The Crimean War: A History

ABBREVIATIONS

AN — Archives nationales, Paris

BLMD — British Library Manuscripts Division, London

BLO — Bodleian Library Special Collections, Oxford

BOA — Basbakanlik Osmanlik Archive, Istanbul

FO — National Archive, London, Foreign Office

GARF — State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow

IRL — Institute of Russian Literature, Russian Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg

NAM — National Army Museum, London

RA — Royal Archives, Windsor

RGADA — Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, Moscow

RGAVMF — Russian State Archive of the Military Naval Fleet, St Petersburg

RGB — Russian State Library, Manuscripts Division, St Petersburg

RGIA — Russian State Historical Archive, St Petersburg

RGVIA — Russian State Military History Archive, Moscow

SHD — Service historique de la Défense, Vincennes

WO — National Archive, London, War Office

INTRODUCTION

1

L. Liashuk, Ofitsery chernomorskogo flota pogubshie pri zashchite Sevastopolia v 1854–1855 gg. (Simferopol, 2005); G. Arnold, Historical Dictionary of the Crimean War (London, 2002), pp. 38–9.

2

Losses of Life in Modern Wars: Austria-Hungary; France (Oxford, 1916), p. 142; Histoire militaire de la France, 4 vols. (Paris, 1992), vol. 2, p. 514; D. Murphy, Ireland and the Crimean War (Dublin, 2002), p. 104. The best recent survey of allied effectives and casualties is T. Margrave, ‘Numbers & Losses in the Crimea: An Introduction’, War Correspondent, 21/1 (2003), pp. 30–32; 21/2 (2003), pp. 32–6; 21/3 (2003), pp. 18–22.

3

J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 337; A. Khrushchev, Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 1889), pp. 157–8.

CHAPTER 1. RELIGIOUS WARS

1

FO 78/446, Finn to Aberdeen, 27 May 1846; 78/705 Finn to Palmerston, 5 Apr. 1847; H. Martineau, Eastern Life: Present and Past, 3 vols. (London, 1848), vol. 3, pp. 162–5.

2

Ibid., pp. 120–21.

3

FO 78/368, Young to Palmerston, 14 Mar. 1839.

4

Quoted in D. Hopwood, The Russian Presence in Palestine and Syria, 1843–1914: Church and Politics in the Near East (Oxford, 1969), p. 9.

5

A. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 1, pp. 42–3; N. Shepherd, The Zealous Intruders: The Western Rediscovery of Palestine (London, 1987), p. 23; Martineau, Eastern Life, vol. 3, p. 124; R. Curzon, Visits to Monasteries in the Levant (London, 1849), p. 209.

6

FO 78/413, Young to Palmerston, 29 Jan. and 28 Apr. 1840; 78/368, Young to Palmerston, 14 Mar. and 21 Oct. 1839.

7

R. Marlin, L’Opinion franc-comtoise devant la guerre de Crimée, Annales Littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, vol. 17 (Paris, 1957), p. 23.

8

E. Finn (ed.), Stirring Times, or, Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853 to 1856, 2 vols. (London, 1878), vol. 1, pp. 57–8, 76.

9

FO 78/705, Finn to Palmerston, 2 Dec. 1847.

10

On the various interpretations of the treaty, see R. H. Davison, Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774–1923: The Impact of the West (Austin, Tex., 1990), pp. 29–37.

11

Mémoires du duc De Persigny (Paris, 1896), p. 225; L. Thouvenal, Nicolas Ier et Napoléon III: Les préliminaires de la guerre de Crimée 1852–1854 (Paris, 1891), pp. 7–8, 14–16, 59.

12

A. Gouttman, La Guerre de Crimée 1853–1856 (Paris, 1995), p. 69; D. Goldfrank, The Origins of the Crimean War (London, 1995), pp. 76, 82–3; Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey, 2 vols. (London, 1854–6), vol. 1, pp. 17–18.

13

A. Ubicini, Letters on Turkey, trans. Lady Easthope, 2 vols. (London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 18–22.

14

S. Montefiore, Prince of Princes: The Life of Potemkin (London, 2000), pp. 244–5.

15

W. Reddaway, Documents of Catherine the Great (Cambridge, 1931), p. 147; Correspondence artistique de Grimm avec Cathérine II, Archives de l’art français, nouvelle période, 17 (Paris, 1932), pp. 61–2; The Life of Catherine II, Empress of Russia, 3 vols. (London, 1798), vol. 3, p. 211; The Memoirs of Catherine the Great (New York, 1955), p. 378.

16

Davison, Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, p. 37; H. Ragsdale, ‘Russian Projects of Conquest in the Eighteenth Century’, in id. (ed.), Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 83–5; V. Aksan, Ottoman Wars 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged (London, 2007), pp. 160–61.

17

Montefiore, Prince of Princes, pp. 274–5.

18

Ibid., pp. 246–8.

19

G. Jewsbury, The Russian Annexation of Bessarabia: 1774–1828. A Study of Imperial Expansion (New York, 1976), pp. 66–72, 88.

20

M. Gammer, Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan (London, 1994), p. 44; J. McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims 1821–1922 (Princeton, 1995), pp. 30–32.

21

M. Kozelsky, ‘Introduction’, unpublished MS.

22

K. O’Neill, ‘Between Subversion and Submission: The Integration of the Crimean Khanate into the Russian Empire, 1783–1853’, Ph.D. diss., Harvard, 2006, pp. 39, 52–60, 181; A. Fisher, The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772–1783 (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 144–6; M. Kozelsky, ‘Forced Migration or Voluntary Exodus? Evolution of State Policy toward Crimean Tatars during the Crimean War’, unpublished paper; B. Williams, ‘Hijra and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire’, Cahiers du monde russe, 41/1 (2000), pp. 79–108; M. Pinson, ‘Russian Policy and the Emigration of the Crimean Tatars to the Ottoman Empire, 1854–1862’, Güney-Dogu Avrupa Arastirmalari Dergisi, 1 (1972), pp. 38–41.

23

A. Schönle, ‘Garden of the Empire: Catherine’s Appropriation of the Crimea’, Slavic Review, 60/1 (Spring 2001), pp. 1–23; K. O’Neill, ‘Constructing Russian Identity in the Imperial Borderland: Architecture, Islam, and the Transformation of the Crimean Landscape’, Ab Imperio, 2 (2006), pp. 163–91.

24

M. Kozelsky, Christianizing Crimea: Shaping Sacred Space in the Russian Empire and Beyond (De Kalb, Ill., 2010), chap. 3; id., ‘Ruins into Relics: The Monument to Saint Vladimir on the Excavations of Chersonesos, 1827–57’, Russian Review, 63/4 (Oct. 2004), pp. 655–72.

CHAPTER 2. EASTERN QUESTIONS

1

R. Nelson, Hagia Sophia, 1850–1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument (Chicago, 2004), pp. 29–30.

2

Ibid., p. 30.

3

N. Teriatnikov, Mosaics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul: The Fossati Restoration and the Work of the Byzantine Institute (Washington, 1998), p. 3; The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text, trans. S. Cross and O. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), p. 111.

4

T. Stavrou, ‘Russian Policy in Constantinople and Mount Athos in the Nineteenth Century’, in L. Clucas (ed.), The Byzantine Legacy in Eastern Europe (New York, 1988), p. 225.

5

Nelson, Hagia Sophia, p. 33.

6

A. Ubicini, Letters on Turkey, trans. Lady Easthope, 2 vols. (London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 18–22.

7

D. Hopwood, The Russian Presence in Palestine and Syria, 1843–1914: Church and Politics in the Near East (Oxford, 1969), p. 29.

8

S. Pavlowitch, Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Serbia, 1837–39 (Paris, 1961), p. 72; B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford, 2002), p. 31.

9

F. Bailey, British Policy and the Turkish Reform Movement, 1826–1853 (London, 1942), pp. 19–22; D. Ralston, Importing the European Army: The Introduction of European Military Techniques and Institutions into the Extra-European World, 1600–1914 (Chicago, 1990), pp. 62–3.

10

W. Miller, The Ottoman Empire, 1801–1913 (Cambridge, 1913), p. 18.

11

V. Aksan, Ottoman Wars 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged (London, 2007), p. 49.

12

D. Goldfrank, The Origins of the Crimean War (London, 1995), pp. 41–2.

13

A. Bitis, Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815–1833 (Oxford, 2006), pp. 33–4, 101–4; Aksan, Ottoman Wars, pp. 290–96; T. Prousis, Russian Society and the Greek Revolution (De Kalb, Ill., 1994), pp. 31, 50–51.

14

A. Zaionchkovskii, Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 2002), vol. 1, pp. 8, 19; L. Vyskochkov, Imperator Nikolai I: Chelovek i gosudar’ (St Petersburg, 2001), p. 141; M. Gershenzon, Epokha Nikolaia I (Moscow, 1911), pp. 21–2.

15

A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), pp. 96–7.

16

R. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy , vol. 1: From Peter the Great to the Death of Nicholas I (Princeton, 1995), p. 382; D. Goldfrank, ‘The Holy Sepulcher and the Origin of the Crimean War’, in E. Lohr and M. Poe (eds.), The Military and Society in Russia: 1450–1917 (Leiden, 2002), pp. 502–3.

17

Bitis, Russia and the Eastern Question, pp. 167–76.

18

Ibid., p. 187.

19

Aksan, Ottoman Wars, pp. 346–52.

20

P. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (Oxford, 1994), pp. 658–60.

21

A. Seaton, The Crimean War: A Russian Chronicle (London, 1977), p. 36.

22

Bitis, Russia and the Eastern Question, pp. 361–2, 366.

23

FO 97/404, Ponsonby to Palmerston, 7 July 1834; R. Florescu, The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854 (Monachii, 1962), pp. 135–60.

24

F. Lawson, The Social Origins of the Egyptian Expansionism during the Muhammad Ali Period (New York, 1992), chap. 5; Aksan, Ottoman Wars, pp. 363–7; A. Marmont, The Present State of the Turkish Empire, trans. F. Smith (London, 1839), p. 289.

25

Bitis, Russia and the Eastern Question, pp. 468–9.

26

Zaionchkovskii, Vostochnaia voina, vol. 1, p. 235.

27

FO 181/114, Palmerston to Ponsonby, 6 Dec. 1833; P. Mosely, Russian Diplomacy and the Opening of the Eastern Question in 1838 and 1839 (Cambridge, Mass., 1934), p. 12; Bailey, British Policy, p. 53.

28

L. Levi, History of British Commerce, 1763–1870 (London, 1870), p. 562; Bailey, British Policy, p. 74; J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 6/1 (1953); FO 78/240, Ponsonby to Palmerston, 25 Nov. 1834; D. Urquhart, England and Russia (London, 1835), p. 110.

29

B. Kingsley Martin, The Triumph of Lord Palmerston: A Study of Public Opinion in England before the Crimean War (London, 1963), p. 85.

30

J. Gleason, The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain (Cambridge, Mass., 1950), p. 103.

31

Ibid., pp. 211–12, 220.

32

India, Great Britain, and Russia (London, 1838), pp. 1–2.

33

R. Shukla, Britain, India and the Turkish Empire, 1853–1882 (New Delhi, 1973), p. 27.

34

M. Gammer, Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan (London, 1994), p. 121.

35

J. Pardoe, The City of the Sultan; and Domestic Manners of the Turks in 1836, 2 vols. (London, 1854), vol. 1, p. 32.

36

C. White, Three Years in Constantinople; or, Domestic Manners of the Turks in 1844, 3 vols. (London, 1846), p. 363. See also E. Spencer, Travels in Circassia, Krim-Tartary, &c., including a Steam Voyage down the Danube from Vienna to Constantinople, and round the Black Sea in 1836, 2 vols. (London, 1837).

37

Urquhart, England and Russia, p. 86.

38

S. Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning, 2 vols. (London, 1888), vol. 2, p. 17.

39

Ibid., p. 104. On Freemasonry in nineteenth-century Turkey, see the many works of Paul Dumont, including ‘La Turquie dans les archives du Grand Orient de France: Les loges maçonniques d’obédience française à Istanbul du milieu du XIXe siècle à la veille de la Première Guerre Mondiale’, in J.-L. Bacqué-Grammont and P. Dumont (eds.), Économie et société dans l’empire ottoman (fin du XVIIIe siècle–début du XXe siècle) (Paris, 1983), pp. 171–202.

40

A. Cunningham, Eastern Questions in the Nineteenth Century: Collected Essays, 2 vols. (London, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 118–19.

41

B. Abu Manneh, ‘The Islamic Roots of the Gülhane Rescript’, in id., Studies on Islam and the Ottoman Empire in the Nineteenth Century (Istanbul, 2001), pp. 83–4, 89.

42

FO 97/413, Stratford to Palmerston, 7 Feb. 1850; Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning, vol. 2, p. 215.

CHAPTER 3. THE RUSSIAN MENACE

1

S. Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai I v Londone v 1844 godu’, Istoricheskii vestnik, 23/3 (Feb. 1886), pp. 602–4.

