The Russian Revolution

Chapter 17

1. Sverdlov addressing the Central Executive Committee (CEC) on May 9, 1918, in Protokoly zasedanii Vserossiiskogo Tsentral’nogo Ispolnitelnogo Komiteta 4-go Sozyva (Moscow, 1920), 240.

2. NV, No. 63/87 (April 2, 1918), 3.

3. Simon Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia (Chicago, 1945), 56–57.

4. George Buchanan to A. Balfour, September 8, 1917, Public Record Office (London), F.O. 371/3015.

5. Lenin, Khronika, V, 165–66.

6. NZh, No. 43/258 (March 16, 1918), 1.

7. NZh, No. 51/266 (March 26, 1918), 3; NV, No. 73/97 (April 4, 1918), 3.

8. Lenin, PSS, XXI, 17.

9. NS, No. 1 (April 13, 1918), 2; NV, No. 73/97 (April 14, 1918), 3.

10. NVCh, No. 65 (April 22, 1918), 1.

11. A. D. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 187.

12. G. Lefebvre, The French Revolution (New York, 1962), 270.

13. P. M. Bykov, “Poslednie dni poslednego tsaria,” in N. I. Nikolaev, ed., Rabochaia revoliutsiia na Urale (Ekaterinburg, 1921), 7.

14. P. M. Bykov, Poslednie dni Romanovykh (Sverdlovsk, 1926), 89, 307–8; P. Bulygin, The Murder of the Romanovs (London, 1935), 203–5; N. A. Sokolov, Ubiistvo tsarskoi sem’i (Paris, 1925), 42–43; S. P. Melgunov, Sud’ba Imperatora Nikolaia II posle otrecheniia (Paris, 1951), 276–79.

15. I. Koretskii in PR, No. 4 (1922), 13.

16. P. Gilliard, Thirteen Years at the Russian Court (New York, 1921), 257–58; Melgunov, Sud’ba, 250–58.

17. Protokoly VTsIK 4-go sozyva (Moscow, 1920), 240–41; cf. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 89, and G. Ioffe in Sovetskaia Rossiia, No. 161/9, 412 (July 12, 1987), 4.

18. G. Z. Ioffe, Krakh rossiiskoi monarkhicheskoi kontrrevoliutsii (Moscow, 1977), 148–57; also Ural, No. 7 (1988), 147–50.

19. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 90.

20. Ibid, 91.

21. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 44.

22. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 191.

23. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 45.

24. Iakovlev in Izvestiia, No. 96/360 (May 16, 1918), 2.

25. Kobylinskii in Robert Wilton, The Last Days of the Romanovs (London, 1920), 206.

26. Iakovlev in Izvestiia, No. 96/360 (May 16, 1918), 2.

27. Gilliard, Thirteen Years, 260–63.

28. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 99.

29. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 190, 193; Bykov, “Poslednie dni,” 10.

30. Isaac Don Levine, Eyewitness to History (New York, 1963), 130.

31. M. K. Kasvinov, Dvadsat’ tri stupeni v niz (Moscow, 1978), 454–55.

32. Iakovlev in RL, No. 1 (1921), 152.

33. Ibid.

34. Sokolov Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Box 67, pp. 212–13.

35. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 97; this is confirmed by the tapes of the conversation between Iakovlev and Sverdlov as summarized by Ioffe in Sovetskaia Rossiia, No. 161/9,412 (July 12, 1987), 4; Iakovlev in Ural, No. 7 (1988), 162.

36. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 195–96.

37. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 98.

38. Ibid. 100.

39. Iakovlev in Izvestiia, No. 96/360 (May 16, 1918), 2.

40. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 64–65; Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 52.

41. Bykov, “Poslednie dni,” 12.

42. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 199–200.

43. Ibid. 197.

44. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 124.

45. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 203.

46. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 129, 131.

47. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 203; Bykov, “Poslednie dni,” 15.

48. S. S. Bekhteev, Pesni russkoi skorbi i slëz, I, (Munich, 1923), 18; Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 282. The above translation is from Bulygin, Murder, 25–26, with one minor change,

49. Trotsky’s Diary, entry for April 9, 1935, in Trotsky Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, bMS/Russ 13, T-3731, p. III.

