Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916-1926

I

IAKIR, IONA EMMANUILOVICH (3 August 1896–12 June 1937). Komandarm, first rank (20 November 1935). One of the most highly decorated Red Army commanders of the civil-war era, I. E. Iakir was born into the family of a prosperous Jewish pharmacist at Kishinev, Bessarabia guberniia. He became a student at the University of Basel, but returned to Russia after the outbreak of the First World War and found employment in a munitions factory in Odessa, before enrolling at the Khar′kov Technological Institute (1915–1917). Radicalized by the war, he joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks) in April 1917 and was active in Bessarabia (as a member of the executive committee of the regional Soviet from December 1917); in 1918 he led the unsuccessful Red Guards’ resistance to the seizure of the region by Romania.

Having retreated into Ukraine, Iakir led a battalion of Chinese volunteers in the Red Army and was one of the military commissars of the Voronezh Division. He subsequently (from October 1918) commanded several key formations on the Southern Front, seeing action against the Don Cossack forces of Ataman P. N. Krasnov, and at the same time served on the Revvoensovet of the 8th Red Army. For his achievements, he became the second ever recipient of the Order of the Red Banner. At this time, he was also heavily involved in the implementation of the policy of de-Cossackization. In the summer of 1919, he was assigned to Ukraine to command first the 45th Rifle Division (7 July–18 August 1919) and then (18 August–4 October 1919) the southern group of forces of the 12th Red Army (composed of the 45th and 58th Rifle Divisions). These forces were surrounded by the Whites near Odessa, but in one of the most remarkable feats of the civil wars, Iakir planned and led the breach of their encirclement and a 300-mile forced march through the enemy’s rear to unite with the Red Army at Zhitomir. He then returned to the command of the 45th Rifle Division (19 October 1919–6 April 1921), seeing action against the White forces of A. N. Denikin before Kiev and those of N. N. Iudenich in defense of Petrograd and against the Ukrainian-Insurgent Army of Nestor Makhno. During the Soviet–Polish War, he commanded, successively, the Fastovsk, Zolochevsk, and L′vov groups of forces on the South-West Front (20 May–August 1920) and then the 14th Red Army (15 December 1920–6 January 1921).

Following the civil wars, Iakir occupied numerous senior posts, including the command of the forces of the Crimea Military Region (1921), the Kiev Military Region (1921–September 1923 and December 1923–April 1924), and the Ukraine Military District (November 1925–May 1935). During the last of these postings, he developed the fortifications of the Soviet Union’s frontiers with Poland and Romania. He was also first a candidate (29 November 1927–5 June 1930) and then a full a member (15 June 1930–27 May 1935) of the Central Committee of the Ukrainian Communist Party and first a candidate (13 July 1930–26 January 1934) and then a full member (10 February 1934–1 June 1937) of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The last of these was a surprise, given that in 1933 he had written a letter to the Soviet Politbiuro protesting against the continued extraction of grain from Ukraine during the famine of that time. He was also a member of the Revvoensovet of the USSR (3 June 1930–20 June 1934) and on two occasions studied at the Higher Military Academy of the German General Staff (1927–1928 and June 1933). His final postings were as commander of the Kiev Military District (May 1935–10 May 1937), during which period he oversaw a series of highly influential maneuvers and exercises involving the combined mechanized and aviation forces of the Red Army; member of the Military Soviet attached to the People’s Commissariat for Defense of the USSR (1936–28 May 1937); and commander of the Leningrad Military District (10–28 May 1937).

Along with M. N. Tukhachevskii and other senior Red Army commanders and veterans of the civil wars, Iakir was arrested on 28 May 1937. After a secret trial, at which V. K. Bliukher and S. M. Budennyi were among those presiding, he was shot as a traitor. According to some sources, his last words were “Long live Stalin!” He was posthumously rehabilitated on 31 January 1957. In 1966, a 4-kopek stamp bearing Iakir’s portrait was issued in the Soviet Union. His son, Petr (1923–1982), became a prominent human rights campaigner and dissident in the Soviet Union.

IAKOVENKO, VASILII GRIGOR′EVICH (3 March 1889–29 July 1937). The Siberian partisan commander V. G. Iakovenko was born into a peasant family at Taseevo in Eniseisk guberniia. Having been orphaned at the age of nine years, he worked as a farm laborer to support himself. He was mobilized into the army in 1910 and, after four years attached to an engineering unit, served (as an NCO) with distinction in the First World War (winning three Crosses of St. George for bravery).

Iakovenko joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks) in July 1917. Later that year, he returned to Taseevo and chaired its district soviet. When the revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion overthrew Soviet power in the region, he went underground to organize partisan forces that, having driven White forces out of Taseevo in an uprising of 28 December 1918 (and formed the Taseevo Partisan Republic in January 1919), would prove a constant thorn in the side of the Russian Army of Admiral A. V. Kolchak, particularly by launching attacks on the Trans-Siberian Railway. By early 1919, Iakovenko was commanding around 15,000 men (according to Soviet estimates) on the Northern-Kansk Front. In the summer of 1919, he was forced to retreat south toward Tuva, but drove north again in November–December 1919 to assist in the Red Army’s capture of Krasnoiarsk.

Iakovenko subsequently worked in the local Soviet administration at Kansk and Krasnoiarsk before moving to Moscow to become, successively, People’s Commissar for Agriculture (18 January 1922–7 July 1923) and People’s Commissar for Social Security (29 December 1924–2 October 1926). He was also a member of the Central Control Commission of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (1 May 1924–2 October 1926) and a member of VTsIK (from 25 April 1923). In the leadership battles of the 1920s, he was a supporter of the Left Opposition. Consequently, he lost influence as the decade progressed and, with the rise to dominance of J. V. Stalin, was eventually removed from his posts. Having recanted his “errors,” he was eventually allowed to return to responsible work, as director of a research institute attached to the People’s Commissariat for Agriculture of the USSR (1935–9 February 1937).

Iakovenko was arrested on 9 February 1937, and on 29 July that year, having been found guilty of membership in a (mythical) counterrevolutionary organization (the “Moscow Center”), was sentenced to death by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR. The sentence was carried out that same day. Iakovenko was buried in a mass grave in the grounds of the Donskoi Cathedral in Moscow. He was posthumously rehabilitated on 30 June 1956.

IAKOVLEV, VADIM (?–?). Esaul (191?), colonel (Polish Army, June 1920). The Cossack commander Vadim Iakovlev, a member of the Don Cossack Host and a veteran of the First World War, led a brigade of cavalry in the Armed Forces of South Russia in 1919, but as the White advance collapsed in November of that year, he led his men across the lines to join the Red Army. Iakovlev subsequently commanded the 3rd Don Cossack Cavalry Brigade, attached to the 1st Cavalry Army during the Soviet–Polish War of 1920. When Red forces failed to break through the Polish lines at Wołodarka, during battles on 29–31 May 1920, Iakovlev and his 1,700 men again switched sides, joining the Polish Army as the Free Cossack Brigade. This unit was notorious for terrorizing the civilian populations of the border regions, particularly the Jews. When the Soviet–Polish armistice was signed in October 1920, Iakovlev vowed to continue the struggle against the Bolsheviks and signed an agreement with S. V. Petliura to mount raids across the Soviet border from Polish territory. His forces were quickly repelled, however, and Iakovlev remained their commander in their subsequent internment in Poland, until their disbanding in 1923.

