NOTES
Preface
1. Moscow News, no. 13 (1989).
2. Leningradskiy rabochiy, 7 April 1989.
Introduction: The Roots of Terror
1. See Boris Souvarine, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 316.
2. See Isaac Deutscher, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 234.
3. See Souvarine, Stalin, p. 302.
4. Ibid., p. 303.
5. See Leonard Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (London, 1960), p. 215.
6. Souvarine, Stalin, p. 329.
7. V. I. Lenin, “The Deception of the People” (speech of 19 May 1919).
8. Kommunist, no. 5 (1957), p. 21, quoted in Schapiro, Communist Party of the Soviet Union, p. 207.
9. See Louis Fischer, The Life of Lenin (London, 1965), p. 589.
10. Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived (New York, 1945), p. 94.
11. Sapronov, speech to the IXth Party Congress.
12. Victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 1901–1941 (London, 1963), p. 190.
13. Anton Ciliga, The Russian Enigma (London, 1940), p. 86.
14. E.H. Carr, Socialism in One Country (London, 1958), vol. 1, p. 151.
15. Barmine, One Who Survived, pp. 93–94.
16. Milovan Djilas, The New Class (London, 1957), p. 50.
17. Pravda, 18 December 1923.
18. See Souvarine, Stalin, p. 249.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. See Robert V. Daniels, The Conscience of the Revolution (Oxford, 1960), p. 28.
22. X1V s”ezd Vsesoyuznoy kommunisticheskoy partii (b) 18–31 dekabrya 1925 g. Stenograficheskiy otchet (Moscow, 1926).
23. Souvarine, Stalin, p. 418.
24. Pravda, 17 October 1926.
25. Souvarine, Stalin, pp. 489–90.
26. See Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed (London, 1959), pp. 388–89.
27. Ibid., p. 351.
28. Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 74.
29. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), p. 501.
30. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (London, 1947), p. 275.
31. Nikita Khrushchev, “‘Confidential Report’ to the XXth Party Congress,” in The Crimes of the Stalin Era (New York, 1956) (henceforward referred to as Secret Speech).
32. See Deutscher, Prophet Unarmed, p. 548.
33. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” in Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite (New York, 1965), p. 48.
34. Komsomolskaya pravda, 2 April 1988.
35. Report of the Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet Trotskyite Centre, English ed. (Moscow, 1937), p. 482 (henceforward referred to as Pyatakov Trial).
36. V. I. Lenin, Sobranie sochineniy, 3rd ed. (Moscow, 1926–37), vol. 29, p. 229.
37. See Souvarine, Stalin, p. 246.
38. Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed, p. 82.
39. Leon Trotsky, My Life (London, 1930), vol. 2, p. 207.
40. See Souvarine, Stalin, p. 424.
41. D. J. Dallin and B. I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union (London, 1948), p. 116.
42. Rudzutak, speech to the XVIth Party Congress.
43. Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party (London, 1959), p. 124.
44. Kaganovich, speech to the XVIth Party Congress.
45. Pravda, 6 January 1930.
46. Report of the Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet ‘Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites,' English ed. (Moscow, 1938), p. 708 (henceforward referred to as Bukharin Trial).
47. Leningradskaya pravda, 2 December 1962.
48. See Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 96.
49. G. A. Tokaev, Betrayal of an Ideal (London, 1954), pp. 167–68.
50. Deutscher, Stalin, p. 349.
51. Sovetskaya kul’ tura, 1 October 1988; Sobesednik, no. 49 (1988).
52. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 130.
53. Raphael R. Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution (London, 1962), pp. 346–47.
54. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite, p. 18.
55. Ibid., pp. 18–19.
Chapter 1: Stalin Prepares
1. Deviatyi s”ezd professional’nykh soyuzov. Stenograficheskiy otchet (Moscow, 1933), pp. 205, 253.
2. Pravda, 2 December 1930.
3. Vsesoyuznaya kommunisticheskaya partiya (b) v rezolyutsyakh i resheniyakh s”ezdov, konferentsii i plenumov TsK, 5th ed. (Moscow, 1936), vol. 1, p. 668.
4. Yunost’, no. 11(1988); Literaturnaya gazeta, 29 June 1988; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 6 (1989).
5. Anton Ciliga, The Russian Enigma (London, 1940), p. 279.
6. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” in Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite (New York, 1965), p. 29.
7. Yunost’, no. 11(1988); Literaturnaya gazeta, 29 June 1988.
8. Yunost’, no. 11 (1988).
9. Bukharin Trial, p. 390.
10. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 30.
11. Raphael R. Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution (London, 1962), pp. 353, 355.
12. Pravda, 17 November 1964.
13. Druzhba narodov, no. 6 (1987), p. 52; Literaturnaya gazeta, 29 June 1988.
14. Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 279.
15. Vsesoyuznaya kommunisticheskaya partiya, vol. 2, p. 669.
16. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988); Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 6 (1989).
17. Yunost’, no. 11(1988); Literaturnaya gazeta, 29 June 1988.
18. Vsesoyuznoe soveshchanie o merakh uluchsheniya podgotovki nauchnopedagogicheskikh kadrov po istoricheskim naukam (Moscow, 1964), p. 291 (henceforward referred to as Conference of Historians, 1962).
19. Ibid.
20. Boris Nicolaevsky, in Sotsialisticheskiy vestnik, June 1956; and see Druzhba narodov, no. 6 (1987), p. 52.
21. Bukharin Trial, p. 644.
22. Karl Radek, Portraits and Pamphlets (London, 1935), p. 31.
23. Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived (New York, 1945), pp. 101–2.
24. Byuletten oppozitsii, no. 34, quoted in Isaac Deutscher, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 352.
25. Report of the Court Proceedings: The Case of the Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Centre, English ed. (Moscow, 1936), p. 14 (henceforward referred to as Zinoviev Trial).
26. Abramovitch, Soviet Revolution, p. 343; see also Merle Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, 2nd ed. (London, 1963), p. 263.
27. Pravda, 25 May 1933.
28. Rakovsky, declaration of April 1930.
29. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 56.
30. Radek, Portraits and Pamphlets, p. 31.
31. Byuletten oppozitsii, no. 33 (1932).
32. See Ciliga, Russian Enigma, chaps. 5, 7.
33. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
34. Stalin, report to the XVIIth Party Congress.
35. XVII s”ezd Vsesoyuznoy kommunisticheskoy partii (b) 26 yanvarya-10 fevralya 1934. Stenograficheskiy otchet (Moscow, 1934).
36. See “Letter of an Old Bolshevik”; Barmine, One Who Survived.
37. L. Shaumyan, in Pravda, 7 February 1964.
38. S. Sinelnikov, Sergei Mironovich Kirov: Zhizn’ i deyatel’ nost (Moscow, 1964), pp. 194–95.
39. Ogonek, 13 December 1987. For a fuller account and documentation of these episodes see Robert Conquest, Stalin and the Kirov Murder (New York, 1989), chap. 4. See also Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 7 (1989); Ogonek, no. 28 (1989).
40. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 7 (1989).
41. G. A. Tokaev, Betrayal of an Ideal (London, 1954), p. 166.
42. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite, p. 100.
43. Resolution of the XVIIth Party Congress; Party Constitution of 1934.
44. N. Ruslanov, in Sotsialisticheskiy vestnik, nos. 7–8 (1953).
45. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite, pp. 94–95.
46. Bol shaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya, 1st ed. (Moscow, 1926–47), s.v. “Shkiryatov.”
47. Fadeyev, speech to the First Soviet Writers’ Congress, August 1934.
48. Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers (New York, 1970), p. 61.
49. Sinelnikov, Sergei Mironovich Kirov, p. 196.
Chapter 2: The Kirov Murder
1. Pravda, 4 December 1934.
2. Zinoviev Trial, pp. 31, 32, 34.
3. S. V. Krasnikov, S. M. Kirov v Leningrade (Leningrad, 1966), p. 200.
4. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), p. 28.
5. Ibid., pp. 259–60.
6. Bukharin Trial, p. 572.
7. Ibid., p. 376.
8. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 29–30.
9. Krasnikov, S. M. Kirov v Leningrade, p. 196.
10. Z. T. Serdyuk, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 31 October 1961).
11. Krasnikov, S. M. Kirov v Leningrade, p. 196.
12. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
13. Ibid.
14. A. N. Shelepin, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 27 October 1961).
15. N. S. Khrushchev, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 29 October 1961).
16. Bukharin Trial, p. 558.
17. Svetlana Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend (London, 1967), p. 150.
18. Argumenty i fakty, 11 February 1989; Ogonek, no. 28 (1989).
19. Elizabeth Lermolo, Face of a Victim (New York, 1955), p. 17.
20. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” in Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite (New York, 1965), p. 40.
21. Pravda, 21 December 1934.
22. Zinoviev Trial, p. 136.
23. Pravda, 6 December 1934.
24. Pravda, 18 December 1934.
25. Hrihory Kostiuk, Stalinist Rule in the Ukraine (Munich, 1960), pp. 98–100. See also Ukrains’ka Radians’kii Entsiklopedichnii Slovnik (Kiev, 1966), vol. 1, s.v. “Vlyzko.”
26. Pravda, 10 June 1935.
27. Merle Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, 2nd ed. (London, 1963), pp. 56–57.
28. Anton Ciliga, The Russian Enigma (London, 1940), p. 71.
29. Vechernyy Leningrad, 30 December 1964.
30. VII s”ezd vsesoyuzogo Leninskogo kommunisticheskogo soyuza molodezhi (Moscow and Leningrad, 1926), p. 108.
31. Pravda, 27 December 1934.
32. Ibid.
33. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 51.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid., pp. 51–52.
36. Zinoviev Trial, p. 74.
37. Bukharin Trial, pp. 556–57.
38. Ibid., p. 557.
39. Pravda, 17 December 1934.
40. Pravda, 22 December 1934.
41. Pravda, 23 December 1934.
42. Lermolo, Face of a Victim, p. 245.
43. Pravda, 27 December 1934.
44. “The Crime of the Zinoviev Trial Opposition,” p. 19, quoted in Pierre Broue, Le Parti bolchevique (Paris, 1963), p. 351.
45. Pravda, 27 December 1934.
46. Lermolo, Face of a Victim, pp. 46–48.
47. Ibid., pp. 45–46.
48. Pravda, 30 December 1934.
49. Pravda, 17 January 1935.
50. Isaac Deutscher, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 357.
51. Zinoviev Trial, p. 142.
52. Ibid., pp. 147–48.
53. Ibid., p. 143.
54. Ibid., p. 145.
55. Pravda, 29 March 1937.
56. Bukharin Trial, p. 480.
57. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 23–24.
58. Ibid., p. 22.
59. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Justice (London, 1951), p. 260.
60. Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold (New York, 1949), p. 185.
61. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
62. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
63. Moscow News, no. 48 (1988).
64. Leningradskaya pravda, 1 December 1988.
65. Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, p. 422.
Chapter 3: Architect of Terror
1. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), p. 507.
2. Arthur Koestler, Darkness at Noon (London, 1940), pp. 23–24.
3. Milovan Djilas, Conversations with Stalin (London, 1962), pp. 57–58.
4. Bukharin, conversation with Theodore Dan and Lydia Dan, 1935 (Raphael R. Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution [London, 1962], p. 416).
5. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), p. 227.
6. Bernhard Roeder, Katorga: An Aspect of Modern Slavery (London, 1958), p. 196.
7. The problem is clearly and wittily unravelled in Bertram D. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution (London, 1966).
8. Boris Souvarine, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 287.
9. Ibid., p. 485.
10. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
11. G. A. Tokaev, Stalin Means War (London, 1951), p. 115.
12. Ilya Ehrenburg, in Novyy mir, no. 4 (1964).
13. Djilas, Conversations with Stalin, p. 172.
14. Iremashvili, Memoirs, quoted in Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution, p. 508.
15. Svetlana Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend (London, 1967), p. 117; Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived (New York, 1945), pp. 263–64; Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), pp. 316–18.
16. Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend, p. 122.
17. Ibid., p. 116.
18. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, 314–25.
19. Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend, p. 62.
20. Tokaev, Stalin Means War, p. 128.
21. Ibid., p. 120; and see Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend, chap. 19.
22. H. G. Wells, The Outline of History (New York, 1971).
23. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 267; and see Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend, pp. 54–55.
24. Souvarine, Stalin, p. 244.
25. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
26. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 305.
27. Leon Trotsky, My Life (London, 1930), vol. 2, p. 255.
28. Isaac Deutscher, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 291.
29. Nuovi Argomenti [Special issue on the XXIInd Party Congress], October 1961.
30. Milovan Djilas, The New Class (London, 1957), p. 128.
31. Deutscher, Stalin, chap. 1.
32. Djilas, New Class, p. 128.
33. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 161.
34. Djilas, Conversations with Stalin, p. 60.
35. Robert V. Daniels, The Conscience of the Revolution (Oxford, 1960), p. 182.
36. Professor Tibor Szamuely.
37. Novyy mir, no. 5 (1962).
38. Izvestiya, 6 February 1963.
39. Mikhail Koltsov kakim on byl (Moscow, 1965), p. 71.
40. B. Bazhanov, Stalin der Rote Diktator (Berlin, 1931), p. 21.
41. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 257.
42. Konstantin Simonov, in Znamya, May 1964.
43. Trotsky, My Life, vol. 2, p. 184.
44. Stalin, Speech at the First Anniversary of Lenin’s Death, 1925.
45. Djilas, Conversations with Stalin, p. 63.
46. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. James Murphy (London, 1939), p. 110.
47. Joseph Stalin, Notes of a Delegate (London, 1941), p. 13.
48. Novyy mir, no. 4 (1964).
49. Stalin, official criticism of Academician Orbeli at a joint session of the Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Medical Sciences (Pravda, 1 July 1950).
50. Souvarine, Stalin, p. 267.
51. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
52. George Kennan, Introduction to Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite (New York, 1965), p. xvii.
53. Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend, p. 65.
54. Novyy mir, no. 4 (1962).
55. Humphrey Slater, The Heretics (New York, 1947).
56. Znamya, May 1964.
57. Khrushchev, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 29 October 1961).
58. Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold (New York, 1949), pp. 122ff.
59. For example, Bol shaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1949–58), s.v. “Kavtaradze.”
60. See Lavrentiy Beria, Questions of the History of the Bolshevik Organizations in Transcaucasia (Moscow, 1935); Be shaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya, vol. 26.
61. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 257.
62. Bukharin, conversation with Kamenev, July 1928.
Chapter 4: Old Bolsheviks Confess
1. See, for example, Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite (New York, 1965), p. 66; Leonard Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (London, 1960), p. 402; G. A. Tokaev, Betrayal of an Ideal (London, 1954), p. 248.
2. Pravda, 16 January 1935.
3. Pravda, 23 January 1935.
4. Bukharin Trial, pp. 536–37.
5. Ibid., p. 537.
6. Ibid., p. 536.
7. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” in Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite, p. 46.
8. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), p. 216.
9. Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers (New York, 1970), p. 46.
10. Pravda, 1 March 1935.
11. Pravda, 9 March 1935.
12. Merle Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, 2nd ed. (London, 1963), p. 58.
13. Sovetskaya molodezh, 15 October 1988.
14. Sotsialisticheskaya industriya, 2 November 1988; Moscow News, no. 50 (1987).
15. Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
16. Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, p. 374.
17. Ibid., p. 223.
18. Ibid., pp. 223ff.
19. Ibid., pp. 56–57.
20. A. A. Piontkovskiy and V. D. Menshagin, Kurs sovetskogo ugolovnogo prava (Moscow, 1955).
21. Izvestiya, 8 April 1935.
22. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 53.
23. For example, Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite, p. 224; Elizabeth Lermolo, Face of a Victim (New York, 1955), pp. 206–7; George Saunders, ed., Samizdat: Voices of the Soviet Opposition (New York, 1974).
24. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 7 (1989).
25. Politicheskoe obrazovanie, no. 15 (1988); Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 7 (1989).
26. Bukharin Trial, p. 419.
27. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochineniy, 5th ed., vol. 53 (Moscow, 1965); Eesti Noukogude Entsüklopeedia.
28. Bukharin Trial, p. 396.
29. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 56.
30. Pravda, 26 May 1935.
31. Pravda, 19 May 1962.
32. Znamya, June 1964.
33. Pravda, 8 June 1935.
34. Pravda, 16 June 1935, 19 June 1935.
35. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 310–11.
36. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite, p. 224.
37. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 312.
38. Pravda, 28 June 1935.
39. Zinoviev Trial, p: 174.
40. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 7 (1989).
41. Pravda, 8 February 1935.
42. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite, p. 22.
43. Ibid., pp. 14–16.
44. SSSR: Vnutrenie protivorechiya, no. 22 (1988).
45. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 62.
46. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 73.
47. Ibid., p. 89.
48. Zinoviev Trial, p. 24.
49. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 73; and see Neva, no. 6 (1988), p. 19.
50. See Soviet Affairs, no. 1 (1956) (St. Anthony’s Papers), p. 13.
51. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 123.
52. Ibid., pp. 338–51.
53. Andrei Vyshinskiy, Sudostroiter stvo v SSSR, 3rd ed. (Moscow, 1936), p. 24.
54. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 8 (1989).
55. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 82–84.
56. Ibid., p. 73.
57. Ibid., p. 119.
58. Zinoviev Trial, p. 97; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 8 (1989).
59. “Ivan Ivanov,” in Sotsialisticheskiy vestnik, March 1951.
60. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 8 (1989).
61. Pyatakov Trial, p. 40.
62. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 110–11.
63. See Robert V. Daniels, The Conscience of the Revolution (Oxford, 1960), p. 170.
64. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 109.
65. Zinoviev Trial, p. 158; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 9 (1989).
66. Raphael R. Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution (London, 1962), p. 414.
67. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 8 (1989); Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 82–84.
68. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 8 (1989).
69. Zinoviev Trial, pp. 13, 31.
70. Ibid., p. 33.
71. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 86.
72. Ibid., p. 130.
73. “Ivan Ivanov,” in Sotsialisticheskiy vestnik.
74. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 129–30.
75. Ibid., pp. 124ff.
76. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 62.
77. Bukharin Trial, p. 510.
78. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 131.
79. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
80. Walter G. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service (London, 1939), p. 204.
81. SSSR: Vnutrenie protivorechiya, no. 22 (1988).
82. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes; Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service.
83. Zinoviev Trial, p. 159.
84. SSSR: Vnutrenie protivorechiya, no. 22 (1988).
85. Pravda, 24 March 1937; Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, pp. 56–57.
86. Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, p. 234.
87. Nedelya, no. 41 (1988).
88. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 117.
89. Nedelya, no. 41 (1988).
90. “Ivan Ivanov,” in Sotsialisticheskiy vestnik.
91. Ibid.; Saunders, Samizat, pp. 170ff.; Hrihory Kostiuk, Okayanni Roki (Toronto, 1978), p. 156; Nicolaevsky Archive, serial 1701, Hoover Institution Archives; Nedelya, no. 41 (1988).
92. Bukharin Trial, p. 556.
93. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 8 (1989); G. A. Tokaev, Comrade X (London, 1956), pp. 56–57.
94. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service, pp. 207–8, 230; Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived (New York, 1945), pp. 294–95; Politicheskoe obrazovanie, no. 15 (1988).
95. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 149.
96. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 63.
97. Ibid.
98. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 162.
99. Ibid., chap. 13.
100. N. Ulyanovskaya and M. Ulyanovskaya, Istoriia odnoy sem’ i (New York, 1982), p. 136.
101. Ibid., pp. 167–68.
102. Roy Medvedev, Nikolai Bukharin (New York, 1980), p. 151.
103. Ibid., p. 150.
104. Ibid.
105. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 174; and see V. Petrov and E. Petrov, Empire of Fear (London, 1956), p. 45.
106. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
107. Shelepin, speech to the XXInd Party Congress.
108. Pravda, 3 April 1964.
109. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 168–69.
110. Zinoviev Trial, p. 16.
111. Ibid., p. 37.
112. Ibid., p. 34.
113. Ibid., p. 39.
114. Victor Serge, From Lenin to Stalin (London, 1937), p. 82.
115. Zinoviev Trial, p. 151.
116. Ibid., p. 51.
117. Ibid., p. 61.
118. Ibid.
119. Ibid., p. 145.
120. Ibid., pp. 63–64.
121. Ibid., p. 66.
122. Ibid., p. 54.
123. Ibid., p. 68.
124. Ibid., p. 70.
125. Ibid., p. 81.
126. Ibid., p. 72.
127. Ibid., pp. 77–78.
128. Ibid., pp. 84–85.
129. Ibid., p. 81.
130. Ibid., p. 154.
131. Ibid., p. 153.
132. Rundschau, September 1936, p. 1630.
133. Isaac Don Levine, The Mind of an Assassin (New York, 1959), p. 26.
134. Pravda, 21 August 1936.
135. Socialdemocraten, 1 September 1936.
136. Dewey Commission, Not Guilty (New York, 1937), p. 85.
137. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 70–71.
138. See especially Pierre Broué Manuscripts, Hoover Institution Archives.
139. Zinoviev Trial, p. 103.
140. Ibid.
141. Ibid., p. 105.
142. Ibid., p. 147.
143. Ibid., p. 116.
144. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 5 (1989).
145. Zinoviev Trial, p. 119.
146. Ibid., p. 120.
147. Ibid., p. 128.
148. Ibid., pp. 152–53.
149. Ibid., p. 163.
150. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 174.
151. Zinoviev Trial, p. 166.
152. Ibid.
153. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 175–76.
154. Zinoviev Trial, p. 171.
155. Ibid.
156. Serge, From Lenin to Stalin, pp. 146–47; Nina Murray, I Spied for Stalin (New York, 1951); and see Neva, no. 6 (1988).
157. Serge, From Lenin to Stalin, p. 145; Emmanuel d’Astier de la Vigerie, Staline (Paris 1936), quoted in Sotsialisticheskaya industriya, 11 January 1989.
158. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 104, 116.
159. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge (New York, 1971), p. 273.
160. Leningradskaya pravda, 13 November 1988.
161. Peter Yakir, “Letter to the Editor of Kommunist,” 2 March 1969, translated in Survey, nos. 70–71(1969).
162. Nedelya, no. 25 (1988); Sotsialisticheskaya industriya, 11 January 1989.
163. Kostiuk, Okayanni Roki, pp. 150, 156; A. Ryabov, Tridsat’ pyatyi i drugye gody (Moscow, 1989), pp. 246–47; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 8 (1989); “Rodsvenniki G. E. Zinovieva postradalshie ot repressiy” (samizdat manuscript).
164. Kostiuk, Okayanni Roki, p. 154.
165. Margarete [Buber] Neumann, Under Two Dictators (London, 1949), pp. 151ff.
166. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 63.
167. Zinoviev Trial, p. 19.
168. Ibid., p. 20.
169. Ibid., p. 31.
170. Ibid., p. 33.
171. Ibid., p. 59.
172. Ibid., p. 67.
173. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 179.
174. Joseph Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation (London, 1971), pp. 96–97.
175. Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Outcast (London, 1963), pp. 416–18.
176. D. J. Dallin and B. I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union (London, 1948), p. 39.
177. Roy Medvedev, On Stalin and Stalinism (Oxford, 1979), p. 117.
Chapter 5: The Problem of Confession
1. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), p. 38.
2. Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party (London, 1959), p. 138.
3. Raphael R. Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution (London, 1962), p. 416.
4. Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite (New York, 1965), p. 25.
5. Boris Souvarine, Stalin (London, 1949), pp. 362–63.
6. Pravda, 29 February 1928.
7. N. Valentinov [N. V. Volsky], quoted in Leonard Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (London, 1960), p. 381.
8. Valentinov, unpublished manuscript, quoted in Abramovitch, Soviet Revolution, p. 415.
9. Valentinov, quoted in Schapiro, Communist Party of the Soviet Union, p. 381.
10. Anton Ciliga, The Russian Enigma (London, 1940), p. 75.
11. Ibid., p. 85.
12. Arthur Koestler, Arrow in the Blue (London, 1945), vol. 2, p. 155.
13. Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 255.
14. Pravda, 15 December 1923.
15. Pravda, 18 January 1924.
16. Abramovitch, Soviet Revolution, p. 288.
17. XIV s”ezd Vsesoyuznoy kommunisticheskoy partii (b). Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow, 1926).
18. See Souvarine, Stalin, p. 459.
19. Ibid., p. 440.
20. See Schapiro, Communist Party of the Soviet Union, pp. 294–95.
21. Angelica Balabanoff, Impressions of Lenin (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1964).
22. Zinoviev Trial, p. 133.
23. Pravda, 16 June 1933.
24. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” in Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite, pp. 54–55•
25. Eugenia Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York, 1967), pp. 105–6.
26. Nedelya, 11–17 July 1988.
27. Arthur Koestler, Darkness at Noon (London, 1940), p. 242.
28. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 86.
29. Ibid.
30. A. Tairov, before the French “Commission Rogatoire,” cited in Dewey Commission, Not Guilty (New York, 1937), p. 370.
31. Koestler, Darkness at Noon, p. 183.
32. Bukharin Trial, pp. 777–78.
33. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), pp. 117–118.
34. Victor Serge, From Lenin to Stalin (London, 1937), p. 145.
35. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 145–46.
36. Ibid., p. 149.
37. Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 283.
38. Nedelya, 11–17 July 1988.
39. Pyatakov Trial, p. 204.
40. Nikita Khrushchev, concluding remarks to the XXIInd Party Congress.
41. Neva, no. 10 (1988).
42. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
43. Podem, December 1988.
44. Trud, 26 May 1988.
45. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Justice (London, 1951), pp. 252–54.
46. Ibid., p. 169.
47. Ibid., p. 154.
48. Elizabeth Lermolo, Face of a Victim (New York, 1955), p. 44.
49. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, pp. 169–70.
50. G. A. Tokaev, Betrayal of an Ideal (London, 1954), pp. 264–66.
51. For example, Margarete [Buberl Neumann, Under Two Dictators (London, 1949), p. 41; R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs (London, 1965), p. 222; The Dark Side of the Moon (London, 1946); Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 97.
52. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 240.
53. Ibid., p. 253.
54. Ibid., p. 246; Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 118, 122; Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, pp. 274–75.
55. Ibid., p. 253.
56. Moscow News, 19 June 1988.
57. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
58. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 5 (1989).
59. A. V. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life (New York, 1964), p. 113.
60. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge, rev. ed. (New York, 1989), p. 493; IvanovRazumnik, Memoirs, p. 250.
61. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, pp. 248–49.
62. Medvedev, Let History Judge, rev. ed., p. 187.
63. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
64. Literaturnaya gazeta, 23 November 1988.
65. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (March 1965).
66. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), p. 236.
67. Antoni Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace (London, 1954), p. 175.
68. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 69–72.
69. Moscow News, no. 19 (1988).
70. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, pp. 53–54.
71. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, pp. 163–64.
72. Ibid., p. 297.
73. Ibid., pp. 386–87.
74. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 71.
75. El Campesino, Listen, Comrades (London, 1952), p. 132; and see Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The First Circle (London, 1968), p. 150.
76. Z. Stypulkowski, Invitation to Moscow (London, 1951), chaps. 12–14.
77. Artur London, L'Aveu (Paris, 1969).
78. Evzen [Eugen] Loebl and Dusan Pokorny, Die Revolution Rehabilitiert Ihre Kinder (Vienna, 1968); and see Michael Charlton, The Eagle and the Small Birds (Chicago, 1984), pp. 82–83.
79. Moscow News, no. 18 (1988).
80. Charlton, Eagle and the Small Birds, p. 84.
81. Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 154.
82. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 54.
83. Stypulkowski, Invitation to Moscow, p. 242.
84. Medvedev, Let History Judge, rev. ed., pp. 15, 490.
85. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
86. Arthur Koestler, Introduction to Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, pp. xi–xii.
87. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 284–90.
88. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 250; Medvedev, Let History Judge, rev. ed., p. 493.
89. Nova mysl, no. 7 (10 July 1968).
90. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 415.
91. Ibid., pp. 352–55.
92. Novaya zhizn’, 8 June 1918, cited in J. E. Scott, “The Cheka,” Soviet Affairs, no. 1 (1956), p. 8.
93. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (March 1965).
94. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, pp. 169–72.
Chapter 6: Last Stand
1. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” in Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite (New York, 1965), p. 26.
2. Pyatakov Trial, pp. 202, 214.
3. Ibid., p. 561.
4. Sovetskaya industriya, 10 June 1988; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 9 (1989).
5. Pyatakov Trial, p. 167.
6. Pravda, 1 September 1936.
7. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
8. Znamya, no. 12 (1988); Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 5 (1989).
9. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 63.
10. Pyatakov Trial, p. 17.
11. Bukharin Trial, p. 125.
12. Roy Medvedev, Nikolai Bukharin (New York, 1980), p. 131.
13. Ibid.
14. Pravda, 9 October 1988; Voprosy istorii, no. 10 (1988).
15. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 9 (1989).
16. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 64.
17. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), p. 143.
18. Bukharin Trial, p. 556.
19. Simon Wolin and Robert M. Slusser, The Soviet Secret Police (New York, 1957), p. 45.
20. Bukharin Trial, p. 553.
21. G. A. Tokaev, Betrayal of an Ideal (London, 1954), pp. 249–50.
22. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” p. 63.
23. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
24. Literaturnaya gazeta, 29 June 1988.
25. Bukharin Trial, p. 281.
26. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, nos. 5–6 (1989).
27. Sotsialisticheskaya industriya, 10 June 1988.
28. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 180.
29. Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
30. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 206.
31. Pyatakov Trial, p. 134.
32. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 205.
33. Pierre Broué, Le Procès de Moscou (Paris, 1964), p. 276.
34. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), p. 56.
35. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 9 (1989).
36. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (March 1965).
37. Pyatakov Trial, p. 287.
38. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 182.
39. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (London, 1947), p. 331.
40. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 232.
41. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 329–330.
42. Pyatakov Trial, p. 257.
43. Ibid., p. 537.
44. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 183.
45. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago (New York, 1973), vol. 1, p. 415.
46. Medvedev, Nikolai Bukharin, p. 130.
47. Stalin, speech to the February-March plenum of the Central Committee, 5 March 1937.
48. Pravda, 29 May 1937.
49. G. Maryagin, Postyshev (Moscow, 1965), p. 291.
50. Veljko Micunović, Moscow Diary (New York, 1986), p. 28.
51. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 5 (1989).
52. Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
53. Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago, vol. 1, p. 416; Anton Antonov-Ovseenko, The Time of Stalin (New York, 1981), p. 618; Medvedev, Nikolai Bukharin, pp. 131–32; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 5 (1989).
54. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 9 (1989).
55. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 207.
56. Ibid., p. 350.
57. Znamya, no. 12 (1988); Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 5 (1989).
58. Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.
62. Teatr, no. 7 (1988).
63. Resolutions of the Congress of the Communist Party of the Ukraine (Pravda, 13 June 1937).
64. Visti, 1 June 1937.
65. Moscow News, no. 26 (1988); Mazoji Lietuviskoji Tarybine Enciklpedija; Bor shaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya, 3rd ed. (Moscow, 1970–78).
66. Pyatakov Trial, p. 40.
67. Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived (New York, 1945), p. 295.
