The Russian Revolution

CHRONOLOGY

The chronology lists the principal events dealt with in this book. Unless otherwise indicated, dates prior to February 1918 are given according to the Julian calendar (“Old Style”), which was twelve days behind the Western calendar in the nineteenth century and thirteen days behind in the twentieth. From February 1918 on dates are given in the “New Style,” which corresponds to dates in the Western calendar.

1899

February–March: Strike of Russian university students.

July 29: “Temporary Rules” authorizing induction into the armed forces of unruly students.

1900

Government restricts taxation powers of zemstva.

November: Disturbances in Kiev and at other universities.

1901

January 11: Induction into the army of 183 Kievan students.

February: Assassination of Minister of Education Bogolepov. First police-sponsored (Zubatov) trade unions formed.

1902

Winter 1901–2: Formation of Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party (PSR).

June: Liberals publish in Germany, under the editorship of Struve, fortnightly Osvobozhdenie (Liberation).

March: Lenin’s What Is to Be Done?

April 2: Assassination of Interior Minister Sipiagin; he is succeeded by Plehve.

1903

April 4: Kishinev pogrom.

July–August: Second (founding) Congress of Russian Social-Democratic Party: split into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions.

July 20–22: Union of Liberation founded in Switzerland.

1904

January 3–5: Union of Liberation organized in St. Petersburg.

February 4: Plehve authorizes Gapon’s Assembly.

February 8: Japanese attack Port Arthur; beginning of Russo-Japanese War.

July 15: Assassination of Plehve.

August: Russians defeated at Liaoyang.

August 25: Sviatopolk-Mirskii Minister of the Interior.

October 20: Second Congress of Union of Liberation.

November 6-9: Zemstvo Congress in St. Petersburg.

November–December: Union of Liberation organizes nationwide campaign of banquets.

December 7: Nicholas and high officials discuss reform proposals; idea of introducing elected representatives into State Council rejected.

December 12: Publication of edict promising reforms.

December 20: Port Arthur surrenders to the Japanese.

1905

January 7–8: Major industrial strike in St. Petersburg organized by Father Gapon.

January 9: Bloody Sunday.

January 18: Sviatopolk-Mirskii dismissed; replaced by Bulygin.

January 10 ff.: Wave of industrial strikes throughout Russia.

January 18: Government promises convocation of Duma and invites population to submit petitions stating grievances.

February: Government-sponsored elections in St. Petersburg factories.

February: Russians abandon Mukden.

March 18: All institutions of higher learning closed for remainder of academic year.

April: Second Zemstvo Congress calls for Constituent Assembly.

Spring: 60,000 peasant petitions submitted.

May 8: Union of Unions formed under chairmanship of Miliukov.

May 14: Russian fleet destroyed in battle of Tsushima Strait; D. F. Trepov appointed Deputy Minister of the Interior.

June: Riots and massacres in Odessa; mutiny on the battleship Potemkin.

August 6: Bulygin (consultative) Duma announced.

August 27: Government announces liberal university regulations.

September 5 (NS): Russo-Japanese peace treaty signed at Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

September: Students open university facilities to workers; mass agitation.

September 19: Strike activity resumes.

October 9–10: Witte urges Nicholas to make major political concessions.

October 12–18: Constitutional-Democratic (Kadet) Party formed.

October 13: Central strike committee formed in St. Petersburg, soon renamed St. Petersburg Soviet.

October 14: Capital paralyzed by strikes.

October 15: Witte submits draft of what became October Manifesto.

October 17: Nicholas signs October Manifesto.

October 18 ff.: Anti-Jewish and anti-student pogroms: rural violence begins.

October–November: As Chairman of Council of Ministers, Witte initiates discussions with public figures to have them join cabinet.

November 21: Moscow Soviet formed.

November 24: Preliminary censorship of periodicals abolished.

December 6: St. Petersburg Soviet orders general strike.

December 8: Armed uprising in Moscow suppressed by force.

1906

March 4: Laws issued guaranteeing the rights of assembly and association.