50. On Grand Duke Michael: O. Poutianine, in Revue des Deux Mondes, XVIII (November 1, 1923), 56–78, and XVIII (November 15, 1923), 290–310; G.B. in Rul’, No. 2472 (January 13, 1929), 5.

51. Poutianine in Revue, 309–10, based on an account of Michael’s valet as told to a Swiss acquaintance; see also Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 265–66.

52. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 121; Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 266.

53. Melgunov, Sud’ba, 388.

54. NZh, No. 120/335 (June 22, 1918); 3; NV, No. 96/120 (June 19,1918), 2; NVCh, No. 93 (June 19, 1918), 1. For reports abroad, see New York Times, July 1, 1918, 5, and The Times, July 3, 1918, 6.

55. NS, No. 48 (June 19,1918) (not available to me), as reported in NV, No. 97/121 (June 29,1918), 3; cf. Lenin, Khronika, V, 552.

56. NV, No. 100/124 (June 23, 1918), 2.

57. M. K. Diterikhs, Ubiistvo tsarskoi sem’i i chlenov doma Romanovykh na Urale, I (Vladivostok, 1922), 61.

58. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 202. Avdeev mistakenly identifies him as an Austrian.

59. Bykov, “Poslednie dni,” 17–18.

60. Serge Smirnoff, Autour de l’ Assassinat des Grand-Ducs (Paris, 1928), 14–15,114n., 92–93, 104, 143. Bykov (“Poslednie dni,” 18) confirms that Smirnoff was arrested with Mičič (whom he mistakenly calls “Migich”).

61. Rodina, No. 4 (1989), 95.

62. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 202.

63. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 147.

64. Trotsky’s Diary, loc. cit., p. III, entry dated April 9, 1935.

65. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 106.

66. Dekrety, III, 22.

67. Ibid. 21–22; SUiR, No. 583, 611–12.

68. Sokolov Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Box 7.

69. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 138.

70. Ibid; Wilton, The Last Days, 82.

71. Lenin, Khronika, V, 580, 616.

72. Kasvinov, Dvadsal’ tri stupeni, 489; Bykov, Poslednie dni, 114.

73. Bykov, “Poslednie dni,” 20.

74. F. McCullagh in Nineteenth Century and After, No. 123 (September 1920), 417.

75. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 230–38; Ogonëk, No. 21 (1989), 30–32.

76. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 224–29.

77. Ogonëk, No. 21 (1989), 30.

78. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 232.

79. Ibid, 219.

80. Ibid., 222–23.

81. Ibid., 254.

82. Ogonëk, No. 21 (1989), 30–31.

83. Deposition of P. V. Kukhtenko in Sokolov Dossier I, dated September 8, 1918; omission in the original.

84. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 261.

85. Bulygin, Murder, 256.

86. K. Jagow in BM, No. 5 (May 1935), 932.

87. Winfried Baumgart, Deutsche Ostpolitik 1918 (Vienna-Munich, 1966), 337, note 13.

88. Jagow in BM, 393.

89. Lenin, Khronika, V, 642.

90. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 247–49.

91. Dekrety, III, 57–58.

92. V. Miliutin in Prozhektor, No. 4 (1924), 10.

93. Jagow in BM, 398.

94. Ibid., 399; Karl von Bothmer, Mit Graf Mirbach in Moskau (Tübingen, 1922), 103.

95. Jagow in BM, 400.

96. Bulygin, Murder, 244.

97. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 246, 252–53.

98. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 113.

99. Sokolov Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Box 1, No. 67, 212–13.

100. R. H. B. Lockhart, Memoirs of a British Agent (London, 1935), 304.

101. Bothmer, Mit Graf Mirbach, 98. 100.

102. Cited in Levine, Eyewitness, 137.

103. A. L. Okninskii, Dva goda sredi krest’ian (Riga, n.d.), 292–93.

104. Smirnoff, Autour, 142.

105. P. Paganutstsi, Pravda ob ubiistve tsarskoi sem’i (Jordanville, N.J., 1981), 29–30.

106. Bykov, “Poslednie dni,” 3–26.

107. Pravda, No. 212/7,537 (August 3, 1938), 5; G. Riabov in Rodina, No. 5 (1989), 2, 12.

108. Leninskaia Gvardiia Urala (Sverdlovsk, 1967), 508; Kasvinov, Dvadsat’ tri stupeni, 560, note 11.

109. Trotsky’s Diary, entry for April 9, 1935, in Trotsky Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, bMS/Russ 13, T-3731, p. III.