68. For example, Pravda, 12 September 1936.
69. Stalin, speech to the February-March plenum of the Central Committee, 3 March 1937.
70. Pyatakov Trial, p. 7.
71. Ibid., p. 14.
72. Ibid., p. 43.
73. Ibid., p. 48.
74. Ibid., p. 49.
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid., p. 25.
77. Ibid., p. 413.
78. Ibid., p. 69.
79. Ibid., pp. 58ff.
80. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 191.
81. Pyatakov Trial, p. 443.
82. Ibid., p. 85.
83. Ibid., p. 125.
84. Ibid.
85. Ibid., p. 127.
86. Ibid., p. 129.
87. Ibid., p. 135.
88. Ibid., p. 105.
89. Ibid., p. 160.
90. Sotsialisticheskaya industriya, 10 June 1988.
91. Pyatakov Trial, p. 209.
92. Ibid., p. 210.
93. Ibid., p. 245.
94. Ibid., p. 257.
95. Ibid., p. 258.
96. Ibid., p. 283.
97. Ibid., p. 280.
98. Ibid., p. 288.
99. Ibid., p. 248.
100. Ibid., p. 271.
101. Ibid., p. 272.
102. Ibid., p. 229.
103. Ibid., p. 226.
104. Ibid., p. 222.
105. N. M. Shvernik, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 26 October 1961).
106. Pyatakov Trial, p. 222.
107. Ibid., p. 511.
108. Ibid., p. 475.
109. Ibid., pp. 303–33.
110. Ibid., pp. 566–67.
111. Ibid., p. 569.
112. Ibid., p. 367.
113. Ibid., p. 368.
114. Ibid., p. 365.
115. Ibid., pp. 371–72, 378.
116. Ibid., p. 412.
117. Ibid., p. 463.
118. Ibid., p. 466.
119. Ibid., p. 480.
120. Ibid., p. 494.
121. Ibid., p. 474.
122. Ibid., p. 468.
123. Ibid., p. 514.
124. Ibid., p. 476–77.
125. Ibid., p. 489.
126. Ibid., p. 207.
127. Ibid., p. 170.
128. Ibid., p. 502.
129. Ibid., p. 512.
130. Ibid., p. 517.
131. Ibid., p. 481.
132. Ibid., p. 516.
133. Ibid., p. 517.
134. Ibid., p. 541.
135. Ibid., p. 548.
136. Ibid., p. 543.
137. Elisabeth K. Poretsky, Our Own People (London, 1969), p. 198.
138. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 212.
139. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 7 (1989); V. Petrov and E. Petrov, Empire of Fear (London, 1956), p. 69; Gustaw Herling, A World Apart (London, 1951).
140. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 9 (1989).
141. Wolin and Slusser, Soviet Secret Police, p. 194.
142. Elizabeth Lermolo, Face of a Victim (New York, 1955), pp. 134–35.
143. Knizhnoe obozrenie, 4 November 1988.
144. Khrushchev, speech of 8 March 1963.
145. Pyatakov Trial, p. 545.
146. Ibid., p. 514.
147. Ibid., p. 353.
148. Pravda, 29 January 1937.
149. Pravda, 31 January 1937.
150. Neva, no. 6 (1988), p. 69.
151. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 239.
152. Pyatakov Trial, p. 510.
153. Izvestiya, 22 November 1963; samizdat manuscript; Literaturnaya Rossiya, May 1989.
154. Robert Conquest, Power and Policy in the U.S.S.R. (London, 1961), pp. 449–53.
155. Izvestiya, 22 November 1963; I. M. Dubinsky-Mulchadze, Ordzhonikidze (Moscow, 1963), p. 6.
156. Literaturnaya gazeta, 7 September 1988.
157. Izvestiya, 22 November 1963; Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Ordzhonikidze, p. 6.
158. Literaturnaya gazeta, 7 September 1988.
159. Izvestiya, 22 November 1963; Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Ordzhonikidze, p. 6.
160. Pravda, 19 February 1937.
161. Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Ordzhonikidze, p. 7.
162. Pravda, 19 February 1937.
163. Be shaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1949–58), s.v. “Ordzhonikidze.”
164. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge (New York, 1971), p. 194.
165. Na rubezhe, nos. 3–4 (1952).
166. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 240.
167. Khrushchev, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
168. Bakinskiy rabochiy, 17 June 1962.
169. Eugenia Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York, 1967), p. 73.
170. Pravda, 17 November 1964.
171. For example, Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 196–98.
172. Khrushchev, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
173. Private interview with author.
174. Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party (London, 1959), p. 229.
175. Neva, no. 6 (1988).
176. Izvestiya, 22 November 1963.
177. Medvedev, Nikolai Bukharin, p. 134; Nedelya, no. 12 (1988).
178. Komsomolskaya pravda, 2 April 1988.
179. Neva, no. 6 (1988), p. 69.
180. Komsomolskaya pravda, 2 April 1988.
181. Zinoviev Trial, p. 162.
182. Gorizont, no. 5 (1988), p. 36.
183. Pravda, 19 February 1937.
184. Bol’ shaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya, 2nd ed., vol. 31.
185. Samizdat manuscript.
186. Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
187. P. I. Yakir and Ya. A. Geller, Komandarm Yakir (Moscow, 1963), p. 211.
188. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
189. Satyukov, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
190. Sovetskaya kur tura, 13 September 1988; Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
191. Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
192. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 2 (1989).
193. Khrushchev, in Pravda, 17 March 1937.
194. Ilcramov, quoted in Bukharin Trial, p. 349.
195. Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party, p. 118.
196. Kommunist, no. 13 (1988).
197. Walter G. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service (London, 1939), p. 228.
198. Yunost’, no. 3 (1988), p. 60.
199. Kommunist, no. 13 (1988).
200. Ibid.
201. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988); Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 5 (1989).
202. Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
203. Pravda, 6 March 1937.
204. Visti, 1 February 1937.
205. Pravda, 8 February 1937.
206. Pravda, 9 February 1937.
207. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
208. Ibid.
209. Ibid.
210. Hrihory Kostiuk, “The Fall of Postyshev,” Research Program on the U.S.S.R., no. 6a (1954), in Stalinist Rule in the Ukraine (Munich, 1960), pp. 118–22.
211. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
212. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
213. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service, p. 228.
214. Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
215. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
216. Shvernik, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 26 October 1961).
217. W. P. Coates and Zelda K. Coates, comps., The Moscow Trial (London, 1937), p. 249.
218. Ibid., p. 253.
219. Ibid., p. 205.
220. Quoted by Vyshinsky, in Bukharin Trial, p. 626.
221. Coates and Coates, Moscow Trial, pp. 275–76.
222. Ibid., p. 277.
223. Ibid., p. 279.
224. Visti, 17 March 1937.
225. Report of the January plenum of the Central Committee (Pravda, 19 January 1938).
226. Pravda, 23 March 1937.
227. Pravda, 29 May 1937.
228. Pravda, 30 May 1987.
229. Visti, 2 June 1937.
230. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 221.
231. Ibid.
232. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service, p. 167.
233. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 222.
234. Bukharin Trial, p. 482.
235. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 225.
236. Literaturnaya gazeta, no. 4 (1987).
237. Bukharin Trial, p. 569.
238. Ibid., p. 571.
239. Ibid., p. 556.
240. Pravda, 4 April 1937.
241. Pravda, 5 April 1937.
242. Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
243. Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, Mass., 1956), p. 229.
244. Svetlana Alliluyeva, Only One Year (New York, 1969), p. 388.
245. Sovetskoye gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (March 1965).
246. Sotsialisticheskaya zakonnost’, no. 1 (1938).
247. Pravda, 20 January 1937.
248. Pravda, 9 April 1937.
249. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 9 (1965).
Chapter 7: Assault on the Army
1. Pravda, 11 June 1937.
2. Pravda, 15 June 1937.
3. John Erickson, The Soviet High Command (London, 1962), p. 58.
4. Robert S. Sullivant, Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, 1917–1957 (New York, 1963), p. 342.
5. Erickson, Soviet High Command, p. 51.
6. Ibid., p. 99.
7. Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed (London, 1959), p. 350.
8. Izvestiya, 24–30 January 1963; N. I. Koritskiy et al., Marshal Tukhachevskiy (Moscow, 1965).
9. Bukharin Trial, p. 188.
10. P. Deriabin and F. Gibney, The Secret World (London, 1960), pp. 110–11.
11. Isaac Deutscher, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 379.
12. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), p. 95.
13. Ibid., p. 253.
14. Ibid., p. 256.
15. Ibid., p. 71.
16. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), p. 242.
17. Walter G. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service (London, 1939), p. 7.
18. I. V. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram (Moscow, 1964), pp. 243ff.
19. Zinoviev Trial, pp. 34, 41.
20. Vassili Grossman, In the Town of Berdichev.
21. Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived (New York, 1945), pp. 89–90.
22. Zinoviev Trial, p. 36.
23. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram.
24. Pravda, 23 August 1936.
25. Pyatakov Trial, p. 181.
26. Ibid., p. 94.
27. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram; Voenno-istoricheskiy zhurnal, no. 6 (1965).
28. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram.
29. Zinoviev Trial, p. 116.
30. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 5 (1989).
31. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 311.
32. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
33. Ibid.
34. Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 376–77.
35. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
36. Zinoviev Trial, p. 22.
37. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram.
38. Erickson, Soviet High Command, p. 427; Znamya, no. 12 (1988).
39. Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party (London, 1959), p. 48.
40. Pyatakov Trial, p. 146.
41. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service, p. 239.
42. P. I. Yakir and Ya. A. Geller, Komandarm Yakir (Moscow, 1963), pp. 207ff.
43. Ibid., p. 212.
44. Yu. P. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v sovetskoy armii i flote (1918–1961) (Moscow, 1964), p. 299.
45. Ibid.
46. Yakir and Geller, Komandarm Yakir, p. 212.
47. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service, pp. 250–51; Barmine, One Who Survived, P. 7.
48. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
49. Koritskiy et al., Marshal Tukhachevskiy, pp. 219ff.
50. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v sovetskoy armii i flote, p. 303.
51. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram.
52. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
53. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 6 (1989).
54. Ibid.
55. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
56. Ibid.
57. Pravda, 29 April 1988.
58. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 6 (1989).
59. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
60. Pravda, 29 April 1988.
61. W. Schellenberg, The Schellenberg Memoirs (London, 1956), p. 49.
62. See O. Pyatnitsky, speech to the XIIth plenum of the Executive Committee of the Comintern.
63. Novyy mir, no. 4 (1964).
64. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 198.
65. XVII s”ezd Vsesoyuznoy kommunisticheskoy partii (b) 26 yanvarya-10 fevralya 1934 g. Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow, 1934).
66. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service, p. 31.
67. Major V. Dapishev of the Soviet General Staff, at a session of the Department for the History of the Great Patriotic War at the Institute of Marxism-Leninism, 18 February 1966 (Posey, 13 January 1967); see also Ernst Genri [S. N. Rostovsky] (Grani, no. 63 [19671]).
68. Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 433–34.
69. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 6 (1989).
70. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
71. Politicheskoe obrazovanie, no. 5 (1989).
72. Wilhelm Hoettl, The Secret Front (London, 1954); and see Nedelya, 13 February 1989.
73. W. Gomulka, report to the IXth plenum of the Central Committee of the Polish Workers’ Party (Trybuna Ludu, 23 November 1961),
74. For example, Lev Nikulin, Marshal Tukhachevskiy (Moscow, 1964); Khrushchev, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress; Winston Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 1, The Gathering Storm (London, 1948), p. 224; and see Voenno-istoricheskiy zhurnal, no. 10 (1988).
75. Léon Blum, quoted in Erickson, Soviet High Command, p. 433; Novaya i noveyshaya istoriya, no. 1 (1989).
76. Trybuna Ludu, 23 November 1961.
77. Private information from John Erickson.
78. Nikulin, Marshal Tukhachevskiy, pp. 189–94.
79. Novaya i noveyshaya istoriia, no. 1 (1989) (accepting the testimony of Schellenberg, Schellenberg Memoirs, and Hoettl, Secret Front); Sovetskaya Rossiya, 18 September 1988; Politicheskoe obrazovanie, no. 5 (1989).
80. Ukrains’ka Radians’ka Entsiklopediia (Kiev, 1959–65).
81. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service, p. 27.
82. D. V. Pankov, Komkor Eideman (Moscow, 1965), p. 103.
83. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 12 (1964).
84. Koritskiy et al., Marshal Tukhachevskiy, p. 134.
85. Nikulin, Marshal Tukhachevskiy.
86. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
87. Koritskiy et al., Marshal Tukhachevskiy, pp. 128–29.
88. Ibid.; Voenno-istoricheskiy zhurnal, no. 10 (1965).
89. Nikulin, Marshal Tukhachevskiy.
90. Yakir and Geller, Komandarm Yakir, pp. 227ff.
91. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 6 (1989).
92. P. N. Aleksandrov et al., Komandarm Uborevich (Moscow, 1964), pp. 230ff.
93. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 6 (1989).
94. A. V. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life (New York, 1964), p. 103.
95. Yakir and Geller, Komandarm Yakir.
96. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram; Nikulin, Marshal Tukhachevskiy; Yakir and Geller, Komandarm Yakir.
97. Pravda, 1 June 1937.
98. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
99. Krasnaya zvezda, 6 June 1937.
100. A. N. Shelepin, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 27 October 1961).
101. Yakir and Geller, Komandarm Yakir, pp. 230–32.
102. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram, chap. 14.
103. Pravda, 29 April 1988.
104. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v sovetskoy armii i flote, pp. 299–300.
105. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
106. Ibid.
107. Anton Antonov-Ovseenko, The Time of Stalin (New York, 1981), p. 185.
108. Nikulin, Marshal Tukhachevskiy, pp. 189–94.
109. Peter Yakir, at a session of the Department for the History of the Great Patriotic War at the Institute of Marxism-Leninism, 18 February 1966 (Posey, 13 January 1967).
110. Bukharin Trial, p. 5.
111. Pravda, 29 April 1988.
112. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4, 1989.
113. Ibid.
114. Ibid.
115. Ibid.
116. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram, p. 267; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
117. Lev Nikulin, in Ogonek, no. 13 (March 1963).
118. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
119. Dubinskiy, Naperekor vetram, p. 268.
120. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
121. Khrushchev, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
122. Shelepin, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
123. Yakir and Geller, Komandarm Yakir, pp. 230–32.
124. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 15 October 1963.
125. Margarete [Buber] Neumann, Under Two Dictators (London, 1949), p. 56.
126. Yakir and Geller, Komandarm Yakir, p. 232.
127. Khrushchev, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
128. Bilshovik Ukrainy, no. 6 (1938).
129. Aleksandrov et al., Komandarm Uborevich, pp. 265ff.
130. Lev Nikulin, in Oktyabr’, nos. 2–5 (1965).
131. Antoni Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace (London, 1954), p. 244.
132. Ogonek, no. 13 (1963).
133. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 8.
134. Simon Wolin and Robert M. Slusser, The Soviet Secret Police (New York, 1957), p. 194.
135. Peter Yakir, “Letter to the Editor of Kommunist,” 2 March 1969, translated in Survey, nos. 70–71 (1969).
136. Pravda, 29 April 1988.
137. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
138. Yakir, “Letter to the Editor of Kommunist,” pp. 72, 75.
139. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 8.
140. G. A. Tokaev, Betrayal of an Ideal (London, 1954), p. 244.
141. Marshal S. T. Biryuzov, Sovetskii soldat na Balkanakh (Moscow, 1963), p. 141.
142. A. T. Stuchenko, Zavidnaya nasha sudba (Moscow, 1964), p. 63.
143. Ibid., p. 64.
144. Barmine, One Who Survived, pp. 6–8.
145. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life, p. 104.