2

E. Stockmar, Denkwürdigkeiten aus den Papieren des Freiherrn Christian Friedrich V. Stockmar (Brunswick, 1872), p. 98; T. Martin, The Life of His Royal Highness the Prince Consort, 5 vols. (London, 1877), vol. 1, p. 215.

3

G. Bolsover, ‘Nicholas I and the Partition of Turkey’, Slavonic Review, 27 (1948), p. 135.

4

Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, pp. 355–8.

5

Martin, The Life of His Royal Highness, vol. 1, p. 224.

6

Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, p. 604; Stockmar, Denkwürdigkeiten, p. 98.

7

Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, p. 604.

8

The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty’s Correspondence between the Years 1837 and 1861, 3 vols. (London, 1907–8), vol. 2, pp. 16–17; Martin, The Life of His Royal Highness, vol. 1, p. 219; Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, p. 609.

9

Martin, The Life of His Royal Highness, vol. 1, p. 223; Stockmar, Denkwürdigkeiten , pp. 397, 400.

10

Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, p. 615; Stockmar, Denkwürdigkeiten, p. 399.

11

Ibid., pp. 396–9.

12

H. Ragsdale, ‘Russian Projects of Conquest in the Eighteenth Century’, in id. (ed.), Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 75–7; O. Subtelnyi, ‘Peter I’s Testament: A Reassessment’, Slavic Review, 33 (1974), pp. 663–78.

13

Ragsdale, ‘Russian Projects’, pp. 79–80.

14

Ibid., p. 81.

15

J. Gleason, The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain (Cambridge, Mass., 1950), pp. 39, 43.

16

R. Wilson, A Sketch of the Military and Political Power of Russia in the Year 1817 (London, 1817); Gleason, Genesis of Russophobia, p. 56.

17

[Lieut. Col.] Sir George de Lacy Evans, On the Designs of Russia (London, 1828), pp. 191, 199–219.

18

The Portfolio; or a Collection of State Papers, etc. etc., Illustrative of the History of Our Times, 1 (1836), p. 103.

19

Ibid., pp. 187–95. See further, M. Kukiel, Czartoryski and European Unity 1770–1861 (Princeton, 1955), p. 236.

20

Hansard, HC Deb. 23 Feb. 1848, vol. 96, pp. 1132–1242; HC Deb. 1 Mar. 1848, vol. 47, pp. 66–123 (Palmerston quotation at p. 122).

21

The Times, 20 July 1831; Northern Liberator, 3 Oct. 1840.

22

Gleason, Genesis of Russophobia, p. 126.

23

Kukiel, Czartoryski, p. 205.

24

R. McNally, ‘The Origins of Russophobia in France: 1812–1830’, American Slavic and East European Review, 17/2 (Apr. 1958), pp. 179–83.

25

A. Mickiewicz, Livre des pèlerins polonais, traduit du polonais d’A. M. par le Comte C. de Montalembert; suivi d’un hymne à la Pologne par F. de La Menais (Paris, 1833).

26

Cinq millions de Polonais forcés par la czarine Catherine, les czars Paul, Alexandre et récemment Nicolas d’abjurer leur foi religieuse. Eclaircissements sur la question des Grecs-Unis sous le rapport statistique, historique et religieux (Paris and Strasburg, 1845); Journal des débats, 23 Oct. 1842.

27

The Nuns of Minsk: Narrative of Makrena Mieczystawska, Abbess of the Basilian Convent of Minsk; The History of a Seven Years’ Persecution Suffered for the Faith, by Her and Her Nuns (London, 1846), pp. 1–16; Hansard, HL Deb. 9 Mar. 1846, vol. 84, p. 768; M. Cadot, La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française, 1839–1856 (Paris, 1967), p. 464.

28

[Count] V. Krasinski, Is the Power of Russia to be Reduced or Increased by the Present War? The Polish Question and Panslavism (London, 1855), p. 4.

29

Marquis de Custine, Russia, 3 vols. (London, 1844), vol. 3, pp. 21, 353; G. Kennan, The Marquis de Custine and His Russia in 1839 (London, 1971).

30

Cadot, La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française, p. 471.

31

S. Pavlowitch, Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Serbia, 1837–39 (Paris, 1961).

32

N. Tsimbaev, Slaviano fil’stvo: Iz istorii russkoi obshchestvennopoliticheskoi mysli XIX veka (Moscow, 1986), p. 36.

33

A. Bitis, Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815–1833 (Oxford, 2006), pp. 93–7.

34

N. Riasanovsky, Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia 1825–1855 (Berkeley, 1959), p. 152.

35

Ibid., p. 166.

36

P. Mérimée, Correspondence générale, 18 vols. (Paris, 1941–65), vol. 5, p. 420; Cadot, La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française, p. 516; L. Namier, 1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals (Oxford, 1946), pp. 40–42.

37

Cadot, La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française, p. 468.

38

R. Florescu, The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854 (Monachii, 1962), chaps. 7 and 8.

39

FO 195/321, Colquhoun to Palmerston, 16 Aug. 1848.

40

FO 195/332, Colquhoun to Stratford Canning, 2 July 1849.

41

Florescu, Struggle against Russia, pp. 217–18.

42

D. Goldfrank, The Origins of the Crimean War (London, 1995), pp. 68–71.

CHAPTER 4. THE END OF PEACE IN EUROPE

1

On British naval defence against France, see A. Lambert, The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy, 1853–56 (Manchester, 1990), pp. 25–7.

2

RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1855, 16 Apr.

3

Mémoires du duc De Persigny (Paris, 1896), p. 212.

4

A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (Oxford, 1955), p. 49.

5

Mémoires du duc De Persigny, p. 225; E. Bapst, Les Origines de la Guerre en Crimée: La France et la Russie de 1848 à 1851 (Paris, 1912), pp. 325–7.

6

FO 78/895, Rose to Malmesbury, 28 Dec. 1852.

7

K. Vitzthum von Eckstadt, St Petersburg and London in the Years 1852–64, 2 vols. (London, 1887), vol. 1, p. 38; D. Goldfrank, The Origins of the Crimean War (London, 1995), pp. 109–10.

8

FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 11 and 22 Jan., 22 Feb. 1853.

9

FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 11 Jan., 21 Feb. 1853; A. Cunningham, Eastern Questions in the Nineteenth Century: Collected Essays, 2 vols. (London, 1993), vol. 2, p. 136.

10

FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 22 Feb. 1853; FO 65/425, Seymour to Clarendon, 29 Mar. 1853.

11

Cunningham, Eastern Questions, vol. 2, pp. 139–40.

12

FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 10 Feb. 1853.

13

RGAVMF, f. 19, op. 7, d. 135, l. 37; FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 7 Jan. 1853; Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey, 2 vols. (London, 1854–6), vol. 1, pp. 121–4.

14

RGAVMF, f. 19, op. 7, d. 135, l. 43; J. Curtiss, Russia’s Crimean War (Durham, NC, 1979), p. 94.

15

FO 65/420, Clarendon to Seymour, 23 Mar., 5 Apr. 1853; Goldfrank, Origins of the Crimean War, pp. 136–8.

16

Mémoires du duc De Persigny, pp. 226–31; Bapst, Origines de la Guerre en Crimée, p. 354.

17

Mémoires du comte Horace de Viel-Castel sur le règne de Napoléon III, 1851–1864, 2 vols. (Paris, 1979), vol. 1, p. 180; J. Ridley, Napoleon III and Eugenie (London, 1979), p. 365; S. Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning, 2 vols. (London, 1888), vol. 2, p. 237.

18

Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches, vol. 1, pp. 256–8; Cunningham, Eastern Questions, pp. 159–62; Goldfrank, Origins of the Crimean War, pp. 147–8, 156–7; A. Saab, The Origins of the Crimean Alliance (Charlottesville, Va., 1977), pp. 135–7; Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning, vol. 2, p. 248.

19

BOA, AMD, 44/81, Musurus to Reshid Pasha, 13 May 1853; RGAVMF, f. 19, op. 7, d. 135, l. 52; C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), pp. 74–6.

20

A. Zaionchkovskii, Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 2002), vol. 1, pp. 739–40.

21

Russkii arkhiv, 1891, no. 8, p. 169; ‘Voina s Turtsiei 1828–1829 i 1853–1854’, Russkaia starina, 16 (1876), pp. 681–7; P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (Ithaca, NY, 1972), p. 76.

22

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5407, ll. 7–11; d. 5451, ll. 13–14; Zaionchkovskii, Vostochnaia voina, vol. 1, p. 74.

23

Za mnogo let: Zapiski (vospominaniia) neizvestnogo 1844–1874 gg. (St Petersburg, 1897), p. 74; RGB OR, f. 743, T. Klemm, ‘Vospominaniia starogo-soldata, rasskazannye synu, kadetu VII klacca Pskovskogo kadetskogo korpusa’, l. 6.

24

F. Kagan, The Military Reforms of Nicholas I: The Origins of the Modern Russian Army (London, 1999), p. 221; E. Brooks, ‘Reform in the Russian Army, 1856–1861’, Slavic Review, 43/1 (Spring 1984), p. 64; E. Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, 1990), p. 24.

25

Brooks, ‘Reform’, pp. 70–71; K. Marx, The Eastern Question: A Reprint of Letters Written 1853–1856 Dealing with the Events of the Crimean War (London, 1969), pp. 397–8; J. Curtiss, The Russian Army under Nicholas I, 1825–1855 (Durham, NC, 1965), p. 115; P. Alabin, Chetyre voiny: Pokhodnye zapiski v voinu 1853, 1854, 1855 i 1856 godov, 2 vols. (Viatka, 1861), vol. 1, p. 43.

26

Curtiss, Russian Army, pp. 248–9.

27

Za mnogo let, pp. 34–5, 45–7; RGB OR, f. 743, T. Klemm, ‘Vospominaniia starogo-soldata’, ll. 4, 7–8; Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier, p. 87.

28

BOA, I, HR, 328/21222; S. Kiziltoprak, ‘Egyptian Troops in the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, in Vostochnaya (Krymskaya) Voina 1853–1856 godov: Novye materialy i novoe osmyslenie, 2 vols. (Simferopol, 2005), vol. 1, p. 49; Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning, vol. 2, p. 296.

29

A. Slade, Turkey and the Crimean War: A Narrative of Historical Events (London, 1867), p. 186; E. Perret, Les Français en Orient: Récits de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1889), pp. 86–7.

30

T. Buzzard, With the Turkish Army in the Crimea and Asia Minor (London, 1915), p. 121; J. Reid, Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse 1839–1878 (Stuttgart, 2000), p. 257.

31

RGVIA, f. 450, op. 1, d. 33, ll. 4–12; A Visit to Sebastopol a Week after Its Fall: By an Officer of the Anglo-Turkish Contingent (London, 1856), p. 53; Vospominaniia ofitsera o voennyh deistviyah na Dunae v 1853–54 gg.: Iz dnevnika P.B. (St Petersburg, 1887), p. 566.

32

M. Chamberlain, Lord Aberdeen: A Political Biography (London, 1983), p. 476; FO 65/421, Palmerston to Seymour, 16 July 1853; Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches, vol. 1, p. 400.

33

R. Florescu, The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854 (Monachii, 1962), pp. 241–6.

34

FO 65/422, Palmerston to Seymour, 2 Aug. 1853.

35

Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches, vol. 1, pp. 400–404.

36

Goldfrank, Origins of the Crimean War, pp. 190–213.

37

The Greville Memoirs 1814–1860, ed. L. Strachey and R. Fulford, 8 vols. (London, 1938), vol. 1, p. 85.

38

H. Maxwell, The Life and Letters of George William Frederick, Fourth Earl of Clarendon, 2 vols. (London, 1913), vol. 2, p. 25.

39

Slade, Turkey and the Crimean War, pp. 101–2, 107; Saab, Origins of the Crimean Alliance, p. 64; Cunningham, Eastern Questions, pp. 198–9.

40

Saab, Origins of the Crimean Alliance, p. 81; Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War’, pp. 80, 90.

41

The Times, 27 Sept. 1853; Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches, vol. 1, pp. 562–3.

42

A. Türkgeldi, Mesâil-i Mühimme-i Siyâsiyye, 3 vols. (Ankara, 1957–60), vol. 1, pp. 319–21; Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War’, p. 93.

CHAPTER 5. PHONEY WAR

1

BOA, HR, SYS, 907/5.

2

BOA, HR, SYS, 903/2–26.

3

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5429, ll. 11–17; ‘Vospominaniia A. A. Genritsi’, Russkaia starina, 20 (1877), p. 313.

4

‘Vostochnaia voina: Pis’ma kn. I. F. Paskevicha k kn. M. D. Gorchakovu’, Russkaia starina, 15 (1876), pp. 163–91, 659–74 (quotation, p. 182); E. Tarle, Krymskaia voina, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1944), vol. 1, pp. 216–18.

5

‘Voina s Turtsiei 1828–1829 i 1853–1854’, Russkaia starina, 16 (1876), pp. 700–701; S. Nikitin, ‘Russkaia politika na Balkanakh i nachalo vostochnoi voiny’, Voprosy istorii, 4 (1946), pp. 3–29.