Iakushev, Ivan Aleksandrovich (1882/1883–11 October 1935). A leading socialist and oblastnik figure in Siberia during the civil wars, I. A. Iakushev was born in the town of Surgut, Tobol′sk guberniia. He joined the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries in 1907 and worked as an agitator in Central Asia and eastern Siberia, being arrested and exiled on several occasions by the tsarist authorities, but from 1914 he worked in local government at Irkutsk and from 1917 served on the board of the city duma. As a representative from Irkutsk, he attended a number of regional conferences in 1917, including the one at Tomsk on 6–19 December that summoned the Siberian Regional Duma. On 26 January 1918, he was arrested by Soviet authorities at Tomsk and sent away to prison in Krasnoiarsk. In his absence, he was elected chairman of the Regional Duma and minister of justice in the Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia.

During the Democratic Counter-Revolution of the summer of 1918, Iakushev led the Duma’s struggle for precedence over the Provisional Siberian Government and its Administrative Council, and on 21 September 1918, during the Novoselov affair, he was arrested by the military authorities at Omsk, together with V. M. Krutovskii, M. B. Shatilov, and A. E. Novoselov. Following the dissolution of the Siberian Regional Duma and the Omsk coup, he opposed the regime of Admiral A. V. Kolchak, becoming a leading figure in the Committee for the Convocation of a Zemskii sobor′ (authoring its charter of 5 September 1919) and was one of the key organizers of the Gajda putsch against the Whites at Vladivostok on November 1919. Had the putsch succeeded, Iakushev was scheduled to have become (with A. A. Krakovetskii and B. I. Moravskii) a triumvir of the “Provisional People’s Government of Siberia,” but when the action failed, he was able to continue to work in the All-Siberian Union of Zemstvos and Towns in Vladivostok and as editor of the nonparty socialist newspaper Dal′nevostochnaia zhizn′ (“Far Eastern Life”), before emigrating to Czechoslovakia in 1922. There he founded the Union of Siberians, which was active from 1926 to 1935. He was extraordinarily active in émigré cultural and educational work, propagating the idea that the Bolshevik victory in Russia was to be explained by the tradition in the country of a strong center and a weak periphery, and also edited the important journals Vol′naia Sibir′ (“Free Siberia”) and Sibirskii arkhiv (“Siberian Archive”).

IAKUTSK PEOPLE’S ARMY. This anti-Bolshevik force, the mainstay of the Iakutsk Revolt, was created in 1921, in the forests of Iakutia, from various White detachments that had gone over to partisan warfare in the aftermath of the collapse of Admiral A. V. Kolchak’s Russian Army. Commanded by Coronet (later Lieutenant Colonel) M. Ia. Korobeinikov and numbering some 1,500 men, in March 1921 it invaded and then briefly held the town of Iakutsk in the name of a rapidly assembled Provisional Iakutsk Regional People’s Government, but was soon driven back to the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, remustering near Okhotska and Aian. Having earlier declared his recognition of the White administration in the Maritime Province and formally subordinated himself to the command of General M. K. Diterikhs at Vladivostok, on 2 October 1922, Korobeinikov was joined by a 750-strong force of the Siberian Volunteer Druzhina, led by General A. N. Pepeliaev, which had traveled from Manchuria to Vladivostok and thence by sea to assist him. However, with the Red Army’s capture of Vladivostok and the Maritime Province in October–November 1922, the situation of this tiny and isolated White force (the last remaining on Russian territory) became hopeless. In May–June 1923, Red Army expeditionary forces arrived by land and sea to crush the Iakutsk People’s Army, capturing Okhotsk (6 June) and Aian (16 June), together with some 104 White officers (among them, Pepeliaev) and 230 White soldiers. These were then transported by sea to Vladivostok.

IAKUTSK REVOLT. This anti-Bolshevik uprising of September 1921 to June 1923 was centered on the Aiano-Maiskii district on the Okhotsk coast of Iakutia. A small White force of initially some 200 men called the Iakutsk People’s Army, under Coronet M. Ia. Korobeinikov, seized the district and on 23 March 1922 also captured Iakutsk, with the aim of making it the capital of a Provisional Iakut People’s Government. The following month, contact was established with the Provisional Priamur (People’s) Government at Vladivostok, which eventually dispatched by sea to Iakutia a contingent of some 750 volunteers under the command of General A. N. Pepeliaev. Before Pepeliaev’s men arrived in the region on 2 September 1922, however, Korobeinikov’s forces had been ousted from Iakutsk and had withdrawn to Okhotsk and Aian. The Whites were able to advance once more toward Iakutsk, and by the end of October 1922 had captured Nelkan, but by that time Red forces had captured Vladivostok, leaving Pepeliaev’s men isolated and without support. A renewed Red Army offensive from Iakutsk in February to March 1923, led by I. Ia. Strod, ousted the Whites from Sasyl-Sasyg and Amga, while on 24 April 1923, additional Red forces commanded by V. S. Vostretsov arrived in the region, having been transported from Vladivostok on board the steamers Stavropol′ and Indigirka. Further defeats for what was the last remaining White force on Russian soil ensued near Okhotsk on 6 June 1923 and near Aian on 16 June 1923, following which Pepeliaev surrendered. He, 103 of his officers, and 230 White soldiers were then transported to Vladivostok for trial.

IARCHUK, EFIM (KHAIM) ZAKHAROVICH (1882/1883/1886–1937/1942). Born into a lower middle-class Jewish family at Berezna in Volynia guberniia, Efim Iarchuk, one of the foremost proponents of anarchism of the civil-war era, trained as a tailor but in his youth became active in the anarchist Chernoe Znamia (Black Banner) group at Bialystok, which combined mass agitation with terrorist attacks on government offices and employees. Following the 1905 Revolution, he was exiled to Iakutsk prison in eastern Siberia for five years, and in 1913 he emigrated to the United States. There, he was involved in the Union of Russian Workers and the newspaper Golos truda (“The Voice of Labor”) and was active in the Anarchist Red Cross in New York. He returned to Russia following the February Revolution of 1917 and was elected to the Kronshtadt Soviet, becoming an important and influential anarchist organizer and propagandist at the naval base.

Iarchuk led an independently organized group of sailors in the battles against the Kerensky–Krasnov Uprising in the aftermath of the October Revolution, and by July–August 1918, the time of the first national congress of anarchists, he was an editor of the important anarchist newspaper Volnyi golos truda (“The Free Voice of Labor”). In November 1918, he was named treasurer of the Executive Bureau of the All-Russian Anarcho-Syndicalist Confederation. However, that organization’s activities were curtailed by the Cheka, and Iarchuk himself was arrested on at least six occasions during the civil wars. He was finally arrested on 8 March 1921, at the time of the Kronshtadt Revolt, and was then held with the other leading lights of Russian anarchism at the Taganka prison in Moscow. Following a hunger strike in July 1921 and the protests of foreign trade unionists at the conference of the Profintern, he and nine other anarchists were released in September 1921, and subsequently deported in January 1922. He went to Berlin to work alongside Gregory Maximoff on the newspaper Rabochii put′ (“The Worker’s Path”). In 1925, the support of N. I. Bukharin enabled Iarchuk to return to Soviet Russia, where he subsequently joined the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). Predictably, this did not save him from arrest and execution during the purges in the 1930s.