April 16: Witte resigns as Chairman of Council of Ministers, replaced by Goremykin.

April 26: New Fundamental Laws (constitution) made public; Stolypin Minister of the Interior.

April 27: Duma opens.

July 8: Duma dissolved; Stolypin appointed Chairman of Council of Ministers.

August 12: Attempt by Socialist-Revolutionary Maximalists on Stolypin’s life.

August 12 and 27: Stolypin’s first agrarian reforms.

August 19: Courts-martial for civilians introduced.

November 9: Stolypin’s reform concerning communal landholding.

1907

February 20: Second Duma opens.

March: Stolypin announces reform program.

June 2: Second Duma dissolved; new electoral law.

November 7: Third Duma opens; in session until 1912.

1911

January–March: Western zemstvo crisis.

September 1: Stolypin shot; dies four days later; replaced by Kokovtsov.

1912

November 15: Fourth (and last) Duma opens.

Conclusive split between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.

1914

January 20: Goremykin Chairman of Council of Ministers.

July 15/28: Nicholas orders partial mobilization.

July 17/30: Full Russian mobilization.

July 18/31: German ultimatum to Russia.

Julv 19/August 1: Germany declares war on Russia.

July 27: Russia suspends convertibility of ruble.

August: Russian armies invade East Prussia and Austrian Galicia.

Late August: Russian armies crushed in East Prussia.

September 3: Russians capture Lemberg (Lwow), capital of Austrian Galicia.

1915

April 15/28: Germans launch offensive operations in Poland.

June 11: Sukhomlinov dismissed as Minister of War; replaced by Polivanov.

June: Further cabinet changes.

June–July: Formation of Progressive Bloc.

July: Special Council of Defense of the Country created; other councils and committees follow to help with war effort, including Military-Industrial Committees.

July 9/22: Russians begin withdrawal from Poland.

July 19: Duma reconvened for six weeks; Russian troops evacuate Warsaw.

August 21: Most ministers request Nicholas to let Duma form cabinet.

August 22: Nicholas assumes personal command of Russian armed forces, departs for headquarters at Mogilev.

August 25: Progressive Bloc makes public nine-point program.

August: Government authorizes creation of national zemstvo and Municipal Council organizations.

September 3: Duma prorogued.

September: Zimmerwald Conference of anti-war socialists.

November: Central Workers’ Group formed.

November: Zemgor created.

1916

January 20: Goremykin replaced as Chairman of Council of Ministers by Stürmer (Shtiurmer).

March 13: Polivanov dismissed as Minister of War; replaced by Shuvaev.

April: Kiental conference of anti-war socialists.

May 22/June 4: Brusilov offensive opens.

September 18: Protopopov Acting Minister of the Interior; promoted to Minister of the Interior in December.

October 22–24: Conference of Kadet Party decides on strategy of confrontation at forthcoming Duma session.

November 1: Duma reconvenes; Miliukov address implies treason in high places.

November 8–10: Dismissal of Stürmer.

November 19: A. F. Trepov, appointed Chairman of Council of Ministers, appeals to Duma for cooperation.

December 17: Murder of Rasputin.

December 18: Nicholas leaves Mogilev for Tsarskoe Selo.

December 27: Trepov dismissed, replaced by Golitsyn.

1917

January 27: Protopopov arrests Workers’ Group.

February 14: Duma reconvened.

February 22: Nicholas departs for Mogilev.

February 23: Demonstrations in Petrograd in connection with International Women’s Day.

February 24: More demonstrations in Petrograd.

February 25: Demonstrations turn violent; Nicholas orders them suppressed by force.

February 26: Petrograd under military occupation; unit of Volynskii Regiment fires on crowd, killing forty; company of Pavlovskii Regiment mutinies in protest.

Night of February 26–27: Pavlovskii Regiment troops hold all-night meeting, vote to disobey orders to fire on civilians.

February 27: Most of Petrograd in the hands of mutinous garrison; burning of government buildings; Nicholas orders General Ivanov to proceed to Petrograd with special troops to quell disorders; Mensheviks call for elections to Soviet; in the evening, organizing meeting of Petrograd Soviet.

