Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916-1926

K

KACHAZNUNI (Qajaznuni), RUBEN HOVHANNES (OVANES) (1868–1938?). A founder of the Dashnaks and the first prime minister of the Armenian Democratic Republic, Ruben Kachaznuni was born in the Akhaltsikhe (Ahıska) region of Georgia, although his family hailed from Erzurum. After attending universities in Russia and Germany, where he studied architecture and mining engineering, in 1893 he found work as an architect with the regional administration in Tiflis and at Batumi (1895–1897), before settling in Baku, where he worked as an architect. In 1902, he published a book on poets of eastern Armenia. Thereafter he devoted himself to political activities, and in 1906 he was exiled by the tsarist authorities. During the First World War, he was critical of those working to form Armenian volunteer units in the Russian Army. In 1917, he was elected as a member of the Armenian National Council and was one of nine Dashnaks chosen to represent the party in the All-Russian Constituent Assembly.

Following the October Revolution, Kachaznuni was the leading Dashnak spokesman in the Transcaucasian Sejm and served as minister of welfare in the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. In March 1918, he was a member of the Transcaucasian delegation at the Trabizon conference and, following the declaration of Armenia’s independence (28 May 1918), was a member of the delegation that signed the Treaty of Batumi with Turkey (4 June 1918). He was appointed prime minister of Armenia on 30 May 1918, although he did not reach Yerevan until 17 July of that year. In April–May 1919, he traveled to Europe and the United States, hoping to obtain funds and aid. His government was criticized by hard-line Dashnaks for its conciliatory policies, and on 28 May 1919, he relinquished the premiership to Alexander Khatisyan.

Kachaznuni was approached to take the premiership again in November 1920, but was unable to form a government. The following month, he was arrested by the invading Soviet forces, but was released by the uprising in Yerevan in February 1921 and left Armenia for Europe. However, he soon became reconciled to the Soviet regime, and in March 1923, at a Dashnak convention in Bucharest, he published an appeal entitled Dashnaktsutiun Has Nothing More to Do, in which he argued that the party should terminate its existence and that all Armenians should support Soviet Armenia. The pamphlet was immediately banned by the party. Kachaznuni then returned to the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, where he worked as an architect at Leninakan (Gyumri) and taught at Yerevan State University before being arrested and executed during the purges in the 1930s.

KADETS. This was the term by which were universally known the members of the Party of the People’s Freedom, derived from the initial letters in Russian of its alternative name, the Constitutional-Democratic Party (Konstitutsionnaia-demokraticheskaia partiia). The party, which drew its initially radical liberal ideology from the writings of K. D. Kavelin and B. N. Chicherin and was led by the historian P. N. Miliukov, exerted an influence far beyond its electoral strength during the revolutions and civil wars. Although described in Soviet historiography as a “bourgeois” party, the Kadets had little support among Russian industrialists and merchants. Rather, the party had its strongest following among Russia’s nascent professional classes: of 26 members elected to the party Central Committee in 1905, for example, 9 were lawyers and 9 were university professors. The party also had roots among the progressive gentry, who were involved in rural zemstvos (notably the zemtsy I. I. Petrunkevich and D. I. Shakhovskoi). However, the aim of the Kadets was to appeal to all classes, arguing that they stood above class partisanship (nadklassnost′), and indeed, that they were above party-political divisions (nadpartiinost′).

The party was founded at a congress on 12–18 October 1905, following several years of liberal activism through such organizations as the Union of Liberation (founded in 1902 by P. B. Struve) and the Union of Unions (founded in 1905), and adopted a program calling for universal suffrage, a constitution, full civic freedoms for the non-Russian peoples of the empire, an eight-hour working day, and land reform that would have involved the Russian government’s compulsory purchase of private lands (not necessarily at market rates) and the redistribution of those lands (as well as church property and royal estates) among the peasant population. By the spring of 1906, the party boasted some 100,000 members; in the elections to the First State Duma, the Kadets won 30 percent of the vote and were the largest party in the resultant assembly (with 179 seats). When the Duma was dissolved by the tsar, on 9 July 1906, the Kadets were the driving force behind the issuance of the Vyborg Manifesto (drafted by Miliukov and signed by 120 Kadet and 80 Trudovik and social-democrat members of the State Duma), which called for passive resistance to the regime through the nonpayment of taxes and avoidance of conscription. Some have argued that the primary motivation of this tactic was to avert revolutionary violence rather than to challenge the regime, but in the Second State Duma (wherein the Kadets won 98 seats and remained the largest party, despite those who had signed the Vyborg Manifesto being barred from the elections), they refused to vote for a resolution denouncing revolutionary violence. In the Third and Fourth State Dumas, as a consequence of prime minister P. A. Stolypin’s amendment to the electoral laws (the “coup d’état of 3 June 1907”), the Kadets were less numerous and less influential (they won 54 and 59 seats, respectively, in those dumas), and under the influence of Rightists like V. A. Maklakov, became more moderate, denouncing revolutionary violence and seeking to promote change through progressive legislation. As Miliukov put it, the party came to see itself as “the opposition of His Majesty, not the opposition to His Majesty.” This caused some consternation among the left wing of the party, led by N. V. Nekrasov and N. I. Astrov, particularly after the assassination of Stolypin in September 1911 had put an end to any desire for reform on the part of the tsarist regime. Thereafter, the center of the party—Miliukov, F. F. Kokoshkin, V. D. Nabokov, A. I. Shingarev, and M. M. Vinaver—struggled to keep the party together. Indeed, it has been speculated that the party might have split but for the outbreak of the First World War, upon which the Kadets rallied around a platform of (almost) unconditional support for the government and the war effort and became involved in relief work through organizations such as Zemgor. As Russia floundered in the war, however, the party became more critical of the regime, and the Kadets consequently formed the bulk of the Duma’s Progressive Bloc, founded in August 1915, to demand that the tsar appoint a government of “popular confidence.”

Following the February Revolution of 1917, the Kadets found themselves in an unusual position: although their popular support was limited, the socialist parties’ reluctance to take power meant that they were granted 5 out of 12 portfolios in the first Russian Provisional Government. Miliukov was given the important post of minister of foreign affairs, and even the prime minister, Prince G. E. L′vov, was a former Kadet. Thus, a party committed to legal norms found itself dominating a revolutionary government. Equally disorienting was that, having been a radical political force under tsarism, with the collapse of the parties to their right the Kadets found themselves in 1917 to be on the extreme right of the active political spectrum. Their influence waned over the course of the revolutionary year, as the socialists gained confidence and as the party suffered a series of crises: the forced resignation of Miliukov over the “April Crisis” and his apparent commitment to a war of conquest, the resignation of the Kadet ministers on 2 July in protest against A. F. Kerensky’s willingness to grant broad autonomy to Ukraine, and their (justifiable) association in the popular mind with the Kornilov affair. And just as many Kadets had feared, they did poorly in the elections to the Constituent Assembly, gaining less than 5 percent of the popular vote and winning just 17 seats (out of 703).

In the aftermath of the October Revolution, the Kadet party was the first to be banned by the Soviet government (on 28 November 1917), and many of its leaders were arrested; two of them, Shingarev and Kokoshkin, were subsequently murdered in their beds at the Marinskaia Hospital in Petrograd by Baltic sailors on 7 January 1918. Following the dispersal of the Constituent Assembly, Kadets then founded and joined numerous clandestine anti-Bolshevik organizations, including the National Center, the Right Center, and the Union for the Regeneration of Russia. Most of these sought cooperation with right-socialist elements, but as the Democratic Counter-Revolution floundered over the summer of 1918, many Kadets came to believe that Russia’s salvation lay in a temporary military dictatorship and allied themselves with the right-wing forces of the Volunteer Army and the clandestine groups in Siberia that would soon name Admiral A. V. Kolchak supreme ruler of Russia following the Omsk coup. Indeed, Kadets would form the leadership corps of the Kolchak’s Omsk government, General A. I. Denikin’s Special Council, and other White regimes of the civil-war period and were dominant in the short-lived Crimean Regional Government of S. S. Krym. However, the party was unable to hold a national congress during the course of the civil wars, and its members acted as individuals as much as party representatives.

Following the collapse of the White resistance to Bolshevism, in emigration the party shifted again to the left, renouncing most of the conservative policies that Kadets associated with the Whites had espoused, but fundamental differences remained between its left and right wings. From 1924 onward, the former, merging under Miliukov’s guidance into a Republican-Democratic Union with other émigré organizations, all but ceased communication with the latter, and thereafter the Kadet Party ceased to play any meaningful political role.

It should be noted that there are no organizational, programmatic, or ideological links between either V. V. Zhirinovskii’s Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (founded in 1990) or the Party of People’s Freedom (For Russia without Lawlessness and Corruption), founded in Russia in 2010.

kaftan war. See chapan war.

KAKHET–KEVSURETI REBELLION. This revolt against Soviet power in the mountainous Kakheti and Khevsureti regions in the east of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic flared up in late 1921. It was inspired, if not directly organized, by the Committee for the Independence of Georgia and was led by Prince Kakutsa Cholokashvili. His partisan detachments (“Georgia’s Sworn Sons”) enjoyed the support of the local Georgian clans and initially had considerable success against Red Army forces, but had to withdraw into Chechnia in the summer of 1922 when special Cheka forces and aircraft were deployed against them. The group made further incursions into Georgia over the next two years, but the movement was weakened by the Georgian Mensheviks’ distrust of the noble Cholokashvili.

KAKURIN, NIKOLAI EVGEN′EVICH (4 September 1883–29 July 1936). Lieutenant colonel (6 December 1915), colonel (15 August 1917). A prominent military specialist and Red Army commander, and a key early historian of the civil wars, N. E. Kakurin was born into a noble, military family at Orel and was a graduate of the Zhitomir Gymnasium, the Mikhail Artillery School (1904), and the Academy of the General Staff (1910). He began his military career in a mixture of infantry, artillery, and cavalry units and commanded the 17th Arkhangel′sk Rifle Regiment (23 November 1910–23 November 1912) before occupying staff postings. During the First World War, he was a staff officer with the 10th Army Corps, then chief of staff of the 71st Infantry Division (from 6 December 1915) and the 3rd Transbaikal Cossack Brigade (from 10 August 1916), and finally, commander of the 7th Caucasian Infantry Regiment (from 27 November 1917).

Kakurin left the Russian Army following the October Revolution and from 8 March 1918 served with the Ukrainian Army and later the Hetmanite Army as assistant chief of the general staff. From 30 December 1918, he served as an aide to the minister of war of the Ukrainian National Republic Directory, Nikita Shapoval, and from April 1919 was active as a staff officer with the Ukrainian Galician Army. When that force disintegrated, Kakurin switched allegiance and, in February 1920, volunteered for service in the Red Army just prior to the outbreak of the Soviet–Polish War, being placed initially on the staff of the 8th Red Army. From August to October 1920, he commanded the Tambov Rifle Division, then the 4th Red Army (acting, 17–22 October 1920) and the 3rd Red Army (24 October–21 December 1920), before becoming deputy commander of the Western Front (from 28 December 1920). In these capacities, he played a prominent role in the organizing of Red forces in the battle for Warsaw and subsequent Red withdrawal from Poland. From May to August 1921, he was no less prominent in the suppression of the Tambov Rebellion, as chief of staff of regional forces and at the same time commander of an independent cavalry group.