IAROSLAVL′ REVOLT. Organized by B. V. Savinkov’s Union for the Defense of the Fatherland and Freedom (at the behest of the Union for the Regeneration of Russia, which in turn had been encouraged in this endeavor by the British representative in Moscow, Robert Bruce Lockhart, and other Allied agents), this anti-Soviet uprising on 6–21 July 1918 had as its aim the formation of a unified front against Moscow that was to stretch from the areas held by Komuch and the Czechoslovak Legion on the Volga to North Russia, where it had been expected that British forces would land at Arkhangel′sk in early July. In fact, there had been a change of plan in London, and Allied forces would not land at Arkhangel′sk until 2 August 1918, so Savinkov’s actions were premature. Nevertheless, the revolt was of grave concern to the Soviet government, as it occurred simultaneously with the Left-SR Uprising in Moscow (6–7 July 1918) and the revolt of M. A. Murav′ev on the Volga (10–11 July 1918).

Following a series of clandestine negotiations with local Mensheviks and other opponents of the Bolsheviks, in the early hours of 6 July 1918 a group of officers (many of whom had been serving in Soviet institutions) and other conspirators, led by Savinkov’s plenipotentiary and chief of staff, Colonel A. P. Perkhurov, and going under the title of the Northern Volunteer Army, seized the town of Iaroslavl′ and arrested some 200 Soviet officials and Red soldiers, shooting the most senior of them (including the chairman of the local soviet, D. Zakteim, and the commissar of Iaroslavl′ military district, S. M. Nakhimson). The uprising at Iaroslavl′ was echoed by similar actions at Rybinsk and Murom, but these were rapidly crushed by Soviet forces on 8 and 9 July 1918 respectively, leaving the rebels at Iaroslavl′ isolated. Consequently, support for the revolt among the local population, which had initially been considerable, ebbed away, and by 12 July 1918, as Red Army reinforcements arrived from Moscow and elsewhere to close the ring on Iaroslavl′, only 700 rebels remained in the field. Most of the leaders of the revolt (including Perkhurov) fled up the Volga by boat on 15 July, and the remainder surrendered on 21 July 1918, following the heavy shelling of the city by Red forces. Many of those who surrendered (350 by some accounts) were immediately executed, partly in retribution for the rebels’ execution of Soviet officials during the revolt. Perkhurov, who joined the Whites during the civil wars, was arrested, tried, and shot at Iaroslavl′ on 21 July 1922.

IBRAHIM-BEK (CHEKABIEV), MUHAMMAD (?–1931). One of the most successful and influential leaders of the Basmachi in eastern Bukhara, Muhammad Ibrahim-bek was a member of the Lakai tribe of the Uzbeks. A devout and both politically and religiously conservative figure, he scorned the influence of Jadidism on the Muslims of Central Asia and remained loyal to the Emir of Bukhara, Said-Alim Khan, who had been forced to flee from Bukhara in October 1920. Thereafter, Ibrahim-Bek’s forces (numbering some 4,000 fighters) acted as, essentially, the army of the emir.

A talented guerrilla leader, Ibrahim-bek enjoyed some success in raids on Soviet bases from July to August 1921 onward (sometimes in uneasy collaboration with Enver Pasha), eventually concentrating on operations around the Gissarsk Valley, but by the summer of 1923, the Red Army had gained the upper hand and had virtually obliterated his forces and those of his allies, Salim-pasha and Fusail-Muksum. Nevertheless, despite having to shift his base of operations into Afghanistan, Ibrahim-bek retained his influence in the regions of Bukhara and Ferghana; by June 1924, he had managed to gather and unite under his own leadership almost all the remaining Basmachi fighters of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, and during 1924–1925 he launched a new wave of attacks upon Soviet positions. By the spring of 1925, however, his forces had again been decimated by desertions and the actions of Red units deployed by M. V. Frunze. In June 1926, Ibrahim-bek was forced to flee south into Afghanistan, from where he continued to command cross-border raids and at the same time attempted to engage anti-Soviet Muslim forces from Afghanistan and Persia in the fight against Soviet Russia. On 23 June 1931, he was betrayed and was captured by the Soviet authorities as he attempted to cross the border from Afghanistan. He was executed shortly thereafter, alongside 33 of his supporters, following a trial at Tashkent.

ICE MARCH OF THE BALTIC FLEET. This term refers to the transfer from Revel (Tallinn) and Helsingfors (Helsinki) to Kronshtadt, between 17 February and 11 April 1918, of the remnants of the Baltic Fleet of the Imperial Russian Navy, in order to prevent the vessels from falling into the hands of Germany or White, nationalist, or other anti-Bolshevik forces in the region. The order to evacuate was issued by the Soviet government’s naval staff on 17 February 1918, in light of the breaking off of peace negotiations at Brest-Litovsk. Many of the vessels harbored at Revel were removed before the arrival of German forces in the city on 25 February 1918, and by 5 March 1918 all of them had reached Helsingfors, with the exception of one submarine that was crushed by ice.

As White Finnish forces gained the upper hand in the Finnish Civil War, and in light of the provision in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918) that the Soviet government had to either confine all its ships to port or have them disarmed, in early April the vessels were moved on to Kronshtadt, through heavy ice and storms. In all, 226 vessels completed the journey, including 6 battleships, 5 cruisers, 59 destroyers and torpedo boats, and 12 submarines, bringing with them numerous aircraft, artillery pieces, and other items of military equipment. On 3 April 1918, Red sailors at Hanko (Hangö) were forced to scuttle four submarines to prevent their capture by Rüdiger von der Goltz’s Baltic Sea Division, which had arrived in Finland to support the White Finns, and a number of other (mostly smaller) vessels were abandoned in Finland. The Ice March of the Baltic Fleet was commanded by Admiral A. P. Zelenoi and Captain A. M. Shchastnyi, who was soon afterward executed as a traitor by the Bolsheviks.

IDEL-URALS REPUBLIC. Proclaimed by a Muslim Congress at Kazan′ on 12 December 1917, but soon joined by representatives of other, non-Muslim (chiefly Finnic) peoples, this loosely defined “state,” with its center at Kazan′, was really more of a league of the Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash, Mari, Komi, and other peoples of the Volga (“Idel” in a number of Turkic languages) and Urals regions than a fully fledged polity. The republic, which chiefly represented the flowering of a modernizing and progressive Tatar national consciousness and was the fruit of efforts made to achieve autonomy during the 1905 Revolution, was opposed by the Kazan′ Soviet (which arrested its leaders at the 2nd All-Russian Muslim Military Congress on 27 February 1918) and by the Soviet government, which on 22 March 1918 proclaimed a rival Tatar-Bashkir Soviet Republic. It was subsequently overthrown by the Red Army in April 1918, restored during the Democratic Counter-Revolution in June 1918, and then overthrown once more as the Red Army reoccupied the region that autumn.

Some of the Idel–Urals Republic’s troops were incorporated into the White forces of Admiral A. V. Kolchak as the 16th Tatar Regiment, while its president, Sadreddin Nizamettinovich Maksudov (Sadri Maksudi Arsal), fled abroad to seek foreign support, but without success. In 1920–1921, a revolt against Soviet power by supporters of the Republic had to be suppressed by the Red Army, as the Soviet government in Moscow proceeded to divide the area among a number of autonomous regions, but the Idel–Urals ideal (of a single state stretching from the Northern Urals to the Caspian and the borders of Turkestan) continued to be propagated clandestinely throughout the 1920s and occasionally resurfaces to this day.

