,” USA Today, April 19, 2006; Kevin Zeese, “They’re Staying in Iraq,” Antiwar.com, April 22, 2006; Charles J. Hanley, Associated Press, “Officials Mum on Huge U.S. Embassy,” Washington Times, April 23, 2006, http://www.Washingtontimes.com/world/20060423-122454-5409r.htm; Daniel McGrory, “In the Chaos of Iraq, One Project Is on Target: A Giant U.S. Embassy,” London Times, May 3, 2006, http://www.commondreams.org/cgi-bin/print.cgi?file=/headlines06/0503-05.htm; Liz Sly, Chicago Tribune, “As Lavish U.S. Embassy Rises in Baghdad, Many Hard-up Iraqis Are Irked,” Arizona Star, May 29, 2006.

66. Thorn Shanker, “U.S. Retools Hussein Pleasure Palace as Camp Victory,” New York Times, June 12, 2004.

67. See Hammer, “Digging In.”

68. David R. Francis, “U.S. Bases in Iraq: Sticky Politics, Hard Math,” Christian Science Monitor, September 30, 2004.

69. Global Security Organization, “Balad Air Base, Camp Anaconda,” http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/balad-ab.htm; Schmitt, “Pentagon Construction Boom”; Thomas E. Ricks, “Biggest Base in Iraq Has Small-Town Feel,” Washington Post, February 4, 2006; Becky Branford, “Iraq Bases Spur Questions over U.S. Plans,” BBC News, March 30, 2006; “U.S. Forces Planning for the Long Haul in Iraq,” Hindustan Times, April 24, 2006.

70. Steve Liewer, “1st ID Readying New Iraq HQ,” Stars & Stripes, November 10, 2004; Charles Aldinger, “U.S. Forces Leave Some Bases in North Iraq: General,” Reuters, October 28, 2005; David Axe, “Seabees Buzz in to Build Up Bases,” Washington Times, February 3, 2006.

71. Graham, “Eventual .Consolidation.”

72. See Brian Loveman, ed., Addicted to Failure: US. Security Policy in Latin America and the Andean Region (Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006); and Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006).

73. Humberto Marquez, “Dutch Islands Caught Up in U.S.-Venezuela Friction,” Antiwar.com, April 6, 2006.

74. John Lindsay-Poland, “U.S. Military Bases in Latin America and the Caribbean,” Foreign Policy in Focus, Policy Brief 9, no. 3 (August 2004).

75. Mary Donohue and Melissa Nepomiachi, “Washington Secures Long-Sought Hemispheric Outpost, Perhaps at the Expense of Regional Sovereignty,” Council on Hemispheric Affairs, July 20, 2005.

76. Michael Flynn, “What’s the Deal at Manta?,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, January-February 2005, pp. 23-29.

77. On private military companies, see Johnson, Sorrows of Empire, pp. 140-49.

78. Lindsay-Poland, “U.S. Military Bases.”

79. Larry Luxner and Douglas Engle, “The Arabs of Brazil,” Saudi Aramco World, September-October 2005, pp. 18-23.

80. CIA Factbook, s.v. Paraguay, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/pa.html.

81. Jeffrey Goldberg, “In the Party of God: Hezbollah Sets Up Operations in South America and the United States,” New Yorker, October 28, 2002, http://www.newyorker.com/printables/fact/021028fa_fact2.

82. Ibid.; Jessica Stern, “The Protean Enemy,” Foreign Affairs, July-August 2003.

83. Quoted by Goldberg, “Party of God.”

84. Letter from Ambassador Rubens Barbosa, “Triborder Dispute,” Foreign Affairs, January-February 2004. Also see Kenneth Rapoza, “The New Fakers: State Department Undercuts the New Yorkers Jeffrey Goldberg,” Counter-punch, May 14, 2003.

85. Quoted by Kenneth Rapoza, “U.S. Inroads into South America Raise Alarm,” Washington Times, October 25, 2005.

86. Charlotte Elmer, “Spotlight on U.S. Troops in Paraguay,” BBC News, September 28, 2005; Kelly Hearn “U.S. Military Presence in Paraguay Irks Neighbors,” Christian Science Monitor, December 2, 2005.

87. Alejandro Sciscioli, “U.S. Military Presence in Paraguay Stirs Speculation,” Antiwar.com, August 4, 2005.

88. Benjamin Dangl, “What Is the U.S. Military Doing in Paraguay?” Information Clearing House, August 4, 2005; Rapoza, “U.S. Inroads.”

89. Kevin Gray, Reuters, “Paraguayans Uneasy over U.S. Presence,” San Diego Union-Tribune, September 27, 2005.

90. Quoted by Sciscioli, “U.S. Military Presence.”

91. Dangl, “U.S. Military.”

92. Marcela Valente, “Presence of U.S. Troops Upsets Paraguay’s Partners,” Antiwar.com, August 9, 2005.

93. “Mexico Ratifies War Crimes Tribunal Treaty,” Associated Press, October 28, 2005; “4 Nations that Won’t Sign Deal with U.S. Risk Aid Loss,” Miami Herald, December 18, 2004. See also Razl Zibechi, “The Installation of a U.S. Military Base in Paraguay: A Wedge in Mercosur,” Agencia Latinoamericana de Informacion (ALAI), November 29, 2005, http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=viewArticle&code=ZIB20051129&articleId=1363.

5: HOW AMERICAN IMPERIALISM ACTUALLY WORKS: THE SOFA IN JAPAN

1. For the text of the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty, see U.S. Forces Japan, http://usfj.mil/references/treatyl.html.

2. The Japan SOFA can be found at http://www.niraikanai.wwma.net/pages/archive/sofa.html. Most publicly disclosed SOFAs, including the SOFA with the Republic of Korea (July 1966), are available in United States Treaties and Other Agreements (arranged by Treaties and Other International Acts Series [TIAS] Number) (Washington, DC: Department of State, Distributed by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, annual), s.v. “TIAS 6127.”

3. T. D. Flack, “South Korea Refusing Return of U.S. Bases ’As-Is’; General Bell: New Standards Exceed SOFA Agreements,” Stars & Stripes, June 7, 2006, http://stripes.com/articleprint.asp?section=1048carticle=37688.

4. “Kadena Noise Pollution Suit Stirs Up Residents in Atsugi, Yokota,” Asahi Shimbun (Tokyo), February 18, 2005; “U.S. Military Fails to Pay Compensation Despite SOFAs ’75%’ Clause; Ignores Requests for Payment,” Tokyo Shimbun, February 18, 2005 (Tokyo press reports are in Japanese).

5. Keiichi Inamine, “The Anger of Okinawa Residents Is Magma Ready to Explode,” Ronza, October 2003.

6. Wikipedia, “Girard Incident,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girard_Incident.

7. “The Presidential Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, Letter to Dorothy Girard,” June 13, 1957, http://eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/second-term/documents/200.cfm; “The Girard Case,” Time, July 22, 1957, http://time-proxy.yaga.com/time/archive/printout/0,23657,862596,00.html.

8. See, for example, the case of Lieutenant Colonel Martha McSally, the highest-ranking female pilot in the air force, who took the Defense Department to court for requiring her to wear an abaya—the total body covering devout Saudi women put on in public—when off base in Saudi Arabia. She claimed this was an unconstitutional infringement on her rights, and she won. See Johnson, Sorrows of Empire, p. 241.

9. Quoted in “Girard Case,” Time.

10. “Only the Removal of U.S. Bases Can Ensure the End of U.S. Military Crimes,” Japan Press Weekly, July 18, 2005, http://www.politicalaffairs.net/article/view/1506/1/109?PrintableVersion=enabled.

11. Wikipedia, “Status of Forces Agreement,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_of_forces_agreement.

12. “Girard Case,” Time.

13. U. S. Department of State, “Backgrounder: Status of Forces Agreements,” April 12, 1996, http://194.90.114.5/publish/press/security/archive/april/ds2_4-15.htm.

14. William Arkin, “U.S. Air Bases Forge Double-Edged Sword,” Los Angeles Times, January 6, 2002.

15. There are so many military bases in Japan and in Okinawa, the total numbers are open to dispute. According to the Pentagon’s 2005 Base Structure Report, there are 111 installations in Japan as a whole and 39 in Okinawa prefecture. These numbers are surely accurate, but there are anomalies—for example, the Base Structure Report includes Futenma Air Base under Camp Smedley D. Butler, one of the Marine Corps’ key bases on the island, along with 15 other sites. I have chosen to use the conservative count of 88 bases for Japan as a whole and 37 for Okinawa based on the careful calculations in Mainichi Shimbun, August 6, 2004, eve. ed; Tokyo Shimbun, October 15, 2005; and Kelly Dietz, Ph.D. candidate, sociology, Cornell University, and the Futenma-Henoko Action Network, “Okinawa Update,” October 2005.