6

A. Zaionchkovskii, Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 2002), vol. 2, pp. 523–4; ‘Voina s Turtsiei 1828–1829 i 1853–1854’, p. 708.

7

Zaionchkovskii, Vostochnaia voina, vol. 1, pp. 321–2, 564.

8

‘Voina s Turtsiei 1854 g.’, Russkaia starina, 18 (1877), p. 141; Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey, 2 vols. (London, 1854–6), vol. 1, pp. 415–18; RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5417, l. 7.

9

RGIA, f. 711, op. 1, d. 35, ll. 1–3; A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), pp. 129–30, 146–8, 162–3.

10

Zaionchkovskii, Vostochnaia voina, vol. 1, pp. 702–8.

11

Ibid., pp. 559–61.

12

L. Vyskochkov, Imperator Nikolai I: chelovek i gosudar’ (St Petersburg, 2001), pp. 296–7.

13

Zaionchkovskii, Vostochnaia voina, vol. 1, p. 535.

14

‘Vostochnaia voina: Pis′ma kn. I. F. Paskevicha k kn. M. D. Gorchakovu’, p. 190.

15

M. Pinson, ‘Ottoman Bulgaria in the First Tanzimat Period–the Revolts in Nish (1841) and Vidin (1850)’, Middle Eastern Studies, 11/2 (May 1975), pp. 103–46; H. Inalcik, Tanzimat ve Bulgar Meselesi (Ankara, 1943), pp. 69–71; ‘Vospominaniia o voine na Dunae v 1853 i 1854 gg.’, Voennyi sbornik, 14/8 (1880), p. 420; Rossiia i Balkany: Iz istorii obshchestvenno-politicheskikh i kul’turnykh sviazei (xviii veka–1878 g.) (Moscow, 1995), pp. 180–82.

16

FO 195/439, Grant to Clarendon, 11 Jan. 1854; FO 78/1014, Grant to Clarendon, 9 Jan. 1854; Vospominaniia ofitsera o voennyh deistviyah na Dunae v 1853–54 gg.: Iz dnevnika P.B. (St Petersburg, 1887), pp. 531, 535, 543; ‘Vospominaniia A. A. Genritsi’, p. 313; A. Ulupian, ‘Russkaia periodicheskaia pechat′ vremen krymskoi voiny 1853–56 gg. o Bolgarii i bolgarakh’, in Rossiia i Balkany, pp. 182–3; A. Rachinskii, Pokhodnye pis’ma opolchentsa iz iuzhnoi Bessarabii 1855–1856 (Moscow, 1858), pp. 8–11.

17

Vospominaniia ofitsera o voennyh deistviyah na Dunae, pp. 585–9; A. Baumgarten, Dnevniki 1849, 1853, 1854 i 1855 (n.p., 1911), pp. 82–7.

18

FO 78/1008, Fonblanque (consul in Belgrade) to Stratford Canning, 31 Dec. 1853, 11, 17, 24 and 26 Jan. 1854.

19

L. Guerrin, Histoire de la dernière guerre de Russie (1853–1856), 2 vols. (Paris, 1858), vol. 1, p. 63; J. Koliopoulos, ‘Brigandage and Insurgency in the Greek Domains of the Ottoman Empire, 1853–1908’, in D. Gondicas and C. Issawi (eds.), Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism: Politics, Economy, and Society in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, 1999), pp. 147–8.

20

Shamil’–stavlennik sultanskoi Turtsii i angliiskikh kolonizatorov: Sbornik dokumental’nykh materialov (Tbilisi, 1953), p. 367; ‘Voina s Turtsiei 1828–1829 i 1853–1854’, p. 696.

21

E. Adamov and L. Kutakov, ‘Iz istorii proiskov inostrannoy agentury vo vremya Kavkazskikh voyn’, Voprosy istorii, 11 (Nov. 1950), pp. 101–25.

22

M. Gammer, ‘Shamil and the Ottomans: A Preliminary Overview’, in V. Milletlerarasi Türkiye Sosyal ve Iktisat Tarihi Kongresi: Tebligler. Istanbul 21–25 Agustos 1989 (Ankara, 1990), pp. 387–94; M. Budak, ‘1853–1856 Kirim Harbi Baslarinda Dogu Anadolu-Kafkas Cephesi ve Seyh Samil’, Kafkas Arastirmalari, 1 (1988), pp. 132–3; Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 1, p. 294.

23

B. Lewis, ‘Slade on the Turkish Navy’, Journal of Turkish Studies/Türklük Bilgisi Araştırmaları, 11 (1987), pp. 6–7; C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), pp. 107–9.

24

FO 195/309, Slade to Stratford Canning, 7 Dec. 1853.

25

A. Slade, Turkey and the Crimean War: A Narrative of Historical Events (London, 1867), p. 152.

26

BOA, HR, SYS, 1346/38; S. Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning, 2 vols. (London, 1888), vol. 2, pp. 333–5; Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches, vol. 1, p. 814.

27

Morning Post, 16 Dec. 1853; The Times, 13 and 18 Dec. 1853; Sheffield and Rotherham Independent, 17 Dec. 1853; Chronicle, 23 Dec. 1853.

28

The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty’s Correspondence between the Years 1837 and 1861, 3 vols. (London, 1907–8), vol. 2, p. 126.

29

RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1853, 13 Nov. and 15 Dec.

30

FO 65/423, Palmerston to Seymour, 27 Dec. 1853; RA VIC/ MAIN/QVJ/1853, 15 Dec.; P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (Ithaca, NY, 1972), p. 122.

31

Ibid., pp. 123–6.

32

A. Saab, The Origins of the Crimean Alliance (Charlottesville, Va., 1977), pp. 126–7; A. Lambert, The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy, 1853–56 (Manchester, 1990), p. 64.

33

Quoted in S. Brady, Masculinity and Male Homosexuality in Britain, 1861–1913 (London, 2005), p. 81; G. Henderson, Crimean War Diplomacy and Other Historical Essays (Glasgow, 1947), p. 136.

34

M. Taylor, The Decline of British Radicalism, 1847–1860 (Oxford, 1995), pp. 230–31; R. Seton Watson, Britain in Europe 1789–1914: A Survey of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1937), pp. 321–2; RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1853, various entries, Nov. and Dec.

35

RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1853, 8 Dec.; RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1854, 15 Feb.

36

Saab, Origins of the Crimean Alliance, p. 148; id., Reluctant Icon: Gladstone, Bulgaria, and the Working Classes, 1856–1878 (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), p. 31.

37

O. Anderson, ‘The Reactions of Church and Dissent towards the Crimean War’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 16 (1965), pp. 211–12; B. Kingsley Martin, The Triumph of Lord Palmerston: A Study of Public Opinion in England before the Crimean War (London, 1963), pp. 114–15, 164.

38

R. Marlin, L’Opinion franc-comtoise devant la guerre de Crimée, Annales Littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, vol. 17 (Paris, 1957), pp. 19–20; Taylor, Decline of British Radicalism, p. 226.

39

Marlin, L’Opinion franc-comtoise, pp. 22–3.

40

L. Case, French Opinion on War and Diplomacy during the Second Empire (Philadelphia, 1954), pp. 16–24.

41

Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 1, pp. 405–28.

42

See e.g. V. Vinogradov, ‘The Personal Responsibility of Emperor Nicholas I for the Coming of the Crimean War: An Episode in the Diplomatic Struggle in the Eastern Question’, in H. Ragsdale (ed.), Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 159–70.

43

GARF, f. 678, op. 1, d. 451, l. 306.

44

T. Schiemann, Geschichte Russlands unter Kaiser Nikolaus I, 4 vols. (Berlin, 1904–19), vol. 4, p. 430.

45

E. Boniface, Count de Castellane, Campagnes de Crimée, d’Italie, d’Afrique, de Chine et de Syrie, 1849–1862 (Paris, 1898), pp. 75–6; J. Ridley, Napoleon III and Eugenie (London 1979), p. 365.

46

Lambert, The Crimean War, pp. 64 ff.

47

Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War, p. 150; Lady F. Balfour, The Life of George, Fourth Earl of Aberdeen, 2 vols. (London, 1922), vol. 2, p. 206.

48

RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1854, 6 Mar.; W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking (Oxford, 1981), p. 13; Henderson, Crimean War Diplomacy, p. 72; BLO Clarendon Papers, Stratford Canning to Clarendon, 7 Apr. 1854, c. 22; Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning, vol. 2, pp. 354–8; PRO 30/22/11, Russell to Clarendon, 26 Mar. 1854.

49

RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1854, 26 Mar.

50

K. Vitzthum von Eckstadt, St Petersburg and London in the Years 1852–64, 2 vols. (London, 1887), vol. 1, pp. 83–4; A. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 1, pp. 476–7.

51

See R. Ellison, The Victorian Pulpit: Spoken and Written Sermons in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Cranbury, NJ, 1998), pp. 43–9.

52

H. Beamish, War with Russia: God the Arbiter of Battle. A Sermon Preached on Sunday April 2, 1854 (London, 1854), p. 6; T. Harford Battersby, Two First-Day Sermons Preached in the Church of St John, Keswick (London, 1855), p. 5; J. James, The War with Russia Imperative and Righteous: A Sermon Preached in Brunswick Chapel, Leeds, on the Day of National Humiliation (London, 1854), pp. 14–15.

53

G. Croly, England, Turkey, and Russia: A Sermon Preached on the Embarkation of the Guards for the East in the Church of St Stephen, Walbrook, February 26, 1854 (London, 1854), pp. 8, 12–13, 26–7, 30–31. For similar sermons, see H. Bunsen, ‘The War is a Righteous War’: A Sermon Preached in Lilleshall Church on the Day of Humiliation and Prayer (London, 1854); R. Burton, The War of God’s Sending: A Sermon Preached in Willesden Church on the Occasion of the Fast, April 26, 1854 (London, 1854); R. Cadlish, The Sword of the Lord: A Sermon Preached in the Free St George’s Church, Edinburgh on Wednesday, April 26, 1854 (London, 1854); H. Howarth, Will God Be for Us? A Sermon Preached in the Parish Church of St George’s, Hanover Square, on Wednesday, April 26, 1854 (London, 1854); A Sermon Preached by the Rev. H. W. Kemp, Incumbent of St John’s Church, Hull, on Wednesday, April 26th: Being the Day Appointed by Her Gracious Majesty the Queen for the Humiliation of the Nation on the Commencement of the War with Russia (London, 1854); J. Cumming, The War and Its Issues: Two Sermons (London, 1854); J. Hall, War with Russia Both Just and Expedient: A Discourse Delivered in Union Chapel, Brixton Hill, April 26, 1854 (London, 1854); John, Bishop of Lincoln, War: Its Evils and Duties: A Sermon Preached in the Cathedral Church of Lincoln on April 26th, 1854 (London, 1854).

54

FO 195/445, Finn to Clarendon, 28 Apr. 1854; E. Finn (ed.), Stirring Times, or, Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853 to 1856, 2 vols. (London, 1878), vol. 2, pp. 130–31.

CHAPTER 6. FIRST BLOOD TO THE TURKS

1

Tolstoy’s Letters, ed. and trans. R. F. Christian, 2 vols. (London, 1978), vol. 1, p. 38.

2

A. Maude, The Life of Tolstoy: First Fifty Years (London, 1908), pp. 96–7.

3

‘Voina s Turtsiei 1854 g.’, Russkaia starina, 18 (1877), p. 327.

4

RGADA, f. 1292, op. 1, d. 6, l. 68; E. Tarle, Krymskaia voina, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1944), vol. 1, p. 273; ‘Vospominaniia kniazia Emiliia Vitgenshteina’, Russkaia starina, 104 (1900), p. 190.

5

A. Khomiakov, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 8 vols. (Moscow, 1900), vol. 8, p. 350.

6

FO 78/1014, Cunningham to Stratford Canning, 4, 20, 23 and 30 Mar. 1854.

7

E. Jouve, Guerre d’Orient: Voyage à la suite des armées alliées en Turquie, en Valachie et en Crimée (Paris, 1855), p. 115; FO 78/1008, Fonblanque to Stratford Canning, 27 Mar. 1854; FO 78/1014, Cunningham to Stratford Canning, 23 Mar. 1854.

8

RGVIA, f. 9198, op. 6/264, cb. 6, d. 14, ll. 101, 104, 106.

9

FO 78/1009, Fonblanque to Palmerston, 27 May 1854; Palmerston to Fonblanque, 10 July 1854.

10

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5417, ll. 41–4; E. Kovalevskii, Voina s Turtsiei i razryv s zapadnymi derzhavami v 1853–1854 (St Petersburg, 1871), pp. 203–15; S. Plaksin, Shchegolovskii al’bom: Sbornik istoricheskikh faktov, vospominanii, zapisok, illiustratsii i.t.d. za vremia bombardirovki Odessy v 1854 (Odessa, 1905), pp. 43–7.

11

RGVIA, f. 481, op. 1, d. 89, ll. 1–5; M. Bogdanovich, Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856, 4 vols. (St Petersburg, 1876), vol. 2, pp. 89–93; L. Guerrin, Histoire de la dernière guerre de Russie (1853–1856), 2 vols. (Paris, 1858), vol. 1, pp. 111–15; J. Reid, Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse 1839–1878 (Stuttgart, 2000), pp. 255–7; NAM 1968–03–45 (‘Journal of Captain J. A. Butler at the Siege of Silistria’).