Kakurin joined the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1921, subsequently commanded forces of the Vitebsk region, and did teaching work there. He subsequently commanded the forces of the Bukhara–Ferghana region in battles against the Basmachi (from 25 March 1922), latterly as assistant commander of forces of the Turkestan Front (from 17 June 1922), before joining the Red Military Academy as a teacher from 1922 to 1924, while serving at the same time as chief of the civil-war history section of the Red Army main staff. He was employed again at the academy from 1925 to 1930, completing many of the 30 or so published volumes on the history of the civil wars that would make his reputation. (He is particularly remembered for the two-volume Kak srazhalas′ revoliutsiia [1925–1926], which remains an important source on the period.) Kakurin was arrested on 19 August 1930, in the purge of former military specialists (Operation “Spring”), and on 19 February 1932 was sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment. He died in custody at Iaroslavl′.

KALABUKHOV, ALEKSEI IVANOVICH. See KULABUKHOV, ALEKSEI (OLEKSII) IVANOVICH.

Kalamatiano, Xenophon DMITRIEVICH DE BLUMENTHAL (1882–9 November 1923). An American citizen of Greek and Russian extraction, Xenophon Kalamatiano lived as a private businessman in prerevolutionary and early revolutionary Russia, building up trading interests in Odessa and elsewhere, but by late 1917 was engaged in intelligence work for the U.S. State Department. (It is possible he had been engaged in this work since 1914.) He is thought to have established a network of more than 30 agents across Russia by mid-1918. From their reports he was able, via an “Information Service” at the American consulate general in Moscow, to keep Washington informed of developments in the burgeoning civil wars, particularly events on the Volga. He also established contacts with members of anti-Bolshevik underground organizations, notably the Union for the Regeneration of Russia, and seems to have been in indirect contact with Sidney Reilly, a fact that may have sealed his fate; in early September 1918, he was arrested by the Cheka in the wake of the so-called Lockhart plot and the attempted assassination of V. I. Lenin by Fania Kaplan.

Kalamatiano was tried and sentenced to death, but the sentence was not carried out. Instead, the Soviet government tried, unsuccessfully, to trade his release for the release of socialists imprisoned in the United States (notably Eugene V. Debs of the Wobblies, who was then serving a 10-year prison sentence under the Espionage Act of 1917) and Great Britain (notably John Maclean, the Scottish socialist sentenced to 5 years’ imprisonment for sedition in May 1918). Kalamatiano was eventually freed in August 1921, as a goodwill gesture at the commencement of the operations of the American Relief Administration. He subsequently worked as a language professor at Culver Military Academy, Illinois, before dying suddenly of heart problems.

Kalandarishvili, Nestor Aleksandrovich (1874/26 June 1876–6 March 1922). A charismatic and effective commander of partisans in Siberia during the civil wars, N. A. Kalandarishvili (who bore the nickname “Dedushka,” meaning “grandpa,” during the civil wars) was born into a petty noble family in the Georgian village of Shemokedi in the Kutaisi district (now in the Makharadzevsk region). He was mobilized into the army from 1895 to 1897 and studied at the Tiflis Seminary (expelled in 1903) and the Tiflis Teacher Training College. He joined the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries in 1903 and participated in the uprisings in Georgia in 1905–1906 (notably as commander of a workers’ militia of the Georgian Party of Socialists-Federalists during the fighting at Batumi in November 1905), but subsequently became a proponent of anarchism. He was arrested on several occasions in 1906 and 1907, in both Georgia and Ukraine, but managed to escape (or, according to other sources, was exiled) to Cheremkhovo in eastern Siberia, where, having given up plans to move abroad, he worked as a photographer and an actor, as well as conducting agitation among the local miners. In 1913, he attempted but failed to assassinate the governor of Irkutsk. By 1917, he had been arrested on several more occasions but was always released for lack of evidence.

Following the February Revolution, Kalandarishvili joined the Party of Anarchist-Communists, and following the October Revolution, he participated in the establishment of Soviet power at Irkutsk. In December 1917, he commanded a militia detachment that assisted in crushing the Junker uprising at Irkutsk; from February to July 1918, he led a unit of the forces of Tsentrosibir′; and at the end of that year he was commissioned by the Irkutsk gubkom of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) to form and lead a partisan unit against the forces of Admiral A. V. Kolchak in eastern Siberia (although, at least until late 1919, when he accepted an order to enter Irkutsk to assist the uprising against Kolchak, Kalandarishvili insisted on maintaining his operational independence from the Red command). In 1920, he was also active in Transbaikalia, aiding the Far Eastern Republic in its struggles with the White forces of Ataman G. M. Semenov (from May 1920 as commander of a cavalry unit in the People’s-Revolutionary Army and from May 1921 as commander of a Korean volunteer unit).

Having joined the Bolsheviks and renounced anarchism, from December 1921, on the direct recommendation of V. I. Lenin (who had met Kalandarishvili when he had accompanied a Chinese military mission to Moscow in the summer of 1921), he served as commander of Red Army forces of Iakutsk oblast′ and the Northern Region, and from January 1922 he led Red forces in suppressing the Iakutsk Revolt and clearing the remnants of the Whites from Iakutiia. It is clear that during one such operation he was ambushed near Iakutsk, but sources differ as to whether Kalandarishvili died in battle or was executed by the Cheka for insubordination, on 6 March 1920. On 14 September 1922, he was reburied at Kommunarov, and subsequently he became a prominent figure in the Soviet martryology of the civil wars, with his name commemorated by many streets, squares, collective farms, and other settlements.

Kaledin, Aleksei Maksimovich (12 October 1861–29 January 1918). Colonel (6 December 1899), major general (22 April 1907), lieutenant general (31 May 1913), general of infantry (10 January 1916). The Cossack leader of the early armed opposition to Soviet rule, A. M. Kaledin was born at Ust′-Khoperskaia stanitsa, in the Don territory, into the family of a Don Cossack officer (his father was a veteran of the siege of Sevastopol′) and graduated from the Voronezh Cadet Corps (1879), the Mikhail Artillery School (1882), and the Academy of the General Staff (1889). He was head of the Novocherkassk Military School from 1903 to 1906, saw action in the Russo–Japanese War, and in the First World War commanded the 12th Cavalry Division (August 1914–March 1916) and (jointly) the 1st Army Corps and the 5th Mounted Corps (March 1915–March 1916). Subsequently, as commander of the 8th Army (March 1916–April 1917), he played a prominent role on the South-West Front during the Brusilov offensive of May 1916, smashing the Austrian 4th Army and advancing almost 50 miles in nine days.

Following the February Revolution, Kaledin was relieved of his command by the Russian Provisional Government, whose orders regarding the democratization of the army he refused to follow. He made his way home to the Don territory, where on 17 June 1917 he was elected ataman of the Don Cossack Host, the first elected ataman since Peter the Great had suspended that process in 1709. A vocal advocate of the restoration of law and order in the army and in the country through “decisive measures” (notably in his speech at the Moscow State Conference on 14 August 1917), he was implicated in the Kornilov affair and, on 29 August 1917 was formally dismissed from the post of ataman on the orders of A. F. Kerensky. The Don government, however, refused to implement Kerensky’s orders, and Kaledin evaded arrest. Following the October Revolution, he declared the independence of the Don territory and, in collaboration with the Volunteer Army, led the Cossacks in battle against Red forces around Novocherkassk and Rostov-on-Don (the Kaledin uprising). On 28 January 1918, as Red forces closed on Novocherkassk, he was informed by General L. V. Kornilov that the Volunteers were about to retreat into the Kuban. Believing the situation in the Host territory to be hopeless, not least because so many Cossacks had joined the Reds, Kaledin resigned from his post as ataman on 29 January 1918, having informed the Host government that he could muster only 147 men to defend Novocherkassk. That same day, he committed suicide by shooting himself through the heart. His grave at Novocherkassk was subsequently desecrated by Red soldiers.

KALEDIN UPRISING. This is the term applied to the resistance to the October Revolution staged by the Don Cossack Host and its ataman, A. M. Kaledin, over the winter of 1917–1918. Kaledin declared nonrecognition of the Bolsheviks’ seizure of power on 26 October 1917 and proposed resistance to it in alliance with the Ukrainian Central Rada, the Kuban Cossack Host, and the Terek Cossack Host. This act encouraged the concentration of anti-Bolshevik forces around the Don capital, Novocherkassk, in November–December 1917 and the creation there of the Volunteer Army (as well as the Don Civil Council, to coordinate the activities of the Cossacks and the Whites). Kaledin’s Cossacks captured Rostov-on-Don on 2 December 1917.

To counter the Kaledin uprising, Sovnarkom ordered the creation of a revolutionary front based at Khar′kov under the command of B. A. Antonov-Ovseenko. The latter’s forces began a counteroffensive on 25 December 1917 and in January 1918, combined with Don Cossack frontoviki, gathered at Kamenskaia stanitsa in the northern Don. Together they closed on Kaledin’s center and captured both Rostov and Novocherkassk on 24–25 February 1918—as the Volunteers retreated onto the First Kuban (Ice) March and Kaledin committed suicide—before proclaiming the Don Soviet Republic on 23 March 1918.

KALININ, MIKHAIL IVANOVICH (7 November 1875–3 June 1946). The long-serving but merely titular head of state of Soviet Russia (the “All-Union Village Elder,” as he was known after a quip by L. D. Trotsky)—as chairman of VTsIK from 30 March 1919, chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR from December 1922, and chairman of the presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR from 17 January 1938—M. I. Kalinin was born into a peasant family at Verkhnaia Troitsa, Tver′ guberniia, where he was educated at the village school. This peasant background made him a useful and symbolic figure for the urban-oriented Bolsheviks. From 1889, he found employment as a metalworker at the Putilov factory in St. Petersburg, where he also continued his education at night schools. In 1896, he joined V. I. Lenin’s Union for the Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class, and in 1898 he joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party. He was banished from St. Petersburg in 1899 and was subsequently active in revolutionary work at Tiflis and Revel, where he was part of the distribution network of the party newspaper Iskra, before experiencing further arrests and a period of banishment. He participated in the 1905 Revolution in St. Petersburg (and was subsequently again arrested and exiled) and in 1912 was one of the founders of the Bolsheviks’ newspaper, Pravda. In 1916, he was arrested and exiled again (for the 10th time) to Siberia, but escaped.

In 1917, Kalinin was a member of the Bolshevik Petrograd Committee and following the October Revolution rose to prominence as (from 23 March 1919 until his death) a member of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and as a candidate (from 25 March 1919) and then full (from 1 January 1926) member of the Politbiuro, a candidate (from 16 March 1921) and then full (2 June 1924–18 December 1925) member of the Orgbiuro, and chairman of the constitutional commissions of the USSR in 1922 and 1936.

