Дофамінове покоління. Де межа між болем і задоволенням

Примітки

1

Kent Dunnington, Addiction and Virtue: Beyond the Models of Disease and Choice (Dow­ners Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2011). Це прекрасний теологічний і філософський трактат про залежність і віру.

2

Anna Lembke, Drug Dealer, MD: How Doctors Were Duped, Patients Got Hooked, and Why It’s So Hard to Stop, 1st ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016). Існує багато чудових книжок на цю тему, зокрема: Pain Killer: An Empire of Deceit and the Origin of America’s Opioid Epidemic, by Barry Meier; Dreamland: The True Tale of America’s Opiate Epidemic, by Sam Quinones; Dopesick: Dealers, Doctors and the Drug Company That Addicted America, by Beth Macy. Кожна з цих книжок, у тому числі моя, досліджує причини епідемії опіоїдів під трохи іншим кутом.

3

ASPPH Task Force on Public Health Initiatives to Address the Opioid Crisis, Bringing Science to Bear on Opioids: Report and ecommendations, November 2019.

4

Wayne Hall, «What Are the Policy Lessons of National Alcohol Prohibition in the United States, 1920–1933?», Addiction 105, no. 7 (2010): 1164–73, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.02926.x

5

Robert MacCoun, «Drugs and the Law: A Psychological Analysis of Drug Prohibition», Psychological Bulletin 113 (June 1, 1993): 497–512, https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.113.3.497 Існують значні суперечності й дискусії щодо впливу сухого закону, декриміналізації й легалізації психоактивних препаратів. Стаття Роберта Маккауна поєднує економіку, психологію й політичну філософію і дозволяє глибоко дослідити це питання.

6

Bridget F. Grant, S. Patricia Chou, Tulshi D. Saha, Roger P. Pickering, Bradley T. Kerridge, W. June Ruan, Boji Huang, et al., «Prevalence of 12-Month Alcohol Use, High-Risk Drinking, and DSM-IV Alcohol Use Disorder in the United States, 2001–2002 to 2012–2013: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions», JAMA Psychiatry 74, no. 9 (September 1, 2017): 911–23, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2161

7

Anna Lembke, «Time to Abandon the Self-Medication Hypothesis in Patients with Psychiatric Disorders», American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 38, no. 6 (2012): 524–29, https://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2012.694532

8

David T. Courtwright, The Age of Addiction: How Bad Habits Became Big Business (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2019), https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv253f7rn.7 Це захоп­ливий і ерудований погляд на те, яким чином розширений доступ до адиктивних товарів і вчинків з плином часу й у різних культурах призвів до підвищеного споживання.

9

Matthew Kohrman, Gan Quan, Liu Wennan, and Robert N. Proctor, eds., Poisonous Pandas: Chinese Cigarette Manufacturing in Critical Historical Perspectives (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018).

10

David T. Courtwright, «Addiction to Opium and Morphine», in Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvk12rb0.7 Це ще одна чудова книжка історика Девіда Кортрайта, що досліджує витоки епідемії опіоїдів в історичній перспективі, зокрема в кінці XIX століття, коли лікарі звичайно призначали морфін домогосподаркам вікторіанської епохи серед інших пацієнтів.

11

National Potato Council, Potato Statistical Yearbook 2016, accessed April 18, 2020, https://potatoassociation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/2016-NPC-1.pdf

12

Annie Gasparro and Jessie Newman, «The New Science of Taste: 1,000 Banana Flavors», Wall Street Journal, October 31, 2014. Чудовий детальний аналіз змін у харчовій галузі можна знайти тут: David T. Courtwright’s The Age of Addiction: How Bad Habits Became Big Business.

13

Shanthi Mendis, Tim Armstrong, Douglas Bettcher, Francesco Branca, Jeremy Lauer, Cecile Mace, Vladimir Poznyak, Leanne Riley, Vera da Costa e Silva, and Gretchen Stevens, Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2014 (World Health Organization, 2014), https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/148114/9789241564854_eng.pdf

14

Marie Ng, Tom Fleming, Margaret Robinson, Blake Thomson, Nicholas Graetz, Christopher Margono, Erin C. Mullany, et al., «Global, Regional, and National Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in Children and Adults during 1980–2013: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013», Lancet 384, no. 9945 (August 2014): 766–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60460-8

15

Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser, «Drug Use...» Our World in Data, December 2019, https://ourworldindata.org/illicit-drug-use

16

Anne Case and Angus Deaton, Deaths of Despair and the Future of Capitalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020), https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvpr7rb2

17

«Capital Pains», Economist, July 18, 2020. Першоджерела див.: https://www.unep.org/resources/inclusive-wealth-report-2018, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261919305215

18

Philip Rieff, The Triumph of the Therapeutic: Uses of Faith after Freud (New York: Har­per and Row, 1966).