IMPERIAL NICHOLAS GENERAL STAFF ACADEMY. See ACADEMY OF THE GENERAL STAFF.

IMPERIAL RUSSIAN GOLD RESERVE. See GOLD RESERVE, IMPERIAL RUSSIAN.

Inculeţ, Ion Constantin (5 April 1884–18 November 1940). The leader of pro-Romanian Bessarabians during the “Russian” Civil Wars, Ion Inculeţ was born at Răzeni, Bessarabia guberniia (now in the Republic of Moldova). He was educated at the Chişinău seminary and (having transferred there from the University of Dorpat) graduated from the Natural Sciences Faculty of St. Petersburg University, where he also taught and earned a PhD in 1915. He also contributed to the progressive newspaper Basarabia.

Following the February Revolution, on 25 May 1917 Inculeţ was sent to Kishinev as commissar for Bessarabia of the Russian Provisional Government. With the creation of the Bessarabian National Council, Sfatul Ţării, on 21 November 1917, in the aftermath of the October Revolution, he was elected as its first president. He remained in that post following the proclamation of the Moldavian People’s Republic (2 December 1917), and when Sfatul Ţării voted for union with Romania on 9 April 1918, he became minister for Bessarabia in the Romanian Government at Bucharest. Subsequently, in interwar Romania, as a founder and leader of the Bessarabian Peasants’ Party, Inculeţ agitated for land reform in Bessarabia. He died in Bucharest, and his remains were initially interred in the city’s Bellu cemetery. On 7 June 1942, they were moved to a tomb in the Bârnova monastery, near Iaşi (Jassy).

INOSTRANTSEV, MIKHAIL ALEKSANDROVICH (26 July 1872–5 December 1938). Colonel (6 December 1908), major general (21 October 1915), lieutenant general (1919). An advisor to Admiral A. V. Kolchak, M. A. Inostrantsev was the son of a St. Petersburg academic. After graduating from the Second Konstantin Military School (1893) and the Academy of the General Staff (1901), he served in guards regiments and with the General Staff before devoting his time to teaching at the St. Petersburg Infantry Officers School, the Vladimir Military School (1906–1911), and (from 1913) the Academy of the General Staff, where he became a full professor in 1916. During the First World War, he commanded the 8th Finnish Rifle Regiment and (from 9 October 1915) a brigade of the 38th Rifle Division.

Inostrantsev was evacuated with the academy by the Soviet government to Ekaterinburg in early 1918 and subsequently deserted to join the Whites. From 31 May 1919, he worked in the war ministry of the Omsk government and subsequently (from 14 June 1919) with the staff of Admiral Kolchak. From September 1919, he was quartermaster general of the Russian Army, while also fulfilling his duties as an extraordinary professor at the academy. He retired from military service due to illness on 16 August 1920 and was evacuated from Siberia with the Czechoslovak Legion. From 1920 to 1926, he lived in emigration in the Kingdom of the Serbs Croats and Slovenes, working in a private bank and as a teacher at the Russian Realschule in Zagreb. He then moved to Czechoslovakia, where he taught courses on the history of the First World War at the Military Academy in Prague and from 1931 was attached to the military-historical section of the staff of the Czechoslovak Army. He taught also at the Russian People’s University in Prague. He is buried in the Olšanské cemetery in Prague. Inostrantsev was the author of numerous books on military history and strategy.

intelligence directorate of the red army. See red army, intelligence directorate of.

INTER-ALLIED RAILWAY AGREEMENT. The “Agreement Regarding the Inter-Allied Supervision of the Chinese Eastern and Siberian Railways Systems” was signed on 9 January 1919. It established the Inter-Allied Railway Committee (IARC) at Vladivostok, with representatives from each of the Allied powers having significant numbers of troops in Siberia and the Far East (Russia, the United States, Japan, China, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Czechoslovakia), to hold general supervisory powers over the railway network east of the Urals.

The chair was provided by Russia, in the person of the minister of communications in the Omsk government, L. A. Ustrugov, and each branch railway would retain its Russian manager. Technical questions and the day-to-day running of the network, however, were to be in the hands of the Harbin-based Technical Board of the IARC, whose agents would have supervisory authority over the Russian branch managers. The head of the Technical Board was the American engineer and head of the Russian Railway Service Corps, John F. Stevens. Neither body became fully operational until March 1919, and it was not until April 1919 that a Military Transportation Board of the IARC (with a Japanese chairman) was formed to define the sections of the rail network to be guarded by the signatories’ forces. According to its dictates, the following order was established: a Chinese force would guard the Chinese Eastern Railway from Nikol′sk-Ussuriisk (inclusive) to Manchuli (exclusive), on the Russian border, plus the Harbin to Kuan Cheng-tse branch line and a section of the Ussurii branch from Guberovo to Ussuriisk station (a total of 1,225 miles); Japanese forces would patrol the Ussurii line from Nikol′sk-Ussuriisk to Spassk, the Amur line from Khabarovsk to Karymskaia, and the Transbaikal line from Manchuli (inclusive) to Verkhneudinsk (exclusive), a total of 2,500 miles; and U.S. forces would be responsible for security on the Ussurii line from Vladivostok to Suchan and from Spassk to Ussuriisk station and on the Transbaikal line from Verkhneudinsk (inclusive) to Baikal station (a total of 516 miles), and would also supply a 1,000-strong garrison to be stationed at Harbin (presumably to keep an eye on the Japanese). In addition, General Maurice Janin was placed in control of a small Russian force that would guard the line from Baikal to Irkutsk and of units of the Czechoslovak Legion that would maintain order on the line from Irkutsk to Novonikolaevsk, as well as sundry elements of the Polish Legion, the Italian Legion, and Romanian and Serbian contingents operating west of the River Ob.

These arrangements brought about an immediate and dramatic improvement in the running of the railway system in the eastern White zone, but came too late to have anything more than a marginal impact on the supply of Admiral A. V. Kolchak’s Russian Army at the front or the disastrous economic situation in Siberia. Moreover, Stevens calculated in March 1919 that to run effectively, the IARC required funding to the tune of $20 million from each of the signatory powers, but by the end of that year it had received just $500,000 from the Chinese government and $4 million each from Japan and the United States. Stevens’s work was also hampered by intractable language barriers, obstructionism and obfuscation on the part of local Russian railway managers, and endless bickering between the American and Japanese representatives in the region.