After a period in which he was occupied with economic tasks in the Petrograd region in 1918, during the civil wars Kalinin worked chiefly as a party propagandist. As commander of the agitprop train October Revolution, he visited numerous fronts and traveled widely across Russia, Ukraine, the North Caucasus, and Siberia. He was a supporter of the NEP and sided with J. V. Stalin against Trotsky and the Left Opposition in the mid-1920s, but joined N. I. Bukharin in criticizing the speed of Stalin’s industrialization drive after 1928, and in the early 1930s voiced some reservations about the treatment of the peasantry during the collectivization drive. Nevertheless, his life was spared during the purges (much of the legal machinery of which he had been responsible for signing into law), although his wife, E. I. Lorberg, was arrested in 1938 and sentenced to 10 years in the camps, and one of his sons was shot. Kalinin retired in March 1946 and died of cancer soon afterward. He is buried beneath the Kremlin Wall in Moscow. Among other places and institutions, the city of Tver′ (Kalinin, 1931–1990) and the city and region of Königsberg (Kaliningrad, 1946–) were renamed in his honor, while a museum dedicated to him was opened in Moscow in 1946.

Kalmykov, Ivan Mikhailovich (pavlovich?) (1888/1890–1 October 1920). Major general (January 1918). One of the most notorious proponents of the atamanshchina of the civil-war years, I. M. Kalmykov was born into a petit bourgeois family and hailed, probably, from Khar′kov (although his place of birth is given variously as Khar′kov, Kiev, and the Terek). He graduated from an Orthodox seminary (1909) and the Chuguev Military School (1912) before, in the First World War, serving as an esaul in units of the Ussurii Cossack Host and becoming registered as a Cossack.

On 31 January 1918, at the Ussurii Host’s Fourth Krug, Kalmykov was elected Host Ataman (although the legality of this election was challenged repeatedly by elements of the Host authorities over the next two years). For the next few months, he battled with local Soviet forces from his base at Grodekovo (Pogranichnaia) in the Maritime Province and was nominally subordinate to General D. L. Khorvat. On 7 September 1918, with Japanese assistance, he led the Cossacks’ capture of Khabarovsk from Red forces and served as commander of the Ussurii Composite Brigade (later Division) from 25 March 1918 to 1 January 1920. For the next 18 months, refusing to recognize the authority of Admiral A. V. Kolchak, this force patrolled and controlled the railway and other means of communication around Khabarovsk and Nikolaevsk-na-Amur, frequently disrupting the passage of trains bound to and from the White capital, Omsk. Kalmykov’s men were also responsible for a series of robberies, murders, and massacres in the region they controlled, outraging the commander of American forces in the region, General Wiliiam S. Graves, and other foreign observers and earning Kalmykov the moniker “the White Bolshevik.” In November 1919, having moved his forces to Vladivostok, Kalmykov played a leading role in the suppression of the Gajda putsch.

On 30 January 1920, he was named commander of the Ussurii Group of Forces by Ataman G. M. Semenov, who had taken over command of White forces in the east from the captured Kolchak, but on 12 February 1920, on the eve of the capture of Khabarovsk by Red partisans, he fled across the border into Manchuria at the head of his men (and with, according to Soviet sources, 36 puds, about 1,300 lbs. or 590 kg, of looted gold from the Imperial Russian Gold Reserve). In Manchuria, his forces were disarmed and interned by the Chinese, and on 16 April 1920, Kalmykov himself was arrested. He escaped, but was recaptured on 25 August 1920 by the Chinese authorities. He was charged with the unlawful shooting of a representative of the Swedish Red Cross at Khabarovsk and with the looting of that organization’s property, as well as with the killing and injuring of a number of Chinese soldiers on a gunboat on the Amur that his forces had shelled. He was subsequently executed at Ginrin.

Kalniņš, Frīdrihs (23 July 1887–25 August 1938). Staff captain (1917). One of the most prominent commanders of the Latvian Riflemen, Frīdrihs Kalniņš was born into a Latvian peasant family at Terneja (now Vilpulka) in northern Courland guberniia. He graduated from a military school as an ensign in 1915 and in 1917 joined the 8th Latvian Rifle Regiment. He was captured by the enemy in early 1918 and incarcerated in a camp in Germany, but returned to Latvia in early 1919 and joined the Red Army, serving successively (from February 1919) as commander of the 8th Latvian Rifle Regiment and the 1st Brigade of the Latvian Rifle Division in the forces of the putative Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic and then as commander of the Latvian Rifle Division (20 October 1919–4 July 1920). In the battles against the Armed Forces of South Russia in 1919, he also commanded the Perekop Group of the 13th Red Army and, in the assault on Crimea in late 1920, was commander of the 42nd Rifle Division. Following the civil wars, he occupied a number of teaching posts and from 1937 lectured on tactics at the Red Military Academy. He was arrested on 25 February 1938, as an alleged member of a “military-fascist terrorist organization,” and was shot later that year. Kalniņš was posthumously rehabilitated on 4 August 1956.

Kalniņš (kalnin), karl ivanovich (1884–2 November 1937). Ensign (191?), komdiv (November 1935). The Soviet military commander Karl Kalniņš was born into a Latvian peasant family. He joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party in 1904 and gravitated toward the Bolsheviks. Following service in the First World War, he rose to the command of the 3rd Latvian Rifle Regiment (from October 1917).

Kalniņš subsequently commanded the 1st Soviet Cavalry Column in the Kuban (3 November 1917–1 April 1918), the Rostov Front (1 April–15 May 1918), and the Red Army of the North Caucasus (28 May–2 August 1918). In September 1918, he joined the operational directorate of the staff of the Revvoensovet of the Republic and assumed several further command roles: commander of the 1st Moscow Workers’ Division (June–July 1919), commander of the 54th (later 59th) Rifle Division (August 1919–March 1920), commander of reserve forces of the West-Siberian Military District (March–September 1920), commander of the 23rd (later 3rd Kazan′) Rifle Division (26 September 1920–20 May 1921), commander of the 3rd Independent Rifle brigade (20 May–23 June 1921), and acting commander of the 3rd Kazan′ Rifle Division (28 November–5 December 1921).

Kalniņš was arrested on 8 June 1937 and, having been found guilty of membership in a counterrevolutionary terrorist organization by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR on 2 November 1937, was immediately executed. He was posthumously rehabilitated on 23 September 1958.

Kalniņš, Pauls (3 March 1872–26 August 1945). A leading social democrat and one of the most prominent politicians of the first Latvian republic, Pauls Kalniņš was born into a farming family at Vilce and was a graduate of the medical Faculty of Iur′ev (Dorpat) University (1898). Politically active from an early age and a prolific journalist and editor, he was expelled from Latvia by the tsarist authorities in 1901 and lived in exile in Switzerland from 1903 to 1906. He served as an army doctor in the First World War and in 1917 became a leading member of the Riga Soviet. He subsequently became a member of the Latvian People’s Council (Tautas Padome) and the Latvian Constituent Assembly.

From 1918 to 1922, during the Latvian War of Independence, Kalniņš was chairman of the Central Committee of the Latvian Social-Democratic Party, led the national government’s special delegation to Germany (until August 1919), and served as mayor of Riga (1921–1922). He was also an elected member of every Saeima (parliament) of the first Latvian republic and served as its chairman from 1925 to 1928. Following the coup in 1934 that initiated the authoritarian regime of Kārlis Ulmanis, Kalniņš was imprisoned for four months. During the occupation of Latvia by the Germans in the Second World War, he served as a member of the underground central committee of the Latvian SDP. In 1944, he was arrested by the Germans while en route to Sweden and was again imprisoned. He died in Austria.

Kalpaks, Oskars (6 January 1882–6 March 1919). Lieutenant colonel (1917), colonel (Latvian Army, 28 February 1919). Regarded by some as the first commander in chief of the Latvian Army in the Latvian War of Independence (although he was never formally assigned to that post), Oskars Kalpaks was born into a prosperous peasant family in the Zirņu district of Latvia. He joined the Russian Army in 1903 as a volunteer, attended the Irkutsk Military School, and rose to the post of regimental commander by 1917.

Following the declaration of Latvian independence on 18 November 1918, Kalpaks offered his services to the new nationalist government in Riga and organized the defense of Vidzeme against attacks by the Red Army. From 31 December 1918, he was effectively in command of all Latvian forces and in personal command of the 1st Latvian Independent Battalion (the “Kalpaks Battalion,” or the “Independence Battalion”). Kalpaks was killed on 6 March 1919, near Airītes, in a skirmish with German forces that he appears to have mistaken for Reds.

He was posthumously awarded Latvia’s highest military honor, the Order of Lāčplēsis, and in 2006 an impressive monument in his honor was unveiled in central Riga (on the Esplanade, near the Hotel Latvija). Airītes also hosts a museum and memorial in his honor, and the former Market Square at nearby Saldus is now named Kalpaks Square. There is, however, some controversy about him, with claims periodically surfacing that he was a Germanophile and a collaborator, that he was not a true Latvian (his birth name was, indeed, Kalpak, which was Latvianized after his death) and could barely speak the language, that he was insubordinate to the government of Kārlis Ulmanis, and that he fought to defend the wealthy against the Bolsheviks rather than Latvia against the Russians.

KAMA FLOTILLA. This formation of the White Fleet, which was operationally subordinated to the commander of the Siberian Army of Admiral A. V. Kolchak and had its base at Perm′, existed from 1 March to 29 June 1919. It played a notable part in the initially successful advance of the Siberian Army, as the Siberian Whites’ spring offensive moved from Perm′ through Sarapul to Chistopol′. Units of the flotilla were also operational on the River Belaia, charged with assisting Kolchak’s Western Army around Ufa. It was initially composed of 15 gunboats and 2 floating batteries (carrying guns that had been brought from the Royal Navy’s HMS Suffolk, manned by British marines from the crew of HMS Kent, both of which vessels were harbored at Vladivostok), a makeshift aircraft-carrying barge, and several auxiliary vessels. At its peak in May–June 1919, the flotilla’s complement (organized into two divisions) included 18 vessels, with 33 heavy guns (compared to the 38 vessels and 56 heavy guns of its chief opponent, the Volga Military Flotilla of the Red Fleet), and mustered some 100 naval officers and 3,000 men. When the Red Army closed on Perm′ in late June 1919, many of the vessels of the flotilla were scuppered, while such equipment and weaponry as could be salvaged was removed and transported to Tiumen′ to be deployed on smaller flotillas operating on the Tobol′, Irtysh, and Ishim Rivers.

The commander of the Kama Flotilla was Rear Admiral M. I. Smirnov, who was assisted by Admiral G. K. Stark. Its chief of staff, D. N. Fedotov, left a notable memoir of the period: D. Fedotoff-White, Survival through War and Revolution in Russia (1939).