19

Ross Douthat, Bad Religion: How We Became a Nation of Heretics (New York: Free Press, 2013).

20

Maricia L. Meldrum, «A Capsule History of Pain Management», JAMA 290, no. 18 (2003): 2470–75, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.18.2470

21

Victoria K. Shanmugam, Kara S. Couch, Sean McNish, and Richard L. Amdur, «Relationship between Opioid Treatment and Rate of Healing in Chronic Wounds», Wound Repair and Regeneration 25, no. 1 (2017): 120–30, https://doi.org/10.1111/wrr.12496

22

Thomas Sydenham, «A Treatise of the Gout and Dropsy», in The Works of Thomas Sydenham, M.D., on Acute and Chronic Diseases (London, 1783), 254, https://books.google.com/books?id=iSxsAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

23

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, «Behavioral Health, United States, 2012», HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4797, 2013, https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/2012-BHUS.pdf

24

Bruce S. Jonas, Qiuping Gu, and Juan R. Albertorio-Diaz, «Psychotropic Medication Use among Adolescents: United States, 2005–2010», NCHS Data Brief, no. 135 (December 2013): 1–8.

25

«OECD Health Statistics», July 2020, https://doi.org/10.1787/health-data-en Laura A. Pratt, Debra J. Brody, Quiping Gu, «Antidepressant Use in Persons Aged 12 and Over: United States, 2005-2008», NCHS Data Brief No. 76, October 2011, https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db76.htm

26

Brian J. Piper, Christy L. Ogden, Olapeju M. Simoyan, Daniel Y. Chung, James F. Caggiano, Stephanie D. Nichols, and Kenneth L. McCall, «Trends in Use of Prescription Sti­mu­lants in the United States and Territories, 2006 to 2016», PLOS ONE 13, no. 11 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206100

27

Marcus A. Bachhuber, Sean Hennessy, Chinazo O. Cunningham, and Joanna L. Starrels, «Increasing Benzodiazepine Prescriptions and Overdose Mortality in the United States, 1996–2013», American Journal of Public Health 106, no. 4 (2016): 686–88, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303061

28

Aldous Huxley, Brave New World Revisited (New York: HarperCollins, 2004).

29

Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business (New York: Penguin Books, 1986).

30

John F. Helliwell, Haifang Huang, and Shun Wang, «Chapter 2 – Changing World Happiness», World Happiness Report 2019, March 20, 2019, 10–46.

31

Ayelet Meron Ruscio, Lauren S. Hallion, Carmen C. W. Lim, Sergio Aguilar-Gaxiola, Ali Al-Hamzawi, Jordi Alonso, Laura Helena Andrade, et al., «Cross-Sectional Comparison of the Epidemiology of DSM-5 Generalized Anxiety Disorder across the Globe», JAMA Psychiatry 74, no. 5 (2017): 465–75, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0056

32

Qingqing Liu, Hairong He, Jin Yang, Xiaojie Feng, Fanfan Zhao, and Jun Lyu, «Changes in the Global Burden of Depression from 1990 to 2017: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study», Journal of Psychiatric Research 126 (June 2019): 134–40, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.08.002

33

David G. Blanchflower and Andrew J. Oswald, «Unhappiness and Pain in Modern Ame­rica: A Review Essay, and Further Evidence, on Carol Graham’s Happiness for All?» IZA Institute of Labor Economics discussion paper, November 2017.

34

Robert William Fogel, The Fourth Great Awakening and the Future of Egalitarianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).

35

Kathleen A. Montagu, «Catechol Compounds in Rat Tissues and in Brains of Different Animals», Nature 180 (1957): 244–45, https://doi.org/10.1038/180244a0

36

Bryon Adinoff, «Neurobiologic Processes in Drug Reward and Addiction», Harvard Review of Psychiatry 12, no. 6 (2004): 305–20, https://doi.org/10.1080/10673220490910844

37

Qun Yong Zhou and Richard D. Palmiter, «Dopamine-Deficient Mice Are Severely Hypoactive, Adipsic, and Aphagic», Cell 83, no. 7 (1995): 1197–1209, https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(95)90145-0

38

Valentina Bassareo and Gaetano Di Chiara, «Modulation of Feeding-Induced Activation of Mesolimbic Dopamine Transmission by Appetitive Stimuli and Its Relation to Motivational State», European Journal of Neuroscience 11, no. 12 (1999): 4389–97, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00843.x

39

Dennis F. Fiorino, Ariane Coury, and Anthony G. Phillips, «Dynamic Changes in Nucleus Accumbens Dopamine Efflux during the Coolidge Effect in Male Rats», Journal of ­Neuroscience 17, no. 12 (1997): 4849–55, https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.17-12-04849.1997

40

Gaetano Di Chiara and Assunta Imperato, «Drugs Abused by Humans Preferentially Increase Synaptic Dopamine Concentrations in the Mesolimbic System of Freely Moving Rats», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 85, no. 14 (1988): 5274–78, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.85.14.5274

41

Siri Leknes and Irene Tracey, «A Common Neurobiology for Pain and Pleasure», Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9, no. 4 (2008): 314–20, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2333

42

Richard L. Solomon and John D. Corbit, «An Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation», American Economic Review 68, no. 6 (1978): 12–24.