Internationalists. This name was applied to individuals and groups who fought on the side of the Red Army during the “Russian” Civil Wars, but had been born outside the Russian Empire. There were 5,000,000 foreigners on Russian soil by 1917, and according to Soviet sources, 250,000 of them were recruited to Soviet forces in the course of the civil wars, many of them prisoners of war who were released from camps upon the conclusion of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918): chiefly Germans, Austrians, Magyars, Czechs, and Slovaks, although the 100,000 Chinese and Korean laborers who had been employed by the tsarist regime during the First World War also provided many volunteers, as did Polish and Romanian refugees. Many internationalists returned home to play a prominent part in the founding of their domestic communist parties, for example, Béla Kun in Hungary and Josip Tito in Yugoslavia. Other veterans of internationalist detachments in Russia subsequently played prominent roles in the more famous International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War. For example, one of the most celebrated Soviet military advisors to the brigades (and commander of the 11th Brigade), “General Emilio Kléber,” was actually Manfred Stern (b. 1896 in Austrian Bukovina), who began his career in the Red Army (and later the Soviet intelligence services) as an internationalist in 1918, having been released from a POW camp at Krasnoiarsk. After being recalled to Moscow from Spain in 1937, Stern was arrested in 1938, found guilty of counterrevolutionary activities, and sent to the camps for 15 years. He died in the Gulag in 1954. Likewise, the commander of the 12th International Brigade in Spain, Pavol Lukács (Máté Zalka, real name Béla Frankl), had fought with a detachment of Hungarian internationalists around Khabrovsk in 1918–1919. The commander of the 15th Brigade, János Gálicz (“General Gal”), also fought with the Reds, in 1918–1920. Gal was executed in Moscow in 1939. Karol Wacław Świerczewski, who (under the name “General Walter”) commanded the 14th International Brigade in Spain, also fought with the Red Army, from 1918 to 1921. He died in March 1947 from wounds incurred during an ambush organized by the nationalist Ukrainian Insurgent Army near Baligród in southeastern Poland.

IOFFE (Joffe), ADOL′F ABRAMOVICH (10 October 1883–16 November 1927). The Soviet diplomat and revolutionary Adol′f Ioffe was born at Simferopol′, in Crimea, into a wealthy merchant family of Karaite Jewish descent. He became involved in illegal political activity while still at school, joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party in 1903, and undertook party work at Baku and Moscow before fleeing abroad in 1904. He returned to Russia during the 1905 Revolution, but was exiled to Siberia, from where he fled abroad again in 1906, settling in Vienna. There, he studied medicine and psychoanalysis and helped L. D. Trotsky edit his newspaper Pravda from 1908 to 1912. In 1912, he was arrested during a visit to Odessa, imprisoned for 10 months, then exiled to Tobol′sk guberniia in Siberia. He was freed following the February Revolution and returned to Crimea, later moving to Petrograd. There, with Trotsky, he joined the Bolsheviks at their Sixth Party Conference (26 July–3 August 1917), was seconded to the party Central Committee, and later led the Bolshevik faction within the Petrograd City Duma.

As a member of the Military-Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, Ioffe took an active part in the October Revolution and subsequently headed the Soviet delegation that signed an armistice with Germany on 1 December 1917. However, he opposed the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918), and on 8 March 1918 was elected only as a candidate member of the Bolshevik Central Committee. He worked on the Petrograd bureau of the Central Committee for much of 1918 and undertook diplomatic work—he was a signatory of the Soviet–German Supplementary Treaty of 27 August 1918 (the Berlin Agreement)—before being sent to Berlin as Soviet plenipotentiary. He arrived in Germany on 3 November 1918, but was expelled two days later, accused of fomenting revolution. From 1919 to 1920, he was a member of the Council of Defense of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, as well as its commissar for state control, and continued in diplomatic work, participating in peace negotiations with Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. He then (from August 1921) undertook missions to the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, the Bukharan People’s Soviet Republic, and the Khorezm People’s Soviet Republic and served as deputy chairman of both the Turkbiuro of the Bolshevik Central Committee and the Turkestan Commission of Sovnarkom. He attended the Genoa Conference, as an advisor to G. V. Chicherin, and helped negotiate the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany, but his association with Trotsky and the Left Opposition subsequently isolated him from the party leadership, and he was then sidelined into secondary diplomatic work in China and Japan (6 July 1922–3 June 1923), Great Britain, and Austria (12 December 1924–19 June 1925).

By the mid-1920s, Ioffe had fallen gravely ill and was forced into a largely bedridden retirement. Following the expulsion of Trotsky from the party and J. V. Stalin’s refusal to allow him to go abroad for treatment, he killed himself. His suicide note, addressed to Trotsky, said, “Politically, you have always been right, and now more right than ever.” Trotsky’s eulogy at Ioffe’s funeral was his last public speech in Soviet Russia.

IONOV, ALEKSANDR MIKHAILOVICH (1888–18 July 1950). Colonel (1917), major general (13 February 1918). The ataman (from 13 February 1918) of the Semirech’e Cossack Host, A. M. Ionov was a graduate of the 2nd Orenburg Cadet Corps, the Constantine Artillery School, and the Academy of the General Staff (1908). During the First World War, he rose to the command of the 2nd Semirech′e Cossack Regiment (from July 1917), leading that force home to Semirech′e in the aftermath of the October Revolution.

When the Semirech′e Cossacks rose against Soviet rule, Ionov was arrested (4 March 1918), but was later liberated by his Cossacks (1 May 1918). Over the following year, he had a number of clashes with the renegade White leader Ataman B. V. Annenkov and was once arrested by him. In late 1919, Ionov was sent by Admiral A. V. Kolchak to Vladivostok to assist the governor of that port, General S. N. Rozanov. He went into emigration in 1922, settling initially in Canada and then (from 1923) the United States. He died and is buried in New York.

Ironside, William Edmund (6 May 1880–22 September 1959). Major general (1919), field marshal (1940). The British commander in chief of Allied forces in North Russia from 14 October 1918 to 11 August 1919, General William Ironside (jokingly nicknamed “Tiny,” as he was six feet, four inches tall) enjoyed one of the most illustrious military careers in British history. He was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, the son of a surgeon-major in the Indian Army; educated at Tonbridge School, Kent, and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; and joined the Royal Artillery in 1899. He saw action in the South African War of 1899–1902, as an intelligence officer (work that, it has been suggested, inspired the character of Richard Hannay in novels by John Buchan, notably The Thirty-Nine Steps); subsequently operated underground in German South-West Africa (where he seems to have participated in the Germans’ genocidal campaign against the Herero people); and during the First World War, rose to the command of the 99th Infantry Brigade on the Western Front (September 1918).

Due to his facility with foreign languages, Ironside was then selected to serve as chief of staff to Major General Frederick Poole, commander of the multinational Allied intervention force in North Russia. A month later, he became acting commander of the force, when Poole was suddenly recalled to Britain. Having been confirmed in his command, Ironside assisted in the creation of the Northern Army of General E. K. Miller, supported the creation of the Slavo-British Legion, and oversaw the deployment on the Arkhangel′sk Front of the 8,000-man relief force that arrived from Britain in May 1919. The latter were utilized during the successful disengagement operation on the Northern Dvina Front that Ironside masterminded in early August 1919. Ironside was then replaced as commander by General Henry C. Rawlinson, who directed the final Allied evacuation of North Russia the following month.

Ironside subsequently commanded British forces at Izmit, Turkey (1920), and then was placed at the head of British forces at Meshed (Norperforce, 4 October 1920–18 February 1921). From 1922 to 1926, he was commandant of the Staff College, then served at Meerut, India, for a brief period before being named Lieutenant of HM Tower of London in July 1931. He returned to India as quartermaster general in October 1933, was made head of Eastern Command in 1936, and was commander in chief of Gibraltar (1938–1939). During the Second World War, he served initially as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (September 1939–June 1940), the highest position in the British armed forces, and subsequently as commander in chief of Home Forces (from July 1940). Having been knighted in 1938, he was made a peer upon his retirement from active service in 1941. He chose the title Baron Ironside of Archangel (Arkhangel′sk).