146. L. T. Starinov, Miny zhdut svoego chasa (Moscow, 1964), pp. 149–66.
147. Moscow News, no. 14 (1988).
148. Biriuzov, Sovetskii soldat, pp. 137, 143.
149. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life, p. 104.
150. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), pp. 422–23.
151. Ogonek, no. 46 (1988).
152. Stuchenko, Zavidnaya nasha sudba.
153. Byelarus, no. 7 (1965).
154. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v sovetskoy armii i flote, pp. 299–300.
155. Krasnaya zvezda, 2 June 1937.
156. L. Gaglov and I. Selishchev, Komissary (Moscow, 1961).
157. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v sovetskoy armii i flote, p. 302; Kommunist, 27 September 1988.
158. Krasnaya zvezda, 1 June 1937.
159. Genri, in Grani.
160. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v sovetskoy armii i flote, pp. 299–300.
161. Ibid., p. 302.
162. Ibid., pp. 301–2.
163. Ibid., p. 302.
164. Ibid., p. 304.
165. Ibid., p. 312.
166. Ibid., p. 303n.
167. Ibid., pp. 299–300.
168. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochineniy, 5th ed., vol. 51 (Moscow, 1965).
169. A. Dyakov, in Oktyabr’, no. 7 (1964).
170. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life, p. 107.
171. Ibid., pp. 108ff.
172. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, pp. 96–97.
173. Khrushchev, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
174. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 48.
175. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
176. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 27.
177. Krasnaya zvezda, 2 March 1965.
178. Komsomolskaya pravda, 13 November 1964.
179. Blagoy Popov, Ot Layptsigskiya protses v Sibirskie lageri (Paris, 1979), p. 41.
180. Sovetskaya Bukovina, 10 February 1965.
181. Ilya Ehrenburg, in Novyy mir, no. 5 (1962).
182. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 241.
183. Ilya Ehrenburg, Men, Years, Life (New York, 1961), vol. 4, pp. 152, 146.
184. Pod znamenam Ispanskoy respubliki (Moscow, 1965), p. 190.
185. Milovan Djilas, Conversations with Stalin (London, 1962), p. 13.
186. Genri, in Grani.
187. Erickson, Soviet High Command, p. 475.
188. Tevosyan, speech to the XVIIIth Party Congress.
189. Ibid.
190. R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs (London, 1965), p. 246.
191. Ibid.; S. E. Zakharov et al., Tikhookeanskiy flot (Moscow, 1966).
192. Novyy mir, no. 8 (1961), pp. 160–83.
193. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v sovetskoy armii i flote, p. 301.
194. Voenno-istoricheskiy zhurnal, no. 6 (1963).
195. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 246.
196. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
197. Pravda, 17 February 1964.
198. Boris Souvarine, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 258.
199. Geroi grazhdanskoy voyny (Moscow, 1963), p. 330.
200. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 95.
201. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
202. Pravda, 3 April 1964.
203. Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 66–67.
204. Pravda, 7 October 1988.
205. Nedelya, 6 February 1989.
206. G. Lyushkov, in Kaizo, April 1939.
207. Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers (New York, 1970), p. 88.
Chapter 8: The Party Crushed
1. Pravda, 14 April 1937.
2. I. V. Spiridonov, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
3. Pravda, 21 March 1937.
4. D. A. Lazurkina, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
5. Pravda, 30 May 1937.
6. Pravda, 5 June 1938.
7. Anton Ciliga, The Russian Enigma (London, 1940), p. 48.
8. Ibid., p. 160.
9. Bukharin Trial, p. 160.
10. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
11. Ibid.
12. Zinoviev Trial, p. 34.
13. Ocherki po istorii Leningrada (Moscow and Leningrad, 1964), vol. 4, p. 381.
14. Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, Mass., 1956), p. 226.
15. Lazurkina, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
16. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
17. Ibid.
18. Serdyuk, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
19. Yu. M. Vecherova, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
20. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge (New York, 1971), p. 347.
21. Moscow News, no. 48 (1988); Ocherki istorii Ivanovskoy organizatsii KPSS (Moscow, 1967).
22. A. N. Vasilev, “Are There Any More Questions?” Moskva, June 1964.
23. Merle Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, 1958), p. 59.
24. Ibid., pp. 134–37.
25. Bakinskiy rabochiy, 17 June 1962.
26. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
27. Ural’ skiy sledoput’, no. 8 (1988).
28. Ocherki istorii partiynoy organizatsii Tatarii (Kazan, 1962).
29. Arvo Tuominen, The Bells of the Kremlin (London, 1983), pp. 299ff.
30. Voprosy istorii, no. 9 (1988); Ogonek, no. 19 (1988).
31. Literaturnaya Rossiya, 25 March 1988.
32. Radio Moscow, 18 September 1964.
33. Bukharin Trial, p. 76.
34. K. T. Mazurov, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
35. Ibid.
36. Sovetskaya Byelorossiya, 11 October 1988.
37. Rabochiy, 8 June 1937.
38. Izvestiya, 23 May 1964.
39. Mazurov, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
40. Rabochiy, 12 August 1937.
41. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), p. 92.
42. See Brzezinski, Permanent Purge, pp. 180–84.
43. See Robert Conquest, Inside Stalin’s Secret Police (London, 1985), p. 54.
44. Kommunist (Yerevan), 28 November 1963.
45. Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Notes to The Crimes of the Stalin Era (New York, 1956).
46. Pravda, 23 June 1929.
47. Pyatakov Trial, p. 74.
48. Bukharin Trial, p. 304.
49. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), p. 249.
50. Zarya vostoka, 3 March 1989.
51. Byuletten oppozitsii, nos. 56–57 (1937).
52. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 5 (1963).
53. Boris Souvarine, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 638.
54. Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 269.
55. Dzhashi, speech to the XVIIIth Party Congress.
56. Pravda, 17 May 1937.
57. Ocherki istorii kommunisticheskoy partii Armenii (Yerevan, 1967), pp. 386–87.
58. Kommunist (Yerevan), 15 November 1963.
59. Ibid.; Shelepin, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
60. Mary Matossian, The Impact of Soviet Politics in Armenia (Leiden, 1962); Ocherki istorii kommunisticheskoy partii Armenii, pp. 386–87.
61. Kommunist (Yerevan), 15 November 1961.
62. Zarya vostoka, 31 December 1937.
63. Eugenia Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York, 1967), p. 100.
64. Robert S. Sullivant, Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, 1917–1957 (New York, 1963), p. 194.
65. S. Kossior, speech to the XIIIth Congress of the Communist Party of the Ukraine, 27 May 1937.
66. Pravda, 26 May 1937.
67. Pravda, 29 May 1937.
68. Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo, no. 15 (1937).
69. I. V. Stalin, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow, 1946–54), vol. 8, pp. 149–50.
70. Bukharin, conversation with Kamenev, July 1928.
71. G. A. Tokaev, Comrade X (London, 1956), p. 57.
72. Pyatakov, speech to the VIIIth Party Congress (Sullivant, Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, p. 32a).
73. See Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow (New York, 1986).
74. Sullivant, Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, p. 193.
75. G. Petrovsky, speech to the XVIIth Party Congress.
76. Komsomolskoe znamya, 22 November 1988, 23 November 1988.
77. Posey, vol. 6, nos. 45 and 50 (1950); Vladimir Dedijer, Tito Speaks (London, 1953), p. 201.
78. Komsomolskoe znamya, 23 November 1988.
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid.
81. Komsomolskoe znamya, 27 November 1988.
82. Pravda, 21 July 1937.
83. Pravda, 22 July 1937.
84. Pravda, 25 July 1937.
85. Komsomolskoe znamya, 27 November 1988.
86. Ibid.
87. Komsomolskoe znamya, 29 November 1988.
88. Ibid.
89. Pravda, 18 September 1937.
90. Pravda, 1 October 1937, 29 December 1937.
91. Pravda, 25 September 1937.
92. Pravda, 4 October 1937.
93. Pravda, 18 September 1937.
94. Volodimir Petrovich Zatonsky (in Ukrainian) (Kiev, 1964), p. 132.
95. Pravda, 19 January 1938.
96. Z. T. Serdyuk, speech to the XVIIIth Party Congress.
97. Brzezinski, Permanent Purge, p. 78.
98. Pravda, 22 February 1938.
99. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), pp. 461–62.
100. Visti, 28 January 1938.
101. Sullivant, Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, p. 223.
102. Burmistenko, speech to the XVIIIth Party Congress.
103. Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., Roosevelt and the Russians: The Yalta Conference (Garden City, N.Y., 1949).
104. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
105. Ibid.
106. Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 43.
107. Moskovskaya pravda, 10 January 1989.
108. For example, Moskovskaya pravda, 10 February 1989.
109. Z. T. Serdyuk, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 31 October 1961); Moscow News, no. 18 (1988).
110. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988); Moskovskaya pravda, 6 April 1989.
111. Moscow News, no. 18 (1988).
112. R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs (London, 1965), p. 307; Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 241.
113. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 168.
114. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 2 (1964), p. 19.
115. Literaturnaya gazeta, no. 9 (1987).
116. Sovetskaya Byelorossiya, 22 January 1988.
117. Fitzroy Maclean, Eastern Approaches (London, 1949), p. 28.
118. československy časopis Historicky, no. 4 (1964).
119. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 115; and see German Trukans, Yan Rudzutak (Moscow, 1963).
120. Svetlana Alliluyeva, Only One Year (New York, 1969), p. 388.
121. Bukharin Trial, p. 277.
122. Louis Fischer, Men and Politics (London, 1941), p. 414.
123. Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived (New York, 1945), p. 307.
124. Bukharin Trial, p. 252.
125. Ibid., p. 55.
126. Trud, 26 May 1988.
127. Bukharin Trial, p. 777.
128. A. N. Shelepin, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 27 October 1961).
129. Bukharin Trial, pp. 459–67.
130. Pravda, 17 November 1964.
131. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 118, 139.
132. Bukharin Trial, p. 78.
133. Anton Antonov-Ovseenko, The Time of Stalin (New York, 1981), p. 127.
134. Moscow News, no. 15 (1988); Pavel Gol’dshtein, Tochka opory (Jerusalem, n.d.).
135. Moscow News, no. 15 (1988).
136. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
137. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 11 (1965).
138. Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament (Boston, 1974), p. 88.
139. A. S. Yakovlev, Tsel’ zhizni (Moscow, 1966), p. 177.
140. Izvestiya, 19 December 1964.
141. Maroosha Fischer, My Lives in Russia (New York, 1944), p. 186.
142. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 80.
143. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Justice (London, 1951), p. 235.
144. Pravda, 22 July 1937.
145. Pravda, 17 March 1937.
146. Pravda, 20 August 1937.
147. Pravda, 29 August 1937.
148. Pravda, 30 October 1937.
149. Pravda, 8 September 1937.
150. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochineniy, 5th ed., vol. 50 (Moscow, 1965).
151. Bukharin Trial, p. 764.
152. Fischer, Men and Politics, p. 409.
153. Bukharin Trial, p. 796.
154. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 245.
155. Bukharin Trial, p. 623.
156. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (March 1965); see also Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 157.
157. See Bukharin Trial, p. 696.
158. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
159. A. Binevich and Z. Serebryanskiy, Andrei Bubnov (Moscow, 1964), pp. 78–79.
160. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 4 (1963).
161. Shelepin, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
162. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 97.
163. Margarete [Buber] Neumann, Under Two Dictators (London, 1949), p. 26.
164. For example, Pravda, 2 May 1937, 15 June 1937, 29 October 1937.
165. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 2 (1963).
166. Pravda, 25 December 1964; Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 7 (1964).
167. G. Maryagin, Postyshev (Moscow, 1965), p. 247.
168. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 7 (1965).
169. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (March 1965).
170. Pravda, 7 November 1937.
171. Pravda, 20 December 1937.
172. Bukharin Trial, p. 22.
173. Ibid., p. 23.
174. Lidiya Shatunovskaya, Zhizn’ v Kremle (New York, 1982), pp. 105–7.
175. Antonov-Ovseenko, Time of Stalin, p. 178.
176. Samizdat manuscript.
177. Politicheskiy dnevnik, no. 55 (1969).
178. Pravda, 21 December 1937.
179. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
180. Pamyat’, no. 3 (1980), p. 404.
181. Pravda, 19 January 1938.
182. Kommunisticheskaya partiya Sovetskogo soyuza v rezolyutsiyakh i resheniyakh s”ezdov konferentsii i plenumov TsK, 7th ed. (Moscow, 1953), vol. 2.
183. Maryagin, Postyshev, p. 298.
184. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
185. Radio Moscow, 8 February 1964.
186. Peter Yakir, “Letter to the Editor of Kommunist,” 2 March 1969, translated in Survey, nos. 70–71 (1969).
187. Pyatakov Trial, p. 207.
188. Stanislav Vinkentiyovich Kossior (in Ukrainian) (Kiev, 1963), p. 173.
189. Pravda, 28 January 1938.
190. Pervaya sessiia Verkhovnogo soveta SSSR (Moscow, 1938).
191. Yu. P. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v Sovetskoy armii i flote (1918–1961) (Moscow, 1964), pp. 299–300.
192. Kommunisticheskaya partiya Sovetskogo soyuza v rezolyutsiyakh i resheniyakh s”ezdov konferentsii i plenumov TsK, 7th ed. (Moscow, 1954–60), vol. 2, p. 851.
193. Trud, 6 July 1988.
194. Roy Medvedev, On Stalin and Stalinism (Oxford, 1979), p. 217; Izvestiya, 11 August 1987.
195. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 313.
196. See Souvarine, Stalin, p. 575.
197. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 313.
198. Izvestiya, 11 August 1987.
Chapter 9: Nations in Torment
1. Nedelya, no. 5 (1988).
2. Argumenty i fakty, 13–19 February 1988.
3. Daily Mail, 24 October 1958.
4. Ilya Ehrenburg, in Novyy mir, no. 5 (1962).
5. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (London, 1947), p. 211.
6. Novyy mir, no. 9 (1961).
7. Moskva, no. 4 (1965).
8. Bilshovik Ukrainy, no. 1 (1938), p. 53.
9. Visti, 23 May 1938.
10. Visti, 17 June 1938.
11. Visti, 14 February 1938.
12. XVIII s”ezd, 10–21 marta 1939 g. Stenograficheskiy otchet (Moscow, 1939).
13. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), pp. 166–71.
14. Ibid., p. 143.
15. Ibid., pp. 174–79.
16. Ogonek, no. 20 (1988).
17. Sovetskaya Byelorossiya, 3 March 1989.
18. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 448.
19. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), p. 364.
20. Moscow News, no. 42 (1988).
21. Ilya Ehrenburg, Men, Years, Life (New York, 1961), vol. 4, p. 45.
22. Krug, no. 574, p. 45.
23. Ilya Ehrenburg, in Novyy mir, no. 4 (1962).
24. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
25. Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, Mass., 1956), p. 205.
26. Bukharin Trial, p. 335.
27. See, for example, Lithuanian Bulletin (New York, 1945–50), vols. 3–8.
28. Report of the Credentials Commission to the XIXth Party Congress (Pravda, 9 October 1952).
29. Order no. 001233, quoted in Lithuanian Bulletin; see also Order no. 0054 of Lithuanian NKVD Commissar Gusevitius, in The Dark Side of the Moon (London, 1946), pp. 50–51.
30. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 213.
31. Yunost’, no. 3 (1988).
32. Eugenia Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York, 1967), p. 137.
33. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge (New York, 1971), p. 234.
34. Trud, 7 January 1989
35. Sovetskaya Moldaviya, 20 April 1989.
36. Argumenty i fakty, no. 18 (September 1988).
37. Nedelya, 1 February 1988.
38. Ehrenburg, Men, Years, Life, vol. 4, pp. 193ff.
39. Louis Fischer, Men and Politics (London, 1941), p. 409.
40. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, pp. 88–89.