43

Yinghui Low, Collin F. Clarke, and Billy K. Huh, «Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia: A Review of Epidemiology, Mechanisms and Management», Singapore Medical Journal 53, no. 5 (2012): 357–60.

44

Joseph W. Frank, Travis I. Lovejoy, William C. Becker, Benjamin J. Morasco, Christopher J. Koenig, Lilian Hoffecker, Hannah R. Dischinger, et al., «Patient Outcomes in Dose Reduction or Discontinuation of Long-Term Opioid Therapy: A Systematic Review», Annals of Internal Medicine 167, no. 3 (2017): 181–91, https://doi.org/10.7326/M17-0598

45

Nora D. Volkow, Joanna S. Fowler, and Gene-Jack Wang, «Role of Dopamine in Drug ­Reinforcement and Addiction in Humans: Results from Imaging Studies», Behavioural Pharmacology 13, no. 5 (2002): 355–66, https://doi.org/10.1097/00008877-200209000-00008

46

George F. Koob, «Hedonic Homeostatic Dysregulation as a Driver of Drug-Seeking Behavior», Drug Discovery Today: Disease Models 5, no. 4 (2008): 207–15, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ddmod.2009.04.002

47

Jakob Linnet, Ericka Peterson, Doris J. Doudet, Albert Gjedde, and Arne Møller, «Dopamine Release in Ventral Striatum of Pathological Gamblers Losing Money», Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 122, no. 4 (2010): 326–33, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01591.x

48

Terry E. Robinson and Bryan Kolb, «Structural Plasticity Associated with Exposure to Drugs of Abuse», Neuropharmacology 47, Suppl. 1 (2004): 33–46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2004.06.025

49

Brian Kolb, Grazyna Gorny, Yilin Li, Anne-Noël Samaha, and Terry E. Robinson, «Amphetamine or Cocaine Limits the Ability of Later Experience to Promote Structural Plasticity in the Neocortex and Nucleus Accumbens», Proceedings of the National Aca­demy of Sciences of the United States of America 100, no. 18 (2003): 10523–28, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1834271100

50

Sandra Chanraud, Anne-Lise Pitel, Eva M. Muller-Oehring, Adolf Pfefferbaum, and Edith V. Sullivan, «Remapping the Brain to Compensate for Impairment in Recovering Alcoholics», Cerebral Cortex 23 (2013): 97–104, doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr38; Changhai Cui, Antonio Noronha, Kenneth R. Warren, George F. Koob, Rajita Sinha, Mahesh Thakkar, John Matochik, et al., «Brain Pathways to Recovery from Alcohol Dependence», Alcohol 49, no. 5 (2015): 435–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcohol.2015.04.006

51

Vincent Pascoli, Marc Turiault, and Christian Lüscher, «Reversal of Cocaine-Evoked Synaptic Potentiation Resets Drug-Induced Adaptive Behaviour», Nature 481 (2012): 71–75, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10709

52

Henry Beecher, «Pain in Men Wounded in Battle», Anesthesia & Analgesia, 1947, https://doi.org/10.1213/00000539-194701000-00005

53

J. P. Fisher, D. T. Hassan, and N. O’Connor, «Case Report on Pain», British Medical Journal 310, no. 6971 (1995): 70, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2548478/pdf/bmj00574-0074.pdf

54

Доктор Том Фінукане – професор медицини Університету Джонса Гопкінса в Балтиморі, на роботу якого я натрапила, коли читала там лекції як запрошений професор. Я вперше почула цей вислів під час вечері з деякими його студентами, і зрозуміла, що маю знайти спосіб додати його в цю книжку.

55

Nora D. Volkow, Joanna S. Fowler, Gene-Jack Wang, and James M. Swanson, «Dopamine in Drug Abuse and Addiction: Results from Imaging Studies and Treatment Implications», Molecular Psychiatry 9, no. 6 (June 2004): 557–69, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001507

56

Sandra A. Brown and Marc A. Schuckit, «Changes in Depression among Abstinent Alcoholics», Journal on Studies of Alcohol 49, no. 5 (1988): 412–17, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3216643/

57

Kenneth B. Wells, Roland Sturm, Cathy D. Sherbourne, and Lisa S. Meredith, Caring for Depression (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).