12

NAM 1968–03–45 (‘Journal of Captain J. A. Butler at the Siege of Silistria’); RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5520, ch. 2, l. 62.

13

Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, pp. 39–40.

14

Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 1, pp. 445–7.

15

B. Gooch, The New Bonapartist Generals in the Crimean War (The Hague, 1959), pp. 82, 109; NAM 1973–11–170 (Kingscote letter, 15 May, p. 2).

16

J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 30.

17

L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave: Campagnes de Crimée et d’Italie (Paris, 1869), p. 222.

18

P. de Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat (Paris, 1860), pp. 58–9.

19

The Times, 26 Apr. 1854.

20

C. Bayley, Mercenaries for the Crimean: The German, Swiss, and Italian Legions in British Service 1854–6 (Montreal, 1977), p. 20. On the Irish in the British army, see D. Murphy, Ireland and the Crimean War (Dublin, 2002), pp. 17–25.

21

NAM 1968–07–289 (Raglan to Herbert, 15 May 1854).

22

NAM 1994–01–215 (Bell letter, June 1854).

23

A. Slade, Turkey and the Crimean War: A Narrative of Historical Events (London, 1867), p. 355.

24

NAM 1973–11–170 (Kingscote letter, 29 Apr. 1854, p. 3); Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 212.

25

J. Howard Harris, Earl of Malmesbury, Memoirs of an Ex-Minister, 2 vols. (London, 1884), vol. 1, p. 412; The Diary and Correspondence of Henry Wellesley, First Lord Cowley, 1790–1846 (London, 1930), p. 54.

26

Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, pp. 40–41.

27

A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), p. 195; Akten zur Geschichte des Krimkriegs: Österreichische Akten zur Geschichte des Krimkriegs, ser. 1, vol. 2 (Munich, 1980), p. 248.

28

Bogdanovich, Vostochnaia voina, vol. 2, pp. 107–8.

29

Jouve, Guerre d’Orient, p. 121; A. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 2, p. 56; Guerrin, Histoire de la dernière guerre, vol. 1, pp. 123–5.

30

Jouve, Guerre d’Orient, pp. 108, 116.

31

Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, p. 41.

32

Jouve, Guerre d’Orient, p. 123; Guerrin, Histoire de la dernière guerre, vol. 1, p. 127; FO 195/439, Colquhoun to Clarendon, 13 Aug. 1854.

33

Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 1, pp. 454–5; M. Levin, ‘Krymskaia voina i russkoe obshchestvo’, in id., Ocherki po istorii russkoi obshchestvennoi mysli, vtoraia polovina XIX veka (Leningrad, 1974), pp. 293–304.

34

P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (Ithaca, NY, 1972), pp. 207–9; R. Florescu, The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854 (Monachii, 1962), pp. 284–6.

35

La Vicomte de Noë, Les Bachi-Bazouks et les Chasseurs d’Afrique (Paris, 1861), pp. 9–11; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 215.

36

Noë, Les Bachi-Bazouks, pp. 34, 38–42, 56–68; J. Reid, ‘Social and Psychological Factors in the Collapse of the Ottoman Empire, 1780–1918’, Journal of Modern Hellenism, 10 (1993), pp. 143–52.

37

C. Mismer, Souvenirs d’un dragon de l’armée de Crimée (Paris, 1887), p. 34; Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat, p. 30; FO 78/1009, Fonblanque to Palmerston, 10 June 1854; C. Hibbert, The Destruction of Lord Raglan: A Tragedy of the Crimean War, 1854–1855 (London, 1961), p. 164; J. Spilsbury, The Thin Red Line: An Eyewitness History of the Crimean War (London, 2005), p. 26; H. Rappaport, No Place for Ladies: The Untold Story of Women in the Crimean War (London, 2007), pp. 61–2.

38

M. Thoumas, Mes souvenirs de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1892), pp. 107–9; Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 55.

39

K. Marx, The Eastern Question: A Reprint of Letters Written 1853–1856 Dealing with the Events of the Crimean War (London, 1969), p. 451.

40

A. Lambert, The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy, 1853–56 (Manchester, 1990), p. 106.

41

L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, pp. 218–19.

42

Lambert, The Crimean War, p. 84.

43

WO 28/199, Newcastle to Raglan, 29 June 1854.

44

W. Mosse, The Rise and Fall of the Crimean System, 1855–1871: The Story of the Peace Settlement (London, 1963), p. 1; W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking (Oxford, 1981), p. 13.

45

Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War, pp. 193–4.

46

Ibid., p. 204; Lambert, The Crimean War, pp. 86–7.

47

S. Harris, British Military Intelligence in the Crimean War (London, 2001), p. 37; H. Small, The Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian Tsars (Stroud, 2007), pp. 36–7; V. Rakov, Moi vospominaniia o Evpatorii v epohu krymskoi voiny 1853–1856 gg. (Evpatoriia, 1904), p. 10; FO 881/550, Raglan to Newcastle, 19 July 1854.

48

E. Boniface, Count de Castellane, Campagnes de Crimée, d’Italie, d’Afrique, de Chine et de Syrie, 1849–1862 (Paris, 1898), pp. 90–91; L. de Saint-Arnaud, Lettres du Maréchal Saint-Arnaud, 2 vols. (Paris, 1858), vol. 2, p. 462.

49

Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 59; R. Portal, Letters from the Crimea, 1854–55 (Winchester, 1900), pp. 17, 25; FO 78/1040, Rose to Clarendon, 6 Sept. 1854.

50

Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea, vol. 2, pp. 148–9.

CHAPTER 7. ALMA

1

J. Cabrol, Le Maréchal de Saint-Arnaud en Crimée (Paris, 1895), p. 312; L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave: Campagnes de Crimée et d’Italie (Paris, 1869), p. 219; M. O. Cullet, Un régiment de ligne pendant la guerre d’orient: Notes et souvenirs d’un officier d’infanterie 1854–1855–1856 (Lyon, 1894), p. 68; NAM 2000–02–94 (Rose letter, 28 Aug. 1854).

2

P. de Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat (Paris, 1860), p. 5; E. Vanson, Crimée, Italie, Mexique: Lettres de campagnes 1854–1867 (Paris, 1905), p. 23; NAM 1978–04–39–2 (Hull letter, 12 July 1854); NAM 2000–02–94 (Rose letter, 28 Aug. 1854).

3

A. de Damas, Souvenirs religieux et militaires de la Crimée (Paris, 1857), pp. 147–8.

4

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5492, ll. 50–51; V. Rakov, Moi vospominaniia o Evpatorii v epohu krymskoi voiny 1853–1856 gg. (Evpatoriia, 1904), pp. 13–14, 21–2; A. Markevich, Tavricheskaia guberniia vo vremia krymskoi voiny: Po arkhivnym materialam (Simferopol, 1905), pp. 18–23; A. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 2, p. 166.

5

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5450, ll. 29–32; N. Mikhno, ‘Iz zapisok chinovnika o krymskoi voine’, in N. Dubrovin (ed.), Materialy dlia istorii krymskoi voiny i oborony sevastopolia; Sbornik izdavaemyi komitetom po ustroistvu sevastopol’skogo muzeia, vyp. 3 (St Petersburg, 1872), p. 7.

6

W. Baumgart, The Crimean War, 1853–1856 (Oxford, 1999), p. 116.

7

R. Hodasevich, A Voice from within the Walls of Sebastopol: A Narrative of the Campaign in the Crimea and the Events of the Siege (London, 1856), p. 35.

8

Cullet, Un régiment, p. 68; Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat, p. 45.

9

L. de Saint-Arnaud, Lettres du Maréchal Saint-Arnaud, 2 vols. (Paris, 1858), vol. 2, p. 490.

10

V. Bonham-Carter (ed.), Surgeon in the Crimea: The Experiences of George Lawson Recorded in Letters to His Family (London, 1968), p. 70.

11

NAM 2003–03–634 (‘The Diary of Bandmaster Oliver’, 15, 16, 17 Sept. 1854); J. Hume, Reminiscences of the Crimean Campaign with the 55th Regiment (London, 1894), p. 47.

12

H. Small, The Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian Tsars (Stroud, 2007), p. 44.

13

N. Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny i oborony Sevastopolia, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 1900), vol. 1, pp. 215–17; Hodasevich, A Voice, pp. 47, 68; Damas, Souvenirs, p. 11; M. Bot′anov, Vospominaniia sevastopoltsa i kavkatsa, 45 let spustia (Vitebsk, 1899), p. 6; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 235.

14

E. Perret, Les Français en Orient: Récits de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1889), p. 103.

15

Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny, vol. 1, p. 222; id., 349-dnevnaia zashchita Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 2005), p. 52; A. Seaton, The Crimean War: A Russian Chronicle (London, 1977), pp. 75–6.

16

Hodasevich, A Voice, pp. 55–6.

17

Perret, Les Français en Orient, p. 106; Hodasevich, A Voice, p. 32; M. Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom: Vospominaniia uchastnika slavnoi oborony Sevastopolia (Kiev, 1893), p. 21.

18

R. Egerton, Death or Glory: The Legacy of the Crimean War (London, 2000), p. 82.

19

Small, The Crimean War, p. 47; N. Dixon, On the Psychology of Military Incompetence (London, 1994), p. 39.

20

M. Masquelez, Journal d’un officier de zouaves (Paris, 1858), pp. 107–8; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, pp. 226–8; Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat, pp. 232–3; A. Gouttman, La Guerre de Crimée 1853–1856 (Paris, 1995), pp. 294–8; RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5575, l. 4.

21

Small, The Crimean War, p. 50; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, pp. 230–31; E. Tarle, Krymskaia voina, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1944), vol. 2, p. 20; Hodasevich, A Voice, pp. 69–70.

22

Ibid., p. 70; J. Spilsbury, The Thin Red Line: An Eyewitness History of the Crimean War (London, 2005), p. 61; A. Massie, The National Army Museum Book of the Crimean War: The Untold Stories (London, 2004), p. 36.

23

Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, pp. 64–5; Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea, vol. 2, pp. 332 ff.; NAM 1976–06–10 (‘Crimean Journal, 1854’, pp. 54–5).

24

Small, The Crimean War, pp. 51–4; Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, pp. 65–9; E. Totleben, Opisanie oborony g. Sevastopolia, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 1863–78), vol. 1, p. 194.

25

A. Khrushchev, Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 1889), p. 13; Hodasevich, A Voice, pp. 73–6; Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, p. 20.

26

A. du Picq, Battle Studies (Charleston, SC, 2006), pp. 112, 223.

27

Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoivoiny, vol. 1, pp. 267–8; Baron de Bazancourt, The Crimean Expedition, to the Capture of Sebastopol, 2 vols. (London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 260–62.

28

NAM 1974–02–22–86–4 (21 Sept. 1872); Bonham-Carter, Surgeon in the Crimea, p. 73.

29

S. Calthorpe, Letters from Headquarters; or the Realities of the War in the Crimea by an Officer of the Staff (London, 1858), pp. 76–7.

30

Seaton, The Crimean War, pp. 96–7; Kh. Giubbenet, Slovo ob uchastii narodov v popechenii o ranenyh voinakh i neskol’ko vospominanii iz krymskoi kampanii (Kiev, 1868), p. 15.

31

The Times, 1 Dec. 1854.

32

Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 234; Egerton, Death or Glory, pp. 219–20; H. Drummond, Letters from the Crimea (London, 1855), pp. 49–50.

33

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5450, 11. 41–2; H. Elphinstone, Journal of the Operations Conducted by the Corps of Royal Engineers (London, 1859), pp. 21–2; J. Curtiss, Russia’s Crimean War (Durham, NC, 1979), pp. 302–5; Totleben, Opisanie, vol. 1, pp. 66 ff.

34

Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny, vol. 1, pp. 268–9.

35

Den’ i noch’ v Sevastopole: Stseny iz boevoi zhizni (iz zapisok artillerista) (St Petersburg, 1903), pp. 4–5; Gouttman, La Guerre de Crimée, p. 305.

36

Egerton, Death or Glory, p. 92.

37

NAM 1989–06–41 (Nolan diary, p. 35).

38

Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 239; Perret, Les Français en Orient, pp. 119–20.

39

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5492, ll. 62–3; Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny, vol. 1, pp. 293–302; Tarle, krymskaia voina, vol. 2, p. 23; Hodasevich, A Voice, pp. 119–21.

40

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5492, ll. 57–8; Markevich, Tavricheskaia guberniia, pp. 9–10; ‘1854 g.’, Russkaia starina, 19 (1877), p. 338; Rakov, Moi vospominaniia, pp. 16–39; Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat, pp. 46, 71–2.

41

T. Royle, Crimea: The Great Crimean War 1854–1856 (London, 1999), p. 244.

42

J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 104.