41. John A. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism (New York, 1963), p. 274.
42. A. T. Stuchenko, Zavidnaya nasha sudba (Moscow, 1964), p. 65.
43. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 387.
44. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 88; and see Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 25.
45. Antoni Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace (London, 1954), p. 283.
46. Ivan Stadniuk, “People Are Not Angels,” Neva, no. 12 (1962).
47. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (March 1965).
48. Nicholas Prychodko, One of the Fifteen Million (Boston, 1952), p. 83.
49. Anton Antonov-Ovseenko, The Time of Stalin (New York, 1981), p. 164–66.
50. Tikhookeanskaya zvezda, 9 May 1937.
51. Sotsialistik Kazakhstan, 23 November 1937.
52. Kizil Uzbekistan, 11 November 1937.
53. Sovetskaya Kirghizia, 11 January 1938.
54. Kizil Uzbekistan, 17 January 1938.
55. Abudurakhman Avtorkhanov, The Reign of Stalin (London, 1953), pp. 140ff, and Narodoubistvo v SSSR (Munich, 1952), passim.
56. A. V. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life (New York, 1964), p. 108.
57. Harijs Heislers, “The Unfinished Story,” Zvaigzne, no. 23 (December 1956).
58. Bo1’ shaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1949–58).
59. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Justice (London, 1951), p. 175.
60. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 132.
61. Moscow News, no. 39 (1988).
62. Sovetskaya Byelorossiya, 12 October 1988.
63. Margarete [Buber] Neumann, Under Two Dictators (London, 1949), p. 10.
64. Novyy mir, no. 12 (1961).
65. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 192.
66. Ibid., pp. 192–94.
67. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life, p.113.
68. See, for example, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The First Circle (London, 1968), pp. 155, 215–16.
69. R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs (London, 1965), p. 209.
70. For example, Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 32.
71. Eleanor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (London, 1951), p. 57.
72. Prostor, no. 1 (1989).
73. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 349.
74. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 291.
75. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 89.
76. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge, rev. ed. (New York, 1989), p. 503.
77. Radians’ka Ukraina, 26 October 1988.
78. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 66.
79. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 36.
80. Ibid., p. 39.
81. Ibid., p. 33.
82. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 212.
83. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 59.
84. Ibid., p. 65.
85. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 155–56.
86. Jozsef Lengyel, From Beginning to End (London, 1966), p. 15.
87. Gustaw Herling, A World Apart (London, 1951), p. 9.
88. Bukharin Trial, p. 256.
89. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 348.
90. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 38.
91. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 469.
92. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, pp. 74, 116.
93. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, chap. 41.
94. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 62; and see Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 314.
95. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 185; and see Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 253; Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 327.
96. See, for example, Elizabeth Lermolo, Face of a Victim (New York, 1955), pp. 163ff.
97. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 421.
98. Ibid., p. 432.
99. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 60.
100. See Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 60ff.
101. Lermolo, Face of a Victim, pp. 191–92.
102. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 149.
103. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 65.
104. For example, Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 311.
105. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 7.
106. A. V. Gorbatov, in Novyy mir, April 1964.
107. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 39.
108. Ibid., p. 57; and see Moscow News, no. 47 (1988).
109. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, pp. 25–29; Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 124.
110. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, pp. 342ff.
111. Personal information; and see Solzhenitsyn, First Circle, p. 150.
112. Herling, World Apart, p. 9.
113. Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold (New York, 1949), passim.
114. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 89.
115. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 83.
116. Trybuna Ludu, 23 November 1961.
117. Herling, World Apart, p. 105.
118. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, pp. 447–51.
119. For example, Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 45.
120. Ibid., p. 87.
121. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 285.
122. Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace, p. 204.
123. Henry W. Morton, Soviet Sport (New York, 1963), pp. 186–93.
124. Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 353.
125. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, pp. 305–6.
126. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 118.
127. Ibid., p. 119.
128. Ibid., p. 46.
129. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 37.
130. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, pp. 189–91.
131. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 46.
132. Ibid., pp. 122–23.
133. Ibid., p. 110.
134. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 326.
135. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 114.
136. Ibid., p. 154.
137. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 161–62.
138. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, pp. 350–51.
139. Pamyat’, no. 3 (1978), p. 221.
140. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 133.
141. Bezbozhnik, no. 7 (1937).
142. F. O. Oleshchuk, Bor’ba tserkvi protiv naroda (Moscow, 1939), pp. 85–86.
143. Ibid., p. 65.
144. Ibid., p. 87.
145. Bolshevik, no. 30 (1938).
146. Joseph Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation (London, 1971), p. 147.
147. Oleshchuk, Bor’ba tserkvi protiv naroda, p. 55.
148. Serdyuk, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 31 October 1961).
149. Brzezinski, Permanent Purge, p. 229.
150. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, pp. 42–43.
151. Lermolo, Face of a Victim, p. 202.
152. Ibid., chap. 18; Neumann, Under Two Dictators, pp. 40–41.
153. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), pp. 226–27.
154. Ibid., pp. 227–28.
155. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, pp. 407–8; and see Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 316.
156. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 251; Sovetskaya Sibir’ , 17 February 1939, 21–24 February 1939.
157. L. P. Petrovsky, “Letter to the Central Committee of the CPSU,” in For Human Rights (Frankfurt, 1969).
158. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, .p. 72.
159. I. V. Spiridonov, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
160. Stalin, speech to the February–March plenum of the Central Committee, 3 March 1937.
161. Itogi vsesoyuznoy perepisi naseleniya 1959 g. (Moscow, 1962), vol. 1, pp. 161–64.
162. Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace, p. 156.
163. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 288.
164. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 2 (1988).
165. Gorizont, no. 5 (1988), p. 36.
166. B. P. Beshchev, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
167. N. M. Shvernik, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
168. Ibid.
169. Kravchenko, 1 Chose Justice, chap. 9.
170. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 99.
171. Lengyel, From Beginning to End, p. 14.
172. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 49.
173. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, pp. 291–97.
174. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 65–66.
175. For example, Gorbatov, Years Off My Life, p. 111.
176. Anton Ciliga, The Russian Enigma (London, 1940), p. 141.
177. For example, Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 47.
178. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 238.
179. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 57.
180. Antonov-Ovseenko, Time of Stalin, p. 156.
181. Literaturnaya gazeta, 9 December 1987.
182. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 145.
183. Moscow News, no. 28 (1988).
184. Ibid., p. 147.
185. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, pp. 63–64.
186. N. Mandelshtam, Hope Against Hope (New York, 1970), p. 356.
187. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 281.
188. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 97.
189. Ibid., p. 122.
190. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
191. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 238.
192. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (1965).
193. Kravchenko, 1 Chose Justice, pp. 177–79.
194. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 102.
195. Arthur Koestler, Introduction to Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence.
196. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 102.
197. Ibid.
198. Arthur Koestler, in The God That Failed, ed. Richard E. Crossman (London, 1950), p. 77.
199. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 46.
200. Ibid.
201. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 122.
202. A. Dyakov, in Oktyabr’, no. 7 (1964).
203. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 231.
204. Ibid., pp. 368–69.
205. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 47.
206. Ibid.
207. Lengyel, From Beginning to End, pp. 92–93.
208. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 248.
209. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 183.
210. Izvestiya, 6 September 1964.
211. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 52.
212. Ibid., pp. 130–31.
213. Krasnaya zvezda, 8 April 1989.
214. Sorok let Sovetskogo prava (Leningrad, 1957), p. 486.
215. A. A. Piontkovskiy and V. D. Menshagin, Kurs sovetskogo ugolovnogo pravda (Moscow, 1955), p. 187.
216. Sorok let Sovetskogo prava, pp. 485–504.
217. Piontkovskiy and Menshagin, Kurs sovetskogo ugolovnogo pravda, p. 187.
218. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 91.
219. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (1965).
220. Ibid.
221. Ibid.
222. Ibid.
223. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p.48.
224. Simon Wolin and Robert M. Slusser, The Soviet Secret Police (New York, 1957), p. 186.
225. Petrov, Soviet Gold, p. 64.
226. Wolin and Slusser, Soviet Secret Police, p. 188.
227. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 105.
228. Ibid., p. 88.
229. Blagoy Popov, Ot Layptsigskiya protses v Sibirskie lageri (Paris, 1979), p. 36.
230. X. Kulski, The Soviet Regime (Syracuse, N.Y., 1954), pp. 233–34.
231. Wolin and Slusser, Soviet Secret Police, passim.
232. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (1965).
233. Ibid.
234. See Wolin and Slusser, Soviet Secret Police, passim; Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, pp. 33–34.
235. Wolin and Slusser, Soviet Secret Police, p. 191.
236. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 313.
237. Ibid., p. 312.
238. Antonov-Ovseenko, Time of Stalin, p. 59.
239. V. Petrov and E. Petrov, Empire of Fear (London, 1956), p. 89.
240. Wolin and Slusser, Soviet Secret Police, p. 134.
241. U.S.S.R. Laws 1937, vol. 61, p. 266.
242. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 62.
243. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 207.
244. Avtorkhanov, Reign of Stalin, p. 147.
245. I. I. Evtikhiev and V. A. Vlasov, Administrativnoe pravo SSSR (Moscow, 1946), p. 191; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 10 (1989).
246. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, pp. 305–6; Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 2 (1988); Moscow News, nos. 18 and 48 (1988).
247. Petrov and Petrov, Empire of Fear, 73–75.
248. Pravda Ukrainy, 4 May 1989.
249. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 72.
250. Spiridonov, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress.
251. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 3 (1965).
252. Petrov and Petrov, Empire of Fear, p. 71.
253. Amtliches Material zum Massenmord von Winniza (Berlin, 1944), p. 73; Izvestiya, 12 September 1988.
254. Soviet Analyst, 12 October 1988.
255. Literaturnaya gazeta, 2 November 1988.
256. Izvestiya, 12 November 1988; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989); Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
257. Kravchenko, 1 Chose Justice, pp. 281–82.
258. Daugava, no. 10 (1988).
259. Ibid.
260. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 46.
261. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 286.
262. Ibid., pp. 288–89.
263. Fitzroy Maclean, Eastern Approaches (London, 1949), pp. 40–41.
264. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 109.
265. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 414.
266. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 49.
267. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 414.
Chapter 10: On the Cultural Front
1. N. M. Shvernik, speech to the XXIInd Party Congress (Pravda, 26 October 1961).
2. Pravda, 21 April 1937.
3. Pyatakov Trial, p. 163.
4. Ibid., p. 94.
5. Ibid., p. 217.
6. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Justice (London, 1951), chap. 2.
7. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), p. 154.
8. Ibid., pp. 149–65.
9. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 1 (1965).
10. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (London, 1947), p. 304.
11. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
12. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 29.
13. Ibid., p. 37.
14. Sovetskaya Byelorossiya, 11 October 1988.
15. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), pp. 359–60.
16. Moscow News, no. 17 (1988).
17. Nedelya, 3–9 November 1963.
18. Moscow News, no. 48 (1987).
19. Ibid.
20. R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs (London, 1965), p. 246.
21. Markoosha Fischer, My Lives in Russia (New York, 1944), p. 196.
22. A. Kuusinen, The Rings of Destiny (New York, 1974), p. 133; Nedelya, no. 45 (1988).
23. Literaturnaya gazeta, 9 November 1988.
24. Kuusinen, Rings of Destiny, p. 133.
25. Literaturnaya gazeta, 9 November 1988.
26. Joseph Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation (London, 1971), p. 23.
27. Politicheskiy dnevnik 1965–1970 (Amsterdam, 1972), p. 726.
28. See Robert E. McCutchen, “The 1936–1937 Purge of Soviet Astronomers” (Paper presented at the 173th Meeting of the American Astronomical Society, 9 January 1989).
29. New York Times, 27 December 1936.
30. Ukrains’ka Radians’ka Entsiklopediya (Kiev, 1959–65), vol. 16, p. 600.
31. A. Nekrich, Otreshis ot strakha (London, 1979), p. 19.
32. For the biologist Vavilov in particular, see especially Zhores A. Medvedev, The Rise and Fall of T. D. Lysenko (New York, 1969); and see Nauka i zhizn, no. 11
(1988); Moscow News, no. 46 (1987); Ogonek, no. 47 (1987); Knizhnoe obozrenie, 10 February 1989. Much of this information was also given in a book published in the USSR in the late 1960s—S. Reznik, Nikolai Vavilov—which, however, was later withdrawn (Khronika, no. 10).
33. Pravda vostoka, 5 September 1988; Knizhnoe obozrenie, 4 November 1988.
34. N. Mandelshtam, Hope Against Hope (New York, 1970), p. 364.
35. Ilya Ehrenburg, in Novyy mir, no. 4 (1962).
36. Literaturnaya gazeta, 28 December 1988.
37. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, letter to the IVth Congress of Soviet Writers (Survey, no. 64 [July 1967]).
38. Moscow News, no. 48 (1988).
39. Literaturnaya gazeta, 28 December 1988.
40. Literaturnaya gazeta, 15 August 1936, 27 August 1936; Pravda, 27 August 1937.
41. Literaturnaya gazeta, 20 April 1937; Lazar Fleishman, Boris Pasternak v tridsatye godi (Jerusalem, 1984), p. 407.
42. Literaturnaya gazeta, 15 May 1937.
43. Literaturnaya gazeta, 26 April 1937.
44. Pavel Gol’dshtein, Tochka opory (Jerusalem, n.d.), vol. 1, p. 38.
45. Wielka Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN (Warsaw, 1962–70); and see Zeszyty Histotycne, no. 69 (1984); Pamir, no. 11 (1988).
46. Ilya Ehrenburg, Men, Years, Life (New York, 1961), vol. 4, p. 197.
47. Ogonek, no. 39 (1989).
48. F. N. Petrov, M. V. Frunze (Moscow, 1962).
49. Malaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya (Moscow, 1933–47), vol. 5.
50. See Survey, April-June 1961, p. 89.
51. Victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 1901–1941 (London, 1963), p. 269.
52. Pravda, 17 May 1937.
53. Vera T. Reck, Boris Pilnyak (Montreal, 1975), p. 2.
54. Moscow News, no. 48 (1988).
55. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, pp. 220, 308; Ehrenburg, Men, Years, Life, vol. 4, pp. 185–86.
56. Reck, Boris Pilnyak, p. 2.
57. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), P. 196.
58. Mikhail Koltsov kakim on byl (Moscow, 1965), p. 75.
59. Simon Wolin and Robert M. Slusser, The Soviet Secret Police (New York, 1957), p. 187.
60. Margarete [Buber] Neumann, Under Two Dictators (London, 1949), p. 115.
61. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 237.
62. Nikolai Klyuev, Sochineniya (n.p., 1969), vol. 1, pp. 148–50.
63. Na rubezhe, nos. 3–4 (1952).
64. Literaturnaya gazeta, 11 December 1964.
65. Ehrenburg, Men, Years, Life, vol. 4, p. 191.
66. Bol’ shaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1949–58), vol. 2.
67. Voprosy literatury, November 1964.
68. Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow (New York, 1986), passim.
69. Hrihory Kostiuk, Stalinist Rule in the Ukraine (Munich, 1960), pp. 101–2.
70. Pisateli Kazakhstana (Alma-Ata, 1969).
71. Revolyutsiya i natsional’ nosti, no. 8 (1937).
72. N. A. Zabolotskiy, Stikhotvoreniya i poemy (Moscow and Leningrad, 1965), p. 37.
73. Times Literary Supplement, 9 October 1981; Pamyat’, no. 5 (1981), pp. 336–53; Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 26 August 1988.