58

Mark B. Sobell and Linda C. Sobell, «Controlled Drinking after 25 Years: How Important Was the Great Debate?», Addiction 90, no. 9 (1995): 1149–53. Linda C. Sobell, John A. Cunningham, and Mark B. Sobell, «Recovery from Alcohol Problems with and without Treatment: Prevalence in Two Population Surveys», American Journal of Public Health 86, no. 7 (1996): 966–72.

59

Serge H. Ahmed and George F. Koob, «Transition from Moderate to Excessive Drug Intake: Change in Hedonic Set Point», Science 282, no. 5387 (1998): 298–300, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.282.5387.298

60

Jason L. Rogers, Silvia De Santis, and Ronald E. See, «Extended Methamphetamine Self-Administration Enhances Reinstatement of Drug Seeking and Impairs Novel Object Recognition in Rats», Psychopharmacology 199, no. 4 (2008): 615–24, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-008-1187-7

61

Laura E. O’Dell, Scott A. Chen, Ron T. Smith, Sheila E. Specio, Robert L. Balster, Neil E. Paterson, Athina Markou, et al., «Extended Access to Nicotine Self-Administration Leads to Dependence: Circadian Measures, Withdrawal Measures, and Extinction Behavior in Rats», Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 320, no. 1 (2007): 180–93, https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.106.105270

62

Scott A. Chen, Laura E. O’Dell, Michael E. Hoefer, Thomas N. Greenwell, Eric P. Zorrilla, and George F. Koob, «Unlimited Access to Heroin Self-Administration: Independent Motivational Markers of Opiate Dependence», Neuropsychopharmacology 31, no. 12 (2006): 2692–707, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301008

63

Marcia Spoelder, Peter Hesseling, Annemarie M. Baars, José G. Lozeman-van’t Klooster, Marthe D. Rotte, Louk J. M. J. Vanderschuren, and Heidi M. B. Lesscher, «Individual Variation in Alcohol Intake Predicts Reinforcement, Motivation, and Compulsive Alcohol Use in Rats», Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 39, no. 12 (2015): 2427–37, https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.12891

64

Roelof Eikelboom and Randelle Hewitt, «Intermittent Access to a Sucrose Solution for Rats Causes Long-Term Increases in Consumption», Physiology and Behavior 165 (2016): 77–85, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.07.002

65

Valentina Vengeliene, Ainhoa Bilbao, and Rainer Spanagel, «The Alcohol Deprivation Effect Model for Studying Relapse Behavior: A Comparison between Rats and Mice», Alcohol 48, no. 3 (2014): 313–20, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcohol.2014.03.002

66

Я вперше зустріла термін «самостримування» в цій статті: Sally Satel and Scott O. Lilienfeld. Sally Satel and Scott O. Lilienfeld, «Addiction and the Brain-Disease Fallacy», Frontiers in Psychiatry 4 (March 2014): 1–11, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00141 Певний час я була шанувальницею цієї роботи, адже її авторка застосовувала термін «самостримування», аби зробити наголос на «величезній ролі особистої агентивності у збереженні циклу вживання наркотиків і рецидиву». Однак я не згодна з основною думкою цієї статті, що наша здатність до самостримування спростовує модель залежності як захворювання. На мою думку, наша потреба в самостримуванні свідчить про потужний потяг з боку залежності й супутні зміни мозку, що відповідає моделі залежності як захворювання. Економіст Томас Шеллінґ також розглядає концепцію самостримування, але називає її самоуправлінням або самоконтролем. «Self-Command in Practice, in Policy, and in a Theory of Rational Choice», American Economic Review 74, no. 2 (1984): 1–11, https://econpapers.repec.org/article/aeaaecrev/v_3a74_3ay_3a1984_3ai_3a2_3ap_3a1-11.htm

67

J. D. Sinclair, «Evidence about the Use of Naltrexone and for Different Ways of Using It in the Treatment of Alcoholism», Alcohol and Alcoholism 36, no. 1 (2001): 2–10, https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/36.1.2

68

Anna Lembke and Niushen Zhang, «A Qualitative Study of Treatment-Seeking He­roin Users in Contemporary China», Addiction Science & Clinical Practice 10, no. 23 (2015), https://doi.org/10.1186/s13722-015-0044-3

69

Jeffrey S. Chang, Jenn Ren Hsiao, and Che Hong Chen, «ALDH2 Polymorphism and Alcohol- Related Cancers in Asians: A Public Health Perspective» Journal of Biomedical Science 24, no. 19 (2017): 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12929-017-0327-y

70

Magdalena Plecka Östlund, Olof Backman, Richard Marsk, Dag Stockeld, Jesper Lagergren, Finn Rasmussen, and Erik Näslund, «Increased Admission for Alcohol Dependence after Gastric Bypass Surgery Compared with Restrictive Bariatric Surgery», JAMA Surgery 148, no. 4 (2013): 374–77, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2013.700

71

Robert William Fogel, The Fourth Great Awakening and the Future of Egalitarianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). Дані про дозвілля й роботу в США взяті з книжки Фоґеля, що містить вражаючий аналіз економічної, соціальної та духов­ної трансформації у Сполучених Штатах за останні 400 років.