CHAPTER 8. SEVASTOPOL IN THE AUTUMN

1

L. Tolstoy, The Sebastopol Sketches, trans. D. McDuff (London, 1986), pp. 39, 42–3. Reproduced by permission.

2

M. Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom: Vospominaniia uchastnika slavnoi oborony Sevastopolia (Kiev, 1893), p. 9; N. Berg, Desiat’ dnei v Sevastopole (Moscow, 1855), p. 15.

3

Tolstoy, Sebastopol Sketches, p. 43; E. Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia artilleriiskogo ofitsera v semi tetradakh (St Petersburg, 1858), p. 29.

4

M. Bot’anov, Vospominaniia sevastopoltsa i kavkatsa 45 let spustia (Vitebsk, 1899), p. 6.

5

E. Totleben, Opisanie oborony g. Sevastopolia, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 1863–78), vol. 1, p. 218; Vospominaniia ob odnom iz doblestnykh zashchitnikov Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 1857), p. 7; Sevastopol’ v nyneshnem sostoianii: Pis’ma iz kryma i Sevastopolia (Moscow, 1855), p.19; WO 28/188, Burgoyne to Airey, 4 Oct. 1854; FO 78/1040, Rose to Clarendon, 8 Oct. 1854.

6

Tolstoy’s Letters, ed. and trans. R. F. Christian, 2 vols. (London, 1978), vol. 1, p. 44. The scene was reproduced in Sebastopol Sketches (p. 57).

7

S. Gershel’man, Nravstvennyi element pod Sevastopolem (St Petersburg, 1897), p. 84; R. Egerton, Death or Glory: The Legacy of the Crimean War (London, 2000), p. 91.

8

E. Tarle, Krymskaia voina, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1944), vol. 2, p. 38; Gershel’man, Nravstvennyi element, pp. 70–71; Totleben, Opisanie, vol. 1, pp. 198 ff.; J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 133.

9

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5613, 1. 12; N. Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny i oborony Sevastopolia, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 1900), vol. 2, p. 31.

10

NAM 1968–07–292 (Cathcart to Raglan, 27 Sept. 1854); NAM 1983–11–13–310 (12 Oct. 1854).

11

E. Perret, Les Français en Orient: Récits de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1889), pp. 142–4; Baron de Bazancourt, The Crimean Expedition, to the Capture of Sebastopol, 2 vols. (London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 343–8.

12

NAM 1982–12–29–13 (Letter, 12 Oct. 1854).

13

H. Clifford, Letters and Sketches from the Crimea (London, 1956), p. 69; E. Wood, The Crimea in 1854 and 1894 (London, 1895), pp. 88–9.

14

S. Calthorpe, Letters from Headquarters; or the Realities of the War in the Crimea by an Officer of the Staff (London, 1858), p. 111.

15

Sevastopol’ v nyneshnem sostoianii, p. 16.

16

V. Bariatinskii, Vospominaniia 1852–55 gg. (Moscow, 1904), pp. 39–42; A. Seaton, The Crimean War: A Russian Chronicle (London, 1977), pp. 126–9.

17

NAM 1969–01–46 (Private journal, 17 Oct. 1854); Den’ i noch’ v Sevastopole: Stseny iz boevoi zhizni (iz zapisok artillerista) (St Petersburg, 1903), pp. 7, 11.

18

A. Khrushchev, Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 1889), p. 30; WO 28/188, Lushington to Airey, 18 Oct. 1854.

19

Mrs Duberly’s War: Journal and Letters from the Crimea, ed. C. Kelly (Oxford, 2007), p. 87.

20

Sevastopol’ v nyneshnem sostoianii, p. 16.

21

WO 28/188, Burgoyne to Raglan, 6 Oct. 1854; J. Spilsbury, The Thin Red Line: An Eyewitness History of the Crimean War (London, 2005), p. 138.

22

Calthorpe, Letters, p. 125; NAM 1968–07–270 (‘Letters from the Crimea Written during the Years 1854, 55 and 56 by a Staff Officer Who Was There’), p. 125; H. Rappaport, No Place for Ladies: The Untold Story of Women in the Crimean War (London, 2007), pp. 82–3.

23

D. Austin, ‘Blunt Speaking: The Crimean War Reminiscences of John Elijah Blunt, Civilian Interpreter’, Crimean War Research Society: Special Publication, 33 (n.d.), pp. 24, 32, 55.

24

Mrs Duberly’s War, p. 93; NAM 1968–07–270 (‘Letters from the Crimea Written during the Years 1854, 55 and 56 by a Staff Officer Who Was There’), pp. 119–20; W. Munro, Records of Service and Campaigning in Many Lands, 2 vols. (London, 1887), vol. 2, p. 88.

25

H. Franks, Leaves from a Soldier’s Notebook (London, 1904), p. 80; NAM 1958–04–32 (Forrest letter, 27 Oct. 1854).

26

Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, pp. 155–6; H. Small, The Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian Tsars (Stroud, 2007), pp. 71–2.

27

Small, The Crimean War, pp. 73–82.

28

R. Portal, Letters from the Crimea, 1854–55 (Winchester, 1900), p. 112. For a version of events that has Nolan trying to redirect the charge, see D. Austin, ‘Nolan Did Try to Redirect the Light Brigade’, War Correspondent, 23/4 (2006), pp. 20–21.

29

Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, pp. 161–2.

30

S. Kozhukov, ‘Iz krymskikh vospominanii o poslednei voine’, Russkii arkhiv, 2 (1869), pp. 023–025.

31

G. Paget, The Light Cavalry Brigade in the Crimea (London, 1881), p. 73.

32

Mrs Duberly’s War, p. 95.

33

Small, The Crimean War, pp. 64, 86–8; RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5585, l. 31; Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny, vol. 2, pp. 144–7.

34

N. Woods, The Past Campaign: A Sketch of the War in the East, 2 vols. (London, 1855), vol. 2, pp. 12–14; Austin, ‘Blunt Speaking’, pp. 54–6.

35

N. Dubrovin, 349-dnevnaia zashchita Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 2005), p. 91; A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), p. 161.

36

A. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 5, pp. 1–24.

37

NAM 1963–11–151 (Letter, 27 Oct. 1854); NAM 1986–03–103 (Letter, 31 Oct. 1854).

38

Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, p. 140.

39

B. Gooch, The New Bonapartist Generals in the Crimean War (The Hague, 1959), p. 145.

40

NAM 1994–02–172 (Letter, 22 Feb. 1855).

41

Khrushchev, Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia, pp. 38–42; Seaton, The Crimean War, pp. 161–4.

42

A. Andriianov, Inkermanskii boi i oborona Sevastopolia (nabroski uchastnika) (St Petersburg, 1903), p. 16.

43

Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny, vol. 2, pp. 194–5; Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, pp. 196–8.

44

NAM 1968–07–264–1 (‘The 95th Regiment at Inkerman’).

45

Ibid.

46

Andriianov, Inkermanskii boi, p. 20.

47

P. Alabin, Chetyre voiny: Pokhodnye zapiski v voinu 1853, 1854, 1855 i 1856 godov, 2 vols. (Viatka, 1861), vol. 2, pp. 74–5; Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny, vol. 2, pp. 203–5.

48

Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, pp. 211–12.

49

G. Higginson, Seventy-One Years of a Guardsman’s Life (London, 1916), pp. 197–8; Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea, vol. 5, pp. 221–57.

50

R. Hodasevich, A Voice from within the Walls of Sebastopol: A Narrative of the Campaign in the Crimea and the Events of the Siege (London, 1856), pp. 190–8; Seaton, The Crimean War, p. 169.

51

L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave: Campagnes de Crimée et d’Italie (Paris, 1869), p. 278.

52

J. Cler, Reminiscences of an Officer of Zouaves (New York, 1860), p. 211; Historique de 2e Régiment de Zouaves 1830–1887 (Oran, 1887), pp. 66–7.

53

Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, p. 214.

54

Higginson, Seventy-One Years, p. 200; Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, p. 232.

55

Seaton, The Crimean War, pp. 175–6.

56

M. O. Cullet, Un régiment de ligne pendant la guerre d’orient: Notes et souvenirs d’un officier d’infanterie 1854–1855–1856 (Lyon, 1894), p. 112.

57

Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, pp. 281–3.

58

Woods, The Past Campaign, vol. 2, pp. 143–4; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 278; Cler, Reminiscences, p. 216; A. de Damas, Souvenirs religieux et militaires de la Crimée (Paris, 1857), p. 70.

59

RA VIC/MAIN/F/1/38.

60

Cler, Reminiscences, pp. 219–20.

61

RA VIC/MAIN/F/1/36 (Colonel E. Birch Reynardson to Colonel Phipps, Sebastopol, 7 Nov.); H. Drummond, Letters from the Crimea (London, 1855), p. 75; A Knouting for the Czar! Being Some Words on the Battles of Inkerman, Balaklava and Alma by a Soldier (London, 1855), pp. 5–9.

62

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5634, ll. 1–18; Bazancourt, The Crimean Expedition , pp. 116–17; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, pp. 278–9; Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea, vol. 5, pp. 324, 460–63.

63

FO 78/1040, Rose to Clarendon, 7 Nov. 1854.

64

Small, The Crimean War, p. 209.

65

NAM 1984–09–31–63 (Letter, 7 Nov. 1854); Vospominaniia ob odnom iz doblestnykh zashchitnikov Sevastopolia, pp. 11, 15; RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5629, 1. 7; d. 5687, 1. 1; Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny, vol. 2, p. 384.

66

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5450, ll. 34–42; d. 5452, ch. 2, ll. 16–18; Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny, vol. 2, pp. 272–3; Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov, p. 165.

67

Tolstoy’s Diaries, vol. 1: 1847–1894, ed. and trans. R. F. Christian (London, 1985), p. 95.

68

H. Troyat, Tolstoy (London, 1970), pp. 161–2.

69

Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, p. 45; A. Opul’skii, L. N. Tolstoi v krymu: Literaturno-kraevedcheskii ocherk (Simferopol, 1960), pp. 27–30.

70

Troyat, Tolstoy, p. 162.

71

Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, pp. 44–5.

CHAPTER 9. GENERALS JANUARY AND FEBRUARY

1

NAM 1988–06–29–1 (Letter, 17 Nov. 1854).

2

Mrs Duberly’s War: Journal and Letters from the Crimea, ed. C. Kelly (Oxford, 2007), pp. 102–3; NAM 1968–07–288 (Cambridge to Raglan, 15 Nov. 1854).

3

Ia. Rebrov, Pis’ma sevastopol’tsa (Novocherkassk, 1876), p. 26.

4

Lettres d’un soldat à sa mère de 1849 à 1870: Afrique, Crimée, Italie, Mexique (Montbéliard, 1910), p. 66; L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave: Campagnes de Crimée et d’Italie (Paris, 1869), p. 288; V. Bonham-Carter (ed.), Surgeon in the Crimea: The Experiences of George Lawson Recorded in Letters to His Family (London, 1968), p. 104.

5

WO 28/162, ‘Letters and Papers Relating to the Administration of the Cavalry Division’.

6

NAM 1982–12–29–23 (Letter, 22 Nov. 1854); D. Boulger (ed.), General Gordon’s Letters from the Crimea, the Danube and Armenia (London, 1884), p. 14; K. Vitzthum von Eckstadt, St Petersburg and London in the Years 1852–64, 2 vols. (London, 1887), vol. 1, p. 143.

7

J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 144.

8

J. Baudens, La Guerre de Crimée: Les campements, les abris, les ambulances, les hôpitaux, etc. (Paris, 1858), pp. 63–6; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 248.

9

Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 151; Mrs Duberly’s War, pp. 110–11.

10

NAM 1968–07–270 (‘Letters from the Crimea Written during the Years 1854, 55 and 56 by a Staff Officer Who Was There’), pp. 188–9.

11

I. G. Douglas and G. Ramsay (eds.), The Panmure Papers, Being a Selection from the Correspondence of Fox Maule, 2nd Baron Panmure, afterwards 11th Earl of Dalhousie, 2 vols. (London, 1908), vol. 1, pp. 151–2; B. Gooch, The New Bonapartist Generals in the Crimean War (The Hague, 1959), pp. 159–60.

12

C. Mismer, Souvenirs d’un dragon de l’armée de Crimée (Paris, 1887), pp. 59–60, 96–7.

13

Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 291; Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, pp. 225–6.

14

Mrs Duberly’s War, p. 118.

15

Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 288; H. Rappaport, No Place for Ladies: The Untold Story of Women in the Crimean War (London, 2007), p. 38; Bonham-Carter, Surgeon in the Crimea, p. 65.

16

NAM 1996–05–4–19 (Pine letter, 8 Jan. 1855); Mismer, Souvenirs d’un dragon, pp. 124–5; NAM 1996–05–4 (Letter, 8 Jan. 1855).

17

NAM 1984–09–31–79 (4 Feb. 1855); NAM 1976–08–32 (Hagger letter, 1 Dec. 1854); G. Bell, Rough Notes by an Old Soldier: During Fifty Years’ Service, from Ensign G.B. to Major-General, C.B., 2 vols. (London, 1867), vol. 2, pp. 232–3.