February 28: Early morning, Nicholas departs for Tsarskoe Selo; Duma Council of Elders meets, forms Provisional Committee; throughout Petrograd, factory and garrison units elect representatives to the Soviet; first plenary session of Soviet. Disturbances spread to Moscow.

Night of February 28–March 1: Imperial train stopped, diverted to Pskov.

March 1: Ispolkom drafts nine-point program to serve as basis of agreement with Duma Provisional Committee; issues Order No. 1. In the evening, Nicholas arrives in Pskov, agrees on urging of General Alekseev to formation of Duma ministry and orders General Ivanov to abort his mission. Formation of Moscow Soviet.

Night of March 1–2: Duma and Soviet representatives reach agreement on basis of eight-point program. In Mogilev, General Ruzskii has telegraphic conversation with Duma chairman, Rodzianko.

March 2: Provisional Government formed under chairmanship of G. E. Lvov; Alekseev communicates with front commanders; Nicholas agrees to abdicate in favor of son; Shulgin and Guchkov depart for Pskov; Nicholas talks with Court physician about Tsarevich, tells Shulgin and Guchkov he has decided to abdicate in favor of brother Michael, signs abdication manifesto. Ukrainian Rada (Soviet) formed in Kiev.

March 3: Provisional Government meets with Michael, persuades him to reject crown.

March 4: Nicholas’s abdication manifesto and Michael’s renunciation of throne made public. Provisional Government abolishes Police Department.

March 5: Provisional Government dismisses all governors and their deputies.

March 7: Ispolkom forms “Contact Commission” to oversee Provisional Government.

March 8: Nicholas bids farewell to army officers, departs for Tsarskoe Selo under arrest.

March 9: United States recognizes Provisional Government.

March 18: Ispolkom rules that every socialist party is entitled to three representatives.

March 22: Miliukov defines Russia’s war aims.

March 25: Provisional Government introduces state monopoly on grain trade.

Late March: Britain withdraws offer to grant Imperial family asylum.

April 3: Lenin arrives in Petrograd.

April 4: Lenin’s “April Theses.”

April 21: First Bolshevik demonstrations in Petrograd and Moscow.

April 26: Provisional Government concedes its inability to maintain order.

April 28: Bolsheviks organize Red Guard.

Early April: All-Russian Consultation of Soviets convenes in Petrograd, constitutes All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets (VTsIK or CEC).

May 1: CEC allows members to join Provisional Government.

Night of May 4–5: Formation of Coalition government under Lvov, with Kerensky Minister of War; six socialists enter cabinet.

May: Trotsky returns to Russia from New York.

June 3: First All-Russian Congress of Soviets opens.

June 10: Under CEC pressure, Bolsheviks give up idea of putsch.

June 16: Beginning of Russian offensive against Austria.

June 29: Lenin flees to Finland, where he remains until morning of July 4.

July 1: Provisional Government orders arrest of leading Bolsheviks.

July 2–3: Mutiny of 1st Machine Gun Regiment in Petrograd.

July 4: Bolshevik putsch quelled by release of information about Lenin’s dealings with the Germans.

July 5: Lenin and Zinoviev go into hiding, first in Petrograd, then (July 9) in the countryside near the capital, and finally (September) Lenin goes to Finland.

July 11: Kerensky Prime Minister.

July 18: Kornilov appointed Commander in Chief.

End of July: Sixth Congress of Bolshevik Party in Petrograd.

July 31: Nicholas and family depart for Tobolsk.

August 9: Provisional Government schedules elections to Constituent Assembly for November 12 and its convocation for November 28.

August 14: Moscow State Conference opens: Kornilov accorded tumultuous reception.

August 20–21: Russians abandon Riga to the Germans.

August 22: V. N. Lvov meets with Kerensky.

August 22–24: Savinkov in Mogilev, transmits to Kornilov Kerensky’s instructions.

August 24–25: Lvov sees Kornilov.