Chapter 18

1. Marx-Engels Briefwechsel, IV (1913), 329; letter dated September 4, 1870.

2. F. Furet and D. Richet, La Révolution Française (Paris, 1973), 10, 203.

3. A. Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel (Bloomington, Ind., 1973), 183–84.

4. See above, p. 349.

5. Lenin, PSS, XVI, 452; emphasis supplied.

6. Lenin, PSS, XXXV, 204; first published in 1929; emphasis supplied.

7. Andrzej Kaminski, Konzentrationslager 1896 bis heute: eine Analyse (Stuttgart, 1982), 86.

8. K. G. Kotelnikov, ed., Vtoroi Vserossiiskii S”ezd R. i S.D. (Moscow-Leningrad, 1928), 94.

9. L. Trotskii, O Lenine (Moscow, 1924), 101.

10. Lenin, PSS, XXXVIII, 295. Emphasis supplied.

11. DN, No. 223 (December 3, 1917), 4.

12. Dekrety, I, 490–91.

13. Robert Payne, The Life and Death of Lenin (New York, 1964), 517.

14. Simon Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia (Chicago, 1945), 13–15.

15. Lenin, PSS, XXXVII, 245.

16. “Revoliutsionnye Tribunaly,” VZh, No. 1 (1918), 81.

17. Lenin, PSS, XXXVI, 163.

18. Dekrety, I, 124–26.

19. Ibid. 469.

20. Ibid., IV, 101.

21. Ibid., I, 125–26.

22. SUiR, I, No. 12 (1917–18), 179–81.

23. Dekrety, II, 335–39.

24. Izvestiia, No. 128/392 (June 23, 1918), 3.

25. M. V. Kozhevnikov, Istoriia sovetskogo suda, 1917-56 gg. (Moscow, 1957), 40.

26. Ibid.

27. I. Steinberg, Als ich Volkskommissar war (Munich, 1929), 123–28.

28. S. Varshavskii in NS, No. 4 (April 17, 1918), 1.

29. SiM, No. 6 (1985), 65.

30. NS, No. 4 (April 17, 1918), 1.

31. Ia. Berman in PRiP, No. 1/11 (1919), 70.

32. Kozhevnikov, Istoriia, 83.

33. PR, No. 10/33 (1924), 5–6; PR, No. 9/56 (1926), 82–83; V. I Lenin i VChK: Sbornik Dokumentov (Moscow, 1975), 36—38.

34. Izvestiia, No. 248 (December 10/23, 1917), 3.

35. Lenin i VChK, 36–37.

36. PR, No. 10/33 (1924); 5; M. Pokrovskii in Pravda, No. 290/3,822 (December 18, 1927), 2.

37. N. V. Krylenko, Sudoproizvodstvo RFSSR (Moscow, 1924), 100, cited in G. Leggett, The Cheka: Lenin’s Political Police (Oxford, 1986), 18.

38. NZh, No. 71/286 (April 19, 1918), 3.

39. P. G. Sofinov, Ocherki istorii Vserossiiskoi Chrezvychainoi Komissii (1917-22 gg.) (Moscow, 1960), 21. The higher figure is from Leggett, Cheka, 34.

40. la. Kh. Peters in PR, No. 10/33 (1924), 10–11.