Kamenev (RosenfelD), Lev Borisovich (22 July 1883–25 August 1936). The Soviet politician L. B. Kamenev (literally “the man of stone”) was born in Moscow, the son of a skilled Jewish railway worker, and raised in Tiflis. He joined the Russian Social-Democratic Party in 1901, as a student at Moscow University, becoming a close associate of V. I. Lenin. He was arrested and expelled from the university in 1902. There followed a series of arrests, exiles, imprisonments, and periods abroad for Kamenev, who, following the party split, had sided with the Bolsheviks. He returned to Russia in January 1914 to direct the Bolshevik faction in the Fourth State Duma, and in November 1914 was arrested and exiled to Siberia for endorsing (albeit somewhat halfheartedly) Lenin’s defeatist (internationalist) strategy regarding the war. He returned to Petrograd in March 1917 and joined the editorial board of Pravda, but as a supporter of the war effort, in the name of the policy of “revolutionary defensism” (espoused by I. G. Tsereteli and most Mensheviks) differed with Lenin. Nevertheless, he was elected to the party Central Committee on 3 August 1917. Kamenev, like G. E. Zinov′ev, also opposed Lenin’s plans to boycott the Moscow State Conference and to walk out of the Pre-Parliament and even came out in public against the Bolsheviks’ plans to seize power during the October Revolution, favoring an all-socialist coalition to replace the Provisional Government. He denounced the plans in the press and even resigned from the party’s Central Committee, on 16 October 1917. However, he soon returned to the fold to become chairman of VTsIK on 26 October 1917, only to resign again on 10 November 1917 in protest against Sovnarkom’s issuing of decrees without VTsIK’s approval and against what he saw as Lenin’s deliberate wrecking of the Vikzhel negotiations for a socialist coalition.

As a supporter of the decision to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918), Kamenev rejoined the party Central Committee on March 1918. He subsequently filled a number of senior posts in the Soviet administration, as chair of the Moscow Soviet (1919–January 1926) and as a member of Sovnarkom (1922–1926), the Council of Labor and Defense (1922–1926), the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (1918–1926), and the Politbiuro (1919–1926). When Lenin fell ill, Kamenev, in 1923 (with Zinov′ev) joined J. V. Stalin in a triumvirate leadership of the party in a bid to thwart the presumed ambitions of L. D. Trotsky. By 1925, however, Stalin had turned on his former allies, and Kamenev and Zinov′ev joined Trotsky in the so-called United Opposition. As he criticized what he saw as the increasingly and dangerously pro-peasant NEP, Kamenev lost his senior posts and was shunted into “diplomatic exile” as ambassador to Italy. He was expelled from the party on 14 November 1927 and exiled, but recanted and was readmitted to the party, then made chair of VSNKh in June 1928. He was expelled and exiled again in October 1932, in connection with the Riutin affair, but was readmitted in December 1933.

In the wake of the assassination of S. M. Kirov, Kamenev was arrested on 16 December 1934 and, at a secret trial on 16 January 1935, was convicted of “moral complicity” in that crime and sentenced to five years’ imprisonment (a further five years being added to that after a second secret trial in July 1935, for allegedly plotting to kill Stalin). On 19–24 August 1936, Kamenev (with Zinov′ev and 14 others) was arraigned at the first great show trial in Moscow (the “Trial of the 16” or the “Trial of the Trotskyite–Zinov′evite Center”). He was found guilty of membership in a terrorist organization and was shot. He had confessed to the absurd charges laid against him, possibly in an attempt to save his family, but his first wife and two of his children were also executed shortly afterward. Kamenev was posthumously rehabilitated in May 1988.

KAMENEV, SERGEI SERGEEVICH (4 April 1881–25 August 1936). Colonel (6 December 1916), komandarm, first rank (November 1935). S. S. Kamenev, the tsarist officer who acted as main commander of the Red Army during the latter stages of the civil wars, was born at Kiev. He was the son of a military engineer and was a graduate of the Kiev Cadet Corps (1898), the Alexander Military School (1900), and the Academy of the General Staff (1907). He then served as a company commander with the 165th Lutsk Infantry Regiment (from 6 November 1907), assistant senior adjutant with the staff of the Irkutsk Military District (from 26 November 1909), senior adjutant on the staff of the 2nd Cavalry Division (from 10 February 1910), and assistant senior adjutant on the staff of the Vil′na Military District (from 26 November 1911). During the First World War, he served as senior adjutant to the quartermaster general of the Staff of the 1st Army (from 4 September 1914). Following the February Revolution, he expressed support for the Russian Provisional Government and became commander of the 30th Poltava Infantry Regiment (from 4 April 1917).

Kamenev remained in the army following the October Revolution and, on 25 November 1917, was named chief of staff of the 15th Army Corps, before being elected commander of the 3rd Army by its soldiers’ committee. He joined the Red Army in April 1918, and as a military specialist was placed in command of forces of the Western Screen, around Nevel, and was simultaneously commander of the 17th Rifle Division and (from June 1918) of the 1st Vitebsk Infantry Division. In those roles, he attracted the attention of L. D. Trotsky and, with the latter’s support, Kamenev was given a number of senior commissions, beginning from August 1918, when he was named assistant commander of the Western Screen and commander of Smolensk Region. From September 1918 to July 1919, he was commander of the Eastern Front, in April 1919 authoring the plan that underpinned the subsequently successful counteroffensive against the White forces of Admiral A. V. Kolchak. Despite this success, he was dismissed on 5 May 1919 by the main commander, I. I. Vācietis (for nonexecution of orders and indiscipline), but was reinstated as commander of the Eastern Front on 29 May 1919 and then promoted by V. I. Lenin (against the wishes of Trotsky) to replace Vācietis as main commander of the Armed Forces of the Republic in July 1919. His subsequent planning of the Red counteroffensive of August–September 1919 against the Armed Forces of South Russia has been a subject of controversy; it gave emphasis to the eastern flank of the Southern Front and placed special responsibility on the Striking Force of General V. I. Shorin and failed in its stated objective of “the destruction of [General A. I.] Denikin’s forces.” However, it is not clear that an emphasis on the center of the front (which Trotsky favored) would have been any more successful at this point (and, in hemming White forces in at Tsaritsyn, Shorin’s efforts did at least dispel the specter of a union being forged between Kolchak and Denikin). Thus, both here and subsequently, Kamenev can claim at least as much credit as Trotsky for the organization of Red efforts that would ultimately defeat White forces in South Russia and the Baltic in 1919–1920.

In the summer of 1920, however, Kamenev’s plans for offensive operations against Poland were disrupted by arguments with A. I. Egorov and J. V. Stalin, who were in command of the South-West Front. Nevertheless, he remained as main commander of the Red Army until April 1924 (and was a member of the Revvoensovet of the Republic from July 1919 to April 1924), overseeing operations against anti-Soviet forces during the Kronshtadt Revolt and the Tambov Rebellion and directing operations against the Basmachi in Central Asia and peasant partisans in Siberia. From April 1924 he served as inspector of the Red Army, from March 1925 was chief of staff of the Red Army, and from November 1925 was chief inspector of the Red Army. In August 1926, he was named chief of the Main Directorate of the Red Army and was at the same time head of the Tactics Division at the Red Military Academy. From April 1924 to May 1927, he was also chairman of the Revvoensovet of the USSR. In May 1927, he became deputy people’s commissar for military and naval affairs.

Kamenev joined the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1930 and subsequently made a significant contribution to Soviet air defense and airborne exploration of the Arctic. He died of a heart attack (or possibly by suicide) on 25 August 1936 and was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis after a state funeral on Red Square. Prior to his death, however, Kamenev had already begun to lose influence over military affairs at the highest level, and at least in retrospect, it is unsurprising that in 1937 he was named as having been part of the “military-fascist plot” alleged to have been organized by M. N. Tukhachevskii and others. It was charged also that in 1919 he had been a member of an anti-Soviet organization. Thereafter, as a posthumously convicted “enemy of the people,” his name disappeared from accounts of the civil wars until after Stalin’s death. Even then, though, the key role he played in the Red victory in the civil wars was never fully admitted or studied in the Soviet era, although the value of his published memoirs and lectures on the civil wars was often cited.

KAMKOV (KATS), BORIS DAVIDOVICH (1885–29 August 1938). The revolutionary socialist B. D. Kamkov was born into the family of a Jewish doctor in Soroki uezd in Bessarabia. He joined the revolutionary movement at an early age and in 1904 was arrested as a member of the Fighting Organization (terrorist wing) of the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries (PSR). He was exiled to Turkestan in 1905, but escaped and fled abroad, where he worked in the émigré press (and in 1911 graduated from the Law Faculty of Heidelberg University). He adopted an internationalist (defeatist) stance during the First World War, and in September 1915 attended the antiwar Zimmerwald Conference. Kamkov returned to Russia via Germany in April 1917 and was elected to the Petrograd Committee of the PSR and later (in June) to VTsIK, where he advocated an ultra-leftist line (including a policy of noncooperation with the Russian Provisional Government). In July 1917, he was a founding member of the Organizational Bureau of Leftist members of the PSR and was consequently expelled from the party. He then helped form the Party of Left Socialists-Revolutionaries and supported the overthrow of the Provisional Government during the October Revolution, although he favored the creation of an all-socialist coalition to replace it and therefore participated in the talks sponsored by Vikzhel.

In November 1917, Kamkov was elected to the Left-SR Central Committee and on 25 April 1918 was made chairman of its presidium. He actively opposed the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918) and toured south Russia and Ukraine, campaigning against observance of its terms and organizing Left-SR militias to fight the impending Austro-German intervention. Back in Moscow, in April 1918 he organized the dispatch southward of terrorist cells to attack the invaders. He also spoke out against Sovnarkom’s agrarian policies (specifically, the Food Dictatorship and the Committees of the Village Poor) and helped organize the Left-SR Uprising against the Bolsheviks on 6–7 July 1918.

Following the suppression of the uprising and the subsequent banning of the Left-SRs, Kamkov went into hiding, but on 27 November 1918, the Revolutionary Tribunal of VTsIK sentenced him in absentia to three years in prison. Kamkov, meanwhile, was active in Lithuania and Ukraine, organizing new party cells. He was arrested in Moscow in January 1921, but was for some reason released in May of that year, before being arrested again by the Cheka in February 1921 and exiled to Cheliabinsk, then Tver′ and Voronezh. He was tried again, in 1930, as a member of the mythical “Working Peasants Party” and imprisoned for two years before being exiled to Arkhangel′sk in 1933. He was arrested again by the NKVD in February 1937 and subsequently (in March 1938) appeared as a witness for the prosecution in the third of the great Moscow show trials (the trial of the “Rightist-Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Bloc”). This did not prevent him being found guilty of terrorism by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on 29 August 1938. He was shot the same day. Kamkov was posthumously rehabilitated on 18 October 1991.