ISKOLAT. The executive committee of the Soviet of Workers, Soldiers and Landless [Peasants] of Latvia was established by the Riga Soviet on 29–30 July 1917, on the initiative of the Latvian social democrats, among whom the Bolsheviks formed a majority. It was a center of opposition to the Russian Provisional Government and oversaw the October Revolution in those parts of Latvia not occupied by Germany. (Riga having been captured by Germany on 21 August 1917, thereafter Iskolat was based at Cēsis and later Valka.) It had 27 members, 24 of them Bolsheviks, and was chaired by the Bolshevik O. Karklin′. In December 1917, new Soviet elections in Latvia placed Fricis Roziņš at the head of Iskolat, which declared the independence of the Republic of Iskolat on 24 December 1918. This regime introduced a decree on land, decreed workers’ control of industry, and organized units of Red Guards, but was forced to flee to Moscow in late February 1918, when German forces invaded the remainder of Latvia during the Eleven-Days War. Iskolat was formally disbanded on 20 February 1918, but was in effect resurrected at the end of that year in the form of the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic.

ISLAMKUL (ISLAM-KULI, EMIR LIASHKER BASHI) (?–1923). Along with Rakhmankul and Muetdin-Bek, Islamkul was one of the most prominent and successful of the Basmachi leaders, but the details of his biography remain obscure. The forces under his command operated in eastern Ferghana from 1920, in association with those of Igrash, as the “Army of Islam.”

ITALIAN LEGION. The Italian Legion, or Legione Redenta (“The Legion of the Redeemed”), formed a minor part of the Allied intervention in Siberia. Its 2,500 members were former prisoners of war, captured by the Russians from the Austro-Hungarian Army in the course of the First World War—most of them being natives of Trentino, Dalmatia, and Istria—who had sworn an oath to the King of Italy and were consequently enrolled as an Allied force. The unit, commanded by Major Cosma Manera, was deployed in the Far East, around Irkutsk, Harbin, and Vladivostok, and was chiefly occupied with policing the Trans-Siberian Railway.

Iudenich, Nikolai Nikolaevich (18 July 1862–5 October 1933). Major general (15 June 1905), lieutenant general (6 December 1912), general of infantry (24 January 1915). One of Russia’s most effective generals during the First World War and subsequently leader of the White movement in the Baltic theater, N. N. Iudenich was born in Moscow into a noble family with its (originally Jewish) roots in Minsk (his father was a collegiate counselor). After graduating from the Third Alexander Military School (1881) and the Academy of the General Staff (1887), he joined the Lithuanian Life Guards Regiment. He then served on the staff of the Warsaw Military District and in Turkestan until 1902; participated in the Russo-Japanese War as a regimental and then a brigade commander (earning a gold sword for bravery); and subsequently became quartermaster with the staff of the Kazan′ Military District (from 10 February 1907) and then, briefly, chief of staff of that region (6 December 1912–25 February 1913), before transferring to the post of chief of staff of the Caucasus Military District (from 25 February 1913).

During the First World War, as, successively, chief of staff of the Caucasus Army (from 2 October 1914), commander of the 2nd Turkestan Army Corps (from 11 December 1914), and commander of the Caucasus Army (from 24 January 1915), Iudenich became Russia’s most consistently successful general, inflicting numerous heavy defeats on Turkey, notably at the Battle of Sarıkamış (December 1914–January 1915), and in August 1915, in repulsing Enver Pasha’s planned invasion of Transcaucasia. He also directed the Russian forces’ intermittently successful operations around Lake Van and oversaw the capture of Erzurum, Trabzon, and Erzincan (February–July 1916). He consequently figured prominently in Russian wartime propaganda. Following the February Revolution of 1917, he retained overall command of the Caucasus Front, being confirmed as its main commander in chief on 3 April 1917. However, dismayed by the revolution, reluctant to cooperate with the Russian Provisional Government, and skeptical about the potential for success of the renewed offensive that had been ordered by A. F. Kerensky, he was retired from active service on 31 May 1917.

Iudenich then returned to Petrograd and, having been a vocal supporter of L. G. Kornilov during his challenge to the Provisional Government (the Kornilov affair), lived underground for a year after the October Revolution, before fleeing, in November 1918, to Finland. There, with the permission of his old friend from the academy, General C. G. Mannerheim, and with the financial assistance of the British, he undertook the organization of counterrevolutionary forces. In January 1919, the anti-Bolshevik Russian Committee in Helsinki subordinated itself to him, and in May of that year, under pressure from Allied representatives in the region, he formed the Political Conference in that city to advise him on civil affairs (although he generally despised politicians as a breed). On 24 May 1919, he was named head of all anti-Bolshevik forces in the Baltic region by the Whites’ supreme ruler, Admiral A. V. Kolchak; on 10 June 1919, Kolchak named him governor-general of the northwest region. Thereafter, having arrived in Tallinn (Revel) on 26 July 1919, Iudenich served as commander in chief of the North-West Army (2 October–28 November 1919) and as minister of war in the North-West Government (from 11 August 1919).

Like other White leaders, Iudenich failed to establish an effective political regime or to attract sufficient support from the Allies and suffered strained relations with the non-Russian peoples of his base territory (especially the Estonians). However, he was willing to recognize the independence of Finland, as an incentive for the Finns to join him in clearing the Bolsheviks from Petrograd, and was even inclined to consider offering concessions to Estonia, but was stymied in this and rebuked by Admiral Kolchak. It also earned him the suspicion of elements of his own officer corps, who considered instead turning for assistance to German forces in the region: General Gustav von der Goltz and the Baltische Landeswehr. Nevertheless, Iudenich masterminded the Whites’ advance to the outskirts of Petrograd in September–October 1919, but when L. D. Trotsky managed to regroup the Red Army forces in the region, Iudenich’s army was pushed back into Estonia, where it was interned before being disbanded, on Iudenich’s order, on 22 January 1920.

On 27 January 1920, Iudenich was briefly arrested as a “traitor” by the renegade White General S. N. Bułak-Bałachowicz, who was assisted by Estonian police officers, but he was soon released and a month later was allowed to leave Estonia for Riga with the British military mission. Subsequently, after a few weeks in London, he settled into exile in France, on the Riviera (from late May 1920). There, he was active in educational work and served as chair of the Society of Enthusiasts of Russian History, but largely shunned émigré politics. He died in Saint-Laurent-du-Var, Nice, and was buried in the Russian cemetery at Caucade.

IUNAKOV, NIKOLAI LEONT′EVICH (6 December 1871–1931). Colonel (6 December 1906), major general (6 December 1912), lieutenant general (10 April 1916), general colonel (Ukrainian Army, 1920). The anti-Bolshevik military commander N. L. Iunakov was born at Chuguev, into the noble family of a general of infantry of the Russian Army, and was a graduate of the Orlov Cadet Corps (1889), the Pavlovsk Military School (1891), and the Academy of the General Staff (1897). He entered the prestigious Semenovskii Life Guards Regiment and rose through the ranks of the Russian Army, from 17 September 1907 working at the academy as a lecturer and researcher (specializing in the Great Northern War). Upon the outbreak of the First World War he was commander (from 29 July 1914) of a brigade with the 74th Infantry Division (which was then in the process of formation), and he subsequently served as chief of staff of the 25th Army Corps (from 4 November 1914), chief of staff of the 4th Army (from 4 April 1915), commander of the 7th Army Corps (from 28 April 1917), and commander of the 8th Army (from 18 October 1917).