16. Global Security Organization, “U.S. Forces, Japan,” www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/dod/usfj.htm; Thorn Shanker, “Okinawans Ask Rumsfeld to Thin Out Troops,” New York Times, November 17, 2003; U.S. Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information, Operations, and Reports, Worldwide Manpower Distribution by Geographical Area, September 30, 2004, http://webl.whs.osd.mi1/DIORCAT.HTM#M05.

17. Toshiya Hoshino (Osaka University) and Takashi Nawakami (Takushoku University), “Future of U.S. Bases in Japan and Force Transformation in Okinawa,” Sekai Shuho, April 26, 2005.

18. See U.S. Forces, Japan, “Agreed Minutes to the Agreement Under Article VI of the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Between Japan and the United States of America, Regarding Facilities and Areas and the Status of United States Armed Forces in Japan,” http://usfj.mil/references/sofa.html.

19. See Chalmers Johnson, ed., Okinawa: Cold War Island (Cardiff, CA: Japan Policy Research Institute, 1999); and Johnson, Blowback, chap. 2.

20. On these issues, see Shigemitsu Dando, Japanese Criminal Procedure, trans. B. J. George Jr. (South Hackensack, NJ: Fred B. Rothman & Co., 1965); Chalmers Johnson, Conspiracy at Matsukawa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); David T. Johnson, The Japanese Way of Justice: Prosecuting Crime in Japan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

21. Thorn Shanker, “U.S. and Japan Discuss Transfer of American Rape Suspect,” New York Times, July 6, 2001.

22. “Inamine Meets Rumsfeld: Perception Gap Not Closed Despite Direct Appeal on Base Issues,” Asahi Shimbun, November 17, 2003.

23. “Okinawa Governor Urges Rumsfeld to Reduce U.S. Bases,” Japan Today, November 20, 2003, http.7/www.japantoday.com/e/?content=news8cid=279127; Shanker, “Thin Out Troops.”

24. David Allen, “Friend of Accused Testifies in Rape Trial on Okinawa,” Stars & Stripes, November 10, 2001.

25. “Japanese Parliament Panel Seeks Review of U.S. Forces Pact,” Agence France-Presse, July 10, 2001.

26. Shanker, “U.S. and Japan Discuss Transfer.”

27. Sheila K. Johnson, “Another Okinawa Outrage,” Los Angeles Times, July 8, 2001; and Johnson, “Blame Misplaced in Okinawa Rape Case,” Japan Times, August 2, 2001.

28. “Airman Gets 32 Months for Rape in Okinawa,” Japan Times, March 29, 2002; Howard W. French, “Airman’s Rape Conviction Fans Okinawa’s Ire Over U.S. Bases,” New York Times, March 29, 2002; Komako Akai, “Woodland Convicted of Rape, Sentenced to 32 Months in Japanese Prison,” Stars & Stripes, March 28, 2002.

29. “Attempted Rape Incident in Okinawa: U.S. Military Suspect’s Statement: T Was Seduced,’” Tokyo Shimbun, December 9, 2002; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Statement by Minister for Foreign Affairs Yoriko Kawaguchi Concerning Charges Against a U.S. Marine Major of Attempted Rape,” December 3, 2002, http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2002/1203.html; “U.S. Officer Named in Rape Bid on Filipina in Japan,” Agence France-Presse, December 5, 2002; “U.S. Suspect in Rape Case ’Intoxicated,’” Kyodo, December 8, 2002; and “Criminal Case Involves Officer,” Okinawa Times Weekly, December 7, 2002.

30. “USMC Major Charged with Attempted Rape in Okinawa,” Asahi Shimbun, December 4, 2002; Elaine Lies, “Japan Calls for Crackdown on U.S. Military Crime,” Reuters, December 4, 2002.

31. Teruaki Ueno, “U.S. Refuses to Hand Over Marine in Japan Rape Case,” Reuters, December 5, 2002; “Attempted Rape in Okinawa: U.S. Refuses to Turn Over Suspected U.S. Serviceman,” Asahi Shimbun, December 6, 2002.

32. “Police Raid Home of Accused Marine,” Associated Press, December 7, 2002.

33. “MOFA [Ministry of Foreign Affairs] Expresses Regret to U.S. Envoy,” Asahi Shimbun, December 4, 2002; “Foreign Minister Kawaguchi to Ask for Improvement in SOFA Operation to Allow Handing Over of U.S. Military Personnel Even in Attempted’ [Rape] Incidents,” Mainichi Shimbun, December 6, 2002; “Attempted Rape in Okinawa: Prime Minister Says Pre-indictment Turnover of Suspect Unnecessary,” Yomiuri Shimbun, December 7, 2002; “Japan Won’t Press for Marine Rape Suspect,” Japan Times, December 7, 2002; “U.S. Rejection of the Handover of U.S. Marine Major Exposes U.S. Upper Hand Regarding SOFA; Japan Must Conduct National Debate by Taking Okinawa’s Voice to Heart,” Yomiuri Shimbun, December 17, 2002.

34. “Japanese Court Seeks Arrest of U. S. Marine,” Associated Press, December 3, 2002; “Japan Protests Over Alleged Rape Attempt,” Agence France-Presse, December 3, 2002; “Okinawa Prefectural Assembly Adopts Resolution Protesting U.S. Refusal to Hand Over Marine Corps Major,” Asahi Shimbun, December 11, 2002; “Governors Call for Revision to SOYA” Japan Times, February 13, 2003.

35. “Japan Prosecutors Indict U.S. Marine on Rape Attempt,” Reuters, December 19, 2002; “Marine Handed Over to Local Authorities over Attempted Rape,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, December 20, 2002.

36. The text of the petition is available at http://www2.gol.com/users/coynerhm/maj_michael_j_brown_v_usa.htm. It was filed in Washington, D.C., on the logic that George W. Bush is the petitioner’s commander in chief and he resides in Washington.

37. “Free Major Brown” Web site, http://www.majorbrown.org/major_brown.htm. As of June 2006, his Web site had disappeared from the Internet.

38. “U.S. Serviceman’s Attempted Rape Case in Okinawa: Victim Testifies in Court, T Wanted to Withdraw My Complaint,’” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, May 14, 2003.

39. “U.S. Marine Accused of Attempted Rape Is Granted Bail,” Kyodo, May 17, 2003; Hiroshi Matsubara, “Detention Process Questioned,” Japan Times, September 21, 2001.

40. David Allen, “Japanese Court Dismisses Motion to Disqualify Panel in Brown Case,” Stars & Stripes, October 23, 2003; Allen, “Japan’s High Court Rejects Brown Appeal,” Stars & Stripes, November 16, 2003.

41. “Judicial Friction Seen over SOFA: USMC Major Consistently Asserts Innocence in Attempted Rape,” Asahi Shimbun, July 16, 2003.

42. “Marine in Okinawa Gets Suspended Sentence for Attempted Molestation,” Kyodo, July 9, 2004; David Allen, “Brown Convicted of Attempted Indecent’ Act,” Stars & Stripes, July 10, 2004.

43. David Allen, “Convicted on Okinawa, Marine Brown in Trouble in States,” Stars & Stripes, October 9, 2005; “Marine Acquitted of Attempted Rape in Okinawa Arrested in U.S. on Abduction Charge,” Japan Today, October 9, 2005, http://www.japantodayxom/e/tools/print.asp?content=news&id=351579; Curtis Johnson, “Kidnapping Defendant Due Back this Week,” Herald-Dispatch (Huntington, West Virginia), October 19, 2005; “Accused Kidnapper in Court,” WTRF-TV, October 20, 2005, http://www.wtrf.com/story.cfm?func=viewstory8cstoryid=60498ccatid=43; Curtis Johnson, “Kidnapping Suspect Returns,” Herald-Dispatch, October 21, 2005; Johnson, “$75,000 Bond Set in Kidnapping Case,” Herald-Dispatch, November 1, 2005; David Allen, “Brown Free on $75,000 Bond; Banned from W. Virginia until Hearing,” Stars & Stripes, November 10, 2005.

44. “Endless Crimes Involving U.S. Servicemen Fuel Fear in Okinawa,” Asahi Shimbun, June 17, 2003.