72

David R. Francis, «Why High Earners Work Longer Hours», National Bureau of Econo­mic Research digest, September 2020, http://www.nber.org/digest/jul06/w11895.html

73

OECD, «Special Focus: Measuring Leisure in OECD Countries», in Society at a Glance 2009: OECD Social Indicators (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2009), https://doi.org/10.1787/soc_glance-2008-en

74

Eric J. Iannelli, «Species of Madness», Times Literary Supplement, September 22, 2017.

75

Mark Aguiar, Mark Bils, Kerwin K. Charles, and Erik Hurst, «Leisure Luxuries and the Labor Supply of Young Men», National Bureau of Economic Research working paper, June 2017, https://doi.org/10.3386/w23552

76

Anne L. Bretteville-Jensen, «Addiction and Discounting», Journal of Health Economics 18, no. 4 (1999): 393–407, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-6296(98)00057-5

77

Warren K. Bickel, Benjamin P. Kowal, and Kirstin M. Gatchalian, «Understanding Addiction as a Pathology of Temporal Horizon», Behavior Analyst Today 7, no. 1 (2006): 32–47, https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100148

78

Nancy M. Petry, Warren K. Bickel, and Martha Arnett, «Shortened Time Horizons and Insensitivity to Future Consequences in Heroin Addicts», Addiction 93, no. 5 (1998): 729–38, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.9357298.x

79

Samuel M. McClure, David I. Laibson, George Loewenstein, and Jonathan D. Cohen, «Separate Neural Systems Value Immediate and Delayed Monetary Rewards», Science 306, no. 5695 (2004): 503–7, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1100907

80

Dandara Ramos, Tânia Victor, Maria L. Seidl-de-Moura, and Martin Daly, «Future Discounting by Slum-Dwelling Youth versus University Students in Rio de Janeiro», Journal of Research on Adolescence 23, no. 1 (2013): 95–102, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00796.x

81

«Qur’an: Verse 24:31», accessed July 2, 2020, http://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=24&verse=31

82

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, «Dress and Appearance», accessed July 2, 2020, https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/callings/missionary/dress-and-appearance?lang=eng

83

M. Shahbandeh, «Gluten- Free Food Market Value in the United States from 2014 to 2025», Statista, November 20, 2019, accessed July 2, 2020, https://www.statista.com/statistics/884086/us-gluten-free-food-market-value/

84

Yuichi Shoda, Walter Mischel, and Philip K. Peake, «Predicting Adolescent Cognitive and Self-Regulatory Competencies from Preschool Delay of Gratification: Identifying Diagnostic Conditions», Developmental Psychology 26, no. 6 (1990): 978–86, https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.26.6.978

85

Roy F. Baumeister, «Where Has Your Willpower Gone?», New Scientist 213, no. 2849 (2012): 30–31, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(12)60232-2

86

Immanuel Kant, «Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (1785)», Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

87

John Strang, Thomas Babor, Jonathan Caulkins, Benedikt Fischer, David Foxcroft, and Keith Humphreys, «Drug Policy and the Public Good: Evidence for Effective Interventions», Lancet 379 (2012): 71-83.

88

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, «U.S. Opioid Prescribing Rate Maps», accessed July 2, 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/overdose-prevention/data-research/facts-stats/opioid-dispensing-rate-maps.html

89

Robert Whitaker, Anatomy of an Epidemic: Magic Bullets, Psychiatric Drugs, and the Astonishing Rise of Mental Illness in America (New York: Crown, 2010).