18

K. Chesney, Crimean War Reader (London, 1960), p. 154; Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 343.

19

Baudens, La Guerre de Crimée, pp. 101–3; J. Shepherd, The Crimean Doctors: A History of the British Medical Services in the Crimean War, 2 vols. (Liverpool, 1991), vol. 1, pp. 135–6, 237; Health of the Army in Turkey and Crimea: Paper, being a medical and surgical history of the British army which served in Turkey and the Crimea during the Russian war, Parliamentary Papers 1857–8, vol. 38, part 2, p. 465.

20

N. Pirogov, Sevastopol’skie pis’ma i vospominaniia (Moscow, 1950), pp. 28–37, 66, 147–8, 220–23; Za mnogo let: Zapiski (vospominaniia) neizvestnogo 1844–1874 gg. (St Petersburg, 1897), pp. 82–3; Kh. Giubbenet, Ocherk meditsinskoi i gospital’noi chasti russkih voisk v Krymu v 1854–1856 gg. (St Petersburg, 1870), p. 2.

21

N. Berg, Desiat’ dnei v Sevastopole (Moscow, 1855), pp. 17–19; R. Hodasevich, A Voice from within the Walls of Sebastopol: A Narrative of the Campaign in the Crimea and the Events of the Siege (London, 1856), p. 129; E. Kovalevskii, Voina s Turtsiei i razryv s zapadnymi derzhavami v 1853–1854 (St Petersburg, 1871), p. 82; Pirogov, Sevastopol’skie pis’ma, pp. 151–2.

22

Ibid., pp. 155–6, 185.

23

L. Tolstoy, The Sebastopol Sketches, trans. D. McDuff (London, 1986), pp. 44, 47–8.

24

Giubbenet, Ocherk, pp. 5, 7.

25

H. Connor, ‘Use of Chloroform by British Army Surgeons during the Crimean War’, Medical History, 42/2 (1998), pp. 163, 184–8; Shepherd, The Crimean Doctors, vol. 1, pp. 132–3.

26

Pirogov, Sevastopol’skie pis’ma, p. 27; Istoricheskii obzor deistvii krestovozdvizhenskoi obshchiny sester’ popecheniia o ranenykh i vol’nykh k voennykh gospitaliakh v Krymu i v Khersonskoi gubernii c 1 dek. 1854 po 1 dek. 1855 (St Petersburg, 1856), pp. 2–4; Sobranie pisem sester Krestovozdvizhenskoi obshchiny popecheniia o ranenykh (St Petersburg, 1855), p. 22.

27

Gosudarstvennoe podvizhnoie opolchenie Vladimirskoi gubernii 1855–56: Po materialam i lichnym vospominaniiam (Vladimir, 1900), p. 82; Rappaport, No Place for Ladies, pp. 115–17.

28

NAM 1951–12–21 (Bellew journal, 23 Jan. 1855); Rappaport, No Place for Ladies, pp. 101, 125.

29

G. St Aubyn, Queen Victoria: A Portrait (London, 1991), p. 295.

30

A. Lambert and S. Badsey (eds.), The War Correspondents: The Crimean War (Strand, 1994), p. 13; S. Markovits, The Crimean War in the British Imagination (Cambridge, 2009), p. 16.

31

E. Gosse, Father and Son (Oxford, 2004), p. 20.

32

M. Lalumia, Realism and Politics in Victorian Art of the Crimean War (Epping, 1984), p. 120.

33

H. Clifford, Letters and Sketches from the Crimea (London, 1956), p. 146.

34

NAM 1968–07–284 (Raglan to Newcastle, 4 Jan. 1855).

35

Gooch, The New Bonapartist Generals, p. 192.

36

L. Case, French Opinion on War and Diplomacy during the Second Empire (Philadelphia, 1954), pp. 2–6, 32; H. Loizillon, La Campagne de Crimée: Lettres écrites de Crimée par le capitaine d’état-major Henri Loizillon à sa famille (Paris, 1895), p. 82; RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1856, 19 Apr.

37

Za mnogo let, pp. 75–8.

38

The Englishwoman in Russia: Impressions of the Society and Manners of the Russians at Home (London, 1855), pp. 292–3, 296–8.

39

Ibid., pp. 294–5; Za mnogo let, p. 73.

40

E. Tarle, Krymskaia voina, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1944), vol. 1, pp. 454–9; The Englishwoman in Russia, p. 305.

41

A. Zaionchkovskii, Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 2002), vol. 2, p. 76; GARF, f. 109, op. 1, d. 353 (chast’ 2), 1. 7.

42

I. Ignatovich, Pomeshchichie krest’iane nakanune osvobozhdeniia (Leningrad, 1925), pp. 331–7; The Englishwoman in Russia, pp. 302–3, 313.

43

J. Curtiss, Russia’s Crimean War (Durham, NC, 1979), pp. 532–46; D. Moon, ‘Russian Peasant Volunteers at the Beginning of the Crimean War’, Slavic Review, 51/4 (Winter 1992), pp. 691–704. On a similar phenomenon in the Kiev, Podol’e and Volhynia regions in the early months of 1855, see RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5496, 11. 18–52.

44

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5452, ch. 2, 1. 166; Rebrov, Pis’ma sevastopol’tsa, p. 3.

45

Pirogov, Sevastopol’skie pis’ma, p. 148; A. Markevich, Tavricheskaia guberniia vo vremia krymskoi voiny: Po arkhivnym materialam (Simferopol, 1905), pp. 107–51; A Opul’skii, L. N. Tolstoi v krymu: Literaturno-kraevedcheskii ocherk (Simferopol, 1960), p. 12; Hodasevich, A Voice, pp. 24–5; RGVIA, f. 9198, op. 6/264, sv. 15, d. 2.

46

‘Vostochnaia voina: Pis’ma kn. I. F. Paskevicha k kn. M. D. Gorchakovu’, Russkaia starina, 15 (1876), pp. 668–70; Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, pp. 224–8.

47

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5450, 11. 50–54; RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5452, ch. 2, 11. 166, 199–201; ‘Doktor Mandt o poslednikh nedeliiakh imperatora Nikolaia Pavlovicha (iz neizdannykh zapisok odnogo priblizhennogo k imperatoru litsa)’, Russkii arkhiv, 2 (1905), p. 480.

48

Poslednie minuty i konchina v bozhe pochivshego imperatora, nezabvennogo i vechnoi slavy dostoinogo Nikolaia I (Moscow, 1855), pp. 5–6; ‘Noch’ c 17-go na 18 fevralia 1855 goda: Rasskaz doktora Mandta’, Russkii arkhiv, 1 (1884), p. 194; ‘Nekotorye podrobnosti o konchine imperatora Nikolaia Pavlovicha’, Russkii arkhiv, 3/9 (1906), pp. 143–5; Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, p. 233.

49

See e.g. V. Vinogradov, ‘The Personal Responsibility of Emperor Nicholas I for the Coming of the Crimean War: An Episode in the Diplomatic Struggle in the Eastern Question’, in H. Ragsdale (ed.), Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1993), p. 170.

50

A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), p. 178.

51

Ibid., pp. 20–21.

CHAPTER 10. CANNON FODDER

1

RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1856, 2 Mar.

2

L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave: Campagnes de Crimée et d’Italie (Paris, 1869), p. 312.

3

F. Charles-Roux, Alexandre II, Gortchakoff et Napoléon III (Paris, 1913), p. 14.

4

The Later Correspondence of Lord John Russell, 1840–1878, ed. G. Gooch, 2 vols. (London, 1925), vol. 2, pp. 160–61; Lady F. Balfour, The Life of George, Fourth Earl of Aberdeen, 2 vols. (London, 1922), vol. 2, p. 206.

5

H. Verney, Our Quarrel with Russia (London, 1855), pp. 22–4.

6

G. B. Henderson, ‘The Two Interpretations of the Four Points, December 1854’, in id., Crimean War Diplomacy and Other Historical Essays (Glasgow, 1947), pp. 119–22; The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty’s Correspondence between the Years 1837 and 1861, 3 vols. (London, 1907–8), vol. 3, pp. 65–6.

7

P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (Ithaca, NY, 1972), pp. 256–77.

8

P. Jaeger, Le mura di Sebastopoli: Gli italiani in Crimea 1855–56 (Milan, 1991), p. 245; C. Thoumas, Mes souvenirs de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1892), p. 191.

9

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5855, 11. 36–7.

10

H. Bell, Lord Palmerston, 2 vols. (London, 1936), vol. 2, p. 125; Hansard, HC Deb. 21 May 1912, vol. 38, p. 1734; C. Bayley, Mercenaries for the Crimean: The German, Swiss, and Italian Legions in British Service 1854–6 (Montreal, 1977).

11

F. Kagan, The Military Reforms of Nicholas I: The Origins of the Modern Russian Army (London, 1999), p. 243.

12

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5496, 11. 1–4, 14, 18–19, 22–8.

13

C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), pp. 182–4.

14

FO 881/1443, Clarendon to Cowley, 9 Apr. 1855.

15

FO 881/1443, Clarendon to Cowley, 13 Apr. 1855; Stratford to Clarendon, 11 June 1855; Longworth to Clarendon, 10 June, 2 and 26 July 1855; FO 881/547, Brant memo on Georgia, 1 Feb. 1855; L. Oliphant, The Transcaucasian Provinces the Proper Field of Operation for a Christian Army (London, 1855).

16

RA VIC/MAIN/F/2/96.

17

T. Royle, Crimea: The Great Crimean War 1854–1856 (London, 1999), pp. 377–8; B. Greenhill and A. Giffard, The British Assault on Finland (London, 1988), p. 321.

18

WO 28/188, Burgoyne to Raglan, Dec. 1854.

19

A. de Damas, Souvenirs religieux et militaires de la Crimée (Paris, 1857), pp. 149–50; NAM 6807–295–1 (Sir Edward Lyons to Codrington, March 1855).

20

H. Small, The Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian Tsars (Stroud, 2007), pp. 125–33.

21

V. Rakov, Moi vospominaniia o Evpatorii v epohu krymskoi voiny 1853–1856 gg. (Evpatoriia, 1904), pp. 52–6; E. Tarle, Krymskaia voina, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1944), vol. 2, p. 217; The Times, 14 June 1856, p. 5.

22

WO 6/74, Panmure to Raglan, 26 Mar. 1855; Royle, Crimea, p. 370.

23

FO 78/1129/62, Rose to Clarendon, 2 June 1855.

24

A. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 8, pp. 48–55; E. Perret, Les Français en Orient: Récits de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1889), pp. 287–9; The Times, 28 May 1855.

25

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5563, 1. 322; N. Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny i oborony Sevastopolia, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 1900), vol. 3, p. 179.

26

J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 337; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 314.

27

A Visit to Sebastopol a Week after Its Fall: By an Officer of the Anglo-Turkish Contingent (London, 1856), p. 34.

28

M. Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom: Vospominaniia uchastnika slavnoi oborony Sevastopolia (Kiev, 1893), pp. 77–84; H. Loizillon, La Campagne de Crimée: Lettres écrites de Crimée par le capitaine d’état-major Henri Loizillon à sa famille (Paris, 1895), pp. 106–7.

29

Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 199; RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5452, ch. 2, l. 166; W. Porter, Life in the Trenches before Sevastopol (London, 1856), p. 111.

30

E. Boniface, Count de Castellane, Campagnes de Crimée, d’Italie, d’Afrique, de Chine et de Syrie, 1849–1862 (Paris, 1898), pp. 168–73.

31

Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 313; E. Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia artilleriiskogo ofitsera v semi tetradakh (St Petersburg, 1858), pp. 167–73; NAM 1965–01–183–10 (Steevens letter, 26 Mar. 1855).

32

H. Clifford, Letters and Sketches from the Crimea (London, 1956), p. 194; Porter, Life in the Trenches, pp. 64–5.

33

C. Mismer, Souvenirs d’un dragon de l’armée de Crimée (Paris, 1887), p. 140; Porter, Life in the Trenches, pp. 68–9.

34

F. Luguez, Crimée-Italie 1854–1859: Extraits de la correspondence d’un officier avec sa famille (Nancy, 1895), pp. 61–2.

35

J. Cler, Reminiscences of an Officer of Zouaves (New York, 1860), pp. 233–4; S. Calthorpe, Letters from Headquarters; or the Realities of the War in the Crimea by an Officer of the Staff (London, 1858), pp. 215–16.

36

Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia, pp. 224–30.

37

Damas, Souvenirs, p. 265.

38

Porter, Life in the Trenches, p. 127.

39

WO 28/126, Register of Courts Martial; Clifford, Letters and Sketches, p. 269. For some of the many voluminous reports on drunkenness in the Russian army, see RGVIA, f. 484, op. 1, dd. 398–403.

40

Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 225; The Times, 17 Mar. 1855.

41

M. Seacole, Wonderful Adventures of Mrs Seacole in Many Lands (London, 2005), p. 117.

42

A. Soyer, Soyer’s Culinary Campaign (London, 1857), p. 405.

43

B. Cooke, The Grand Crimean Central Railway (Knutsford, 1990).

44

Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 223.

45

RGVIA, f. 481, op. 1, d. 18, 11. 1–8.