45. “U.S. Marine Held in New Okinawa Rape Case,” CNN.com., June 12, 2003; “Okinawa Prefectural Police Questioning U.S. Marine on Voluntary Basis on Charges of Assaulting 19-year-old Woman,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, June 12, 2003; “U.S. Serviceman Questioned in Okinawa on Charge of Rape Amid Loud Calls for ’Review of SOFA,’” Tokyo Shimbun, June 13, 2003; “U.S. Envoy Expresses Regret,” Asahi Shimbun, June 13, 2003; Mark Oliva, “Okinawa Police Continue to Investigate Marine,” Stars & Stripes, June 15, 2003; Saikazu Nakamura, “Sexual Assault Incident in Okinawa: Arrest Warrant for U.S. Serviceman Issued,” Mainichi Shimbun, June 16, 2003, eve. ed.; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Statement by Minister for Foreign Affairs Yoriko Kawaguchi Concerning Alleged Rape Resulting in Injury Committed by a U.S. Marine Lance Corporal,” June 16, 2003, http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2003/6/0616.html; “Government Asks U.S. at Joint Committee to Turn Over U.S. Marine Rape Suspect to Japan Before Indictment,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, June 17, 2003; “U.S. Marine Rape Incident: Chief Cabinet Secretary Asks U.S. Ambassador to Turn the Suspect Over to Japanese Side,” Asahi Shimbun, June 18, 2003; “Marine Sentenced to Jail for Rape,” Reuters, September 14, 2003.

46. “Drunk U.S. Base Worker Kills Man in Okinawa Car Crash,” Mainichi Daily News, March 17, 2003; David Allen and Chiyomi Sumida, “Two Americans in Custody After Incidents on Okinawa,” Stars & Stripes, May 7, 2003; “Five U.S. Marines Arrested over Series of Incidents in Okinawa,” Tokyo Shimbun, June 1, 2003. On the history of Koza, see Okinawa-shi Heiwa Bunka Shinko-ka, ed., Koza: Hito, Machi, Koto [Koza: People, Town, Events] (Okinawa-shi: Okinawa-shi Yakusho, 1997).

47. “Governor Inamine’s Nationwide Pilgrimage to Form Alliance to Force Central Government to Move on Revision of the Japan-U.S. Status of Forces Agreement,” Asahi Shimbun, June 14, 2003; “Inamine Asks Ishihara for Cooperation on SOFA Revision,” Tokyo Shimbun, June 14, 2003.

48. “SOFA: U.S. Hints at Refusing Suspect Turnover,” Asahi Shimbun, July 3, 2003.

49. “Judicial Friction Seen over SOFA,” Asahi Shimbun, July 16, 2003.

50. “Talks on SOFA Legal Procedures,” Sankei Shimbun, July 4, 2003; Yoichi Toyota, “SOFA Talks: Japan, U.S. Confront over Official Presence at Police Questioning of U.S. Military Suspects,” Tokyo Shimbun, July 12, 2003.

51. Editorial, “SOFA Revision Needed After All,” Asahi Shimbun, June 20, 2003; “SOFA Talks to Focus on Interpreter, Lawyer; U.S. Stresses Human Rights in New Rules,” Asahi Shimbun, June 20, 2003; “Japan, U.S. Meet over GI Justice,” Christian Science Monitor, June 30, 2003; David Allen and Chiyomi Sumida, “Japanese Leaders Want Comfier SOFA,” Stars & Stripes, July 21, 2003; Hiroyuki Sato, “SOFA Talks: Japan-U.S. Views Remain at Odds,” Asahi Shimbun, July 26, 2003; “SOFA: Government to Allow U.S. Officials to Be Present During Questioning of U.S. Suspects by Japanese Police,” Sankei Shimbun, July 30, 2003; Taro Kono (Liberal Democratic Party member of the House of Representatives), “If the U.S. Is Asking More of Japan, Will the U.S. Tread More Lightly in Turn?” Christian Science Monitor, August 1, 2003; “U.S., Japan Disagree on Justice for Troops,” Reuters, August 1, 2003; “Inability to Reach Agreement on SOFA Assurances Will Affect the Japan-U.S. Alliance,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, August 3, 2003.

52. Robert Burns, “Rumsfeld Holds Range of Talks in Tokyo,” Associated Press, November 16, 2003.

53. Editorial, “Crash of U.S. Helicopter in Okinawa,” Mainichi Shimbun, August 18, 2004.

54. Editorial, “Government Should Give Up Henoko Plan for Futenma Transfer,” Asahi Shimbun, April 26, 2005; David McNeill, “People Power: Have Okinawan Protests Forced Tokyo and Washington to Rethink Their Base Plan?” Japan Focus, September 27, 2005, http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=407; Sarah Buckley, “Okinawa Base Battle Resolved,” BBC News, October 26, 2005; Gavan McCormack, “Okinawa and the Revamped U.S.-Japan Alliance,” Japan Focus, November 15, 2005, http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=449.

55. “U.S. Copter Crashes on Campus; Local Ire Raised,” Japan Times, August 14, 2004; James Brooke, “Ginowan Journal,” New York Times, September 13, 2004; “Okinawa, U.S. Helicopter Accident: Back to Square One,” Mainichi Shimbun, September 29, 2004.

56. “Helicopter Crash in Okinawa: Local Police Investigation Stymied without Agreement of U.S. Forces,” Tokyo Shimbun, August 15, 2004; “Probe into U.S. Helicopter Crash in Okinawa,” Asahi Shimbun, September 7, 2004. For photos of the crash site and an eyewitness account, see Darrell Y. Hamamoto, “Imperial Bird-Droppings: A First-hand Report on the U.S. Military Helicopter Accident in Okinawa,” JPRI Critique 11, no. 6 (November 2004), http://www.jpri.org/publications/critiques/critique_XI_6.html.

57. “The U.S. Military: Unyielding Vested Interests; Helicopter Crash in Okinawa; the Reason Behind the Refusal of an On-site Inspection,” Tokyo Shimbun, August 20, 2004; “U.S. Military Crash in Okinawa Reignites Debate on SOFA Issue,” Mainichi Shimbun, August 26, 2004.

58. See note 18 above.

59. Asahi Shimbun, August 31, 2004.

60. “Refusal of an On-Site Inspection,” Tokyo Shimbun; “U.S. Military Unwilling to Let Japan Independently Investigate Okinawa Helicopter Crash,” Associated Press, February 18, 2005.

61. “Japan-U.S. SOFA: ’No Longer Meets the Needs of the Times,’ Still Keeps Privileges for U.S. Troops,” Asahi Shimbun, August 10, 2005.

62. Takehiko Kambayashi, “U.S., Japan Agree to Troop Drawdown,” Washington Times, September 24, 2004.

63. “U.S. Copter Crash Attributed to Poor Maintenance,” Asahi Shimbun, October 6, 2004; “Maintenance Error Found to Have Caused U.S. Marine Corps Chopper Crash in Okinawa,” Mainichi Shimbun, February 18, 2005.

64. See Ted Galen Carpenter, “President Bush’s Muddled Policy on Taiwan,” CATO Institute, Foreign Policy Briefing, No. 82, March 15, 2004.

65. See, inter alia, Chalmers Johnson, review of Gold Warriors: America’s Secret Recovery of Yamashita s Gold, by Sterling and Peggy Seagrave, London Review of Books, November 20, 2003, pp. 3-6;” ’Rape of Nanjing’ Comic Draws Ire,” Reuters, October 14, 2004; Anthony Faiola, “Scandals Force Out Japanese TV Chief: Critics Say Network Bowed to Pressure to Soften Controversial WWII Program,” Washington Post, January 26, 2005.

66. Norimitsu Onishi, “Ad Man-Turned-Priest Tackles His Hardest Sales Job,” New York Times, February 12, 2005; David Pilling, “Unbowed: Koizumi’s Assertive Japan Is Standing Up Increasingly to China,” Financial Times, February 14, 2005.

67. Yoshibumi Wakamiya, “Zero Fighters in Chongqing and Pearl Harbor; Yasukuni’s War Criminals as Martyrs?” Japan Focus, December 6, 2004, http://japanfocus.org/182.html; Koji Uemura, Mayumi Otani, and Yudai Nakazawa, “Chinese Soccer Fans Jeering at Japanese,” Mainichi Shimbun, August 6, 2004; Jim Yardley, “In Soccer Loss, a Glimpse of China’s Rising Ire at Japan,” New York Times, August 9, 2004.

68. Bryan Bender and Shane Green (Boston Globe), “U.S. Signals Rethink on Bases Overseas,” Sydney Morning Herald, November 27, 2003; and “U.S. Force Realignment: Okinawa’s Burden Alleviation Expected to Be Small,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, November 27, 2003.

69. “U.S. Military Transformation Plan: Aims to Strengthen Base Functions with Allies,” Asahi Shimbun, August 6, 2004; “U.S. Military Realignment Plan: Host Municipalities Strongly Against U.S. Military Realignment Plan; U.S. Frustrated with Japan’s Elusive Attitude,” Asahi Shimbun, August 7, 2004.

70. “USAFJ’s Yokota HQ May Disappear; ’GHQ’ for USFJ to Be Moved to Zama,” and “Transformation of U.S. Forces in Japan: Less Weight to Be Given to Defense of Japan; Building Strategic Center for Launching Attacks in Middle East and Other Locations,” Tokyo Shimbun, July 29, 2004.