August 26: Lvov conveys to Kerensky Kornilov’s alleged “ultimatum”; Kerensky’s wire conversation with Kornilov; Lvov placed under arrest.

Night of August 26–27: Kerensky secures dictatorial powers from cabinet, dismisses Kornilov.

August 27: Kornilov pronounced traitor; Kornilov mutinies, calls on armed forces to follow him.

August 30: Provisional Government orders release of Bolsheviks still in prison for the July putsch.

September 10: Opening of Bolshevik-sponsored Third Regional Congress of Soviets in Finland.

September 12 and 14: Lenin writes Central Committee that time is ripe for a power seizure.

September 25: Bolsheviks win majority in Workers’ Section of Petrograd Soviet; Trotsky elected chairman of Soviet.

September 26: CEC, under Bolshevik pressure, agrees to convene Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 20.

September 28–October 8: Germans occupy islands in the Gulf of Riga, threatening Petrograd.

September 29: Lenin’s third letter to Central Committee on power seizure.

October 4: Provisional Government discusses evacuation of Petrograd.

October 9: CEC, on Menshevik motion, votes to form military organization to defend capital (soon renamed Military-Revolutionary Committee).

October 10: Critical nighttime meeting of Bolshevik Central Committee in Petrograd, with Lenin present, votes in favor of armed power seizure.

October 11: Opening of Bolshevik-sponsored Congress of Soviets of the Northern Region in Petrograd; forms “Northern Regional Committee,” which issues invitations to Second Congress of Soviets.

October 16: Soviet approves creation of Military-Revolutionary Committee (Milrevkom).

October 17: CEC postpones Second Congress of Soviets to October 25.

October 20: Milrevkom dispatches “commissars” to military units in and near Petrograd.

October 21: Milrevkom convenes meeting of regimental committees, has it pass innocuous resolution, which it presents to Military Staff as calling for its countersignature on any orders issued to troops. Demand is rejected.

October 22: Milrevkom declares Military Staff to be “counterrevolutionary.”

October 23–24: Milrevkom carries on deceptive negotiations with Military Staff.

October 24: Units loyal to the government occupy key points in Petrograd, shut down Bolshevik newspapers; Bolsheviks react, take over much of Petrograd.

Night of October 24–25: Kerensky requests help from the front; Lenin, in disguise, makes his way to Smolnyi, where Bolshevik-sponsored Second Congress of Soviets is about to meet; Bolsheviks, using Milrevkom, complete occupation of the capital.

Morning of October 25: Kerensky escapes from Winter Palace to front in quest of military support; Lenin, in name of Milrevkom, declares the Provisional Government deposed, passage of power to soviets.

October 25: Unsuccessful attempts by Bolsheviks to capture Winter Palace, where government ministers await relief by loyal troops; in the afternoon, Trotsky opens Extraordinary Session of Petrograd Soviet; Lenin makes first public appearance since July 4; in Moscow, on Bolshevik motion, Soviet forms Military-Revolutionary Committee.

October 26: Troops of Moscow Milrevkom seize the Kremlin.

Night of October 25–26: Winter Palace falls, ministers arrested; Bolsheviks open Second Congress of Soviets.

Evening of October 26: Congress of Soviets passes Lenin’s decrees on Land and on Peace; authorizes formation of new Provisional Government: Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom) with Lenin as chairman (Prime Minister); new, Bolshevik-dominated CEC appointed.

October 27: Second Congress of Soviets adjourns; opposition press outlawed (Press Decree).

October 28: Pro-government troops recapture Moscow Kremlin.

October 29: Union of Railroad Employees gives Bolsheviks ultimatum to broaden party composition of government; Kamenev agrees. Government announces it will issue laws without prior approval of Soviet Central Executive Committee. Union of Government Employees declares strike.

October 30: Clash between Cossacks and pro-Bolshevik sailors and Red Guards near Pulkovo; Cossacks withdraw. Union of Railroad Employees demands Bolsheviks quit government.

October 31–November 2: Fighting in Moscow, which ends with surrender of pro-government troops.