46

V. Kolchak, Voina i plen 1853–1855 gg.: Iz vospominanii o davno perezhitom (St Petersburg, 1904), pp. 41–2; Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom, p. 113; Sobranie pisem sester Krestovozdvizhenskoi obshchiny popecheniia o ranenykh (St Petersburg, 1855), pp. 37–40; Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia, p. 91.

47

Porter, Life in the Trenches, p. 144; Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia , pp. 97–107; Sobranie pisem sester Krestovozdvizhenskoi obshchiny, pp. 49–55; N. Pirogov, Sevastopol’skie pis’ma i vospominaniia (Moscow, 1950), p. 62.

48

Vospominaniia ob odnom iz doblestnykh zashchitnikov Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 1857), pp. 14–18; Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia, p. 34.

49

H. Troyat, Tolstoy (London, 1970), pp. 170–71; Tolstoy’s Diaries, vol. 1: 1847–1894, ed. and trans. R. F. Christian (London, 1985), p. 103; A. Maude, The Life of Tolstoy: First Fifty Years (London, 1908), pp. 111–12.

50

Tolstoy’s Diaries, vol. 1, p. 104; V. Nazar’ev, ‘Zhizn′ i liudi bylogo vremeni’, Istoricheskii vestnik, 11 (1890), p. 443; M. Vygon, Krymskie stranitsy zhizni i tvorchestva L. N. Tolstogo (Simferopol, 1978), p. 37.

51

Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom, p. 117; N. Dubrovin, 349-dnevnaia zashchita Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 2005), pp. 161–7; NAM 1968–07–484 (Gage letter, 13 Apr. 1855).

52

J. Jocelyn, The History of the Royal Artillery (Crimean Period) (London, 1911), p. 359; NAM 1965–01–183–10 (Letter, 23 Apr. 1855).

53

Mismer, Souvenirs d’un dragon, pp. 179–80; Mrs Duberly’s War: Journal and Letters from the Crimea, ed. C. Kelly (Oxford, 2007), pp. 186–7.

54

M. O. Cullet, Un régiment de ligne pendant la guerre d’orient: Notes et souvenirs d’un officier d’in fanterie 1854–1855–1856 (Lyon, 1894), pp. 165–6; Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, pp. 260–65.

55

NAM 1974–05–16 (St George letter, 9 June 1855).

56

A. du Casse, Précis historique des opérations militaires en orient de mars 1854 à septembre 1855 (Paris, 1856), p. 290; Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, pp. 267–72.

57

Cullet, Un régiment, p. 182; J. Spilsbury, The Thin Red Line: An Eyewitness History of the Crimean War (London, 2005), pp. 278–9.

58

Cullet, Un régiment, pp. 278, 296–9.

59

Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 285; NAM 1962–10–94–2 (Alexander letter, 22 June 1855).

60

V. Liaskoronskii, Vospominaniia Prokofiia Antonovicha Podpalova (Kiev, 1904), p. 17.

61

Small, The Crimean War, p. 159.

62

Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, pp. 280–81; Liaskoronskii, Vospominaniia , p. 17.

63

Boniface, Campagnes de Crimée, p. 235.

64

Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea, vol. 8, pp. 161–2.

65

A. Massie, The National Army Museum Book of the Crimean War: The Untold Stories (London, 2004), pp. 199–200.

66

T. Gowing, A Soldier’s Experience: A Voice from the Ranks (London, 1885), p. 115; Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, pp. 282–6; A Visit to Sebastopol, pp. 31–2.

67

NAM 1966–01–2 (Scott letter, 22 June 1855); NAM 1962–10–94–2 (Alexander letter, 24 June 1855).

68

Luguez, Crimée-Italie, pp. 47–9.

69

NAM 1968–07–287–2 (Raglan to Panmure, 19 June 1855); NAM 1963–05–162 (Dr Smith to Kinglake, 2 July 1877).

CHAPTER 11. THE FALL OF SEVASTOPOL

1

E. Boniface, Count de Castellane, Campagnes de Crimée, d’Italie, d’Afrique, de Chine et de Syrie, 1849–1862 (Paris, 1898), p. 247.

2

A. Maude, The Life of Tolstoy: First Fifty Years (London, 1908), p. 119.

3

NAM 1984–09–31–129 (Letter, 9 July 1855); NAM 1989–03–47–6 (Ridley letter, 11 Aug. 1855).

4

A. de Damas, Souvenirs religieux et militaires de la Crimée (Paris, 1857), pp. 84–6.

5

L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave: Campagnes de Crimée et d’Italie (Paris, 1869), p. 282; J. Cler, Reminiscences of an Officer of Zouaves (New York, 1860), pp. 231–2; C. Mismer, Souvenirs d’un dragon de l’armée de Crimée (Paris, 1887), p. 117.

6

H. Loizillon, La Campagne de Crimée: Lettres écrites de Crimée par le capitaine d’état-major Henri Loizillon à sa famille (Paris, 1895), pp. x–xi, 116–17.

7

J. Baudens, La Guerre de Crimée: Les campements, les abris, les ambulances, les hôpitaux, etc. (Paris, 1858), pp. 113–15; G. Guthrie, Commentaries on the Surgery of the War in Portugal… with Additions Relating to Those in the Crimea (Philadelphia, 1862), p. 646.

8

Kh. Giubbenet, Ocherk meditsinskoi i gospital’noi chasti russkih voisk v Krymu v 1854–1856 gg. (St Petersburg, 1870), pp. 143–4.

9

Ibid., pp. 10, 13, 88–90; RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1856, 12 Mar.

10

M. Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom: Vospominaniia uchastnika slavnoi oborony Sevastopolia (Kiev, 1893), pp. 164–9; W. Baumgart, The Crimean War, 1853–1856 (London, 1999), p. 159.

11

E. Tarle, Krymskaia voina, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1944), vol. 2, p. 328.

12

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5732, 1. 28; E. Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia artilleriiskogo ofitsera v semi tetradakh (St Petersburg, 1858), pp. 244–5; L. Tolstoy, The Sebastopol Sketches, trans. D. McDuff (London, 1986), p. 139.

13

RGVIA, f. 9196, op. 4, sv. 2, d. 1, ch. 2, 11. 1–124; f. 9198, op. 6/264, sv. 15, d. 2/2, ll. 104, 112; f. 484, op. 1, d. 264, ll. 1–14; d. 291, ll. 1–10; Boniface, Campagnes de Crimée, p. 267; Loizillon, La Campagne de Crimée, pp. 105, 139; H. Clifford, Letters and Sketches from the Crimea (London, 1956), p. 249.

14

A. Seaton, The Crimean War: A Russian Chronicle (London, 1977), p. 195.

15

Ibid., p. 196.

16

A. Khrushchev, Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 1889), pp. 120–22; Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, pp. 344–7; Seaton, The Crimean War, p. 197.

17

M. O. Cullet, Un régiment de ligne pendant la guerre d’orient: Notes et souvenirs d’un officier d’infanterie 1854–1855–1856 (Lyon, 1894), pp. 199–203; Seaton, The Crimean War, p. 202; D. Stolypin, Iz lichnyh vospominanii o krymskoi voineiozemledel’cheskih poryadkakh (Moscow, 1874), pp. 12–16; I. Krasovskii, Iz vospominanii o voine 1853–56 (Moscow, 1874); P. Jaeger, Le mura di Sebastopoli: Gli italiani in Crimea 1855–56 (Milan, 1991), pp. 306–9.

18

Cullet, Un régiment, pp. 207–8.

19

Seaton, The Crimean War, p. 205; J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 318.

20

Jaeger, Le mura di Sebastopoli, p. 315; Loizillon, La Campagne de Crimée, pp. 168–70; M. Seacole, Wonderful Adventures of Mrs Seacole in Many Lands (London, 2005), p. 142; T. Buzzard, With the Turkish Army in the Crimea and Asia Minor (London, 1915), p. 145.

21

Seaton, The Crimean War, pp. 206–7.

22

Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 321; N. Berg, Zapiski ob osade Sevastopolia, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1858), vol. 2, p. 1.

23

Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom, p. 201.

24

H. Small, The Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian Tsars (Stroud, 2007), pp. 169–70; Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia, pp. 157, 242–3; Cullet, Un régiment, p. 220.

25

Za mnogo let: Zapiski (vospominaniia) neizvestnogo 1844–1874 gg. (St Petersburg, 1897), pp. 90–91; Giubbenet, Ocherk, p. 148.

26

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5758, 1. 57; Vrochenskii, Sevastopol’skii razgrom, pp. 213–20; Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, pp. 360–61. On Russian intelligence from allied prisoners, see RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5687, 1. 7.

27

A. Niel, Siège de Sébastopol: Journal des opérations du génie (Paris, 1858), pp. 492–502; E. Perret, Les Français en orient: Récits de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1889), pp. 377–9; Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, pp. 328–9; V. Liaskoronskii, Vospominaniia Prokofiia Antonovicha Podpalova (Kiev, 1904), pp. 19–20; Tolstoy’s Letters, ed. and trans. by R. F. Christian, 2 vols. (London, 1978), vol. 1, p. 52.

28

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5758, 11. 58–60; A. Viazmitinov, ‘Sevastopol’ ot 21 marta po 28 avgusta 1855 goda’, Russkaia starina, 34 (1882), pp. 55–6; Ershov, Sevastopol’skie vospominaniia, pp. 277–9.

29

J. Spilsbury, The Thin Red Line: An Eyewitness History of the Crimean War (London, 2005), p. 303.

30

Spilsbury, Thin Red Line, p. 304; C. Campbell, Letters from Camp to His Relatives during the Siege of Sebastopol (London, 1894), pp. 316–17; Clifford, Letters and Sketches, pp. 257–8.

31

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5758, 1. 65.

32

M. Bogdanovich, Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856, 4 vols. (St Petersburg, 1876), vol. 4, p. 127.

33

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5758, 1. 68; T. Tolycheva, Rasskazy starushki ob osade Sevastopolia (Moscow, 1881), pp. 87–90.

34

Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, p. 52.

35

Sobranie pisem sester Krestovozdvizhenskoi obshchiny popecheniia o ranenykh (St Petersburg, 1855), pp. 74, 81–2.

36

Giubbenet, Ocherk, pp. 19, 152–3; The Times, 27 Sept. 1855.

37

Boniface, Campagnes de Crimée, pp. 295–6; Buzzard, With the Turkish Army, p. 193.

38

E. Vanson, Crimée, Italie, Mexique: Lettres de campagnes 1854–1867 (Paris, 1905), pp. 154, 161; NAM 2005–07–719 (Golaphy letter, 22 Sept. 1855).

39

WO 28/126; NAM 6807–379/4 (Panmure to Codrington, 9 Nov. 1855).

40

S. Tatishchev, Imperator Aleksandr II: Ego zhizn’ i tsarstvovanie, 2 vols. (St Petersburg, 1903), vol. 1, pp. 161–3.

41

RGVIA, f. 481, op. 1, d. 36, ll. 1–27; A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), p. 65; W. Mosse, ‘How Russia Made Peace September 1855 to April 1856’, Cambridge Historical Journal, 11/3 (1955), p. 301; W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking (Oxford, 1981), p. 7.

42

Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 2, pp. 520–24; H. Sandwith, A Narrative of the Siege of Kars (London, 1856), pp. 104 ff.; Papers Relative to Military Affairs in Asiatic Turkey and the Defence and Capitulation of Kars: Presented to Both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty (London, 1856), p. 251; C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), pp. 197–223.

43

Mosse, ‘How Russia Made Peace’, pp. 302–3.

44

Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856, pp. 5–7.

45

BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendon, 25 Sept. 1855.

46

Argyll, Duke of, Autobiography and Memoirs, 2 vols. (London, 1906), vol. 1, p. 492; The Greville Memoirs 1814–1860, ed. L. Strachey and R. Fulford, 8 vols. (London, 1938), vol. 7, p. 173.

47

BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendon, 9 Oct. 1855.

48

C. Thoumas, Mes souvenirs de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1892), pp. 256–60; Lettres d’un soldat à sa mère de 1849 à 1870: Afrique, Crimée, Italie, Mexique (Montbéliard, 1910), pp. 106–8; Loizillon, La Campagne de Crimée, pp. xvii–xviii.

49

A. Gouttman, La Guerre de Crimée 1853–1856 (Paris, 1995), p. 460; L. Case, French Opinion on War and Diplomacy during the Second Empire (Philadelphia, 1954), pp. 39–40; R. Marlin, L’Opinion franc-comtoise devant la guerre de Crimée, Annales Littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, vol. 17 (Paris, 1957), p. 48.

50

W. Echard, Napoleon III and the Concert of Europe (Baton Range, La., 1983), pp. 50–51.

51

Gouttman, La Guerre de Crimée, p. 451; A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (Oxford, 1955), p. 78.

52

Mosse, ‘How Russia Made Peace’, p. 303.

53

BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendon, 1 Dec. 1855; Baumgart, The Peace of Paris, p. 33.

54

Mosse, ‘How Russia Made Peace’, p. 304.

55

Ibid., pp. 305–6.

56

Ibid., pp. 306–13.

57

Boniface, Campagnes de Crimée, p. 336.