71. Peter Alford, “U.S. Nuclear Carrier Hits War Nerve,” Australian, October 29, 2005; David Pilling, “Japan to Overturn Nuclear Taboo by Having U.S. Carrier Based in Port,” Financial Times, October 29-30,2005; Robert Burns, Associated Press, “Nuclear-Powered Ship to Be Based in Japan,” San Francisco Chronicle, December 2, 2005.

72. “USFJ to be Vested with Own Command Right,” Yomiuri Shimbun, July 20, 2004.

73. “Rumsfeld Cancels Japan Visit Due to Base Row,” Herald News Daily, October 6, 2005, http://www.heraldnewsdaily.com/stories/news-0081930.html; David Pilling, “U.S. Anger at Pace of Japan Defense Talks,” Financial Times, October 26, 2005.

74. “World Navies Top 15,” http://www.deagel.com/forums/world-navies-top-15_62.aspx.

75. “Constitution Survey Shows 77% Oppose Changing Article 9,” Japan Times, May 4, 2006.

76. “Realigning U.S. Military in Japan for War Not ’Defense,’” Japan Press Weekly, no. 2454, November 12, 2005.

77. “Government Considering Accepting Transfer of U.S. Army Command to Camp Zama and Flexibly Interpreting ’Far East Clause’ in Security Treaty,” Mainichi Shimbun, October 17, 2004; “U.S. Troops to Be Under Local Command Outside Far East,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, January 9, 2005; Chalmers Johnson “No Longer the ’Lone’ Superpower: Coming to Terms with China,” JPRI Working Paper, no. 105, March 2005, http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp 105.html.

78. “Defense Agency, Koizumi’s Aides at Odds Over Futenma Relocation,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, March 21, 2005; Anthony Faiola, “U.S. Agrees to Relocate Marines on Okinawa,” Washington Post, October 27, 2005; “Futenma Relocation Issue: Japan with Proposal for Partial Land-Reclamation Plan at Camp Schwab; Hopes to Resolve Issue with New ’Trump Card,’ but the Key Is Persuading U.S.,” Yomiuri Shimbun, October 13, 2005.

79. “Talks Break Down on USFJ Realignment; Washington Urges Tokyo to Break Impasse under Premier’s Initiative,” Sankei Shimbun, September 30, 2005; “Japan, U.S. at Odds over Futenma Relocation; Defense Agency Raps U.S. Government’s Sea-based Heliport Proposal,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, October 4, 2005.

80. “Futenma Relocation: U.S. Can’t Wait, Japan Fumbling for a Solution,” Asahi Shimbun, February 25, 2005; “Interview with U.S. Consul General to Okinawa Thomas Reich on the USFJ Realignment Interim Report,” Okinawa Times, November 30, 2005; David McNeill, “U.S. Military Retreats over Japanese Base after Protests by Islanders,” Independent, October 27, 2005; Jeff Schogol, “U.S. Agrees to Move 7,000 Marines from Okinawa to Guam; Change Will Be Implemented over the Next Six Years,” Stars & Stripes, October 31, 2005.

81. David Allen and Chiyomi Sumida,” ’It’s Done,’ Rumsfeld Says of Troop Realignment Agreement for Okinawa,” Stars & Stripes, November 5, 2005; “USFJ Realignment, Local Hurdles: All 55 Base-Hosting Municipalities Opposed to Realignment Plans,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, November 10, 2005.

82. “USFJ Realignment: No Progress in Coordination; Local Governments Watching Okinawa,” Nihon Keizai Shimbun, November 22, 2005.

83. Masaaki Gabe, “USFJ Realignment: Government Held Accountable for Base-Hosting Burdens,” Mainichi Shimbun, November 20, 2005.

84. “Full Text of Government Policy to Implement U.S. Force Realignment in Japan,” Mainichi Shimbun, May 31, 2006; “Japan to Pay $6 Billion to Move U.S. Marines to Guam,” Asahi Shimbun, April 25, 2006, http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=585.

85. David McNeill, “Anger in Okinawa as U.S. Airman Faces Child Sex Charges,” Independent, July 5, 2005; “Surprised, Dumbfounded, and Angered at the Statement by the U.S. Embassy Official ’Trivializing the Issue’ of a U.S. Airman Molesting a Little Girl,” Ryukyu Shimpo, July 6, 2005; “Okinawa Assembly Passes Resolution Protesting Molestation Case Involving U.S. Serviceman,” Asahi Shimbun, July 7, 2005; “U.S. Air Base Imposes Late-Night Curfew Following Alleged Groping of Japanese Schoolgirl,” Associated Press, July 8, 2005; Simon Montlake, “U.S. Military Rape Case Tests Philippine President,” Christian Science Monitor, November 10, 2005; James Hookway, Wall Street Journal, “Rape Allegation Against Marines in Philippines Raises Furor,” San Diego Union-Tribune, November 23, 2005; Reuters, “Four U.S. Marines Charged with Rape,” CNN.com, December 27, 2005; Chris Hogg, “Japan Jails U.S. Sailor for Murder,” BBC News, June 2, 2006.

6: SPACE: THE ULTIMATE IMPERIALIST PROJECT

1. Federation of American Scientists, “Address to the Nation on National Security by President Ronald Reagan, March 23, 1983,” http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/offdocs/rrspch.htm.

2. The best book on Reagan’s Star Wars is Frances FitzGerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars, and the End of the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).

3. Tim Weiner, “Air Force Seeks Bush’s Approval for Space Arms,” New York Times, May 18, 2005, http://www.commondreams.org/cgi-bin/print.cgi?file=/headlines05/0518-02.htm.

4. Walter Pincus, “Pentagon Has Far-Reaching Defense Spacecraft in Works,” Washington Post, March 16, 2005, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A38272-2005Marl5?language=printer.

5. Alexander Zaitchik, New York Press 17, no. 52 (December 28, 2004), http://www.nypress.com/print.cfm?content_id=11848.

6. General Habiger, quoted by Bradley Graham, “Interceptor System Set, But Doubts Remain: Network Hasn’t Undergone Realistic Testing,” Washington Post, September 29, 2004; Philip Coyle, “Is Missile Defense on Target?” Arms Control Today, October 2003.

7. Richard Drayton, “Shock, Awe, and Hobbes Have Backfired on America’s Neocons,” Guardian, December 28, 2005. Drayton is the author of Nature’s Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the “Improvement” of the World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000).

8. Michelle Ciarrocca and William D. Hartung, Axis of Influence: Behind the Bush Administrations Missile Defense Revival (New York: Arms Trade Resource Center, World Policy Institute, July 2002), pp. 13-14.

9. William D. Hartung, Frida Berrigan, Michelle Ciarrocca, and Jonathan Wingo, “Tangled Web 2005: A Profile of the Missile Defense and Space Weapons Lobbies” (New York: Arms Trade Resource Center, World Policy Institute, 2005), p. 4.

10. Ciarrocca and Hartung, Axis of Influence, p. 10. Bradley Graham of the Washington Post discusses the role of Boeing and Lockheed Martin engineers in influencing the conclusions of the commission. See his Hit to Kill: The New Battle over Shielding America from Missile Attack (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), pp. 43-44.

11. Center for Security Policy, “Now That It’s U.S. Policy to Defend America Against Missile Attack, Let the Debate Be Joined As to the Optimal Way to Do So,” Decision Brief 99-D 37 (March 18, 1999); John Isaacs, “Missile Defense: It’s Back,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists55, no. 3 (May-June 1999), pp. 26-28.

12. Phil Jones, “Clinton Calls for Time,” CBS News, September 1, 2000, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/09/01/national/printable229850.shtml.

13. Report of the Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization, Washington, DC, January 11, 2001, http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/space20010111.html, pp. 13,16.

14. Michael Dobbs, “How Politics Helped Redefine Threat,” Washington Post, January 14, 2002, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A40780-2002Janl3?language=printer.

15. Demetri Sevastopulo, “Concern Over Keeping the Final Frontier Demilitarized,” Financial Times, September 13, 2005.

16. Quoted by Weiner, “Air Force Seeks Bush’s Approval.”

17. Quoted by Jack Kelly, “U.S. the Leader in War Plans for Space,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 28, 2003.

18. Quoted by Hannah Middleton, “Star Wars: The Armed Wing of Globalization,” Australian Anti-Bases Campaign Coalition, http://www.anti-bases.org/nmd/armed_wing_of_globalisation.htm.

19. U.S. Air Force, Counterspace Doctrine, Doctrine Document 2-2.1, August 2, 2004, http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/service_pubs/afdd2_2_l.pdf; Bryan Bender, “Pentagon Eyeing Weapons in Space,” Boston Globe, March 14, 2006.