KANAYAN, DRASTAMAT (“GENERAL DRO”) (31 May 1884–8 March 1956). A leading military and political figure in Transcaucasia during the civil wars, General Dro was born at Iğdır and educated at local schools and at the Yerevan Gymnasium. He joined the Dashnaks in 1903, having been radicalized by the Russification policies of the tsarist government (in particular its appropriation of the properties of the Armenian Apostolic Church), and was a participant in some notable terrorist acts (including at least three assassinations). He fled to Turkey in 1908, but returned to his homeland in 1914 to serve in the Russian Army, as a commander of the 2nd Armenian Volunteer Detachment, during the First World War.

From March to April 1918, Dro was military commissar to the Administration for Western Armenia, then commanded Armenian forces against the Turks (notably in the battle of Bash Abaran), against Azerbaijan (in the Armenian–Azerbaijan War) and against Georgia (in the Georgian–Armenian War), and subsequently served as minister of defense in the Democratic Republic of Armenia (from 20 November 1918). In that last capacity, he helped guide Armenia’s strategy in the Turkish–Armenian War. When Soviet forces toppled the republic in late 1920, he initially collaborated with Moscow but then helped organize resistance and, following a failed uprising in 1921, fled abroad, first to Persia, then to Romania.

During the Second World War, Dro collaborated with the Nazi regime, as a commander of the 812th Battalion (the “Armenian Legion”) of the Wehrmacht. He was arrested at Heidelberg by U.S. forces in 1945, but released after one month and moved again, to Lebanon. Dro died in Boston while seeking medical treatment, but in May 2000, his ashes were returned to independent Armenia, where a mausoleum was constructed for him at Aparan, the site of his routing of a Turkish division in 1918.

KANIN, VASILII ALEKSANDROVICH (11 September 1862–17 June 1927). Admiral (10 April 1916). A leading commander of the White fleet during the civil wars, V. A. Kanin was born into a noble family at Baku and was a graduate of the Naval Corps (1882) and the Mining College (1891). Prior to 1914, he served as a senior and commanding officer on numerous ships in the Black Sea Fleet and saw action during the China expedition in 1900–1901 and the Russo–Japanese War. He began the First World War as chief of Russian mine-laying operations in the Baltic and, following the death of Admiral N. O. von Essen, was named commander of the Baltic Fleet (14 May 1915). Blamed for the lack of initiative displayed by the fleet, which remained virtually inactive over the following year, he was replaced by Admiral A. I. Nepenin on 6 September 1916 and made a member of the State Council. Following the February Revolution, he served as second assistant minister of marine in the Russian Provisional Government (April–June 1917) and then as a member of the admiralty council (June–December 1917).

Kanin formally retired from the service on 13 December 1917, but made his way to South Russia to join the Volunteer Army and, following the withdrawal of the forces of the Austro-German intervention from the region, became commander of the Black Sea Fleet (26 November 1918–21 March, 1919). Kanin went into emigration in April 1919, settling in France. He died and is buried at Marseille.

Kaplan, Fania (fanny/dora/FEIGA) Efimovna (10 February 1890–3 September 1918). The failed assassin of V. I. Lenin, Fania Kaplan, was born into a Jewish family, possibly with the name Reutemann. She joined the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries (PSR) at the time of the 1905 Revolution and in 1906 was sentenced to hard labor for life, following the accidental explosion of a bomb she was carrying at Kiev as part of a plot to kill a tsarist official. She served time in various prisons around Nerchinsk, in eastern Siberia, and was released during the general amnesty that followed the February Revolution of 1917. However, she was by then very ill, suffering from constant headaches and damaged eyesight and hearing. It has also been suggested that she was mentally unbalanced by the experience of prison.

It remains unclear how, why, or when Kaplan decided to kill Lenin (or even if she actually did commit the act or was fully aware of what she was doing), but it was alleged that on 30 August 1918 (the same day that the head of the Petrograd Cheka, Moisei Uritskii, was assassinated), she fired three shots at the Bolshevik leader as he left a meeting at the Mikhelson factory in Moscow, hitting him twice (in the shoulder and jaw). No reliable witnesses could be found to verify that Kaplan had fired the gun, but because of her nervous behavior at the scene, she was immediately arrested and interrogated by the Cheka. Kaplan insisted that she had acted alone and represented no organization, but the Soviet authorities claimed she was part of a wider PSR plot. More recently, it has been alleged that she was working for the British intelligence agent Sydney Reilly. On 3 September 1918, she was summarily executed. On the orders of the Chekist Jēkabs Peterss, her remains were destroyed. Two days later, Sovnarkom issued its decree “On Red Terror,” granting sweeping powers to the Cheka.

In Soviet propaganda, Kaplan was always demonized, and few have claimed her as a heroine even since the fall of communism, but in 2002 a large bronze monument to her by the sculptor Aleksandr Frolov was erected in Moscow (at the corner of Bolshaia Serpukhovskaia Street and 1st Shchipkovskii Pereulok).

Kappel′, Vladimir Oskarovich (16 March 1883–25 January 1920). Colonel (August 1917), major general (17 November 1918), lieutenant general (November 1919). One of the most talented and lauded of White commanders in Siberia and in the anti-Bolshevik movement as a whole, V. O. Kappel′ was born at Belev, Tula guberniia, into the family of an impoverished noble of Swedish heritage (who from 1881 served in the Corps of Gendarmes). He was a graduate of the 2nd Cadet Corps in St. Petersburg (1901), the Nicholas Cavalry School (1906), and the Academy of the General Staff (1913), where he became an expert on the use of motorized forces. In 1914, he was attached to the Nicholas Officers School to study technical support for cavalry forces and then sent to the front, where from 1915 he occupied numerous staff postings with the 5th Don Cossack Corps and the 14th Cavalry Division, rising to become assistant chief of the operations section of the staff of the South-West Front (January 1917) and, subsequently, assistant chief of the reconnaissance department on that same front.

Following the October Revolution, Kappel′ left the army and moved to Perm′ to be with his family, but that spring he was mobilized as a military specialist by the command of the Samara Military District of the Red Army. There, he organized and led an underground anti-Bolshevik officers’ group that rose up against Soviet power in the wake of the revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion. Over the summer of 1918, Kappel′ worked to unite with his own group the White Orenburg Cossack forces of Colonel B. S. Bakich (May–July 1918) and joined the staff of the People’s Army of Komuch, playing a leading role in planning and leading that force’s capture of Samara, Simbirsk, and Kazan′ (June–August 1918). He also commanded the Samara (Volga) Group of the People’s Army (July–August 1918) and subsequently the Ufa Group (August–September 1918). Following the counterattack on the Volga of Red forces in September 1918, Kappel′ led the Ufa Group back to Ufa, where it was reformed into the Independent (from 3 January 1919, 2nd Ufa) Corps of the Western Army of Admiral A. V. Kolchak (17 November 1918–14 July 1919). He then commanded the Volga Group of Kolchak’s 3rd Army (14 July–10 October 1919), before succeeding General K. V. Sakharov, first as commander of the 3rd Army (10 October–10 December 1919), then also of the Moscow Army Group (4 November–10 December 1919), and finally, as commander in chief of the Eastern Front (10 December 1919–21 January 1920). Such a career in the White forces was remarkable for one who had preached cooperation with moderate socialist forces in 1918 (and had practiced what he preached).

During the Great Siberian (Ice) March, Kappel′ led one column of forces through the taiga to the north of Krasnoiarsk, which was in rebel hands. During this forced march, his horse fell through the ice of the River Kan. He subsequently developed frostbite and had his lower legs amputated, having transferred his command to General S. N. Voitsekhovskii (21 January 1920).

Kappel′ died a few days later, near the village of Verkhneozersk. His men (who now dubbed themselves the Kappel′evtsy) transported his body to Harbin, where it was buried in the Iversk Church. A monument in his memory that had been erected on his grave was removed by the Chinese Communist authorities in 1955, apparently at the request of the Soviet government. In 2001, at Utai station, near the location of Kappel′’s death, a 13-foot memorial cross was raised in his honor, on the initiative of local Cossacks, and in the spring of 2005, in the Our Lady of Kazan′ cathedral church at Chita, was established a unique icon case devoted to St. Vladimir, Kappel′’s protector. Kappel′’s remains, however, were transferred in December 2006 from Harbin to the Donskoi monastery in Moscow, where he was reburied, following a ceremony, on 13 January 2007.

Kapsukas (Mickevičius-KAPSUKAS), Vincas Simanovich (23 March 1880–17 December 1935). One of the founders and leaders of the Communist movement in Lithuania and a noted literary critic and Marxist theoretician, Vincas Kapsukas was born into a prosperous peasant family at Būdviečiai, Vilkaviškis district, Suvalkai (Suwałki) province. He graduated from the Mariampole Gymnasium (1897) and, having joined the national liberation movement in Lithuania, spent one year at a seminary before being expelled for owning illegal political literature. He also spent some time studying philosophy and political economy at the University of Berne (1902–1904). From 1903 until 1907, he worked as an editor on a number of Leftist Lithuanian social-democrat newspapers, including Draugus (“Friends”), having curtailed his earlier membership in the more moderate Lithuanian Democratic Party. For these efforts, he was imprisoned in December 1905, but was sprung by his comrades in March 1906. Following a year living underground, he was again arrested and imprisoned, spending the next six years in horrific conditions at a number of tsarist prisons. He was released under amnesty in 1913, but sent into exile to Siberia. Having escaped from Siberia in early 1914, for the next two years he worked with the Foreign Bureau of the Lithuanian Social-Democratic Party at Kraków, where he met V. I. Lenin. Forced to leave Austrian territory upon the outbreak of the First World War, he moved to Switzerland, but was expelled and, from 1915 to 1916, settled among the community of Lithuanian miners and steelworkers around Belshill, Lanarkshire, in central Scotland.

Following some months (from mid-1916) organizing radical émigrés in the United States, Kapsukas returned to Russia in 1917 to edit the first Lithuanian Bolshevik newspaper, Tiesa (“The Truth”). He also served as a member of the Lithuanian section of the Central Committee of the Russian Social-Democratic Party (Bolsheviks) and, following the October Revolution, as commissar for Lithuanian affairs within the People’s Commissariat for Nationalities. He became a candidate member of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in March 1918 and was subsequently the central figure in efforts to establish a Soviet Lithuania during the “Russian” Civil Wars and the attendant Lithuanian War of Independence, serving as chairman of the Provisional Revolutionary Workers’ and Peasants’ Government of Lithuania (8 December 1918–27 February 1919), chairman of the Council of People’s Commissars of the Lithuanian-Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Litbel) (27 February–19 April 1919), chairman of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist Party (from 27 February 1919, the Lithuanian-Belorussian Communist Party) (16 December 1918–1 September 1919), and first secretary of the Lithuanian-Belorussian Communist Party (6 March 1919–27 April 1920). Following the failure of these efforts, Kapsukas largely devoted his efforts to the Komintern, working as a member of its executive committee from 1928 to 1935 (he had been a candidate member from 1924).