41. I. Steinberg, In the Workshop of the Revolution (London, 1955), 145.

42. R. H. B. Lockhart, Memoirs of a British Agent (London, 1935), 333.

43. NZh, No. 112/327 (June 9, 1918), 4.

44. L. Gerson, The Secret Police in Lenin’s Russia (Philadelphia, 1976), 27; Leggett, Cheka, 47–48.

45. LS, XXI, 111–12.

46. Ibid., 112–13.

47. Ibid., 113–14.

48. Gerson, Secret Police, 30.

49. Sofinov, Ocherki, 23.

50. D. L. Golinkov, Krushenie antisovetskogo podpol’ia v SSSR, I (Moscow, 1980), 62.

51. Dekrety, I, 490–91.

52. Izvestiia, No. 32/296 (February 10/23, 1918), 1.

53. Iz istorii Vserossiiskoi Chrezvychainoi Komissii, 1917–1921 gg. (Moscow, 1958), 96–98.

54. Leggett, Cheka, 58; details in IR, No. 7/300 (February 7, 1931), 6–9.

55. Sofinov, Ocherki, 39.

56. Iz istorii VChK, 138. Other important resolutions in Leggett, Cheka, 38–39.

57. Lockhart, Memoirs, 320.

58. G. Semenov [Vasilev], Voennaia i boevaia rabota Partii Sotsialistov-Revoliutsionerov za 1917–18 gg. (Berlin, 1922).

59. Balabanoff, Life as a Rebel, 187–88.

60. V. Bonch-Bruevich, Tri pokusheniia na V. I. Lenina (Moscow, 1930), 98.

61. N. N. Sukhanov, Zapiski o revoliutsii, III (Berlin-Petersburg-Moscow, 1922), 23, 26.

62. LN, LXXX (1971), 52.

63. Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (New York, 1974), 309; Iz istorii VChK, 263–64.

64. Liberman, Building, 9.

65. J. Monnerot, Sociology and Psychology of Communism (Boston, 1953), 223.

66. See L. V. Bulgakova, Materialy dlia bibliografii Lenina, 1917–23 (Leningrad, 1924).

67. Cf. Izvestiia, No. 190/454 (September 4, 1918), 6–7.

68. V. Bonch-Bruevich, Tri pokusheniia na V. I. Lenina (Moscow, 1930), 103.

69. G. Zinoviev cited in Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 82; L. Cerfaux and J. Tondriau, Le Culte des Souverains dans la Civilisation Gréco-Romaine (Tournai, 1957), 291.

70. For examples, see Tumarkin, Lenin, 83–86.

71. Cerfaux and Tondriau, Le Culte, 427.

72. W. S. Ferguson in The Cambridge Ancient History, VII (Cambridge, 1928), 21.

73. Melgunov Archive, Hoover Institution, Box 4, Folder 26.

74. Ibid.

75. Lenin, PSS, XXXVI, 196.

76. Ibid., L, 106.

77. Ibid., 142.

78. Izvestiia, No. 134/398 (June 30, 1918), 3.

79. Ibid., No. 181/445 (August 23, 1918), 2.

80. Ibid., No. 190/454 (September 4, 1918), 5.

81. Dekrety, III, 291–92.

82. See, for instance, Chap. 16 above.

83. SUiR, I (1917–18), 777.

84. Izvestiia, No. 189/453 (September 3, 1918), 4.

85. Ibid.

86. Ezhenedel’nik VChK, No. 2 (September 29, 1918), 11.

87. Severnaia kommuna, No. 109 (September 19, 1918), 2, cited in Leggett, Cheka, 114.

88. Krasnaia gazeta, September 1, 1918, cited in Leggett, Cheka, 108.

89. Karl Radek in Izvestiia, No. 192/456 (September 6, 1918), 1.

90. Grigorii Aronson, Na zare krasnogo terrora (Berlin, 1929), 56.

91. Cheka i materialy po deiatel’nosti Chrezvychainykh Komissii (Berlin, 1922), 80.

92. Steinberg, In the Workshop, 163; Aronson, Na zare, 27. 71.

93. See above, Chap. 12.

94. Steinberg, In the Workshop, 227.

95. IR, No. 9/302 (February 21, 1931), 8–9.

96. Melgunov Archive, Hoover Institution, Box 4, Folder 26, pp. 9–10.

97. NChS (Berlin-Prague), No. 9 (1925), 111–41.

98. D. Venner, Histoire de l’Armée Rouge (Paris, 1981), 141.

99. Zinoviev in Ezhenedel’nik VChK, No. 6 (October 27,1918), 21; K. Alinin in Cheka (Odessa, 1919), 3. Further on fears of the Cheka in Bolshevik ranks: Alfons Paquet, Im kommunistischen Russland (Jena, 1919), 124–25.