20. Theresa Hitchens, “Weapons in Space: Silver Bullet or Russian Roulette?” Center for Defense Information, April 18, 2002, http://www.cdi.org/missile-defense/spaceweapons.cfm, p. 10.

21. Quoted by Leonard David, “What Should U.S. Military Do in Space?” MSNBC, June 17, 2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.eom/id/8258501/print/l/displaymode/1098/.

22. Quoted by Mike Moore, “Space Cops: Coming to a Planet Near You,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 59, no. 6 (November-December 2003), p. 50. Dolman is the author of Astropolitik: Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age (London: Frank Cass, 2002).

23. The most complete account of this era is Philip Taubman, Secret Empire: Eisenhower, the CIA, and the Hidden Story of Americas Space Espionage (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003). On the subject of the “missile gap,” Taubman writes, “In September [1959], the Agency had reported in a major study of Soviet missiles that ’we believe it is now well established that the USSR is not engaged in a “crash” program for ICBM development.’ The assessment, reflecting the figures [Allen] Dulles had given to the Armed Services Committees in January 1959, estimated that just a handful of intercontinental missiles—around ten—might already be operational or nearly so. By that standard, the Air Force estimate of one hundred Russian missiles seemed wildly overblown, and inspired primarily by a desire to stampede Congress into fattening the Air Force budget. But because the U-2 flights were so secret, Dulles couldn’t cite the photographic evidence in his Senate testimony,” p. 296. See also Jeffrey T. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), pp. 128-30.

24. The only reference to space debris in the air force’s Counterspace Doctrine is: “Environmental monitoring includes the characterization and assessment of space weather (i.e., solar conditions) on satellites and links, terrestrial weather near important ground nodes, and natural and man-made phenomena in outer space (i.e., orbital debris).... Operators must be able to differentiate between natural phenomena interference and an intentional attack on a space system in order to formulate an appropriate response.” U.S. Air Force, Counterspace Doctrine, p. 21.

25. Theresa Hitchens, “Space Debris,” CDI Fact Sheet, August 2005, http://www.space4peace.org/articles/debris_facts.htm.

26. From Ride’s speech at Stanford University, April 10, 2002. Quoted by Joel Primack, “Pelted by Paint, Downed by Debris,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 58, no. 5 (September-October 2002), pp. 24-25. See also Dawn Levy, “Anti-Satellite Weapons Testing Would Have ’Disastrous’ Effects, Ride Says,” Stanford Report, April 17, 2002.

27. Primack, “Pelted by Paint.”

28. Richard Stenger, “Scientist: Space Weapons Pose Debris Threat,” CNN.com, May 3, 2002.

29. Members of the Council on Foreign Relations Study Group on Space Weapons (Bruce M. DeBlois, Richard L. Garwin, R. Scott Kemp, and Jeremy C. Marwell), “Space Weapons: Crossing the U.S. Rubicon,” International Security29, no. 2 (Fall 2004), pp. 52,64,83.

30. Hitchens, “Weapons in Space,” p. 11.

31. “Space-Based Missile Interceptors Could Pose Debris Threat,” DefenceTalk .com, September 14, 2004.

32. James Clay Moltz, “Space Weapons or Space Arms Control,” Center for Nonproliferation Studies, April 15, 2002, http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/week/020415.htm.

33. Leonard David, “U.S.-China Space Debris Collide in Orbit,” Space.com, April 16, 2005, http://www.space.com/news/050416_debris_crash.html.

34. Ciarrocca and Hartung, Axis of Influence, p. 12.

35. Christopher Hellman, “Funding Request for Ballistic Missile Defense,” Center for Defense Information, February 4, 2002, http://www.cdi.org/issues/budget/FY03bmd-pr.cfm.

36. For General Bell’s testimony, see Norimitsu Onishi, “U.S. Confirms Test of Missiles Was Conducted by North Korea,” New York Times, March 9, 2006.

37. “U.S. Dismisses Call to Destroy N. Korean Missile,” NBC News, June 22, 2006, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13481845/print/1/displaymode/1098/; Terence Hunt, “U.S. Says Missile Defense System Limited,” Associated Press, June 22, 2006, http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ap/world/3992279.html.

38. See, for example, Hitchens, “Weapons in Space,” p. 10; Jeff Sallot, “Arms Experts Issue Missile Defense Alert,” Globe and Mail (Toronto), December 7, 2004; David Pugliese, “U.S. Won’t Rule Out Waging War in Space, General Says,” Ottawa Citizen, February 21, 2005. In February 2006, Air Force Lieutenant General Henry Obering, head of the Missile Defense Agency, said to the press that he intended to put the entire batch of forty scheduled interceptors into Alaskan silos: “We can take those forty interceptors and turn them into an ability to counter much more complex threat[s].” Martin Sieff, “Congress Gives $150m Boost to Alaska ABM Deployment,” United Press International, February 7, 2006.

39. On China’s reaction to the GMD, see Nicole C. Evans, “Missile Defense: Winning Minds, Not Hearts,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists60, no. 5 (September-October 2004), pp. 48-55.

40. Victoria Samson, “Remember the Anti-Missile Missile? Forget It,” Center for Defense Information, January 4, 2006, http://wvvrvv.cdi.org/friendlyversion/printversion.cfm?documentID=3244&:from_page=../program/document.cfm.

41. Charles Piller, “Little Room for Error in Catching a Missile,” Los Angeles Times, December 25, 2004.

42. David Stout and John H. Cushman Jr., “Defense Missile for U.S. System Fails to Launch; Setback for Interceptor,” New York Times, December 16, 2004; “Two Successive Failures Reflect Vulnerabilities in U.S. Missile Defense Effort,” Agence France-Presse, February 15, 2005; Rachel D’Oro, Associated Press, “Missile Test Failures Sideline Progress at Alaska’s Fort Greely,” Anchorage Daily News, January 6, 2006, http://www.adn.com/news/alaska/ap_alaska/v-printer/story/7338986p-7251040c.html.

43. Robert Gard, “The Pathetic State of National Missile Defense,” Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, Washington, DC, February 2, 2005.

44. Coyle, “Is Missile Defense on Target?” See also Walter C. Uhler, “Missile Shield or Holy Grail?” Nation, January 28, 2002, pp. 25-29.

45. See, inter alia, Richard J. Newman, “Space Watch, High and Low,” Air Force Magazine, July 2001, http://www.afa.org/magazine/July2001/0701SBIRS.asp; Federation of American Scientists, “Space-Based Infrared System,” October 2003, http://www.fas.org/spp/military/program/warning/sbir.htm; Tara Copp, “Giant Globe Radar Another Piece in Missile Defense System,” Scripps Howard News Service, September 10, 2003; Missile Defense Agency, “Fact Sheet: Sea-Based X-Band Radar,” September 2005; “Sea-Based X-Band Radar Begins Transport Operation Through Straits of Magellan,” Spacewar.com, November 14, 2005, http://www.spacewar.com/news/abm-05zp.html. For a photo of the X-band radar at sea on its oil rig, see the Boeing advertisement opposite page 4, National Journal, February 4, 2006.

46. See FitzGerald, Way Out There, pp. 408-11.

47. Evans, “Missile Defense”; Geoffrey Forden, “Laser Defenses: What If They Work?” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists58, no. 5 (September-October 2002), pp. 49-53.

48. Miranda Priebe, “Airborne Laser: Overweight and Oh-so-late,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists59, no. 3 (May-June 2003), pp. 18-20.

49. Quoted by Michael Clark and Victoria Samson, “A Look at the Troubled Development of the Airborne Laser,” Center for Defense Information, March 15, 2005, http://www.cdi.org/pdfs/ABL-031505.pdf.

50. See Taubman, Secret Empire, pp. 305-7.

51. Coyle, “Is Missile Defense on Target?” See also Uhler, “Missile Shield.”

52. “Rumsfeld Says Missile Shield Will Soon Have ’Modest Capacity,’” Agence France-Presse, December 23, 2004.

53. Bradley Graham, “Panel Faults Tactics in Rush to Install Antimissile System,” Washington Post, June 10, 2005; Editorial, “Star Wars’ Political Bull’s-Eye,” New York Times, June 24, 2005; Martin Sieff, “BMD Focus: DOD Space Buys Leak Billions,” United Press International, July 19, 2005, http://www.wpherald.com/print.php?StoryID=20050719-042857-1423r; Sieff, “Ballistic Missile Defense: The Test of Reality,” United Press International, July 26, 2005, http://www.wpherald.com/print.php?StoryID=20050726-123729-8313r; Sieff, “Ballistic Missile Defense: Shortfalls in Space,” United Press International, August 2, 2005, http://www.wpherald.com/print.php?StoryID=20050802-024235-8315r; Sieff, “Ballistic Missile Defense: Space Defense Budget Mess,” United Press International, October 6, 2005, http://www.wpherald.com/print.php?StoryID=20051006-021655-4516r.