He died, probably of natural causes (given his earlier bouts of prison-induced ill-health), during a visit to Moscow to meet J. V. Stalin in 1935, although suspicions remain that he was murdered. Kapsukas was the author of numerous works of fiction, criticism, and autobiography, as well as studies of the Lithuanian revolutionary and national movements. His collected works were published at Vilnius in 12 volumes from 1960 to 1978. From 1956 to 1989, the city of Mariampole and its surrounding region were renamed Kapsukas in his honor, as was Vilnius University from 1955 to 1990 (Kapsukas had signed a Sovnarkom decree of 13 March 1919, ordering the foundation of such an institution), while statues of him dotted the country. Most of them were removed following Lithuania’s secession from the Soviet Union in 1990; one of the most famous (by Konstantinas Bogdanas, 1979), featuring Kapsukas asking Lenin for advice on a podium in Grutas Park, Vilnius, was the victim of a double beheading in 1991, although it has since been restored.

KAPUSTIANSKIY, Mykola OLEKSANDROVICH (1 February 1879–19 January 1969). Colonel (1917), brigadier general (Ukrainian Army, 1920). The Ukrainian commander Mykola Kapustianskiy, who was the son of a priest, was born at Chumaki, in Ekaterinoslav guberniia, and was a graduate of the Ekaterinoslav Seminary (1899), the Odessa Infantry Officers School (1904), and the Academy of the General Staff (1912). He served from 1904 with the 105th Orenburg Regiment and fought in the Russo–Japanese War. He later taught courses on military administration at the Vil′na Military School. In the First World War, he served as senior adjutant on the staff of the 5th Rifle Brigade (from July 1914) and later as a staff officer with the 3rd Army Corps (from 31 March 1915). In 1916, he became chief of staff of the 173rd Infantry Division and then chief of staff of the 104th Infantry Division.

Following the February Revolution, Kapustianskiy was one of the initiators of the process of Ukrainization of units of the Russian Army, and in August 1917 he became chief of staff of the 1st Division of the 1st Ukrainian Corps (commanded by General P. P. Skoropadskii). He then became general secretary for military affairs with the Ukrainian Central Rada before, in early 1918, being named chief of staff of the South-West Front (3–19 January 1918). In the Ukrainian Army of the Ukrainian National Republic (UNR), he served as chief of the operational section of the General Staff (from 25 December 1918), assistant chief (from 28 April 1918), and then chief (from October 1919) of the first directorate of the General Staff and, during the following year, quartermaster general.

With the collapse of the UNR, Kapustianskiy followed elements of the Ukrainian Army into internment in Poland and later, in 1923, moved to France. There, in 1929, he was a founding member of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and served on its governing council from 1929 until his death. In the mid-1930s, he undertook tours of the United States and Canada to spread that organization’s message among Ukrainian émigré communities. During the Second World War, he collaborated with the Nazis and managed to return to Kiev to become vice president of the puppet Ukrainian National Council. Following the war, in 1948, he became war minister and the first chief of the military council of the Ukrainian government-in-exile. Kapustianskiy was the author of numerous memoirs and studies of the civil wars in Ukraine. He died and is buried in Munich.

KARAULOV, MIKHAIL ALEKSANDROVICH (1878–13 December 1917). Colonel (1916). The man elected to be the first ataman of the Terek Cossack Host when the post was reinstated in 1917, M. A. Karaulov was born into a wealthy Terek Cossack family at Tarsk stanitsa and was a graduate of the Ekaterinodar Gymnasium (1897) and the Historical-Philological Faculty of St. Petersburg University (1901). He saw military service in the Russo–Japanese War, but subsequently devoted himself to scientific and archaeological work (writing a history of his home territory and helping to found the Museum of the Terek Cossack Host) and politics. He was elected to the Second and Fourth State Dumas, in which he headed the Cossack faction and worked with the Progressives Party, and during the February Revolution of 1917 he was a member of the Duma committee that begat the Russian Provisional Government.

In early March 1917, Karaulov was named as commissar of the Terek region by the Provisional Government, but after he was elected as Host ataman by the Krug of the Terek Cossacks on 13 March 1917, he resigned his government post. In 1917, he became a noted supporter of the restoration of discipline in the army and strongly opposed the growing influence of soldiers’ committees. From 1 December 1917, he led the Provisional Terek-Daghestan Government, but was killed on 13 December 1917 when, at Prokhladnaia Station, revolutionary troops returning north from the Caucasus Front opened fire on the carriage in which he was traveling.

KARELIAN WORKERS’ COMMUNE. This autonomous polity, established as a constituent element of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic by a decree of VTsIK of 7 June 1920, operated in competition with the nationalist East Karelian Government that was established as a consequence of the Kinship Wars and sought unity with Finland. The commune was directed by a Karelian Revolutionary Committee chaired by Edvard Gylling, a Finn who had fled to Soviet Russia in 1918, at the conclusion of the Finnish Civil War. Its capital was Petrozavodsk, although the extent of its territorial control remained undefined (despite the fixing of the Russo–Finnish border by the Treaty of Tartu on 14 October 1920) until, following the failure of the invasion of Karelia by White Finnish forces of October 1921 to February 1922, it was proclaimed the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (on 25 July 1923).

KARETNIKOV (“KARETNIK”), SEMEN NIKITICH (1893–28 November 1920). One of the most senior and talented commanders of Nestor Makhno’s Revolutionary-Insurgent Army of Ukraine, Semen Karetnik was the son of an impoverished farm laborer from Makhno’s home village of Guliai-Pole, Ekaterinoslav guberniia. He had only one year of formal schooling, but had become interested in anarchism as a youth and joined Makhno’s band in 1918 to oppose the Austro-German intervention. From October 1920, he served as deputy commander in chief to Makhno (who had been temporarily incapacitated by a wound to the foot) and the following month led the Makhnovist units that engaged, in alliance with the Red Army, in battles with the Russian Army of General P. N. Wrangel. Karetnik’s men (2,400 cavalry and 1,900 infantry, with 460 machine guns and 32 field guns) played a major part in forcing the Sivash marshes and in subsequent battles in Crimea, notably the capture of Simferopol′. Following the evacuation of White forces from Crimea, however, Karetnik’s units were forcibly disbanded by the Bolsheviks. Karetnik himself was ordered to return to Guliai-Pole, but he was arrested and executed en route by Red forces at Melitopol′ (according to some sources, on the direct orders of M. V. Frunze).

kars republic. See SOUTH-WEST CAUCASIAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC.

KARS, TREATY OF (13 October 1921). This agreement between Turkey and the representatives of Soviet Armenia, Soviet Azerbaijan, Soviet Georgia, and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic included 20 articles and 3 annexes and was a successor treaty to the Treaty of Moscow of 16 March 1921. According to its terms (under Article IV), most of the Turkish territories that had been conquered and annexed by Russia since the Russo–Turkish War of 1877–1878 (including most of the former Kars oblast′ and the cities of Kars and Ardahan) were formally returned to Turkey, although (under Article VI) the port of Batumi (which had been signed over to Turkey by the government of the Georgian Democratic Republic during the last days of its existence in March 1921) was to remain within Soviet Georgia, and the Alexandropol′ region was retained by Soviet Armenia. The treaty (under Article V) also provided for the creation of the enclave of Nakhchivan (part of the former Yerevan guberniia of the Russian Empire, territorially defined under Annex III) as “an autonomous territory under the protection of Azerbaijan,” thereby seeking to end the bloody Armenian–Azerbaijan War for control of that region that had been raging since 1918. For many Armenians, however, who had hoped for the creation of the greater (or “Wilsonian”) Armenia delineated in the Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920), the Kars settlement (plus the incorporation in whatever form of Nagorno-Karabakh into the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic) was viewed as a national catastrophe. Particularly hard to bear was that both the medieval Armenian capital of Ani (Abnicum) and Mount Ararat, the spiritual icons of the Armenian people, were located in the area ceded to Turkey. Predictably, a depiction of Mount Ararat had been at the center of the coat of arms adopted by the Democratic Republic of Armenia in 1918 and appeared also in the coat of arms adopted by independent Armenia in 1992. Less predictably, it featured also in the coat of arms of Soviet Armenia.

KARTASHEV, ANTON VLADIMIROVICH (11 July 1875–10 September 1960). A. V. Kartashev, a historian of the Russian Orthodox Church, theologist, chairman of the Petersburg Religious–Philosophical Society (from 1909), and teacher, played an influential role in the revolutionary era. He was born into the family of a Urals mine administrator at Kisht′ma and was a graduate of the Perm′ Seminary (1894) and the St. Petersburg Religious Academy (1899), where he was subsequently employed as a teacher. He then taught at other religious institutions in the capital and, following the February Revolution, joined the Kadets (and was elected to the party’s Central Committee, as one of its most conservative members). Under the Russian Provisional Government, he served as deputy procurator (from 25 March 1917) and then (from 25 June 1917) procurator of the Holy Synod and was active in running the great Church Council (sobor′) of 1917–1918, during which he was a supporter of the candidacy of Patriarch Tikhon and a strong advocate of the restoration of the patriarchate.

After being briefly arrested and imprisoned as a counterrevolutionary by the Soviet authorities from November 1917 to January 1918 (he had been a vocal supporter of General L. G. Kornilov during the Kornilov affair of August 1917), Kartashev was active in the National Center in 1918 before, in early 1919, going into emigration. He subsequently became chairman of the Russian National Committee in Finland, attempting to coordinate political and financial support for the forces of General N. N. Iudenich, before moving to Paris in 1920. In Paris, he was one of the founders of the St. Sergei Theological Institute (L’Institut de théologie orthodoxe Saint-Serge) and taught at the institute from 1925 until his death in 1960. The author of numerous works on church history and Orthodox theology, Kartashev is buried in the Russian cemetery at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois, Paris.

Kashirin, Nikolai Dmitrievich (4 February 1888–14 June 1936). Podesaul (1914), komandarm, Second Rank (November 1935). One of the most revered commanders of Red Cossacks in the civil-war era, N. D. Kashirin was born into the family of a stanitsa ataman of the Orenburg Cossack Host at Verkhneural′sk, Orenburg guberniia, and graduated from the Orenburg Cossack Officers School (1909), after having previously worked as a teacher. In 1912, he was dismissed from his regiment for revolutionary activities, but was remobilized in 1914. He was wounded in action and returned to Orenburg in 1916, and in March 1918 formed a unit of Red Cossacks. He joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks) at the same time and led local opposition to the anti-Soviet rising of Ataman A. I. Dutov, from 16 July 1918 as commander of the Southern Urals Free Partisan Detachment and subsequently as an assistant to V. K. Bliukher on the Urals Army March.

From September 1918, Kashirin served as deputy commander and then commander of the 4th Urals Division of the Red Army, and from August to October 1919 was commander of the Orenburg Fortified Region and commander of the 49th Fortress Division on the Turkestan Front. From March to October 1920, he was chairman of the executive committee of the Orenburg–Turgai regional Soviet, before becoming commander of the 3rd Cavalry Corps (October 1920–1922) on the Southern Front, in which capacity he participated in the victorious campaign against the Russian Army of P. N. Wrangel and the struggle in Ukraine against the forces of Nestor Makhno.