100. Pravda, No. 216 (October 8, 1918), 1.

101. Petrogradskaia Pravda, No. 237/463 (October 29, 1918), 1.

102. Golinkov, Krushenie, I, 232.

103. Ezhenedel’nik VChK, No. 3 (October 6, 1918), 7–8.

104. Vechernye Izvestiia, No. 161 (February 3, 1919).

105. N. Moskovskii in Petrogradskaia Pravda, No. 237/463 (October 29, 1918), 1.

106. N. Zubov, F. E. Dzerzhinskii: Biografiia, 3rd ed. (Moscow, 1971), 80–81.

107. Cited by Krylenko in Izvestiia, No. 25/577 (February 4, 1919), 1.

108. E.g., G. Moroz in VS, No. 11 (1919), 4–6, and Zinoviev in Ezhenedel’nik VChK, No. 6 (October 27, 1918), 10.

109. Leggett, Cheka, 69.

110. Kievskie Izvestiia, No. 44 (May 17, 1919).

111. Dekrety, III, 458–59.

112. Golinkov, Krushenie, I, 232.

113. Izvestiia, No. 17/569 (January 25, 1919), 3.

114. Vechernye Izvestiia, No. 159 (January 31,1919); cf. Krylenko in Izvestiia, No. 25/577 (February 4, 1919), 1.

115. Lenin i VChK, 144–45.

116. E.g., N. Norov in Vechernye Izvestiia, No. 172 (February 15, 1919).

117. N. V. Krylenko, Sud i pravo v SSSR, cited in Melgunov Archive, Hoover Institution, Box 4, Folder 25.

118. Leggett, Cheka, 216.

119. IA, No. 1 (1958), 8–9.

120. I. Polikarenko, ed., Osoboe zadanie (Moscow, 1977), illustration between pp. 296 and 297.

121. Leggett, Cheka, 208–9, 238.

122. Liberman, Building, 14–15.

123. Leggett, Cheka, 93.

124. Ibid., 210.

125. Ibid., 212–13.

126. L. Trotskii in Izvestiia, No. 171 (August 11, 1918), 1.

127. IA, No. 1 (1958), 10.

128. Dekrety, IV, 400–2.

129. Ibid. V, 69–70.

130. Ibid., 174–81.

131. D. J. Dallin and B. I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn., 1947), 299.

132. Dekrety, V, 511–12.

133. Kaminski, Konzentrationslager, 87.

134. A. Solzhenitsyn cited in Kaminski, Konzentrationslager, 87. See further James Bunyan, The Origin of Forced Labor in the Soviet State: 1917–1921 (Baltimore, 1967).

135. Cheka i materialy, 242–47.

136. Kaminski, Konzentrationslager, 82–83.

137. Boris Nikolaevskii in SV, No. 8–9/732–733 (1959), 167–72; G. H. Leggett in Survey, No. 2/107 (1979), 193–99.

138. Leggett, Cheka, 464; M. la. Latsis, Dva goda bor’by na vnutrennem fronte (Moscow, 1920), 75.

139. Otchët Tsentral’nogo Upravleniia Chrezvychainykh Komissii pri Sovnarkome Ukrainy za 1929 138. god (Kharkov, 1921), in W. H. Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, 1917–21, II (New York, 1935), 75.

140. Lower figure in K. Alinin, Tche-Ka (London, n.d.), 65, higher in Leggett, Cheka, 464.

141. Chamberlin, Revolution, II, 75; Leggett, Cheka, 359.

142. I. Steinberg, Gewalt und Terror in der Revolution (Berlin, 1974), 16.

143. Ibid., 138–39.

144. The Bullitt Mission to Russia (New York, 1919), 115.

145. Pierre Pascal, En Russie Rouge (Petrograd, 1920), 6.

146. International Committee for Political Prisoners, Letters from Russian Prisons (New York, 1925), 2, 15, 13.

Afterword

1. A. Ksiunin in VO, No. 55 (June 22, 1918), 1.