Following the October Revolution, Iunakov was retired from the army, having refused to serve the Soviet government, and in April 1918 he moved to Kiev, working initially (from 3 August 1918) as head of the Main Military-Educational Directorate of the Ukrainian State and as chairman of the board that founded independent Ukraine’s military schools and staff academy (which he headed from 29 October 1918). In November–December 1918, he switched allegiance to the service of the Ukrainian National Republic Directory, as assistant main inspector of the Ukrainian Army, then (from 7 August 1918) as chief of staff of the head (golovnoi) ataman, S. V. Petliura. Iunakov subsequently served as a senior advisor to the Ukrainian diplomatic mission in Poland that negotiated the Treaty of Warsaw (21–24 April 1920) and then (25 June–September 1920) was minister of war in the Ukrainian government-in-exile. He was also chief of the Ukrainian Supreme Army Council in Poland (1920–1923) and chairman of the émigré Ukrainian Military-Historical Society. He retired from active work in 1927, due to ill health, and is thought to have died at his home at Tarnów, in southern Poland, on 1 July 1931 (although other sources have it that he died on 11 August 1931 in the department of Tarn in southern France). Iunakov authored numerous works of military history.

IURENEV (KRUTOVSKII), KONSTANTIN KONSTANTINOVICH (1888–1 August 1938). A prominent Soviet military leader (and later diplomat), K. K. Iurenev was born at Dvinsk, Vitebsk guberniia, the son of a railway worker. He joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party in 1905 and initially gravitated toward the Bolsheviks, before (from 1913) becoming associated with the Mezhraiontsy (“Inter-District Group”) of the party under L. D. Trotsky. Apart from a period of exile in Arkhangel′sk guberniia (1908–1911), he was chiefly occupied with party work in Latvia and St. Petersburg before being mobilized into the Russian Army in 1916. He quickly deserted, was rearrested, and escaped. In 1917, he was a member of the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet and (from June) of VTsIK, and in July of that year, along with Trotsky and other Mezhraiontsy, joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks).

Iurenev played a central part in the October Revolution, as (from September 1917) a member of the Central Commandant’s Office and chairman of the Bureau of the Main Staff of the Red Guard in Petrograd and as a member of the Military-Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet. From December 1917, he was a member of the collegium of the People’s Commissariat for War of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and was simultaneously (from April 1918) a member of the All-Russia Collegium for the Formation of the Red Army and chairman of the All-Russian Bureau of Military Commissars. He was also an early recruit to the Revvoensovet of the Republic (30 September 1918–8 July 1919) and served as a member of the Revvoensovets of the Eastern Front (15 April–14 August 1919) and the Western Front (14 October 1919–5 January 1920). In 1920, he worked on the Moscow regional committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and was also chairman of the Kursk gubkom of the party.

From the summer of 1921, Iurenev was chiefly engaged in diplomatic work, as Soviet representative to the Bukharan People’s Soviet Republic (June 1921–1922). He then fulfilled the same function in Latvia (1922–29 April 1923), Czechoslovakia (1923–1924), Italy (1924–4 April 1925), Persia (4 April 1925–5 August 1927), Austria (14 September 1927–1933), and Japan (1933–16 June 1937). On 16 June 1937, Iurenev was recalled to Moscow and became a diplomatic representative to Germany (July–December 1937), but was recalled again and this time arrested. On 1 August 1938, he was found guilty of espionage, sentenced to death, and shot the same day. He was posthumously rehabilitated in 1956.

Iuzefovich, Iakov Davydovich (12 March 1872–5 July 1929). Colonel (6 December 1908), major general (15 February 1915), lieutenant general (7 September 1917). A close associate of General P. N. Wrangel, I. D. Iuzefovich was of Muslim and Tatar heritage. He was a graduate of the Polotsk Cadet Corps (1890), the Mikhail Artillery School (1893), and the Academy of the General Staff (1899), and spent the years 1901–1904 as a senior adjutant with the staff of the Warsaw Military District. In the Russo-Japanese War, he served on the staff of the 3rd Manchurian Army and subsequently rose to chief of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (from 24 November 1910). During the First World War, he served as chief of staff of the Native (“Wild”) Division (from 23 August 1914); chief of staff of the 2nd Cavalry Corps (from 22 February 1916); commander of the 26th Army Corps (March 1917); and quartermaster general (from 15 April 1917); then first quartermaster general (from 12 May 1917), of the main commander in chief. From 15 June 1917, he commanded the 12th Cavalry Division, then (from 7 September 1917) the 26th Army Corps, then (7 September–19 November 1917) the 12th Army.

As the Russian Army collapsed in the aftermath of the October Revolution, Iuzefovich briefly assumed (nominal) command of the Northern Front. He then made his way to South Russia and in the White movement served on the staff of the Volunteer Army (June 1918–January 1919), before becoming chief of staff of Wrangel’s Caucasian Volunteer Army (1 January–May 1919, Caucasian Army from May 1919), standing in for Wrangel when he fell ill for several weeks. Subsequently, as commander of the 5th Cavalry Corps (27 June–29 November 1919), it was Iuzofovich’s forces, the spearhead of the advance on Moscow of the Armed Forces of South Russia, that were turned back and beaten by the Red Army at Orel. Retreating into Crimea, Iuzefovich was then placed in charge of organizing defensive lines in Northern Tauride and at Perekop (January–May 1920), before being named inspector of cavalry of Wrangel’s new Russian Army (22 May–17 September 1920).

In September 1920, Iuzefovich was sent on a mission to Paris to agitate for the continued creation of a new Russian force in Poland (the 3rd Army) and to replace General P. S. Makhrov at the head of it. When these plans were scotched by the armistice signed at Riga, which brought an end to the fighting in the Soviet–Polish War, Iuzefovich remained in emigration, living in Wiesbaden, then Poland, and finally (from 1921) Tartu, Estonia, where he died.

IVANOV, PAVEL VASIL′EVICH (15 January 1867–1932). The industrialist and anti-Bolshevik politician P. V. Ivanov was born into a merchant family at Bobrovsk, Ekaterinburg, and was a graduate of the Ekaterinburg Realschule and the Moscow Higher Technical School (1890), where he trained as an engineer. He subsequently founded his own company in Ekaterinburg and, from 1900, was active in local politics, as a member of the Perm guberniia zemstvo and the Ekaterinburg uezd duma; as head of the Ekaterinburg Stock Exchange; and as a supporter of the V. G. Belinskii Library, the Perm′ University, the Urals Mining Institute, and other such enterprises. He also joined the Kadets in 1905, and he collaborated in the publication of the liberal newspaper Ural′skii krai (“The Urals Region”). In 1915, he was elected chairman of the Urals Military-Industrial Committee and in 1917 became chairman of the All-Russian Union of Mill-Owners. He opposed the October Revolution, and in August 1918 he accepted the post of chairman of the anti-Bolshevik, liberal-socialist coalition Provisional Oblast′ Government of the Urals, one of the pillars of the Democratic Counter-Revolution in the east. He served at the same time (13 August–November 1918) as minister of trade and industry in the Urals regime. In May 1919, he was named by Admiral A. V. Kolchak as the Omsk government’s chief plenipotentiary to the Urals industrial region and worked in close collaboration with the State Economic Conference at Omsk. From June to November 1919, he retreated eastward with the White forces, from Ekaterinburg to Omsk and then to Irkutsk, before going into emigration in January 1920, settling at Harbin.