74. Pavel Antolkolsky, in Novyy mir, no. 4 (1966).
75. Marina Tsvetaeva, lzbrannye proizvedeniya, intro. V. Orlov (Moscow and Leningrad, 1964).
76. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, quoted in Survey, no. 64 (July 1967).
77. Mandelshtam, Hope Against Hope, pp. 3, 372, 377, 380–81, 385, 391; Literaturnaya gazeta, 15 June 1988.
78. Ehrenburg, Men, Years, Life, vol. 4, p. 190.
79. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 26 August 1988.
80. Priscilla Johnson, Khrushchev and the Arts (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), pp. 13–14.
81. Mladost, 2 October 1957.
82. Mandelshtam, Hope Against Hope, p. 364.
83. Dmitri Shostakovich, Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitry Shostakovich (New York, 1979), p. 121.
84. Zarya vostoka, 28 June 1963.
85. D. J. Dallin and B. I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union (London, 1948), p. 22.
86. Nikolai A. Gorchakov, The Theater in Soviet Russia (New York, 1957).
87. Eugenia Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York, 1967), p. 267.
88. Pravda, 8 January 1938.
89. Yuri [George] Annenkov, Dnevnik moikh vstrech (New York, 1966), vol. 2, p. 97.
90. Gorchakov, Theater in Soviet Russia; Literaturnaya gazeta, 27 June 1988.
91. Sovetskaya Rossiya, 15 February 1989.
92. Teatral’ naya entsyklopediya (Moscow, 1961).
93. Annenkov, Dnevnik moikh vstrech, p. 98; see also Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 123.
94. E. A. Gnedin, Vykhod iz labarinta (New York, 1982), p. 194.
95. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 33.
96. Zarya vostoka, 19 November 1961.
97. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 26 August 1988.
Chapter 11: In the Labor Camps
1. Bertrand Russell, Introduction to Gustaw Herling, A World Apart (London, 1951).
2. M. Z. Nikonov Smorodin, Krasnaya katorga (Sofia, 1938).
3. Sylvestre Mora and Pierre Zwiemiak, La Justice soviétique (Rome, 1945).
4. D. J. Dallin and B. I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union (London, 1948).
5. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Justice (London, 1951), passim.
6. Dekrety Sovetskoy vlasti (Moscow, 1964), vol. 3, pp. 291–92.
7. See Simon Wolin and Robert M. Slusser, The Soviet Secret Police (New York, 1957), p. 42.
8. Vsya Rossiya (Moscow, 1923), pt. 3, col. 55.
9. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 225.
10. Anton Ciliga, The Russian Enigma (London, 1940), p. 180.
11. Ibid., p. 250.
12. Ibid., p. 180.
13. Izvestiya, 21 December 1988.
14. V. Tikhonov, in Literaturnaya gazeta, 3 August 1988, p. 10.
15. S. Swianiewicz, Forced Labour and Economic Development (London, 1965), p. 123.
16. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 54.
17. Tyur’ma kapitalisticheskikh stran (Moscow, 1937), pp. 54, 61, 143.
18. Antoni Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace (London, 1954), p. 71.
19. Eleanor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (London, 1951), p. 76.
20. Gurgen Maari, in Voprosy literatury, November 1964; Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge, rev. ed. (New York, 1989), p. 504.
21. Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold (New York, 1949).
22. Jozsef Lengyel, From Beginning to End (London, 1966), p. 15.
23. Margarete [Buber] Neumann, Under Two Dictators (London, 1949), pp. 62–63.
24. Eugenia Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York, 1967), pp. 212ff.
25. The Dark Side of the Moon (London, 1946), p. 666.
26. Ibid., p. 57.
27. Ibid., p. 67.
28. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 263.
29. A. V. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life (New York, 1964), pp. 125–26.
30. Ibid., p. 133.
31. Ibid., p. 129.
32. Ibid., pp. 140–41.
33. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 95.
34. Dark Side of the Moon, p. 158.
35. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 122.
36. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 149.
37. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 17.
38. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 258.
39. Andrée Sentaurens, L'Air du temps (Paris, 1963).
40. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (London, 1947), p. 339.
41. Sentaurens, L'Air du temps, passim.
42. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 240.
43. DaIlin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 28.
44. Wolin and Slusser, Soviet Secret Police, p. 194.
45. Moscow News, no. 48 (1988).
46. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 25 October 1987.
47. Komsomolets Tadzhikistana, 11 November 1988.
48. Molodezh’ Gruzii, 17 November 1988; Turkmenskaya iskra, 24 September 1988.
49. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 26 June 1989.
50. Herling, World Apart, pp. 21–22.
51. Boris Pasternak, Doctor Zhivago (New York, 1958), p. 452.
52. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, pp. 35–36.
53. Ibid., pp. 34–35.
54. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 72.
55. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 254.
56. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, trans. Max Hayward and Ronald Hingley (New York, 1963), p. 7.
57. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 336–41.
58. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 136.
59. Ibid., p. 3.
60. Nedelya, no. 19 (1988).
61. Peter Yakir, “Letter to the Editor of Kommunist,” 2 March 1969, translated in Survey, nos. 70–71 (1969), p. 83.
62. A. Dyakov, in Oktyabr’, no. 7 (1964).
63. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 203.
64. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 144.
65. Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace, p. 105.
66. Julia de Beausobre [Lady Namier], The Woman Who Could Not Die (London, 1948).
67. Nauka i religiya, November 1965.
68. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 203.
69. Ibid., p. 185.
70. For example, Herling, World Apart, p. 45.
71. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 8.
72. For example, Lengyel, From Beginning to End, p. 31.
73. Yakir, “Letter to the Editor of Kommunist,” p. 64.
74. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, pp. 43–44.
75. Ibid., p. 28.
76. Ibid., p. 198.
77. Ibid., p. 12; and see Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace, p. 57; Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 138.
78. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, pp. 26–27.
79. Ibid., pp. 23–24.
80. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 12; see also Varlam Shalamov, “In the Bathhouse,” in Kolyma Tales, trans. John Glad (New York, 1980), pp. 39–45.
81. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 22; see also Petrov, Soviet Gold, p. 185.
82. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 264.
83. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 36.
84. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 146.
85. Ibid., pp. 150ff.
86. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 18.
87. Nedelya, no. 19 (1988).
88. Literaturnaya gazeta, 4 April 1964.
89. Joseph Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation (London, 1971), p. 209.
90. Nedelya, no. 19 (1988).
91. Herling, World Apart, p. 41.
92. Swianiewicz, Forced Labour and Economic Development, pp. 21–22.
93. V. Lashkin, in Novyy mir, no. 1 (1964).
94. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 20.
95. Ibid., p. 142.
96. For example, ibid., pp. 36–37, 166–67.
97. For example, Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 240, 279; Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 237.
98. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 124.
99. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 341.
100. Raphael R. Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution (London, 1962), pp. 418–20.
101. Sotsialisticheskiy vestnik, nos. 1–3 (1951).
102. A. Kuusinen, The Rings of Destiny (New York, 1974), p. 160.
103. N. Mandelshtam, Hope Against Hope (New York, 1970), p. 387.
104. Komsomolskaya znamya, 14 October 1988.
105. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, pp. 193–94.
106. Ibid., p. 14.
107. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 13.
108. Ibid., p. 24.
109. Ibid., p. 37.
110. El Campesino, Listen, Comrades (London, 1952), p. 162.
111. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The First Circle (London, 1968), p. 175.
112. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 137.
113. Ibid., p. 41.
114. Ibid., p. 128.
115. Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace, p. 42.
116. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 111.
117. Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (London, 1978), chap. 9.
118. For Kolyma, see especially Gorbatov, Years Off My Life; Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps; Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, pp. 268–70; Wolin and Slusser, Soviet Secret Police, pp. 180–238; Dark Side of the Moon, pp. 266–315; G. Shelest, “Kolyma Notes,” Znamya, no. 9 (1963); Shalamov, Kolyma Tales; Conquest, Kolyma.
119. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 269.
120. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 130.
121. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, passim.
122. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 128–29.
123. Andrei D. Sakharov, Progress, Coexistence and Intellectual Freedom (London, 1969), p. 53.
124. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 93.
125. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 270.
126. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 94.
127. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 272.
128. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 90.
129. Ibid., p. 208.
130. Ibid., chap. 9.
131. Ibid., p. 108.
132. Ibid., p. 197.
133. Ibid., pp. 169–70.
134. Dark Side of the Moon, p. 120.
135. Ibid., p. 121.
136. Radians’ ka Ukraina, 26 October 1988.
137. Shelest, “Kolyma Notes.”
138. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, chap. 55.
139. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, pp. 125–33.
140. Shelest, “Kolyma Notes.”
141. Ibid.
142. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 270.
143. Henry A. Wallace, Soviet Asia Mission (New York, 1945).
144. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 113.
145. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 33.
146. National Geographic, December 1944.
147. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 253.
148. Ibid., p. 268.
149. National Geographic, December 1944.
150. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 38.
151. Izvestiya, 9 September 1988.
152. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 405–6.
153. Swianiewicz, Forced Labour and Economic Development, p. 39.
154. Karl Marx manuscript (Bolshevik, nos. 5–6 [1932]).
155. Sidney Webb and Beatrice Webb, Soviet Communism: A New Civilization, 2nd ed. (London, 1937), p. 585.
156. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), p. 321.
157. Engineer Pobozhy, in Novyy mir, August 1964; Komsomolskaya pravda, 17 May 1988, 18 January 1989.
158. Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace, p. 259.
159. Swianiewicz, Forced Labour and Economic Development, passim.
160. Pobozhy, in Novyy mir, August 1964.
161. Naum Jasny, cited in Swianiewicz, Forced Labour and Economic Development, pp. 193–94.
162. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 250.
163. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 198.
164. Shelest, “Kolyma Notes.”
165. Dark Side of the Moon, p. 161.
166. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 10.
167. Dark Side of the Moon, p. 97.
168. Christopher Hill, ed., Rights and Wrongs (London, 1969).
169. L. Gouré, The Siege of Leningrad (Oxford, 1962). More detail is given in Dmitri V. Pavlov, Leningrad and the Blockade (Chicago, 1965).
170. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 28.
171. Ibid., pp. 84–85.
172. Ibid., p. 86.
173. Ibid., p. 69.
174. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 7.
175. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 71.
176. Ibid., p. 99.
177. Ibid., p. 140.
178. Ibid., pp. 18–19.
179. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 235.
180. Ekart, Vanished Without a Trace, p. 227.
181. Lengyel, From Beginning to End, p. 37.
182. Ibid., pp. 37–38.
183. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 81.
184. For example, Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, pp. 168–69.
185. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 72.
186. Herling, World Apart, pp. 56–57.
187. Swianiewicz, Forced Labour and Economic Development, p. 296.
188. Ibid., p. 297.
189. Ibid., p. 224.
190. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 38.
191. Herling, World Apart, p. 41.
192. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life, p. 130.
193. Lengyel, From Beginning to End, p. 15.
194. Ibid., p. 17; see also Herling, World Apart, p. 150.
195. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), p. 76.
196. Livre blanc sur les camps de concentration soviétiques (Paris, 1952), p. 144.
197. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 259.
198. P. J. de la F. Wiles, quoted in Swianiewicz, Forced Labour and Economic Development, p. 17.
199. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 232.
200. Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, p. 78.
201. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge (New York, 1971), p.45; Sakharov, Progress, Coexistence and Intellectual Freedom, p. 55.
202. Mosa Pijade (Yugoslav Politburo member), speech of 1 August 1951 (Vladimir Dedijer, Tito Speaks [London, 1953], p. 201).
203. Nedelya, no. 41 (1988).
204. Moscow News, no. 44 (1988).
205. Aleksandr Tvardovsky, “Tyorkin in the Other World,” Izvestiya, 18 August 1963.
Chapter 12: The Great Trial
1. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochineniy, 5th ed. (Moscow, 1964), vol. 53, Biographical Notes.
2. Ibid.
3. Peter Yakir, “Letter to the Editor of Kommunist,” 2 March 1969, translated in Survey, nos. 70–71 (1969).
4. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), pp. 264, 302; Pavel Gol’dshtein, Tochka opory (Jerusalem, n.d.).
5. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 119.
6. Vladimir Voinovich, The Ivankiad (New York, 1977), p. 57.
7. Fitzroy Maclean, Eastern Approaches (London, 1949), p. 86.
8. Nedelya, no. 7 (1988).
9. Oktyabr’ no. 12 (1988); Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 1 (1989).
10. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, p. 86.
11. Bukharin Trial, p. 36.
12. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, p. 86.
13. Roy Medvedev, in New Left Review, no. 109 (May-June 1978).
14. Bukharin Trial, p. 716.
15. Ibid., p. 49.
16. Ibid., p. 716.
17. Ibid., pp. 49–50.
18. Ibid., p. 51.
19. Ibid., p. 52.
20. Ibid., p. 53.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid., p. 54.
23. Ibid., pp. 58–59.
24. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, p. 87.
25. Bukharin Trial, p. 59.
26. Ibid., p. 18.
27. Ibid., p. 81.
28. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, p. 98.
29. Bukharin Trial, p. 76.
30. Ibid., p. 83.
31. G. A. Tokaev, Stalin Means War (London, 1951), p. 7.
32. Bukharin Trial, p. 724.
33. Pravda, 30 October 1937.
34. Bukharin Trial, p. 104.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid., p. 91.
37. Ibid., pp. 96–97.
38. Ibid., p. 109.
39. Ibid., p. 123.
40. Ibid., p. 124.
41. Ibid., pp. 131–33.
42. Ibid., p. 137.
43. Ibid., pp. 143–44.
44. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, pp. 92–93.
45. Ibid., p. 87.
46. G. A. Tokaev, Comrade X (London, 1956), p. 91.
47. Bukharin Trial, p. 157–58.
48. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), p. 425; Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
49. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 425; Robert Payne, The Rise and Fall of Stalin (London, 1966), p. 520.
50. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 291–92.
51. Bukharin Trial, p. 252.
52. Chelovek i zakon, November 1988.
53. Medvedev, in New Left Review.
54. Nedelya, no. 18 (1988).
55. Bukharin Trial, p. 163.
56. Ibid., p. 164.
57. Ibid., p. 210.
58. Ibid., p. 206.
59. Ibid., p. 207.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., p. 208.
62. Ibid., p. 217.
63. Pravda vostoka, 27 June 1937.
64. Zarya vostoka, 10 June 1937.
65. Pravda, 8 September 1937.
66. Pravda, 10 September 1937.
67. Znamya, no. 6 (1989); Bukharin Trial, p. 757.
68. Pravda, 12 September 1937.
69. Pravda, 9 April 1964.
70. Pravda vostoka, 10 September 1937, 11 September 1937, 12 September 1937.
71. Pravda, 9 April 1964.
72. Pravda, 27 September 1937.
73. Bukharin Trial, p. 348.
74. Ibid., p. 757.
75. Pravda, 13 September 1937.
76. Pravda, 20 September 1937.
77. Pravda, 10 September 1937, 12 September 1937.
78. Pravda, 23 May 1938.
79. Bukharin Trial, p. 234.
80. Ibid., p. 225.
81. Ibid., p. 223.
82. Ibid., p. 348.
83. Ibid., p. 351.
84. Ibid., p. 361.
85. Ibid., p. 250.
86. Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived (New York, 1945), pp. 228–29.
87. For example, Pyatakov Trial, p. 207; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 5 (1989).
88. Bukharin Trial, p. 312.
89. Ibid., p. 288.
90. Ibid., p. 302.
91. Ibid., p. 248.
92. Ibid., p. 313.
93. Ibid., p. 328.
94. Ibid., p. 332.
95. Ibid., p. 333.
96. Ibid., p. 335.
97. Ibid., p. 330.
98. Ibid., p. 430.
99. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 283.