54. “U.S. Gives Up on Upgrading Missile Defense,” United Press International, October 13, 2005, http://ww.wpherald.com/print.php?StoryID=20051013-044213-8370r.

55. Lisbeth Gronlund, “Fire, Aim, Ready,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61, no. 5 (September-October 2005), pp. 67-68, http://www.thebulletin.org/print.php?art_ofn=so05gronlund.

56. Scott Ritter, “Rude Awakening to Missile-defense Dream,” Christian Science Monitor, January 4, 2005, http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0104/p09s02-coop.html.

57. Uhler, “Missile Shield”; David E. Sanger and Michael Wines, “With a Shrug, a Monument to Cold War Fades Away,” New York Times, June 14, 2002; Evans, “Missile Defense”; “Russia Deploys New Set of Strategic Nuclear Missiles,” Pravda (Moscow), December 24, 2005, http://newsfromrussia.com/main/2005/12/24/70454.html; Natural Resources Defense Council, “Russian Nuclear Forces, 2006,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists62, no. 2 (March-April 2006), pp. 64-67.

58. Ciarrocca and Hartung, Axis of Influence, p. 33.

59. Quoted by Toby Eckert, Copley News Service, “Bribery Admission Spotlights Favoritism; ’Earmarking’ Has Grown in Congress,” San Diego Union-Tribune, December 3, 2005.

60. Hartung, Berrigan, Ciarrocca, and Wingo, “Tangled Web 2005”; John Isaacs, “An Indefensible Budget,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists61, no. 3 (May/ June 2005), p. 22.

61. Theresa Hitchens, “Bad Time to Invest in U.S. Missile Defense Program” (speech, Royal United Services Institute’s International Missile Defense Conference, London, November 2-3,2005), Center for Defense Information, January 9, 2006; Hartung, Berrigan, Ciarrocca, and Wingo, “Tangled Web 2005”; Editorial, “Dream-Filled Missile Silos,” New York Times, April 1, 2004.

62. Richard F. Kaufman, “The Folly of Space Weapons,” TomPaine.com, June 15, 2005, http://www.tompaine.com/print/the_folly_of_space_weapons.php; Lawrence S. Wittner, “Bush’s Maginot Line in the Sky,” History News Network, May 10, 2004, http://hnn.us/articles/printfriendly/5026.html.

63. David Wood, Newhouse News Service, “Pentagon’s ’Black’ Budgets Ripe for Corruption,” San Diego Union-Tribune, December 2, 2005.

64. Ciarrocca and Hartung, Axis of Influence.

65. Bill Moyers, “Inside the Pentagon,” Now, transcript, Public Broadcasting Service, December 5, 2003, http://www.pbs.org/now/transcript/transcript245_full.html.

66. See Ken Silverstein, “Huntsville’s Missile Payload,” Mother Jones, July-August 2001.

67. Quoted by Mike Moore, “Space War—Now We’re Jammin!” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61, no. 2 (March/April 2005), pp. 6-8; Donna Miles, “Iraq lamming Incident Underscores Lessons about Space,” American Forces Press Service, September 15, 2004, http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Sep2004/n09152004_2004091510.html.

68. George Smith, “Weapon of the Week: The Ruski Jammer,” Village Voice, January 22-28,2003.

69. Moore, “Space War.”

70. Federal Aviation Administration, “Satellite Navigation,” http://gps.faa.gov/GPSbasics/index.htm; Wikipedia, “Global Positioning System,” January 18, 2006, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gps.

71. David Whitman, “Keeping Our Bearings: The Coming War over the Global Positioning System,” US. News & World Report, October 21, 2002, pp. 72-73.

72. For further details and a survey of GPS, see Morag Chivers, “Differential GPS Explained,” ESRI, http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0103/differentiallof2.html.

73. “President Clinton: Improving the Civilian Global Positioning System (GPS),” May 1, 2000, http://clinton3.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OSTP/html/0053_4.html.

74. Jennifer Lee, “Europe Plans to Compete with U.S. Satellite Network,” New York Times, November 26, 2001; European Space Agency, “What Is Galileo?” March 17, 2005, http://www.esa.int/esaNA/GGGMX650NDC_index_2.html; Jonathan Amos, “Europe’s Galileo Project,” BBC News, December 28, 2005; Daniel Clery, “Find Yourself with Galileo: Europeans Will Not Have to Rely on the U.S. Military,” Financial Times, March 10, 2006.

75. Wikipedia, “Galileo Positioning System,” January 18, 2006, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_positioning_system; George Parker and John Thornhill, “European Navigation Satellite a Challenge to the U.S.,” Financial Times, December 29, 2005.

76. Benjamin S. Lambeth, Mastering the High Ground: Next Steps in the Military Uses of Space (Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corp., 2003), p. 103.

77. Katherine Shrader, “U.S. Has More Satellites in Orbit than Other Countries,” Associated Press, December 9, 2005.

78. Hitchens, “Weapons in Space”; Satellite Industry Association, “SIA Releases Satellite Industry Report,” press release, Long Beach, CA, June 6, 2005.

79. Philip E. Coyle and John B. Rhinelander, “Drawing the Line: The Path to Controlling Weapons in Space,” Disarmament Diplomacy, no. 66 (September 2002); Hitchens, “Weapons in Space.”

80. “The 1945 Proposal by Arthur C. Clarke for Geostationary Satellite Communications,” http://lakdiva.org/clarke/1945ww/.

81. Thomas Graham Jr., “Space Weapons and the Risk of Accidental Nuclear War,” Arms Control Today, December 2005, http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2005_12/Dec-spaceweapons.asp.

82. “Yugoslavia—Afghanistan—Iraq: The Satellite Wars,” Space Today Online,http://www.spacetoday.org/Satellites/YugoWarSats.html.

83. Jack Kelly, “U.S. the Leader in War.”

84. “Satellite’s Death Puts Millions Out of Touch,” USA Today, May 21, 1998; Caron Carlson, “What Went Wrong? High Costs Don’t Support Benefits,” Wireless Week, May 25, 1998, http://www.wirelessweek.com/article/CA4355.html?spacedesc=; Boeing Integrated Defense Systems, “Galaxy IV Specifications,” http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/601/galaxy_iv/galaxy_iv.html; Lambeth, Mastering the High Ground, p. 104. Environmental and weather satellites are threatened by a shortage of money as military demands crowd out civilian and scientific projects. See Matt Crenson, Associated Press, “Budgets Imperil Environmental Satellites,” ABC News, March 10, 2006, http://abcnews.go.com/US/print?id-1693735.

85. From Air Force Magazine, January 2005, quoted by Theresa Hitchens, “Worst-Case Mentality Clouds USAF Space Strategy,” Center for Defense Information, February 14, 2005, http://www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/printversion.cfm?documentID=2885.

86. Lambeth, Mastering the High Ground, p. 104.

87. Hitchens, “Worst-Case Mentality.” Members of the Council on Foreign Relations Study Group on Space Weapons write, “The quality of available information about what is going on in space—so-called space situational awareness—is currently one of the United States’ most urgent space security shortcomings.” International Security (Fall 2004), p. 56.

88. Gronlund, “Fire, Aim, Ready,” pp. 67-68.

89. Patrick Radden Keefe, “A Shortsighted Eye in the Sky,” New York Times, February 5, 2005; Jeffrey Richelson, “The Spy Satellite So Stealthy that the Senate Couldn’t Kill It,” National Security Archive, Washington, DC, December 14, 2004; Walter Pincus, “Spy Satellites Are Under Scrutiny,” Washington Post, August 16, 2005. The leading authority on codes, special access projects, and the black budget, William Arkin, notes that “Misty” is a very black code word indeed. All he can say about it is “Possible code word for possible stealth reconnaissance satellite.” See Code Names, p. 426.

90. Justin Ray, “Minotaur Rocket Launches U.S. Military Spacecraft,” Spaceflight Now, April 11, 2005, http://www.spaceflightnow.com/minotaur/xssl1/. Giuseppe Anzera comments, “XSS-11 is in fact specifically designed to disturb other states’ military reconnaissance or communications satellites.” See “The Pentagons Bid to Militarize Space,” Power and Interest News Report (PINR), August 17, 2005, http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_printable&report_id=347&language_id= 1.

91. Jeffrey Lewis, International Network of Engineers and Scientists Against Proliferation, “Space Weapons in U.S. Defense Planning,” Bulletin 23 (n.d., c. 2004), http://www.inesap.org/bulletin23/art03.htm.