Kashirin graduated from the Red Military Academy in 1924, subsequently served in numerous senior military command posts in the Red Army (including the command of the North Caucasus Military District, 1931–1937), and from 1934 was a member of the Revvoensovet of the USSR. In June 1937, he was a member of the military tribunal that imposed the death penalty on M. N. Tukhachevskii, A. I. Kork, and others. In August 1937, however, he was arrested on the personal orders of J. V. Stalin and on 14 June 1938 was himself sentenced to death, having confessed to membership in a “Trotskyite military-fascist plot.” The sentence was carried out the same day. Kashirin was posthumously rehabilitated on 1 September 1956, and in 1960 a monument in his honor was erected at Verkhneural′sk.

KATANAEV, GEORGII EFREMOVICH (28 April 1890–18 December 1932). Lieutenant colonel (1918), colonel (19 November 1918). Other than that he was born into the Siberian Cossack Host at Atbasar stanitsa and rose to the rank of esaul during the First World War, little is known of the early life of G. E. Katanaev, one of the key figures in the Omsk coup of 18 November 1918. Having been promoted to full colonel by Admiral A. V. Kolchak in the immediate aftermath of the coup, Katanaev was subsequently involved in battling Red partisans in eastern Siberia and, in particular, organized the brutal suppression of the peasant uprising at Mariinsk, in his native Atbasar uezd, in April–May 1919. Following the collapse of the White movement in Siberia, he emigrated to Manchuria in 1920 and was later killed during an altercation at Pogranichnaia station in the Chinese Eastern Railway zone.

KATS, BORIS DAVIDOVICH. See KAMKOV (KATS), BORIS DAVIDOVICH.

KAVBIURO. The Caucasian Bureau (Kavkazskoe biuro) of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) was established by a plenum of its Central Committee on 8 April 1920, to oversee the establishment of Soviet rule across the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia and to coordinate assistance to nationalist revolutionary movements in the Near East (especially Persia). It was based first at Piatigorsk, then Armavir (from July 1920), then Rostov-on-Don (from November 1920), then Tiflis (from March 1921, following the overthrow of the Democratic Republic of Georgia). Its first chairman and vice chairman were, respectively, G. K. Ordzhonikidze and S. M. Kirov. Its establishment was a reflection of the central party authorities’ loss of faith in the local party organization, the Caucasian Regional Committee of the RKP(b), which it replaced. Its meetings were attended by People’s Commissar for Nationalities J. V. Stalin in November 1920 and June 1921. The Kavbiuro was reconstituted as the Transcaucasian Regional Committee on 12 March 1922.

KAZAGRANDI, NIKOLAI NIKOLAEVICH (?–17 July 1921?). Captain (1918), colonel (February 1919). A prominent figure in some of the more dubious aspects of the White movement in Siberia, N. N. Kazagrandi, who was of Italian descent, was born at Kiakhta, in the Transbaikal oblast′, and was a graduate of Troitsk Realschule. He worked as an engineer and during the First World War served with the Revel Naval Battalion.

Following the October Revolution, Kazagrandi attempted to make his way back to the Far East, but in Western Siberia he joined the underground anti-Bolshevik group of officers led by Colonel A. N. Grishin-Almazov around Omsk. He then participated in the overthrow of Soviet rule in the region during May–June 1918 and in battles against Red forces over the following months. On 27 October 1918, he was placed in command of a fighting column of anti-Bolshevik forces that incorporated 16th Ishim Regiment, the 19th Petropavlovsk Regiment, and other forces. This group he commanded in a series of successful battles to clear Red units from Verkhotursk uezd and in the Siberian Army’s capture of Perm′ (25 December 1918). From April 1919, Kazagrandi commanded the 18th Siberian Rifle Division of the Russian Army of Admiral A. V. Kolchak, but in June 1919 he was removed from his post for insubordination and given a more junior command within Kolchak’s 2nd Army.

When Kolchak’s forces collapsed at the end of 1919, Kazagrandi led his men eastward in the Great Siberian (Ice) March, but they were captured by Red forces north of Irkutsk and put to work at a sawmill at Balagansk. Kazagrandi escaped and joined fugitive White partisan forces southeast of Irkutsk, fleeing with them into Mongolia in February 1921. In that country, Kazagrandi subordinated his unit of some 200 men to Baron R. F. Ungern von Sternberg, who had recently captured the Mongol capital, Urga. Ungern then ordered Kazagrandi’s group to participate in his ill-fated attack on Soviet Russia, having them advance along the shores of Lake Kosogol (Khubsugul) in the direction of Irkutsk. In May 1921, they met stiff opposition from Red forces and retreated into Mongolia. There, as Ungern’s regime (and sanity) collapsed, the baron ordered Kazagrandi’s arrest and execution for embezzlement. He was apparently killed at Zain-Khura—beaten to death according to some accounts, shot according to others. According to yet another version, the man sent to kill Kazagrandi by Ungern, one Suharev, joined him and they both attempted to flee to China, but were killed by Red or Chinese forces en route.

KAZAKOV, ALEKSANDR ALEKSANDROVICH (15 January 1889–1 August 1919). Colonel (November 1917), major (Royal Air Force, 1 August 1918). The most successful Russian fighter pilot of the revolutionary era, A. A. Kazakov was born into a noble family near Kherson and was a graduate of the Elizavetgrad Cavalry School (1908) and the Gatchina Military Aviation School (1914). During the First World War, he served with the 4th Army Corps’ Air Detachment, the 19th Army Corps’ Fighter Detachment, and (from August 1916) the 1st Combat Air Group of the Imperial Russian Air Force. He saw action at the front in Poland and Romania and is thought to have been responsible for a record 32 “kills” of German and Austrian planes, although his official tally was 17, as only kills that came down behind the Russian lines were counted. (On 15 March 1915, one of his kills was dramatically brought down by the ramming technique pioneered by P. N. Nesterov.)

Kazakov resigned from the service in January 1918, and in June of that year joined the forces of the Allied intervention at Arkhangel′sk. He subsequently flew with the 1st Air Squadron of the Slavo-British Legion in North Russia, piloting British-supplied Sopwith Camels. Kazakov was badly injured in combat in January 1919, but returned to action in March. Soon after Allied forces began to evacuate the region, he died in an air crash. According to eyewitness accounts, it was suicide.

Kazanovich, Boris Il′ich (10 July 1871–2 June 1943). Colonel (March 1909), major general (December 1916), lieutenant general (January 1920). A leading general in the White movement in South Russia, B. I. Kazanovich was born into a noble family at Mogilev and was a graduate of the Mogilev Classical Gymnasium (1890), the Moscow Infantry Officers School (1892), and the Academy of the General Staff (1899). He subsequently served on the staff of the Amur and Turkestan Military Districts and in 1912 was made chief of staff of the 11th Infantry Division. During the First World War, he served as commander of the 127th Putil′skii Regiment (from December 1914) and chief of staff of the 6th Siberian Rifle Division (March 1916–1917) and then as commander of that division.

As a friend of General L. G. Kornilov, whom he had met in Turkestan, Kazanovich joined the Volunteer Army at its inception (December 1917), participated in the First Kuban (Ice) March, and subsequently commanded the Partisan (Infantry) Cossack Regiment (March–May 1918). He was wounded during the battle for Ekaterinodar and was then sent on a secret mission to Moscow by General M. V. Alekseev to liaise with the National Center regarding the financing of the Volunteers (May–June 1918). Upon his return to the South, he became commander of the 1st Infantry Division (12 June–November 1918) during the Second Kuban March and commander of the 1st Army Corps (November 1918–January 1919), before being placed on the reserve list of the Armed Forces of South Russia due to illness. He subsequently recovered and succeeded General I. V. Savitskii as commander of the forces of the Transcaspian oblast′ (the Turkestan Army, October 1919). Having been wounded in fighting around Kazandzhik, on 3 December 1919 he was evacuated from Krasnodar across the Caspian to Port-Petrovsk (Makhachkala), Daghestan, and thence to Crimea, where he spent some months in the reserve (February–August 1920) before being placed in command of the Composite Kuban Cossack Division of the Russian Army of General P. N. Wrangel, with which he participated in the expeditionary force of General S. G. Ulagai that landed briefly on the Taman Peninsula (August–September 1920).

In November 1920, Kazanovich was evacuated from Crimea with Wrangel’s forces and, after a year in the refugee camps at Gallipoli, lived in emigration in Yugoslavia, initially at Međimurje, Croatia, and later at Belgrade. Active in a range of émigré organizations, Kazanovich was chairman of the Main Board of the Pervopokhodniki for the remainder of his life, as well as chairman of the Society for the Study of the Civil War (from its inception in 1931) and chairman of the Union of General Staff Officers in Yugoslavia. He died in the Russian Hospital at Pančevo and is buried in the New Cemetery, Belgrade.

Kedrov, Mikhail Aleksandrovich (13 September 1877–29 October 1945). Rear admiral (17 November 1916), vice admiral (4 November 1920). M. A. Kedrov, the chief organizer of the White evacuation from the Crimea in November 1920, was a graduate of the 4th Naval Cadet Corps (1899) and the Mikhail Artillery School (1907) and participated in the Russo–Japanese War as a staff officer with the Pacific Squadron. Following that war, together with A. V. Kolchak and other modernizers, Kedrov formed the naval discussion circle that was instrumental in revitalizing and rebuilding the Russian Navy and in the formation of the Naval General Staff. He was also an ADC to the tsar and a member of the imperial suite and commanded a number of vessels prior to and during the early months of the First World War, before being dispatched as a naval attaché to London (November 1914–1915). He then commanded the battleship Gangut from 1915 to 1916, directed the mine-laying division of the Baltic Fleet (1 February–5 April 1917), and served briefly as assistant minister of marine with the Russian Provisional Government (5 April–1 June 1917), before being named by Admiral Kolchak as commander of a battleship squadron with the Black Sea Fleet (June 1917). Kolchak’s subsequent departure from his command meant, however, that Kedrov could not take up his post, and he was sent instead, again, to London, as a naval attaché.

In the White movement, he served as chief naval attaché in Paris and London for Kolchak and General P. N. Wrangel (January 1919–October 1920), being responsible for transportation and supplies to the anti-Bolshevik forces, before succeeding Admiral M. P. Sablin as commander of the Black Sea Fleet (from 17 October 1920). In this last capacity, he successfully oversaw the evacuation of some 150,000 officers and men of Wrangel’s Russian Army from Crimea to Constantinople in November 1920 and the transfer of the White Fleet from Turkey to Bizerte (Tunisia) the following month. He then resigned his command of the fleet and moved to Paris to become head of the Russian Naval Officer Corps in emigration.