90

Gretchen LeFever Watson, Andrea Powell Arcona, and David O. Antonuccio, «The ADHD Drug Abuse Crisis on American College Campuses», Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry 17, no. 1 (2015), https://doi.org/10.1891/1559-4343.17.1.5

91

Anthony F. Jorm, Scott B. Patten, Traolach S. Brugha, and Ramin Mojtabai, «Has Increased Provision of Treatment Reduced the Prevalence of Common Mental Disorders? Review of the Evidence from Four Countries», World Psychiatry 16, no. 1 (2017): 90–99, https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20388

92

Larry F. Chu, David J. Clark, and Martin S. Angst, «Opioid Tolerance and Hyperalgesia in Chronic Pain Patients after One Month of Oral Morphine Therapy: A Preliminary Prospective Study», Journal of Pain 7, no. 1 (2006): 43–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2005.08.001

93

Rif S. El-Mallakh, Yonglin Gao, and R. Jeannie Roberts, «Tardive Dysphoria: The Role of Long Term Antidepressant Use in-Inducing Chronic Depression», Medical Hypotheses 76, no. 6 (2011): 769–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.020

94

Peter D. Kramer, Listening to Prozac (New York: Viking Press, 1993).

95

Lajeana D. Howie, Patricia N. Pastor, and Susan L. Lukacs, «Use of Medication Prescribed for Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties among Children Aged 6–17 Years in the United States, 2011–2012», Health Care in the United States: Developments and Considerations 5, no. 148 (2015): 25–35.

96

Alan Schwarz, «Thousands of Toddlers Are Medicated for A.D.H.D., Report Finds, Raising Worries», New York Times, May 16, 2014.

97

Edmund C. Levin, «The Challenges of Treating Developmental Trauma Disorder in a Residential Agency for Youth», Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry 37, no. 3 (2009): 519–38, https://doi.org/10.1521/jaap.2009.37.3.519

98

Casey Crump, Kristina Sundquist, Jan Sundquist, and Marilyn A. Winkleby, «Neighborhood Deprivation and Psychiatric Medication Prescription: A Swedish National Multilevel Study», Annals of Epidemiology 21, no. 4 (2011): 231–37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.01.005

99

Robin Ghertner and Lincoln Groves, «The Opioid Crisis and Economic Opportunity: Geographic and Economic Trends», ASPE Research Brief from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2018, https://aspe.hhs.gov/system/files/pdf/259261/ASPEEconomicOpportunityOpioidCrisis.pdf

100

Mark J. Sharp and Thomas A. Melnik, «Poisoning Deaths Involving Opioid Analgesics – New York State, 2003–2012», Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64, no. 14 (2015): 377–80; P. Coolen, S. Best, A. Lima, J. Sabel, and L. J. Paulozzi, «Overdose Deaths Involving Prescription Opioids among Medicaid Enrollees – Washington, 2004–2007», Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 58, no. 42 (2009): 1171–75.

101

Alexandrea E. Hatcher, Sonia Mendoza, and Helena Hansen, «At the Expense of a Life: Race, Class, and the Meaning of Buprenorphine in Pharmaceuticalized ‘Care,’» Substance Use and Misuse 53, no. 2 (2018): 301–10, https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2017.1385633

102

Petr Šrámek, Marie Šimečková, Ladislav Janský, Jarmila Šavlíková, and Stanislav Vybíral, «Human Physiological Responses to Immersion into Water of Different Temperatures», European Journal of Applied Physiology 81 (2000): 436–42, https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210050065

103

Christina G. von der Ohe, Corinna Darian-Smith, Craig C. Garner, and H. Craig Heller, «Ubiquitous and Temperature-Dependent Neural Plasticity in Hibernators», Journal of Neuroscience 26, no. 41 (2006): 10590–98, https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.2874-06.2006

104

Russell M. Church, Vincent LoLordo, J. Bruce Overmier, Richard L. Solomon, and Lucille H. Turner, «Cardiac Responses to Shock in Curarized Dogs: Effects of Shock Intensity and Duration, Warning Signal, and Prior Experience with Shock», Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 62, no. 1 (1966): 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023476; Aaron H. Katcher, Richard L. Solomon, Lucille H. Turner, Vincent LoLordo, J. Bruce Overmier, and Robert A. Rescorla, «Heart Rate and Blood Pressure Responses to Signaled and Unsignaled Shocks: Effects of Cardiac Sympathectomy», Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 68, no. 2 (1969): 163–74; Richard L. Solomon and John D. Corbit, «An Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation», American Economic Review 68, no. 6 (1978): 12–24.

105

R. S. Bluck, Plato’s Phaedo: A Translation of Plato’s Phaedo (London: Routledge, 2014), https://www.google.com/books/edition/Plato_s_Phaedo/7FzXAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=«how+strange+would+appear+to+be+this+thing+that+men+call+pleasure»&pg=PA41&printsec=frontcover

106

Helen B. Taussig, «‘Death’ from Lightning and the Possibility of Living Again», American Scientist 57, no. 3 (1969): 306–16.