100. Louis Fischer, Russia Revisited (London, 1957), p. 64.
101. Podem, December 1988.
102. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
103. Yunost’, no. 11 (1988).
104. Ibid., pp. 284–85.
105. Bukharin Trial, p. 424.
106. Ibid., p. 370.
107. Ibid., p. 372.
108. Ibid., p. 374.
109. Ibid., p. 376.
110. Ibid., p. 381.
111. Ibid., p. 383.
112. Ibid., p. 384.
113. Ibid., p. 407.
114. Ibid., p. 413.
115. Ibid., p. 415.
116. Ibid.
117. Ibid., p. 417.
118. Ibid., p. 419.
119. Ibid., p. 424.
120. Ibid., p. 437.
121. Pravda, 3 January 1924.
122. Bukharin Trial, p. 470.
123. Ibid., p. 474.
124. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, p. 99.
125. Bukharin Trial, p. 492.
126. Politicheskiy dnevnik 1965–1970 (Amsterdam, 1972); Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, Narodoubistvo v SSSR (Munich, 1952), pp. 707, 712; Pamyat’, no. 2 (1977), p. 80.
127. Anton Ciliga, The Russian Enigma (London, 1940), p. 292.
128. Bukharin Trial, p. 491.
129. Ibid., p. 504.
130. Ibid., p. 508–9.
131. XI s”ezd RKP(b) mart–aprel’ 1922 g. Stenograficheskiy otchet (Moscow, 1961).
132. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochineniy, 5th ed. (Moscow, 1965), vol. 50.
133. Sovetskaya istoricheskaya entsyklopediya (Moscow, 1967), vol. 10.
134. Pravda, 12 September 1966, and Voprosy istorii, no. 6 (1967), give 1944, but in recent accounts 1941 is the date.
135. Pravda, 8 June 1937.
136. Pravda, 17 May 1937; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, nos. 1 and 5 (1989).
137. Bukharin Trial, p. 590.
138. Ibid., p. 544.
139. Ibid., p. 516.
140. Ibid., p. 546.
141. Ibid., p. 549.
142. Ibid., p. 548.
143. Ibid., p. 518.
144. Ibid., p. 519.
145. Ibid., p. 527.
146. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, p. 102.
147. Bukharin Trial, p. 525–26.
148. Ibid., p. 529.
149. Ibid., p. 530.
150. Walter Duranty, The Kremlin and the People (London, 1942), pp. 84–85.
151. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, pp. 119–20.
152. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 264.
153. Bukharin Trial, pp. 535, 539.
154. Ibid., p. 546.
155. Ibid., p. 551.
156. Ibid., p. 511.
157. Ogonek, no. 7 (1988).
158. Bukharin Trial, p. 562.
159. Ibid., p. 564.
160. Neva, no. 6 (1988).
161. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, p. 105.
162. Bukharin Trial, p. 576.
163. Ibid., pp. 578–79.
164. Ibid., p. 573.
165. Ibid., pp. 577–78.
166. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, pp. 267–68.
167. Pravda, 8 June 1937.
168. I. M. Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Ordzhonikidze (Moscow, 1963), p. 5.
169. Pravda, 8 June 1937.
170. Gol’dshtein, Tochka opory.
171. Orlov, Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes, p. 268.
172. Gol’dshtein, Tochka opory, p. 71.
173. Bukharin Trial, p. 590.
174. Ibid., p. 591.
175. Ibid., pp. 596–97.
176. Ibid., p. 608.
177. Ibid., p. 609.
178. Anton Antonov-Ovseenko, The Time of Stalin (New York, 1981), p. 330.
179. Gustaw Herling, A World Apart (London, 1951), appendix.
180. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 6 (1988).
181. Znamya, no. 11 (1988).
182. Bukharin Trial, p. 684.
183. Sotsialisticheskiy vestnik, no. 6 (June 1954).
184. Isaac Don Levine, I Rediscover Russia (New York, 1964), p. 175.
185. Bukharin Trial, pp. 622–23.
186. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, p. 107.
187. Bukharin Trial, p. 625.
188. Ibid., p. 626.
189. Ibid., p. 631.
190. Ibid., p. 676.
191. Ibid., p. 664.
192. Ibid., p. 679.
193. Ibid., p. 694.
194. Ibid., p. 697.
195. Ibid., p. 728.
196. Ibid., p. 734.
197. Ibid., p. 736.
198. Ibid., p. 737–38.
199. Ibid., p. 738.
200. Ibid., p. 739.
201. Ibid., pp. 740–41.
202. Ibid., p. 758.
203. Medvedev, in New Left Review.
204. V. Petrov and E. Petrov, Empire of Fear (London, 1956), p. 46.
205. Bukharin Trial, p. 786.
206. Ibid., p. 782.
207. Ibid., p. 769.
208. Maclean, Eastern Approaches, p. 110.
209. Bukharin Trial, p. 769.
210. Ibid., p. 770.
211. Ibid., p. 771.
212. Ibid., p. 774.
213. Ibid., p. 778.
214. Ibid., p. 779.
215. Literaturnaya gazeta, 15 June 1988.
216. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (London, 1947), p. 283.
217. Politika, 21 May 1965.
218. Conference of Historians, 1962, p. 298.
219. Roy Medvedev, Nikolai Bukharin (New York, 1980), p. 164.
220. Literaturnaya gazeta, 23 November 1988; Znamya, no. 11 (1988).
221. Moscow News, no. 40 (1988).
222. Moscow News, no. 11 (1988).
223. Znamya, no. 10 (1988).
224. Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, Mass., 1956), p. 229; Elizabeth Lermolo, Face of a Victim (New York, 1955), p. 207.
225. Eleanor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (London, 1951), p. 15.
226. Eugenia Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York, 1967), pp. 114–15; Maroosha Fischer, My Lives in Russia (New York, 1944), p. 237; Voprosy istorii, no. 9 (1988).
227. Teatr, no. 7 (1988).
228. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 283.
229. Znamya, no. 11 (1988).
230. XVIII s”ezd, 10–21 marta 1939 g. Stenograficheskiy otchet (Moscow, 1939), p. 26.
231. Bukharin Trial, p. 87.
232. For example, ibid., pp. 80, 185–86, 235.
233. For example, ibid., pp. 182–83, 201, 293–94, 303, 314, 318–19.
234. For example, ibid., pp. 71, 80.
Chapter 13: The Foreign Element
1. Ignazio Silone, in The God That Failed, ed. Richard H. Crossman (London, 1950), pp. 109ff.
2. Anton Ciliga, The Russian Enigma (London, 1940), p. 61.
3. Conference of Historians, 1962, p. 69; Kommunist, no. 10 (1963).
4. Conference of Historians, 1962, p. 286.
5. Osteuropa, no. 8 (1958), p. 33.
6. Arvo Tuominen (former Secretary-General of the Finnish Communist Party), Kremls Klockor (Helsinki, 1958), p. 210 (quoted in Milorad M. Drachkovitch and Branko Lazitch, eds., The Comintern-Historical Highlights [New York, 19661, p. 161).
7. Margarete [Buber] Neumann, Under Two Dictators (London, 1949), p. 8.
8. Arthur Koestler, Arrow in the Blue (London, 1945), vol. 2, p. 209.
9. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 5.
10. Ibid., p. 23.
11. Ibid., p. 168.
12. Ibid., p. 143.
13. Herbert Wehner, Erinnerungen (Bonn, 1957), p. 160.
14. Elisabeth K. Poretsky, Our Own People (London, 1969), p. 181.
15. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 171.
16. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), p. 108; Beiträge zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung 1 (1969).
17. A. Kuusinen, The Rings of Destiny (New York, 1974), pp. 156–57.
18. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 55.
19. Ibid., p. 53.
20. Eugenia Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York, 1967), p. 118.
21. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 109.
22. Ibid.
23. R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs (London, 1965), p. 307.
24. Koestler, Arrow in the Blue, vol. 2, p. 407; Ruth Fischer, Stalin and German Communism (London, 1948).
25. Gustaw Herling, A World Apart (London, 1951), p. 62.
26. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), pp. 487–89.
27. Moscow News, no. 48 (1988).
28. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 76.
29. Victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 1901–1941 (London, 1963), p. 187.
30. Arvo Tuominen, in Uusi Kavalehti, nos. 10–13 (22 June 1956), and The Bells of the Kremlin (London, 1983), pp. 221–23; Ogonek, no. 45 (1988).
31. Kun Béláné, Kun Bela (Budapest, 1966), pp. 489–90. (The date of his arrest is here given as the end of June, which conflicts with other accounts.)
32. Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 253.
33. Walter G. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service (London, 1939), p. 217.
34. Ibid., p. 219; Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 3 (1989).
35. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 315.
36. Hungarian News Agency, 10 February 1989.
37. Small Polish Encyclopedia (Warsaw, 1958).
38. Kun Béláné, Kun Bela.
39. Eleanor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (London, 1951), p. 16.
40. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 315.
41. Renato Mieli, Togliatti 1937 (Milan, 1964); Guelfa Zaccaria, 200 Communiste Italiani tra le vittime dello Stalinismo (Milan, 1964).
42. Paoli Robotti, speech to the Central Committee of the Italian Communist Party, December 1961.
43. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 169–70.
44. Tito, speech to the Central Committee of the Yugoslav Communist League, 19 April 1954 (Borba, 20 April 1969); speech to the IXth Party Congress, 11 March 1969; and see Kommunist (Belgrade), 3 April 1969.
45. Fitzroy Maclean, Disputed Barricade (London, 1957), pp. 103–4.
46. Tuominen, in Uusi Kavalehti.
47. Kuusinen, Rings of Destiny, pp. 146, 158.
48. Ivan Karaivanov, Liudi i Pigmeji (Belgrade, 1953), p. 112.
49. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 308.
50. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Justice (London, 1951), p. 279.
51. Zarya na Komunizma, 22 September-3 October 1988; and see Blagoy Popov, Ot Layptsigskiya protses v Sibirskie lageri (Paris, 1979), p. 23.
52. John D. Bell, The Bulgarian Communist Party from Blagoev to Zhivkov (Stanford, Calif., 1986), pp. 49–51.
53. Popov, Ot Layptsigskiya protses v Sibirskie lageri, p. 12.
54. Jerzy Morawski (Secretary of the Polish Central Committee), speech of 27 March 1956; and see Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 12 (1988).
55. Wielka Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN (Warsaw, 1962–70).
56. Wehner, Erinnerungen, pp. 141–42.
57. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 6.
58. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 12, 1988.
59. Ibid.
60. Kommunist International, nos. 1–3 (1938).
61. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 12 (1988).
62. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, pp. 8–9.
63. Ibid., p. 19.
64. Survey, no. 32 (1960).
65. Ibid.
66. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 8 (1965).
67. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge (New York, 1971), p. 46.
68. Alfred Burmeister, Dissolution and Aftermath of the Comintern (New York, 1955), pp. 1–4; Kuusinen, Rings of Destiny, pp. 40–46; Sotsialisticheskiy vestnik, 18 March 1938.
69. Neumann, Under Two Dictators, p. 34.
70. Bukharin Trial, p. 575.
71. Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes (New York, 1953), p. 229.
72. Ibid., pp. 230–31.
73. Ibid., p. 232.
74. Ibid., p. 233.
75. Ibid., p. 238; Sovetskiy voin, no. 4 (1989).
76. For example, Pravda, 17 December 1936.
77. Jesús Hernández, Yo fui un ministro de Stalin (Mexico City, 1953).
78. Julian Gorkin, “L’Assassinat d’Andres Nin,” Commission pour la Vérité sur les Crimes de Staline, Bullétin d’information, no. 1 (May 1962).
79. Ibid.
80. Novyy mir, no. 5 (1962).
81. El Campesino, Listen, Comrades (London, 1952), p. 35.
82. Materiaux pour l’histoire de notre temps, nos. 3–4 (1985).
83. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 108.
84. Materiaux pour l’histoire de notre temps, nos. 3–4 (1985).
85. Observer, 10 October 1965.
86. See Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Outcast (London, 1963), p. 175.
87. Byuletten oppozitsii, no. 33 (1932).
88. See Bertram D. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution (London, 1966), p. 520.
89. Adam B. Ulam, The Bolsheviks (New York, 1965), pp. 573–75.
90. Ciliga, Russian Enigma, p. 85.
91. Isaac Don Levine, The Mind of an Assassin (London, 1959), p. 27.
92. D. J. Dallin, in New Leader, 19–26 March 1956.
93. Levine, Mind of an Assassin, p. 41; see also Commission pour la Write sur les Crimes de Staline, Bullétin d’ information, no. 1 (May 1962).
94. V. Petrov and E. Petrov, quoted in Levine, Mind of an Assassin, p. 50.
95. Ibid., p. 188.
96. E. Castro Delgado, J’ai perdu la foi a Moscou (Paris, 1950).
Chapter 14: Climax
1. Yu. P. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v Sovetskoy armii i flote (1918–1961) (Moscow, 1964), p. 301.
2. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 1 (1965).
3. Stanislav Vinkentiyovich Kossior (Kiev, 1963), p. 174.
4. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
5. Ibid.
6. V. Drobizhev and N. Dumova, V. Ya. Chubar: Biograficheskiy ocherk (Moscow, 1963), pp. 65–71.
7. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
8. Bukharin Trial, p. 107.
9. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
10. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
11. Nedelya, 6 February 1989; Voenno-istoricheskiy zhurnal, no. 6 (1989).
12. Khruschev, Secret Speech.
13. Ogonek, no. 36 (1987); and see Moscow News, no. 44 (1988).
14. Izvestiya, 11 August 1987.
15. Literaturnaya gazeta, 1 June 1988.
16. Anton Antonov-Ovseenko, The Time of Stalin (New York, 1981), p. 127.
17. Moscow News, no. 15 (1988).
18. Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, Mass., 1956), p. 229.
19. A. Kuusinen, The Rings of Destiny (New York, 1974), p. 167.
20. Ibid., pp. 136–37.
21. Moscow News, 3 January 1988.
22. Margarete [Buber] Neuman, Under Two Dictators (London, 1949), p. 55.
23. Eleanor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (London, 1951), p. 15.
24. For example, Boris Nicolaevsky, in New Leader, 16 January 1956.
25. Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite (New York, 1965), p. 122.
26. Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, The Reign of Stalin (London, 1953), p. 80.
27. Svetlana Alliluyeva, Only One Year (New York, 1969), p. 388.
28. Alexander Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London, 1952), p. 39; see also NKVD Lieutenant A. Zhigunov, quoted in John A. Armstrong, The Politics of Totalitarianism (New York, 1961).
29. Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, Narodoubistvo v SSSR (Munich, 1952), p. 223.
30. Bukharin Trial, p. 426.
31. Ibid., pp. 290–91.
32. Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived (New York, 1945), p. 8.
33. Nina Murray, 1 Spied for Stalin (New York, 1951), chap. 6.
34. Molodoy kommunist, no. 1 (January 1962).
35. Ilya Ehrenburg, in Novyy mir, no. 4 (1964).
36. E. A. Gnedin, Vykhod iz labarinta (New York, 1982).
37. Ehrenburg, in Novyy mir.
38. Sovetskaya istoricheskaya entsyklopediya (Moscow, 1961–76).
39. Novyy mir, no. 11 (1964); and see Sotsialisticheskaya zakonnost’, no. 10 (1988).
40. See Robert Conquest, Inside Stalin’s Secret Police (London, 1985), p. 134.
41. Barmine, One Who Survived, p. 21.
42. Blagoy Popov, Ot Layptsigskiya protses v Sibirskie lageri (Paris, 1979), p. 62.
43. Jonathan Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security (London, 1984), p. 149.
44. Raskolnikov, open letter to Stalin, 17 August 1939 (Samizdat I [Paris, 1969], p. 97).
45. S. Pavlov, speech to the November 1962 plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU.
46. Izvestiya, 14 November 1963.
47. Popov, Ot Layptsigskiya protses v Sibirskie lageri, p. 3.
48. Komsomolskaya znamya, 21 October 1988.
49. Merle Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, 2nd ed. (London, 1963), pp. 423–25.
50. Shkiryatov and Poskrebyshev, speeches to the XVIIIth Party Congress; Isvestiya, 14 November 1963; Pravda, 14 November 1963; Aleksandr Kosarev (Moscow, 1963), pp. 111–12.