IVANOV(-RINOV), PAVEL PAVLOVICH (26 July 1869/29 July 1874–1926?). Colonel (6 May 1913), major general (18 October 1918), lieutenant general (August 1919). One of the most remarkable figures in the White movement in Siberia, P. P. Ivanov was born into the higher ranks of the Siberian Cossack Host in Semipalatinsk guberniia and was a graduate of the Siberian Cadet Corps (1888) and the 1st Pavlovsk Military School in St. Petersburg (1890). Having survived a colorful early career in various military posts in Central Asia—on one occasion he was sentenced to death by the Chinese authorities for illegal hunting; on another he shot himself in the head during a game of Russian roulette—he served in the Russian expeditionary force to crush the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900–1901 and in the Russo-Japanese War. During the First World War, he commanded the 2nd Kuban Cossack Brigade (August 1914–February 1916) and the 8th Regiment of the Siberian Cossack Division (February–May 1916), then was named assistant governor of Turkestan and put in charge of suppressing Muslim risings against mobilization in the region. He did so ruthlessly. Following the February Revolution, the Kokand Soviet insisted on his dismissal, and he was transferred to the command of a Cossack brigade on the Caucasus Front.

From April 1918, as a leading member of the “Group of 13” of Ataman B. V. Annenkov, Ivanov was active in the anti-Bolshevik underground around Omsk and Petropavlovsk (adopting the sobriquet “Rinov,” which he subsequently attached to his birth name). With the collapse of Soviet power in the region, in which he played no small part, from 12 June to 7 September 1918 Ivanov-Rinov created and commanded the Steppe (later 2nd Steppe Siberian) Rifle Corps and on 16 July 1918 was elected ataman of the Siberian Cossack Host. He also served (5 September–4 November 1918) as the director of the ministry of war of the Provisional Siberian Government and was at the same time (5 September–13 December 1918) put in command of the Siberian Army, in those capacities becoming notorious for reintroducing the ranks and insignia of the old army. Following the Omsk coup, and having played a leading role in the subsequent Omsk massacre, he was removed from that post (23 December 1918) and sent to the Far East, and on 22 January 1919 was named commander of the Maritime Province Military District. In that role, he was distinguished by his pro-Japanese stance and had considerable success in raising troops and in smoothing relations between Admiral A. V. Kolchak and Ataman G. M. Semenov. Recalled to Omsk on 20 May 1919, from July to September 1919 he commanded the Independent Siberian Cossack Corps and on 5 November 1919 was made assistant commander of the Eastern Front.

As Kolchak’s forces collapsed and the White capital, Omsk, was abandoned, on 9 December 1919 (together with General K. V. Sakharov), Ivanov-Rinov was arrested (“for treachery”) at Taishet by General A. N. Pepeliaev, but he was soon released. He then spent some months in hiding at Krasnoiarsk, then in March 1920 made his way to Chita, where he entered the service of the forces of Ataman Semenov (as chief of staff and then chief of the rear in the Maritime Province). When Semenov’s forces were driven into Manchuria, Ivanov-Rinov moved on to Vladivostok, and from September 1921 he served under General M. K. Diterikhs, as commander of the rear districts of the Zemstvo Host. On 26 October 1922, as Soviet forces captured the port, he slipped across the border into Korea. From 1924, he lived in the Italian concession at Tientsin in China and later at Tsingao, working in the fur trade. In 1925, he began to collaborate with the Soviet agent General Gushchin in recruiting White émigrés to serve in the anti-Kuomintang forces of the “Red” Chinese general Fen Yu-sian, an ally of Moscow. Having been, according to some reports, injured in both legs during a botched police raid on the Soviet consulate, in the autumn of 1925 he apparently returned to Soviet Russia and was consequently denounced as a traitor and removed as Host ataman by the Siberian Cossack authorities in exile (29 November 1925). Family accounts have it, though, that he was kidnapped by the Cheka and forced to return to the USSR, and that he died of a heart attack sometime the following year, possibly at Irkutsk.

IZHEVSK-VOTKINSK UPRISING. This major rising against Soviet power in the Urals factory settlements of Izhevsk and Votkinsk (now in the Udmurt Republic), in early August 1918, was partly the result of the efforts of local Bolsheviks to mobilize the workforce for an attack on Kazan′, which had recently fallen to the People’s Army of Komuch during the Democratic Counter-Revolution. Much of the work of the factories was in the manufacture of weapons, so there were present a considerable number of officers of the old army, engaged in technical work, who were willing and able to assist the organization of resistance to Red forces. Within a few days, the revolt spread across all the southern districts of Viatka guberniia, and by October 1918 some 25,000 men had been gathered into the Izhevsk and Votkinsk People’s-Revolutionary Armies. In November 1918, these forces were incorporated into the army of the Ufa Directory and subsequently, as the Izhevsk and Votkinsk Divisions, were part of the Russian Army of Admiral A. V. Kolchak. The remnants of these forces (some 1,500 officers and men) who survived the retreat of White forces from the Urals to the Pacific were combined as the Izhevsk-Votkinsk Brigade of the Far Eastern (White) Army from 1920 to 1922. Many veterans of the rising and subsequent odyssey eventually settled, after initial emigration to China, in California, where in 1961 they formed the Association of Former Soldiers and Officers of the Izhevsk-Votkinsk Brigade. On 28 January 1973, in Berkeley’s St. John’s Russian Orthodox Church, an eternal candle was lit and a plaque unveiled that read, “In memory of the men and women of Izhevsk and Votkinsk who rose on August 7 and 17, 1918 against the communist aggression, who fell on the battlefield, or met their death either by torture, massacre or ended their lives in exile.” In 1993, the eternal flame was replaced by an electric candle.

IZMAILOV, NIKOLAI FEDOROVICH (6 December 1892–6 August 1971). Born at Nadezhdinka (now in Penza oblast′), N. F. Izmailov was one of the revolutionary leaders of the Baltic Fleet during the civil wars. He was mobilized into the Russian Navy in 1913 and remained in the Baltic throughout the First World War. In July 1917, he joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks) and was elected to the Kronshtadt Soviet. He was also elected to all four convocations of the Central Committee of the Baltic Fleet (Tsentrobalt) in 1917 and served as head of its military section.

Following the October Revolution, Izmailov became chairman of Tsentrobalt (27 October 1917), in which capacity he played a key role in the defense of Petrograd at the time of the Kerensky–Krasnov uprising by dispatching vessels and men from Helsingfors (Helsinki) to the capital. He also commanded detachments of Red sailors in Finland during the Finnish Civil War and was one of the organizers of the Ice March of the Baltic Fleet, as chief commissar of the Baltic Fleet (from 5 February 1918). From May 1918, he served as commissar of the Main Naval Economic Directorate and from August 1918 was attached to the Revvoensovet of the Republic, as the organizer of the Volga Military Flotilla and commander of the Nizhnii Novgorod Military Port. In 1920, he was placed in command of naval and river forces on the South-West Front and in 1921 became commandant of the port of Chernyi and commander of Naval Forces on the Sea of Azov. Following the civil wars, he served as head and commissar of the Main Naval Technical-Economic Directorate (from January 1922), until he was placed on the reserve list in 1923. He subsequently occupied numerous administrative-economic posts in government institutions.