58

D. Noël, La Vie de bivouac: Lettres intimes (Paris, 1860), p. 254.

59

Liaskoronskii, Vospominaniia, pp. 23–4.

CHAPTER 12. PARIS AND THE NEW ORDER

1

E. Gourdon, Histoire du Congrès de Paris (Paris, 1857), pp. 479–82.

2

W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking (Oxford, 1981), p. 104.

3

P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (Ithaca, NY, 1972), p. 347; BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendon, 25 Feb. 1856.

4

Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War, p. 348; W. Echard, Napoleon III and the Concert of Europe (Baton Rouge, La., 1983), p. 59.

5

FO 78/1170, Stratford Canning to Clarendon, 9 Jan. 1856; Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856, pp. 128–30.

6

Ibid., pp. 140–41; BLMD, Add. MS 48579, Palmerston to Clarendon, 4 Mar. 1856; M. Kukiel, Czartoryski and European Unity 1770–1861 (Princeton, 1955), p. 302.

7

Gourdon, Histoire, pp. 523–5.

8

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5917, 11. 1–2; J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 402; BLMD, Add. MS 48580, Palmerston to Clarendon, 24 Mar. 1856.

9

NAM 1968–07–380–65 (Codrington letter, 15 July 1856).

10

The Times, 26 July 1856.

11

RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5838, 11. 10–12; NAM 6807–375–16 (Vote of thanks to Codrington, undated).

12

M. Kozelsky, ‘Casualties of Conflict: Crimean Tatars during the Crimean War’, Slavic Review, 67/4 (2008), pp. 866–91.

13

M. Kozelsky, Christianizing Crimea: Shaping Sacred Space in the Russian Empire and Beyond (De Kalb, Ill., 2010), p. 153. For more on the statistics of the emigration, see A. Fisher, ‘Emigration of Muslims from the Russian Empire in the Years after the Crimean War’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, 35/3 (1987), pp. 356–71. The highest recent estimate is ‘at least 300,000’, in J. McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims 1821–1922 (Princeton, 1995), p. 17.

14

Kozelsky, Christianizing Crimea, p. 151.

15

Ibid., p. 155; A. Fisher, Between Russians, Ottomans and Turks: Crimea and Crimean Tatars (Istanbul, 1998), p. 127.

16

BLMD, Add. MS 48580, Palmerston to Clarendon, 24 Mar. 1856.

17

FO 195/562, ‘Report on the Political and Military State of the Turkish Frontier in Asia’, 16 Nov. 1857; FO 97/424, Dickson to Russell, 17 Mar. 1864; Papers Respecting Settlement of Circassian Emigrants in Turkey, 1863–64 (London, 1864).

18

McCarthy, Death and Exile, pp. 35–6.

19

FO 78/1172, Stratford to Clarendon, 31 Jan. 1856; Journal de Constantinople, 4 Feb. 1856; Lady E. Hornby, Constantinople during the Crimean War (London, 1863), pp. 205–8; C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), p. 290; D. Blaisdell, European Financial Control in the Ottoman Empire (New York, 1929), p. 74.

20

Badem, ‘The Ottomans’, pp. 291–2.

21

Ibid., pp. 281–3; R. Davison, ‘Turkish Attitudes Concerning Christian–Muslim Equality in the 19th Century’, American Historical Review, 59 (1953–4), pp. 862–3.

22

Ibid., p. 861.

23

FO 195/524, Finn to Clarendon, 10, 11, 14 and 29 Apr., 2 May, 6 June 1856; 13 Feb. 1857; E. Finn (ed.), Stirring Times, or, Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853 to 1856, 2 vols. (London 1878), vol. 2, pp. 424–40.

24

Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey, 2 vols. (London, 1854–6), vol. 2, p. 119; FO 78/1171, Stratford to Porte, 23 Dec. 1856.

25

FO 195/524, Finn to Stratford, 22 July 1857; Finn, Stirring Times, vol. 2, pp. 448–9.

26

See H. Wood, ‘The Treaty of Paris and Turkey’s Status in International Law’, American Journal of International Law, 37/2 (Apr. 1943), pp. 262–74.

27

W. Mosse, The Rise and Fall of the Crimean System, 1855–1871: The Story of the Peace Settlement (London, 1963), p. 40.

28

BLMD, Add. MS 48580, Palmerston to Clarendon, 7 Aug. 1856; Mosse, The Rise and Fall, pp. 55 ff.

29

Ibid., p. 93.

30

G. Thurston, ‘The Italian War of 1859 and the Reorientation of Russian Foreign Policy’, Historical Journal, 20/1 (Mar. 1977), pp. 125–6.

31

C. Cavour, Il carteggio Cavour-Nigra dal 1858 al 1861: A cura della R. Commissione Editrice, 4 vols. (Bologna, 1926), vol. 1, p. 116.

32

Mosse, The Rise and Fall, p. 121.

33

K. Cook, ‘Russia, Austria and the Question of Italy, 1859–1862’, International History Review, 2/4 (Oct. 1980), pp. 542–65; FO 65/574, Napier to Russell, 13 Mar. 1861.

34

A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (Oxford, 1955), p. 85.

35

A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), p. 67; A. Kelly, Toward Another Shore: Russian Thinkers between Necessity and Chance (New Haven, 1998), p. 41.

36

Tolstoy’s Diaries, vol. 1: 1847–1894, ed. and trans. R. F. Christian (London, 1985), pp. 96–7.

37

M. Vygon, Krymskie stranitsy zhizni i tvorchestva L. N. Tolstogo (Simferopol, 1978), pp. 29–30, 45–6; H. Troyat, Tolstoy (London, 1970), p. 168.

38

Kelly, Toward Another Shore, p. 41; Vygon, Krymskie stranitsy, p. 37.

39

IRL, f. 57, op. 1, n. 7, 1. 16; RGIA, f. 914, op. 1, d. 68, 11. 1–2.

40

F. Dostoevskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 30 vols. (Leningrad, 1972–88), vol. 18, p. 57.

41

N. Danilov, Istoricheskii ocherk razvitiia voennogo upravleniia v Rossii (St Petersburg, 1902), prilozhenie 5; Za mnogo let: Zapiski (vospominaniia) neizvestnogo 1844–1874 gg. (St Petersburg, 1897), pp. 136–7.

42

E. Brooks, ‘Reform in the Russian Army, 1856–1861’, Slavic Review, 43/1 (Spring 1984), pp. 66–78.

43

Quoted in J. Frank, Dostoevsky: The Years of Ordeal, 1850–1859 (London, 1983), p. 182.

44

E. Steinberg, ‘Angliiskaia versiia o “russkoi ugroze” v XIX–XX vv’, in Problemy metodologii i istochnikovedeniia istorii vneshnei politiki Rossii, sbornik statei (Moscow, 1986), pp. 67–9; R. Shukla, Britain, India and the Turkish Empire, 1853–1882 (New Delhi, 1973), pp. 19–20; The Politics of Autocracy: Letters of Alexander II to Prince A. I. Bariatinskii, ed. A. Rieber (The Hague, 1966), pp. 74–81.

45

M. Petrovich, The Emergence of Russian Panslavism, 1856–1870 (New York, 1956), pp. 117–18.

46

D. MacKenzie, ‘Russia’s Balkan Policies under Alexander II, 1855–1881’, in H. Ragsdale (ed.), Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 223–6.

47

Ibid., pp. 227–8.

48

Lord P. Kinross, Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire (London, 1977), p. 509.

49

A. Saab, Reluctant Icon: Gladstone, Bulgaria, and the Working Classes, 1856–1878 (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), pp. 65–7.

50

Ibid., p. 231.

51

F. Dostoevsky, A Writer’s Diary, trans. K. Lantz, 2 vols. (London, 1995), vol. 2, pp. 899–900.

52

Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, p. 253; The Times, 17 July 1878.

53

Finn, Stirring Times, vol. 2, p. 452.

54

FO 195/524, Finn to Canning, 29 Apr. 1856.

EPILOGUE

1

RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1856, 11 and 13 Mar.

2

T. Margrave, ‘Numbers & Losses in the Crimea: An Introduction. Part Three: Other Nations’, War Correspondent, 21/3 (2003), pp. 18–22.

3

R. Burns, John Bell: The Sculptor’s Life and Works (Kirstead, 1999), pp. 54–5.

4

T. Pakenham, The Boer War (London, 1979), p. 201.

5

N. Hawthorne, The English Notebooks, 1853–1856 (Columbus, Oh., 1997), p. 149.

6

‘Florence Nightingale’, Punch, 29 (1855), p. 225.

7

S. Markovits, The Crimean War in the British Imagination (Cambridge, 2009), p. 68; J. Bratton, ‘Theatre of War: The Crimea on the London Stage 1854–55’, in D. Brady, L. James and B. Sharatt (eds.), Performance and Politics in Popular Drama: Aspects of Popular Entertainment in Theatre, Film and Television 1800–1976 (Cambridge, 1980), p. 134.

8

M. Bostridge, Florence Nightingale: The Woman and Her Legend (London, 2008), pp. 523–4, 528; M. Poovey, ‘A Housewifely Woman: The Social Construction of Florence Nightingale’, in id., Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Victorian Fiction (London, 1989), pp. 164–98.

9

W. Knollys, The Victoria Cross in the Crimea (London, 1877), p. 3.

10

S. Beeton, Our Soldiers and the Victoria Cross: A General Account of the Regiments and Men of the British Army: And Stories of the Brave Deeds which Won the Prize ‘For Valour’ (London, n.d.), p. vi.

11

Markovits, The Crimean War, p. 70.

12

T. Hughes, Tom Brown’s Schooldays (London, n.d.), pp. 278–80.

13

T. Hughes, Tom Brown at Oxford (London, 1868), p. 169.

14

O. Anderson, ‘The Growth of Christian Militarism in Mid-Victorian Britain’, English Historical Review, 86/338 (1971), pp. 46–72; K. Hendrickson, Making Saints: Religion and the Public Image of the British Army, 1809–1885 (Cranbury, NJ, 1998), pp. 9–15; M. Snape, The Redcoat and Religion: The Forgotten History of the British Soldier from the Age of Marlborough to the Eve of the First World War (London, 2005), pp. 90–91, 98.

15

Memorials of Captain Hedley Vicars, Ninety-Seventh Regiment (London, 1856), pp. x, 216–17.

16

Quoted in Markovits, The Crimean War, p. 92.

17

M. Lalumia, Realism and Politics in Victorian Art of the Crimean War (Epping, 1984), pp. 80–86.

18

Ibid., pp. 125–6.

19

Ibid., pp. 136–44; P. Usherwood and J. Spencer-Smith, Lady Butler, Battle Artist, 1846–1933 (London, 1987), pp. 29–31.

20

Mrs H. Sandford, The Girls’ Reading Book (London, 1875), p. 183.

21

See e.g. R. Basturk, Bilim ve Ahlak (Istanbul, 2009).

22

Genelkurmay Askeri Tarih ve Stratejik Etüt Başkanlığı, Selçuklular Döneminde Anadoluya Yapılan Akınlar–1799–1802 Osmanlı-Fransız Harbinde Akka Kalesi Savunması–1853–1856 Osmanlı-Rus Kırım Harbi Kafkas Cephesi (Ankara, 1981), quoted in C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), pp. 20–21 (translation altered for clarity).

23

A. Khrushchev, Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 1889), pp. 159–6.

24

L. Tolstoy, The Sebastopol Sketches, trans. D. McDuff (London, 1986), pp. 56–7.

25

N. Dubrovin, 349-dnevnaia zashchita Sevastopolia (St Petersburg, 2005), p. 15.

26

A. Apukhtin, Sochineniia, 2 vols. (St Petersburg, 1895), vol. 2, p. iv. Translation by Luis Sundkvist and the author.

27

M. Kozelsky, Christianizing Crimea: Shaping Sacred Space in the Russian Empire and Beyond (De Kalb, Ill., 2010), pp. 130–39; R. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, vol. 2: From Alexander II to the Abdication of Nicholas II (Princeton, 2000), p. 25; O. Maiorova, ‘Searching for a New Language of Self: The Symbolism of Russian National Belonging during and after the Crimean War’, Ab Imperio, 4 (2006), p. 199.

28

RGVIA, f. 481, op. 1, d. 27, 1. 116; M. Bogdanovich (ed.), Istoricheskii ocherk deiatel’nosti voennago upravlennia v Rossii v pervoe dvatsatipiatiletie blagopoluchnago tsarstvoivaniia Gosudaria Imperatora Aleksandra Nikolaevicha (1855–1880 gg.), 6 vols. (St Petersburg, 1879–81), vol. 1, p. 172.

29

S. Plokhy, ‘The City of Glory: Sevastopol in Russian Historical Mythology’, Journal of Contemporary History, 35/3 (July 2000), p. 377.

30

S. Davies, ‘Soviet Cinema and the Early Cold War: Pudovkin’s Admiral Nakhimov in Context’, Cold War History, 4/1 (Oct. 2003), pp. 49–70.

31

Quoted in Plokhy, ‘The City of Glory’, p. 382.

32

The conference papers are online: http://www.cnsr.ru/projects.php?id=10.