November 1–2: Bolshevik Central Committee rejects Union of Railroad Employees’ demands; Kamenev and four other commissars resign to protest Lenin’s refusal to compromise on broadening cabinet.

November 4: Critical encounter between Lenin and Trotsky and Central Executive Committee of Soviets: by manipulating vote, Sovnarkom obtains formal authority to legislate by decree.

November 9: Bolsheviks transmit their Peace Decree to Allied representatives, whose governments reject the call for an immediate armistice.

November 12: Elections to Constituent Assembly begin in Petrograd; they continue throughout unoccupied Russia until the end of the month. Socialists-Revolutionaries gain largest number of votes.

November 14: Bank employees refuse Sovnarkom’s requests for money.

November 15: First regular meeting of Bolshevik Sovnarkom.

November 17: Bolshevik troops break into State Bank, remove 5 million rubles.

November 20/December 3: Armistice negotiations begin at Brest-Litovsk; Soviet delegation headed by Ioffe.

November 22: Decree dissolving most courts and the legal profession; creation of Revolutionary Tribunals.

November 22–23: Establishment of Union for the Defense of the Constituent Assembly.

November 23/December 6: Russians and Central Powers agree on armistice.

November 26: Peasants’ Congress convenes in Petrograd.

November 28: Rump meeting of Constituent Assembly.

December: Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKh) created.

December 4: Bolsheviks and Left SRs break up Peasants’ Congress.

December 7: Cheka established.

December 9–10: Bolsheviks reach accord with Left SRs; Left SRs enter Sovnarkom and Cheka.

December 15/28: Brest talks adjourn.

December 27/January 9: Brest talks resume; Trotsky heads Russian delegation.

December 30/January 12: Central Powers recognize Rada as government of the Ukraine.

Late December: Generals Alekseev and Kornilov found Volunteer Army.

1918

January 1: Attempt on Lenin’s life.

January 5/18: One-day session of Constituent Assembly; demonstration in its support fired upon and dispersed. Workers’ “plenipotentiaries” hold first meeting; Trotsky returns from Brest to Petrograd.

January 6: Constituent Assembly closed.

January 8: Opening of Bolshevik-sponsored Third Congress of Soviets; it passes “Declaration of the Rights of the Toiling and Exploited Masses” and proclaims Soviet Russian Republic.

January 15/28: Trotsky returns to Brest, talks resume.

January 21: Soviet Russia repudiates foreign and domestic debts.

January 28: Rada proclaims Ukrainian independence.

February 9: Central Powers sign separate peace with Ukraine; Kaiser orders German delegation at Brest to give Russians ultimatum.

February 17–18: Disputes among Bolsheviks about German peace demands; Lenin secures barest majority for their acceptance.

February 18: German and Austrian troops resume offensive against Russia.

February 21: Trotsky requests French military help.

February 21–22: Lenin’s decree “The Socialist Fatherland in Danger!” authorizes summary execution of opponents.

February 23: German ultimatum arrives with fresh territorial demands.

February 24–25: Germans occupy Dorpat, Revel, and Borisov.

March 1: Russian delegation returns to Brest; two days later signs German text of the peace treaty.

Early March: Bolshevik government transfers to Moscow.

March 5: Murmansk Soviet requests and receives from Moscow authorization to have Allies land troops to protect it.

March 6–8: Seventh Congress of Bolshevik Party.

March: People’s Courts introduced.

March 9: First Allied contingent lands in Murmansk.

March 14: Soviet Congress ratifies Brest Treaty; Left SRs leave Sovnarkom.

Night of March 10–11: Lenin moves to Moscow.

March 16: Grand dukes ordered to register with Cheka; subsequently exiled to the Urals.

April 4: First Japanese landings in Vladivostok.

April 13: Kornilov killed by stray shell; General Denikin assumes command of Volunteer Army.

April: Soviet Russia and Germany exchange diplomatic missions.

April 20: Decree outlawing purchase and leasing of industrial and commercial enterprises; all securities and bonds to be registered with government.

April 22: Transcaucasian Federation proclaims independence.