107

Edward J. Calabrese and Mark P. Mattson, «How Does Hormesis Impact Biology, Toxi­cology, and Medicine?», npj Aging and Mechanisms of Disease 3, no. 13 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41514-017-0013-z

108

James R. Cypser, Pat Tedesco, and Thomas E. Johnson, «Hormesis and Aging in Caenorhabditis Elegans», Experimental Gerontology 41, no. 10 (2006): 935–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2006.09.004

109

Nadège Minois, «The Hormetic Effects of Hypergravity on Longevity and Aging», Dose-Response 4, no. 2 (2006), https://doi.org/10.2203/dose-response.05-008.minois Прочитавши матеріали цього дослідження, я уявила собі, що провела від 2 до 4 тижнів у гравітроні в місцевому парку розваг. Гравітрон – це велика вертикальна бочка, що обертається зі швидкістю 33 оберти за хвилину, створюючи відцентровий ефект, еквівалентний перевантаженню силою 3g, перш ніж випаде дно. З урахуванням того, що середня тривалість життя плодової мушки становить 50 днів, це понад 50 людських років у гравітроні. Бідні мушки!

110

Shizuyo Sutou, «Low-Dose Radiation from A-Bombs Elongated Lifespan and Reduced Cancer Mortality Relative to Un-Irradiated Individuals», Genes and Environment 40, no. 26 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1186/s41021-018-0114-3

111

John B. Cologne and Dale L. Preston, «Longevity of Atomic-Bomb Survivors», Lan­cet 356, no. 9226 (July 22, 2000): 303–7, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02506-X

112

Mark P. Mattson and Ruiqian Wan, «Beneficial Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Caloric Restriction on the Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Systems», Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 16, no. 3 (2005): 129–37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2004.12.007

113

Aly Weisman and Kristen Griffin, «Jimmy Kimmel Lost a Ton of Weight on This Radical Diet», Business Insider, January 9, 2016.

114

Anna Lembke and Amer Raheemullah, «Addiction and Exercise», in Lifestyle Psychiatry: Using Exercise, Diet and Mindfulness to Manage Psychiatric Disorders, ed. Doug Noordsy (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2019).

115

Daniel T. Omura, Damon A. Clark, Aravinthan D. T. Samuel, and H. Robert Horvitz, «Dopamine Signaling Is Essential for Precise Rates of Locomotion by C. Elegans», PLOS ONE 7, no. 6 (2012), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038649

116

Shu W. Ng and Barry M. Popkin, «Time Use and Physical Activity: A Shift Away from Movement across the Globe», Obesity Reviews 13, no. 8 (August 2012): 659–80, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00982.x

117

Mark P. Mattson, «Energy Intake and Exercise as Determinants of Brain Health and Vulnerability to Injury and Disease», Cell Metabolism 16, no. 6 (2012): 706–22, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2012.08.012

118

B. K. Pedersen and B. Saltin, «Exercise as Medicine–Evidence for Prescri­bing Exercise as Therapy in 26 Different Chronic Diseases», Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 25, no. S3 (2015): 1–72.152 «tyranny of convenience»: Tim Wu, «The Ty­ranny of Convenience», New York Times, February 6, 2018.

119

Hippocrates, Aphorisms, accessed July 8, 2020, http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/aphorisms.1.i.html

120

Christian Sprenger, Ulrike Bingel, and Christian Büchel, «Treating Pain with Pain: Sup­raspinal Mechanisms of Endogenous Analgesia Elicited by Heterotopic Noxious Conditioning Stimulation», Pain 152, no. 2 (2011): 428–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2010.11.018

121

Liu Xiang, «Inhibiting Pain with Pain – A Basic Neuromechanism of Acupuncture Analgesia», Chinese Science Bulletin 46, no. 17 (2001): 1485–94, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03187038

122

Jarred Younger, Noorulain Noor, Rebecca McCue, and Sean Mackey, «Low-Dose ­Naltrexone for the Treatment of Fibromyalgia: Findings of a Small, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Counterbalanced, Crossover Trial Assessing Daily Pain Le­vels», Arthritis and Rheumatism 65, no. 2 (2013): 529–38, https://doi.org/10.1002/art.37734

123

Ugo Cerletti, «Old and New Information about Electroshock», American Journal of Psychiatry 107, no. 2 (1950): 87–94, https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.107.2.87

124

Amit Singh and Sujita Kumar Kar, «How Electroconvulsive Therapy Works?: Understanding the Neurobiological Mechanisms», Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience 15, no. 3 (2017): 210–21, https://doi.org/10.9758/cpn.2017.15.3.210

125

Mark Synnott, The Impossible Climb: Alex Honnold, El Capitan, and the Climbing Life (New York: Dutton, 2018).