92. Hitchens, “Worst-Case Mentality.”

93. According to Leonard David, some poor nations are talking about “debris-creating weapons.” See “The Clutter Above,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61, no. 4 (July-August 2005), pp. 32-37. On the effects of a nuclear explosion in space, see Department of Defense, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, High Altitude Nuclear Detonations Against Low Earth Orbit Satellites (Washington, DC: April 2001); Nick Schwellenbach, “EMPty Threat?” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists61, no. 55 (September/October 2005), pp. 50-57. Schwellenbach is writing about the electromagnetic pulse that is released by all nuclear explosions.

7: THE CRISIS OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC

1. Edith Hamilton, Mythology (1940; repr., New York: Mentor Books, 1953), p. 88.

2. George F. Will, Washington Post, “Having the President Observe the Law,” San Diego Union-Tribune, February 16, 2006; James Ridgeway, “The Bush Family Coup,” Village Voice, December 30, 2005. See also Federation of American Scientists, Project on Governmental Secrecy, “Confronting the White House’s ’Monarchical Doctrine,’” Secrecy News, February 16, 2006.

3. James Madison, “Virginia Resolutions,” December 21, 1798, http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendI_speechsl9.html.

4. James Madison, from a letter to W. T. Barry, August 4, 1822, http://www.matisse.net/files/madison.html.

5. “Bill Moyers on the Freedom of Information Act,” Now, Public Broadcasting Service, April 5, 2002, http://www.pbs.org/now/printable/transcript_moyers4_print.html.

6. See Daniel Ellsberg, Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers (New York: Viking, 2002); and Johnson, Review of Ellsberg, Secrets, in London Review of Books, February 6, 2003, pp. 7-9, http://www.lrb.co.uk/v25/n03/print/john04_.html.

7. James Bovard, “Uncle Sam’s Iron Curtain of Secrecy,” Future of Freedom Foundation, August 1, 2005, http://www.fff.org/freedom/fd0504c.asp.

8. Jeremy Brecher and Brendan Smith, “War Crimes Made Easy: How the Bush Administration Legalized Intelligence Deceptions, Assassinations, and Aggressive War,” TomDispatch.com,, December 6, 2005, p. 3, http://www.tomdispatch.com/index.mhtml?pid=41419.

9. Ruth Rosen, “The Day Ashcroft Censored Freedom of Information,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 7, 2002, http://www.commondreams.org/cgi-bin/print.cgi?file=/views02/0108-04.htm.

10. Quoted by Brecher and Smith, “War Crimes Made Easy.” See also Adam Clymer, “Bush Expands Government Secrecy,” New York Times, January 3, 2003.

11. Bovard, “Uncle Sam’s Iron Curtain.”

12. Wikipedia, “Executive Order 13233,” February 12, 2006, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13233.

13. Quoted in Editorial, “An Executive Order Hiding Presidential Papers,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 11, 2001.

14. Federation of American Scientists, “Statement of Richard Reeves on Presidential Records,” April 11, 2002, http://www.fas.org/sgp/congress/2002/041102reeves.html.

15. Quoted by Bovard, “Uncle Sam’s Iron Curtain.”

16. Ibid.

17. Noah Feldman, “Who Can Check the President?” New York Times Magazine, January 8, 2006, p. 55.

18. Quoted by Ridgeway, “Bush Family Coup.”

19. Quoted by Caroline Daniel, “Cheney Leads Fight for Presidential Power,” Financial Times, December 14, 2005.

20. Quoted by Linda Feldmann, “Tug of War over Presidential Powers,” Christian Science Monitor, December 22, 2005, http://csmonitor.com/2005/1222/p01s03-uspo.htm.

21. Quoted by Thomas E. Woods Jr., “All the President’s Power,” American Conservative, January 30, 2006, http://www.amconmag.com/2006/2006_0l_30/print/coverprint.html.

22. R. Jeffrey Smith and Dan Eggen, “Gonzales Helped Set the Course for Detainees,” Washington Post, January 5, 2005; Daniel, “Cheney Leads Fight”; Jane Mayer, “The Memo: How an Internal Effort to Ban the Abuse and Torture of Detainees Was Thwarted,” New Yorker, February 27, 2006, http://www.newyorker.com/printables/fact/060227fa_fact. For texts of the memo and other documents, see Human Rights First, “U.S. Government Memos on Torture and International Law,” http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/us_lawVetn/gov_rep/gov_memo_intlaw.htm.

23. Quoted by Dana Milbank, “In Cheney’s Shadow, Counsel Pushes the Conservative Cause,” Washington Post, October 11, 2004. There are altogether four Yoo memos available to the public that assert a dictatorial power for the president: (1) September 21, 2001, arguing that 9/11 allowed the president to take “measures which in less troubled conditions could be seen as infringements of individual liberties”; (2) September 25, 2001, in which Yoo says Congress could not put “limits on the president’s determinations as to any terrorist threat, the amount of military force to be used in response, or the method, timing, and nature of the response. These decisions, under our Constitution, are for the president alone to make”; (3) January 9, 2002, a Yoo memo saying that the Geneva Conventions did not apply to American prisoners even though ratified treaties are, according to the Constitution, the “supreme law of the land”; and (4) the Torture Memo of August 1, 2002. See Sidney Blumenthal, “The Law Is King,” Salon, December 22, 2005, http://fairuse.laccesshost.com/news2/blumenthal-lawking.html. For a detailed analysis of the executive branch’s defense of torture, see Tom Engelhardt, “George Orwell Meet ... Franz Kafka,” TomDispatch.com,, June 13, 2004, http://www.tomdispatch.com/index.mhtml?pid=1494.

24. Massimo Calabresi, “Wartime Power Play,” Time, February 5, 2006.

25. Bruce Schneier, “Unchecked Presidential Power,” StarTribune.com, December 21, 2005, http://www.startribune.com/dynamic/mobile_story.php?story=5793639.

26. Dan Farber, “The Case Against Presidential Supremacy,” San Diego Union-Tribune, January 15, 2006.

27. 343 US 579; Mayer, “The Memo.”

28. For details of the FISA, see Johnson, Sorrows of Empire, pp. 295-98.

29. See Electronic Privacy Information Center, “Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act Orders, 1979-2004,” http://www.epic.org/privacy/wiretap/stats/fisa_stats.html.

30. Paul Craig Roberts, “A Criminal Administration,” Antiwar.com, January 2, 2006.

31. James Risen and Eric Lichtblau, “Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers Without Courts,” New York Times, December 16, 2005. See also Aziz Huq (School of Law, New York University), “At the NSA, the Enemy Is Us,” TomPaine.com, March 2, 2006, http://www.tompaine.com/articles/2006/03/02/at_the_nsa_the_enemy_is_us.php.

32. Roberts, “Criminal Administration.”

33. Blumenthal, “Law Is King.”

34. Thomas Powers, “The Biggest Secret,” New York Review of Books, February 23, 2006, pp. 9-12.

35. Quoted by Amy Goodman, “Total Information Awareness Lives On Inside the National Security Agency,” Democracy Now, February 27, 2006, http://www.democracynow.org/print.pl?sid=06/02/27/1519235.

36. Walter Pincus, “Pentagon’s Intelligence Authority Widens,” Washington Post, December 19, 2005, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2005/12/18/AR2005121801006_pf.html. See also Tom Engelhardt, “Proliferation Wars in the Intelligence Community,” TomDispatch.com,, May 30, 2006, http://www.tomdispatch.com/index.mhtml?pid=87452.

37. Shane Harris, “TIA Lives On,” National Journal, February 23, 2006; John W. Dean, “Why Should Anyone Worry about Whose Communications Bush and Cheney Are Intercepting If It Helps to Find Terrorists?” FindLaw.com, February 24, 2006, http://writ.corporate.findlaw.com/dean/20060224.html; Shane Harris, “Signals and Noise,” National Journal, June 17, 2006, http://news.nationaljournal.com/articles/0619nj1.htm.

38. John W. Dean, “The Problem with Presidential Signing Statements: Their Use and Misuse by the Bush Administration,” FindLaw.com, January 13, 2006, http://writ.findlaw.com/dean/20060113.html.

39. Quoted by Charlie Savage, “Bush Could Bypass New Torture Ban,” Boston Globe, January 4, 2006, http://www.truthout.org/docs_2006/printer_010406A.shtml. See also Savage, “Bush Challenges Hundreds of Laws,” Boston Globe, April 30, 2006, http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2006/04/30/bush_challenges_hundreds_of_laws/.

40. Dean, “Presidential Signing Statements.”

41. Aziz Huq, “Constitutional License,” TomPaine.com, January 24, 2006, http://www.tompaine.com/print/constitutional_license.php.

42. See Alfred W. McCoy, “Why the McCain Torture Ban Won’t Work,” Tom Dispatch.com, February 8, 2006, http://www.tomdispatch.com/index.mhtml?pid=57336.