April 26: Nicholas, wife, and one daughter depart under guard from Tobolsk for Ekaterinburg; they arrive there April 30 and are imprisoned.

May 1: Inheritance abolished.

May 8–9: Sovnarkom decides to launch assault on the rural areas.

May 9: Bolsheviks fire on worker demonstrators at Kolpino.

May 13: Declaration of war on “peasant bourgeoisie” in decree giving Commissar of Supply extraordinary powers.

May 14: Altercation between Czech Legion and Magyar POWs in Cheliabinsk.

May 20: Decree creating “food supply detachments.”

May 22: Czech Legion refuses to surrender arms; Trotsky orders it disarmed by force. Czech rebellion begins.

May 26: Transcaucasian Federation falls apart into independent republics of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.

May–June: Elections to urban soviets in Russia; Bolsheviks lose majorities in all cities, reimpose them by force.

Early June: British landings at Archangel.

June 8: Czechs occupy Samara, following which Committee of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch) formed.

June 11: Decree ordering formation in the villages of Committees of the Poor (kombedy).

Night of June 12–13: Grand Duke Michael and companion murdered near Perm.

June 16: Introduction of capital punishment.

June 26: Council of Workers’ Plenipotentiaries calls for one-day political strike on July 2.

June 28: Kaiser Wilhelm II decides to continue support of Bolsheviks; Soviet Government orders large industrial enterprises nationalized.

Summer: Civil war in the countryside as peasants resist Bolshevik expropriations of grain.

July 1: Government of Western Siberia proclaimed in Omsk.

July 2: Unsuccessful anti-Bolshevik strike in Petrograd; probable date when Bolshevik leaders decide to execute ex-Tsar.

July 4: Fifth Congress of Soviets opens in Moscow; approves Soviet Constitution.

Night of July 5–6: Savinkov’s uprising at Iaroslavl, followed by risings at Murom and Rybinsk.

July 6: Murder of Mirbach followed by Left SR uprising in Moscow.

July 7: Latvian troops suppress Left SR rebellion.

Night of July 16–17: Murder of Nicholas II, family, and servants in Ekaterinburg.

July 17: Massacre at Alapaevsk of several grand dukes and their companions.

July 21: Savinkov’s forces surrender at Iaroslavl; massacre of 350 officers and civilians.

July 29: Compulsory military training introduced; officers of Imperial Army ordered to register.

August 1–2: Additional Allied forces land at Archangel and Murmansk; Bolsheviks request German help against Allies and the White (Volunteer) forces in the south.

August 6: Berlin recalls German Ambassador from Moscow, follows by closing embassy there.

August: Lenin calls on workers to exterminate “kulaks.”

August 24: Urban real estate nationalized.

August 27: Supplementary Russo-German Treaty signed, with secret clauses.

August 30: Early in the day, M. S. Uritskii, head of Petrograd Cheka, assassinated; in the evening, Fannie Kaplan shoots Lenin.

September 4: Instruction ordering the taking of hostages.

September 5: Red Terror officially launched; massacres of prisoners and hostages throughout Bolshevik-controlled Russia.

October 21: All able-bodied Soviet citizens required to register with government employment agencies.

October 30: 10-billion-ruble contribution imposed on the urban and village “bourgeoisie.”

Early November: Soviet Embassy expelled from Berlin.

November 13: Soviet Government renounces Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and Supplementary Treaty.

December 2: Committees of the Poor dissolved.

December 10: “Labor Code” issued.

1919

January: Tax in kind (prodrazvërstka) introduced for peasants.

January 7: Uezd Chekas abolished.

February 17: Dzerzhinskii announces changes in operations of the Cheka: calls for creation of concentration camps.

March: New party program adopted; party renamed Russian Communist Party; creation of Politburo, Orgburo, and Secretariat.

March 16: Consumer communes introduced.

April 11: Regulations concerning concentration camps.

May 15: Government authorizes People’s Bank to issue as many bank notes as required.

December 27: Commission on Labor Obligation created under Trotsky: beginning of “militarization of labor.”