126

Chris M. Sherwin, «Voluntary Wheel Running: A Review and Novel Interpretation», Ani­mal Behaviour 56, no. 1 (1998): 11–27, https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1998.0836

127

Johanna H. Meijer and Yuri Robbers, «Wheel Running in the Wild», Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, July 7, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.0210

128

Daniel Saal, Yan Dong, Antonello Bonci, and Robert C. Malenka, «Drugs of Abuse and Stress Trigger a Common Synaptic Adaptation in Dopamine Neurons», Neuron 37, no. 4 (2003): 577–82, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00021-7

129

Ingmar H. A. Franken, Corien Zijlstra, and Peter Muris, «Are Nonpharmacological Induced Rewards Related to Anhedonia? A Study among Skydivers», Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 30, no. 2 (2006): 297–300, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.10.011

130

Jeffrey B. Kreher and Jennifer B. Schwartz, «Overtraining Syndrome: A Practical Guide», Sports Health 4, no. 2 (2012), https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738111434406

131

Kate Knibbs, «All the Gear an Ultramarathoner Legend Brings with Him on the Trail», Gizmodo, October 29, 2015, https://gizmodo.com/all-the-gear-an-ultramarathon-legend-brings-with-him-on-1736088954

132

Mark Synnott, «How Alex Honnold Made the Ultimate Climb – without a Rope», National Geographic online, accessed July 8, 2020, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/alex-honnold-made-ultimate-climb-el-capitan-without-rope

133

David R. Francis, «Why High Earners Work Longer Hours», National Bureau of Econo­mic Research digest, accessed February 5, 2021, https://www.nber.org/digest/jul06/w11895.html

134

Silvio José Lemos Vasconcellos, Matheus Rizzatti, Thamires Pereira Barbosa, Bruna Sangoi Schmitz, Vanessa Cristina Nascimento Coelho, and Andrea Machado, «Understanding Lies Based on Evolutionary Psychology: A Critical Review», Trends in Psychology 27, no. 1 (2019): 141–53, https://doi.org/10.9788/TP2019.1-11

135

Michel André Maréchal, Alain Cohn, Giuseppe Ugazio, and Christian C. Ruff, «Increasing Honesty in Humans with Noninvasive Brain Stimulation», Proceedings of the Natio­nal Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114, no. 17 (2017): 4360–64, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1614912114

136

Seven E. Tomek, Gabriela M. Stegmann, and M. Foster Olive, «Effects of Heroin on Rat Prosocial Behavior», Addiction Biology 24, no. 4 (2019): 676–84, https://doi.org/10.1111/adb.12633

137

Окситоцин також спричиняє вивільнення серотоніну (5НТ) у головній мішені дофаміну, прилеглому ядрі. Вивільнення серотоніну в прилеглому ядрі відіграє важливішу роль, ніж вивільнення дофаміну, з огляду на стимулювання «просоціальної» поведінки. Разом з тим, саме одночасне вивільнення дофаміну робить просоціальну поведінку потенційно адиктивною. Lin W. Hung, Sophie Neuner, Jai S. Polepalli, Kevin T. Beier, Matthew Wright, Jessica J. Walsh, Eastman M. Lewis, et al., «Ga­ting of Social Reward by Oxytocin in the Ventral Tegmental Area», Science 357, no. 6358 (2017): 1406–11, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan4994

138

Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions (New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services).

139

Donald W. Winnicott, «Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False Self», in The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development (New York: International Universities Press, 1960), 140–57.

140

Mark Epstein, Going on Being: Life at the Crossroads of Buddhism and Psychotherapy (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009).

141

Warren K. Bickel, A. George Wilson, Chen Chen, Mikhail N. Koffarnus, and Christopher T. Franck, «Stuck in Time: Negative Income Shock Constricts the Temporal Window of Valuation Spanning the Future and the Past», PLOS ONE 11, no. 9 (2016): 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163051

142

Celeste Kidd, Holly Palmeri, and Richard N. Aslin, «Rational Snacking: Young Child­ren’s Decision-Making on the Marshmallow Task Is Moderated by Beliefs about Environmental Reliability», Cognition 126, no. 1 (2013): 109–14, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.08.004

143

Mark J. Edlund, Katherine M. Harris, Harold G. Koenig, Xiaotong Han, Greer Sullivan, Rhonda Mattox, and Lingqi Tang, «Religiosity and Decreased Risk of Substance Use Disorders: Is the Effect Mediated by Social Support or Mental Health Status?», Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 45 (2010): 827–36, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-009-0124-3

144

Laurence R. Iannaccone, «Sacrifice and Stigma: Reducing Free-Riding in Cults, Communes, and Other Collectives», Journal of Political Economy 100, no. 2 (1992): 271–91.

145

Laurence R. Iannaccone, «Why Strict Churches Are Strong», American Journal of Sociology 99, no. 5 (1994): 1180–1211, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2781147