43. Quoted by Savage, “Bush Could Bypass Torture Ban.”

44. Anthony Legouranis, “Tortured Logic: What I Learned as a Military Interrogator in Iraq,” New York Times, February 28, 2006.

45. Feldman, “Who Can Check the President?”

46. Al Gore, “U.S. Constitution in Grave Danger,” January 16, 2006, http://www.truthout.org/docs_2006/printer_011606Y.shtml.

47. See Chalmers Johnson, “The Military-Industrial Man,” TomDispatch.com,, September 14, 2004, http://www.tomdispatch.com/index.mhtml?pid=1818; and “My Congressman Stands for Money, Not for Me—And, What’s Even Worse, There’s No Way I Can Get Rid of Him,” Los Angeles Times, September 26, 2004.

48. Matt Kelley and Jim Drinkard, “Secret Military Spending Gets Little Oversight,” USA Today, November 8, 2005; Paul Sisson, “Defense Dollars for Everyone,” North County Times (San Diego), July 17, 2005, p. E5.

49. Onell R. Soto, “Rep. Cunningham Resigns; Took $2.4 Million in Bribes,” San Diego Union-Tribune, November 29, 2005; Soto, “Feds Seek 10 Years for Cunningham,” San Diego Union-Tribune, February 18, 2006; Finlay Lewis, Jerry Kammer, and Joe Cantlupe, “Contractor Admits Bribing Cunningham,” San Diego Union-Tribune, February 25, 2006.

50. Laura Rozen,” ’Duke’ of Deception,” American Prospect, February 2006, http://www.prospect.org/web/printfriendly-view.ww?id=10816.

51. Bill Moyers, “Restoring the Public Trust,” TomPaine.com, February 24, 2006, http://www.tompaine.com/articles/2006/02/24/restoring_the_public_trust.php.

52. Matt Kelley and Jim Drinkard, “Contractor Spends Big on Key Lawmakers,” USA Today, November 20, 2005.

53. Dean Calbreath, “The Power of Persuasion: Poway Businessman Brent Wilkes Funneled Campaign Donations to Key Lawmakers as He Tried to Build a Defense Empire,” San Diego Union-Tribune, February 5, 2006.

54. Wes Allison and Anita Kumar, “Fla. Senators Get Funds for Military Companies, Many of Them Donors,” St. Petersburg Times (FL), March 11, 2006.

55. Moyers, “Restoring the Public Trust.”

56. Ibid. Also see Larry Margasak and Sharon Theimer, Associated Press, “Dollar Trail from D.C. to Islands,” CBS News, May 3, 2005; Rep. George Miller (Democrat from California), “New Developments—Abramoff, DeLay, and the Northern Mariana Islands,” May 6, 2005, http://www.house.gov/georgemiller/marianasupdate.html; Dennis Cook, Associated Press, “Controversial Lobbyist Had Close Contact with Bush Team,” USA Today, May 6, 2005, http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2005-05-06-abramoff-bush_x.htm; Eamon Javers, “Op-Eds for Sale,” Business Week, December 15, 2005; Byron York, “Hillary, Saipan, Sweatshops, Campaign Cash—and Abramoff,” National Review, March 10, 2006.

57. Ken Silverstein, “The Great American Pork Barrel,” Harper’s Magazine, July 2005, http://www.harpers.org/TheGreatAmericanPorkBarrel.html.

58. Ibid.

59. Quoted by David Wood, Newhouse News Service, “Pentagon’s ’Black’ Budgets Ripe for Corruption,” San Diego Union-Tribune, December 2, 2005. Also see Dan Morgan, “Classified Spending On the Rise,” Washington Post, August 27, 2003; Drew Brown, “Classified Military Spending Reaches Highest Level Since Cold War,” Knight Ridder Newspapers, May 19, 2006.

60. Moyers, “Inside the Pentagon.” See also William D. Hartung, “Dick Cheney and the Power of the Self-Licking Ice Cream Cone,” in How Much Are You Making on the War, Daddy? A Quick and Dirty Guide to War Profiteering in the Bush Administration (New York: Nation Books, 2004), pp. 23-43.

61. Winslow T. Wheeler, “How Congress Sacrifices Readiness for Pork,” Counter-punch, January 24, 2006; Emanuel Pastreich, “Rebels Within the U.S. Federal System,” Center for Defense Information, January 10, 2006.

62. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2004.

63. Center for Defense Information, “Fiscal Year 2001 Add-Ons: Congress’s Unrequested Spending for the Pentagon,” July 28, 2000, http://cdi.org/issues/budget/add-onsOl.html; Center for Defense Information, “Fiscal Year 2002 Add-Ons,” January 16, 2002, http://www.cdi.org/issues/budget/add-ons02-pr.cfm.

64. Editorial, “Kabuki Congress,” New York Times, March 6, 2006. See also Editorial, “The Death of the Intelligence Panel,” New York Times, March 9, 2006.

65. Brian Foley, “Playing with Fire: Congress and Executive Power,” Jurist, January 9, 2006, http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forumy/2006/01/playing-with-fire-congress-and.php.

66. McCoy, “McCain Ban Won’t Work.”

67. Quoted by Eric Schmitt, “Senate Approves Limiting Rights of U.S. Detainees,” New York Times, November 11, 2005.

68. Foley, “Playing with Fire.”

69. Quoted by Woods, “All the President’s Power.”

70. Bob Herbert, “The Torturers Win,” New York Times, February 20, 2006.

71. Anatol Lieven, “Decadent America Must Give Up Imperial Ambitions,” Financial Times, November 29, 2005.

72. Louis Uchitelle, “U.S. and Trade Partners Maintain Unhealthy Long-Term Relationship,” New York Times, September 18, 2004; Christopher Swann,”U.S. Deficit Data Fuel Anxieties on Dollar,” Financial Times, March 15, 2006.

73. Martin Crutsinger, “U.S. Trade Deficit Hits All-Time High,” Associated Press, February 10, 2006.

74. Keith Bradsher, “China Passes Japan in Foreign Exchange Reserves,” New York Times, March 29, 2006.

75. Marshall Auerback, “What Could Go Wrong in 2005?” TomDispatch.com, January 22, 2005, http://www.tomdispatch.com/index.mhtml?pid=2141.

76. See the discussion by Doug Dowd, “U.S. Military Expenditures: Beneficial or Harmful? Or, Who Benefits and Who Pays?” State of Nature, Winter 2006, http://www.stateofnature.org/milex.html. See also Robert B. Reich, “John Maynard Keynes: His Radical Idea that Governments Should Spend Money They Don’t Have May Have Saved Capitalism,” Time, March 29, 1999, http://www.time.com/time/timelOO/scientist/profile/keynes.html.

77. Wikipedia, “Permanent Arms Economy,” February 10, 2006, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_arms_economy.

78. Andrew Gumbel, “How the War Machine Is Driving the U.S. Economy,” Independent, January 6, 2004.

79. Wikipedia, “Military Keynesianism,” February 5, 2006, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Keynesianism; Michael Kidron, “A Permanent Arms Economy,” International Socialism 1, no. 28 (Spring 1967), http://www.marxists.org/archive/kidron/works/1967/xx/permarms.htm.

80. Ronald Steel, Temptations of a Superpower (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), p. 61.

81. See John L. Boies, Buying for Armageddon: Business, Society, and Military Spending Since the Cuban Missile Crisis (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994).

82. Gumbel, “War Machine”; Fred Kaplan, “The Military’s Bloated Budget,” Slate, September 12, 2003.

83. Jonathan Karp, “Pet Projects Prevail in U.S. Military-Spending Boom,” Wall Street journal, June 16, 2006.

84. Jeff Bliss, “U.S. War Spending to Rise 44% to $9.8 Billion a Month, Report Says,” Bloomberg.com, March 17, 2006, http://truthout.org/docs_2006/printer_031706B.shtml.

85. Winslow T. Wheeler, “A Tutorial on How to Find the Real Numbers: Just How Big Is the Defense Budget?” Counterpunch, January 19, 2006.

86. Robert Higgs, “The Defense Budget Is Bigger than You Think,” The Independent Institute, January 18, 2004, http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1253.80; Doug Dowd, “U.S. Military Expenditures”; Walter Adams and James W. Brock, The Bigness Complex: Industry, Labor, and Government in the American Economy,2nd ed. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004).

87. Ann Scott Tyson, “Defense Spending Is Overstated, GAO Report Says,” Washington Post, September 22, 2005.

88. Linda Bilmes and Joseph Stiglitz, “The Economic Costs of the Iraq War: An Appraisal Three Years After the Beginning of the Conflict,” National Bureau of Economic Research (Working Paper 12054, February 2006), http://www.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/jstiglitz/download/2006_Cost_of_War_in_Iraq_NBER.pdf.