51. See Armstrong, Politics of Totalitarianism, p. 75.
52. Dr. S. Ploss, in Problems of Communism, September-October 1958.
53. Moskovskii komsomolets, 8 June 1988; Komsomolskaya znamya, 21 October 1988.
54. Moskovskii komsomolets, 8 June 1988.
55. Admiral N. G. Kuznetsov, in Oktyabr’, no. 11 (1964).
56. See E. Wollenberg, The Red Army (London, 1938); Edgar O’Ballance, The Red Army (London, 1964), p. 121.
57. Geoffrey Bailey, The Conspirators (London, 1961), p. 229.
58. Na rubezhe, March 1952.
59. Bailey, Conspirators, p. 229.
60. R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs (London, 1965), p. 311.
61. Kuznetsov, in Oktyabr’.
62. Marshal Rokossovsky, in Krasnaya zvezda, 13 December 1964.
63. Voenno-istoricheskiy zhurnal, no. 12 (1965); Kommunist vooruzhenykh sil, no. 16 (1989).
64. Mekhlis, speech to the XVIIIth Party Congress.
65. On Lyushkov, see Alvin D. Coox, in Soviet Studies, January 1968.
66. John Erickson, The Soviet High Command (London, 1962), p. 494; A. Svetlanin, Dalnevostochniy zagovor (Frankfurt, 1953), pp. 103ff.
67. V. K. Blyukher (Moscow, 1963).
68. Biographical Directory of the USSR (New York, 1958).
69. N. Kondryatsev, Marshal Blyukher (Moscow, 1965).
70. Roy Medvedev, All Stalin’s Men (Garden City, N.Y., 1984), pp. 14–15.
71. Tass, 22 February 1964.
72. Kondryatsev, Marshal Blyukher, p. 292.
73. This account is based on those given in Kondryatsev, Marshal Blyukher, and V. Dushenkin, Ot Soldata do marshala (Moscow, 1961).
74. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 11 (1964).
75. Dushenkin, Ot Soldata do marshala, p. 223.
76. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
77. Nedelya, 22–28 February 1988.
78. Antonov-Ovseenko, Time of Stalin, p. 190.
79. F. W. Deakin and G. R. Stony, The Case of Richard Sorge (London, 1966).
80. Pravda, 2 November 1938.
81. Pravda, 16 December 1938.
82. Conquest, Inside Stalin’s Secret Police, pp. 81–84.
83. Pravda, 22 January 1939.
84. Roy Medvedev, On Stalin and Stalinism (Oxford, 1979), pp. 109–16; Alinger Manuscript, Nicolaevsky Archive, Hoover Institution Archives.
85. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge (New York, 1971), pp. 240–41.
86. Zhigunov interrogation (captured German documents [National Archives, microfilm, T84, roll 287]).
87. Ogonek, no. 7 (1988).
88. Ogonek, no. 18 (1988).
89. See their sponsoring organizations at the XVIIIth Party Congress.
90. A. V. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life (New York, 1964), p. 110.
91. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
92. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, pp. 311–12.
93. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 323; Joseph Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation (London, 1971), p. 37.
94. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
95. Pravda, 22 October 1938.
96. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), p. 146.
97. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, p. 12; Visti, 29–31 December 1938.
98. Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence, pp. 411–12.
99. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
100. Ibid.
101. Ibid.
102. Oktyabr’, no. 12 (1988).
103. Sovetskaya molodezh, 13 February 1988.
104. Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 295.
105. Kuusinen, Rings of Destiny, p. 139.
106. SSSR: Vnutrenie protivorechiya, no. 3 (1982).
107. Kommunist Kazakhstana, no. 8 (1938).
108. Izvestiya, 27 November 1988; Sovetskaya Byelorossiya, 22 January 1989.
109. See Conquest, Inside Stalin’s Secret Police, p. 70.
110. Izvestiya, 12 November 1988.
111. Stanislav Vinkentiyovich Kossior, p. 174; Pravda, 3 April 1964.
112. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps, p. 16.
113. Peter Yakir, “Letter to the Editor of Kommunist,” 2 March 1969, translated in Survey, nos. 70–71 (1969).
114. Kuusinen, Rings of Destiny, p. 139.
115. Pravda, 3 April 1964.
116. Sovetskaya molodezh, 18 February 1988; Ogonek, no. 7 (1988).
117. F. Bega and V. Aleksandrov, Petrovskiy (Moscow, 1963), p. 315.
118. Izvestiya, 15 September 1966; L. P. Petrovsky, “Letter to the Central Committee of the CPSU,” in For Human Rights (Frankfurt, 1969).
119. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 2 (1963).
120. Ukrains’ka Radians’ka Entsyklopediya (Kiev, 1959–65).
121. Bega and Aleksandrov, Petrovskiy, p. 304.
122. L. Davydov, comp., U istokov partii (Moscow, 1963).
123. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 132.
124. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs, p. 316.
125. Bega and Aleksandrov, Petrovskiy, pp. 304–5.
126. Ibid., pp. 305–6.
127. Compiled by Professor Tibor Szamuely.
128. Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 295.
129. Pravda, 6 May 1953.
130. Izvestiya, 4 September 1918.
131. Conference of Historians, 1962, p. 260.
132. Jerzy Walenczyk, “Meditations,” Po Prostu, 23 December 1956.
133. Conference of Historians, 1962, p. 260.
134. Antonov-Ovseenko, Time of Stalin, p. 140.
135. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
136. Roy Medvedev, Fau-il rehabiliter Staline? (Paris, 1969), p. 42; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 12 (1989).
137. J. Stalin, Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), p. 625.
138. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
139. Boris Nicolaevsky, Notes to The Crimes of the Stalin Era (New York, 1956).
140. Pravda, 3 April 1964.
141. Sovetskaya istoricheskaya entsyklopediya; and see I. A. Kozlov et al., Severny for (Moscow, 1966); Voenno-istoricheskiy zhurnal, no. 7 (1965).
142. Sovetskaya kul’tura, 26 November 1988; Izvestiya TsK KPSS, nos. 1 and 3 (1989); Nedelya, no. 27 (1989); Pravda Ukrainy, 6 May 1989.
143. Brzezinski, Permanent Purge, p. 229.
Chapter 15: Heritage of Terror
1. Ilya Ehrenburg, Men, Years, Life (New York, 1961), vol. 4, p. 196.
2. R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, Memoirs (London, 1965), pp. 304–7.
3. F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (London, 1951), pp. 182–83.
4. Ibid., pp. 93, 203.
5. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. James Murphy (London, 1939), p. 171.
6. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, p. 194.
7. George Lukács, in Nuovi Argomenti, October 1962.
8. See Boris Souvarine, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 661.
9. Zhores A. Medvedev, The Rise and Fall of T. D. Lysenko (New York, 1961), p. 267.
10. Commission pour la Vérité sur les Crimes de Staline, Bullétin d’ information, no. 3 (January 1964).
11. Ibid.
12. See Robert Conquest, The Nation Killers (London, 1970).
13. Ogonek, no. 28 (1987).
14. Ogonek, no. 25 (1989); Politicheskoe obrazovanie, no. 5 (1989); Kommunist vooruzhenykh sil, no. 12 (1989).
15. Nikita Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
16. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 4 (1989).
17. Znamya, May 1964.
18. V. A. Anfilov, Nachalo velikoy otechestvennoy voiny (Moscow, 1962), p. 28.
19. A. V. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life (New York, 1964), p. 134.
20. Yu. P. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stov v Sovetskoy armii i flote (1918–1961) Moscow, 1964), p. 304.
21. Khrushchev, Secret Speech.
22. Ibid.
23. Mekhlis, speech to the XVIIIth Party Congress (XVIII s“ed, 10–12 marta 1939 g. Stenograficheskiy otchet [Moscow, 1939], p. 276).
24. John Erickson, The Soviet High Command (London, 1962), p. 583.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid., p. 552.
27. See Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression (Washington, D.C., 1946), vol. 6, p. 981.
28. See Erickson, Soviet High Command, p. 566.
29. Petrov, Partiynoe stroitel’ stvo v Sovetskoy armii i flote, p. 332.
30. Erickson, Soviet High Command, p. 583.
31. Ibid., p. 578.
32. Ehrenburg, Men, Years, Life, vol. 4, p. 256.
33. Ilya Ehrenburg, in Novyy mir, no. 4 (1964).
34. Voprosy istorii, no. 9 (1988).
35. Nauka i zhizn’, no. 2 (1989).
36. Ibid.
37. Voprosy istorii, no. 8 (1988).
38. See Erickson, Soviet High Command, chap. 17.
39. Isaac Deutscher, Stalin (London, 1949), p. 486.
40. Ogonek, no. 25 (1989).
41. Konstantin Simonov, in Znamya, May 1964; Sovetskiy voin, no 1 (1989).
42. S. T. Biryuzov, Sovetskii soldat na Balkanakh (Moscow, 1963), pp. 140–41.
43. Novyy mir, no. 1 (1965).
44. Gustaw Herling, A World Apart (London, 1951), pp. 175–76.
45. Ibid., pp. 221–24.
46. Beck and Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, pp. 189–90.
47. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Justice (London, 1951), p. 405.
48. Ibid., p. 282.
49. Joseph Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation (London, 1971), p. 204.
50. Boris Pasternak, Doctor Zhivago (New York, 1958).
51. Pravda, 27 June 1945.
52. Komsomolskaya pravda, 15 November 1964.
53. See Khrushchev, speech of 9 December 1963.
54. Personal information; see also Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, trans. Max Hayward and Ronald Hingley (New York, 1963).
55. V. I. Lenin, The Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899).
56. Kommunist, no. 17 (November 1962).
57. V. Frolov, in Voprosy filosofii, no. 3 (1967).
58. See Souvarine, Stalin, pp. 578–79.
59. Voprosy istorii, no. 1 (1964).
60. V. V. Parin, in Literaturnaya gazeta, 24 February 1962.
61. K. N. Plotnikov, in Conference of Historians, 1962.
62. D. G. Sturua, speech to the All-Union Conference on Ideological Work, 25–28 December 1961.
63. A. Sumbat-Zade, in Conference of Historians, 1962, p. 338.
64. Oktyabr’, no. 2 (1949).
65. Pravda, 1 August 1951.
66. John Cornford: A Memoir, ed. Pat Sloan (London, 1938), p. 178.
67. “Letter of an Old Bolshevik,” in Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Power and the Soviet Elite (New York, 1965), P. 64; Walter G. Krivitsky, In Stalin’s Secret Service (London, 1939), p. 207.
68. Victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 1901–1941 (London, 1963), p. 318.
69. Julian Symons, The Thirties (London, 1960), p. 142.
70. New Leader, 10 October 1964.
71. Bertolt Brecht, “The Informer,” in New Writing, n.s., vol. 2 (London, 1939).
72. Bol’ shaya sovetskaya entsyklopediya, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1954), vol. 28.
73. Komsomolskaya pravda, 2 September 1962.
74. Preuves, March 1953.
75. Arthur Koestler, Arrow in the Blue (London, 1945), vol. 2, p. 208.
76. Symons, Thirties, p. 143.
77. Sidney Webb and Beatrice Webb, Soviet Communism: A New Civilization, 2nd ed. (London, 1937), pp. 586–88.
78. Jerzy Gliksman, Tell the West (New York, 1948).
79. Herling, World Apart, p. 11.
80. D. N. Pritt, From Right to Left (London, 1966), pp. 109–11.
81. Walter Duranty, The Kremlin and the People (London, 1942), p. 37.
82. Ibid., p. 59.
83. Owen Lattimore, in Pacific Affairs, September 1938.
84. Joseph Davies, dispatch of 7 March 1938; see also Joseph Davies, Mission to Moscow (London, 1942), vol. 1, p. 39.
85. Webb and Webb, Soviet Communism, p. 1156.
86. Ibid., p. 1145.
87. Ibid., p. 114.
88. Ibid. p. 1153.
89. Harold J. Laski, Law and Justice in Soviet Russia (London, 1935), p. 21.
90. John Maynard, The Russian Peasant and Other Studies (London, 1942), p. 252.
91. Bernard Pares, A History of Russia (London, 1962), p. 584.
92. Bernard Pares, Russia (London, 1940), p. 33.
93. Introduction to Bernard Pares, History of Russia.
94. Bernard Shaw, letter to the Secretary of the British Committee for the Defence of Leon Trotsky, 21 July 1937 (quoted in Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Outcast [London, 1963], p. 369).
95. J. Dallin and B. I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union (London, 1948).
96. Kravchenko, I Chose Justice, p. 134–35.
97. Ibid.
98. Stephen Spender, in The God That Failed, ed. Richard H. Crossman (London, 1950), p. 256.
99. Pat Sloan, Soviet Democracy (London, 1937), p. 111.
100. Pat Sloan, Russia Without Illusions, preface by B. Webb (London, 1938), p. 246.
101. Spectator, 3 June 1966.
102. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in the Soviet Union, p. 33.
103. Yunost’, no. 1 (1965).
104. Decision of a Joint Meeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Council of Ministers of the USSR, and the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (Pravda, 7 March 1953).
105. Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Pravda, 2 July 1956).
106. Palmiro Togliatti, “Nine Questions on Stalinism,” Nuovi Argomenti, 16 June 1956.
107. Tass, 1 February 1963.
108. Program of the C.P.S.U. (Moscow, 1961), pt. 1, sec. 3.
109. Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 1 (1956).
110. Pravda, 26 December 1958.
111. Moscow News, no. 18 (1988).
112. Politika, 16 October 1962.
113. Conference of Historians, 1962, p. 298.
114. History of the U.S.S.R. (Moscow, 1968), book 2, vol. 3, pp. 103, 523.
115. Kommunist, no. 3 (February 1969); and see L. P. Petrovsky, “Letter to the Central Committee of the CPSU,” in For Human Rights (Frankfurt, 1969).
116. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 17 January 1965.
117. Pravda, 30 January 1966.
118. Kommunist, no. 3 (February 1969).
119. Ibid.
120. Roy Medvedev, On Stalin and Stalinism (Oxford, 1979), p. 180–81.
121. Rosa Luxemburg, The Russian Revolution (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1961), p. 71.
Epilogue: The Terror Today
1. Christian Science Monitor, 16 January 1987.
2. Agitator, no. 18 (1988).
3. Moscow News, no. 18 (1988).
4. Sotsialisticheskaya industriya, 29 January 1989.
5. For example, Yunost’, no. 3 (1988).
6. For example, Radians’ka Ukraina, 26 October 1988.
7. For example, Moskovskii komsomolets, 24 February 1988.
8. For example, Nedelya, no. 15 (1988).
9. Jerry Hough, How the Soviet Union Is Governed (London, 1979), p. 176.
10. J. Arch Getty, Origins of the Great Purge (New York, 1985), p. 8.
11. Sovetskaya Byelorossiya, 14 July 1988; Ogonek, no. 51 (1987).
12. Literaturnaya gazeta, 9 August 1989.
13. Moscow News, no. 42 (1988).
14. Moscow News, no. 48 (1988).
15. Ibid.
16. Joseph Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation (London, 1971), p. 266.
17. Izvestiya, 4 May 1989.
18. Izvestiya, 12 March 1988.
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