Following the abduction of General E. K. Miller by the NKVD, Kedrov served briefly as head of ROVS (24 September 1937–19 April 1938), having occupied the post of second assistant chairman of the organization since 1930. During the Second World War, he supported the USSR in its struggles against Hitler, and in February 1945 he participated in the delegation led by V. A. Maklakov that went to the Soviet embassy in Paris to offer the congratulations of the émigré community to J. V. Stalin. He died in Paris and is buried in the Russian graveyard of the cemetery of Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois.

Kel′chevskii, Anatolii Kiprianovich (19 January 1869–1 April 1923). Colonel (6 December 1908), major general (6 December 1915), lieutenant general (9 September 1917). Of noble background, A. K. Kel′chevskii—a general of the Don Cossack Host who was to fall foul of the White leadership’s adherence to “Russia, One and Indivisible”—was a graduate of the Pskov Cadet Corps, the 2nd Constantine Military School (1891), and the Academy of the General Staff (1900). He served with the 28th Artillery Brigade in the 1890s and was a supply officer with the staff of the 2nd Turkestan Army Corps (1903–1909), then was transferred to teaching posts at the academy (January 1909–November 1915), where he became one of Russia’s leading experts on cavalry. In the First World War, he served on the Romanian Front with the 9th Army, as its quartermaster general (November 1915–March 1917), then its chief of staff (March–September 1917), and finally as its commander (September–November 1917).

Following the October Revolution, Kel′chevskii joined other anti-Bolshevik officers in fleeing to the Don territory, where, following the Don Cossack rising against Soviet power (the Kaledin uprising, during which he had joined the partisan group of General K. K. Mamontov), he became chief of staff of the Eastern (Tsaritsyn) Front. He was subsequently chief of staff of the Don Army (15 February 1919–27 March 1920)—and was a participant, in that capacity, in the Mamontov raid—and then chief of staff of the Don Corps that was created in Crimea by the remnants of that army (April 1920). He also served as minister of war in A. I. Denikin’s Government of South Russia.

On 18 April 1920, together with General V. I. Sidorin, the commander of the Don Corps, Kel′chevskii was removed from all his posts by General P. N. Wrangel, charged with the encouragement of Cossack separatism. After a court martial that was presided over by General A. M. Dragomirov, Kel′chevskii was sentenced to dismissal from the army, the cancellation of all his medals and his noble rank, and four years of exile, but Wrangel commuted this to voluntary retirement from the army. He left Crimea in May 1920, settling initially in Bulgaria and subsequently in Berlin, where he succeeded M. I. Timonov as editor of the military science journal Voina i mir (“War and Peace”) and, to the further embarrassment of Wrangel and the leaders of the Russian Army, became (alongside Generals E. I. Dostovalov and S. K. Dobrovol′skii and Sidorin) an early advocate of the Smenovekhovstvo movement, which advocated the émigrés’ accommodation with the USSR. He died of a heart attack in 1923.

Keller, Fedor Arturovich (12 October 1865–21 December 1918). Colonel (2 May 1901), major general (31 May 1907), lieutenant general (31 May 1913), general of cavalry (15 January 1917). A graduate of the Nicholas Cavalry School and the Cavalry Officers School, Prince F. A. Keller first saw action as a volunteer in the Russo–Turkish War of 1877–1878. During the First World War, he commanded the 10th Cavalry Division (1914–1915) and the 3rd Mounted Cavalry Corps (April 1915–April 1917). Following the February Revolution, he refused to recognize the authority of the Russian Provisional Government and went into retirement.

Keller returned to military activity in 1918, organizing anti-Bolshevik detachments of officer volunteers (the Northern Army Corps) at Pskov. In December 1918, he went to Kiev, having (on 5 November 1918) been invited by Hetman P. P. Skoropadskii to command the Hetmanite Army. His arrival in the Ukrainian capital, however, coincided with its capture by the forces of S. V. Petliura, and Keller took upon himself the hopeless task of defending the city as Skoropadskii and his German allies fled. On the night of 20–21 December 1918, he was captured by Petliura’s men at the Mikhailovskii monastery and was soon thereafter executed before the Bohdan Khmelnytskii monument in the city’s Sofia Square. He was buried at the Pokrovskii monastery at Kiev.

Kerensky, Aleksandr Fedorovich (22 April 1881–11 June 1970). The head of the Russian Provisional Government in 1917 (and the man whose name is synonymous with its failure), A. F. Kerensky was born at Simbirsk (now Ul′ianovsk), on the Volga, and (remarkably) was the son of the headmaster of the school in which V. I. Lenin was a star pupil. He was raised in Tashkent, where his father served as chief superintendent of schools for the Turkestan region, received a gold medal upon completing his schooling at the local gymnasium in 1899, and was a graduate of the Law Faculty of St. Petersburg University (1904), although he initially registered to read history. He joined the St. Petersburg Bar in 1904 and, as a lawyer, earned a national reputation defending the accused in political trials following the 1905 Revolution, in which his gift for impassioned oratory became apparent (demonstrated again, notably, during the 1912 trial of the Dashnaks). He joined the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries (PSR) in 1905 and edited their newspaper, Burevestnik (“Stormy Petrel”), and was briefly arrested (December 1905–April 1906). In 1912, in the aftermath of his very public role in investigating the shooting of Siberian miners during the Lena Goldfields Massacre, he was elected to the Fourth State Duma, in which he was active as a member of the Trudovik group, becoming its deputy chairman in 1913 and its chairman from 1914. Kerensky was also very active in the field of political freemasonry, becoming chairman of the Supreme Council of the Grand Orient of the Peoples of Russia in 1916.

Kerensky also played a prominent role in the February Revolution, overseeing the arrest and incarceration of tsarist ministers, and subsequently became vice chairman of the Petrograd Soviet and minister of justice in the first Provisional Government; he was the only initial member of both institutions. (Like many of the Kadets in the cabinet, Kerensky was a longstanding freemason.) When P. N. Miliukov and A. I. Guchkov resigned from the government, Kerensky masterminded the creation of a new liberal–socialist coalition, in which he became the most influential figure as minister of war and marine (from 5 May 1917). In that capacity, he toured the front to raise troop morale (he was nicknamed Russia’s “persuader-in-chief” for his ability to win over crowds through his oratory) and oversaw the disastrous Russian offensive of June–July 1917 that is sometimes given his name. He was also responsible for choosing, on 5 July 1917, to release material allegedly proving that the Bolsheviks were German agents and for then outlawing Lenin’s party.

On 8 July 1917, Kerensky succeeded G. E. L′vov as prime minister. However, his increasingly willful and dictatorial style, his refusal to countenance land reform, his tepid attitude toward socialist efforts to arrange an end to the First World War through an international socialist conference at Stockholm, and the repeated postponement of elections to the Constituent Assembly alienated many of the PSR’s leaders, and he was removed from the party’s Central Committee in July 1917 (although that was not made public at the time). The last straw for many on the left was Kerensky’s apparent flirtation with military dictatorship, which erupted in the Kornilov affair in late August 1917. In the wake of that crisis, on 1 September 1917, Kerensky was instrumental in having Russia declared a republic (further angering the political Right and some liberals for having thus usurped the prerogative of the Constituent Assembly) and at the same time had himself declared minister-president and commander in chief of Russian forces. Having given the order to close down Bolshevik newspapers on 24 October 1917 that sparked the October Revolution, Kerensky fled Petrograd for Pskov and attempted (unsuccessfully) to organize armed resistance to the Bolsheviks’ seizure of power through what became known as the Kerensky–Krasnov uprising.

He then went into hiding for several months, in and around Petrograd, hoping to make a political comeback at the Constituent Assembly, but he was banned from attending its meeting by the PSR leadership and moved to Finland. He then spent some weeks in hiding in Moscow before, in June 1918, through the auspices of Robert Bruce Lockhart, he escaped via Murmansk to Britain in the guise of a Serbian officer (“S. Markavitch Miloutine”). He arrived at Thurso, in northern Scotland, on 18 June 1918. On 24 June 1918, he met with the British prime minister, David Lloyd George, at 10 Downing Street, and on 26 June 1918, he addressed the Labour Party conference at Central Hall, Westminster. The following month he traveled to Paris, where he had an audience with the French president, Georges Clemenceau. During these encounters he appealed to all to support Allied intervention in Russia and claimed to be the official envoy of the anti-Bolshevik Union for the Regeneration of Russia, although other members of that organization denied this. As the Democratic Counter-Revolution was usurped by increasingly right-wing forces over the summer and autumn of 1918, however, Kerensky came to be shunned by Allied leaders, something for which he never forgave them. In September 1918, he attempted to return to Russia to attend the Ufa State Conference, but was refused transit through the United States.

In emigration, Kerensky lived initially in Berlin and then France, where he edited the influential émigré newspaper Dni (“The Days”) and other periodicals and was a tireless author and lecturer, devoted to the overthrow of the USSR and the restoration of his own reputation. In June 1940, he moved to the United States, narrowly escaping capture by the invading Nazis. During the Second World War, he wrote and broadcast in support of the Soviet Union’s resistance to Hitler. From 1956, he spent 11 years as a lecturer and researcher at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, producing a final (and controversial) version of his memoirs (Russia and History’s Turning Point, 1965) and, with Robert Browder, editing the three-volume The Russian Provisional Government, 1917: Documents (1961), an important work, but one much criticized for its partiality. Kerensky died of cancer at his home in New York and was buried in Putney Vale cemetery in London. Reportedly, no Russian Orthodox church in the United States would accept his burial in their grounds for fear that his grave would be desecrated.

KERENSKY–KRASNOV UPRISING. This term, derived from Soviet historiography, is used to denote one of the first attempts to overthrow the Soviet government. The minister-president of the Provisional Government, A. F. Kerensky, had left Petrograd on 25 October 1917, intending to summon loyal troops from the Northern Front (based at Pskov) to resist the anticipated Bolshevik seizure of power. He met General P. N. Krasnov, commander of the 3rd Cavalry Corps, who on 26 October 1917 managed to persuade some 500–700 Cossacks of the 1st Don and Ussurii Cossack Divisions to advance on Petrograd from their base at Ostrov. On 27 October 1917, Krasnov’s Cossacks captured Gatchina, and the following day they entered Tsarskoe Selo, 16 miles from the center of the capital. As Red forces in Petrograd mopped up the last pockets of resistance of the simultaneous Junker revolt, on 30 October 1917 a major battle took place at Pulkovo, on the southern outskirts of the capital, with rapidly deployed Red Guards, reinforced by sailors of the Baltic Fleet, forcing Krasnov’s Cossacks to retreat by nightfall. On 1 November 1917, Red units entered Gatchina and arrested Krasnov but failed to waylay Kerensky, who went into hiding.

KERESSELIDZE (KERESELIDZE), LEO (1878/1885–1942). Major general (Georgian Legion, 1915), major general (Georgian Army, November 1918). A leading military and political figure in the Georgian national movement and the Democratic Republic of Georgia, Leo Keresselidze, who was born at Gori, first came to prominence in his native land as a participant in the 1905 Revolution, chiefly as a terrorist and a smuggler of arms. He subsequently moved into exile in Western Europe, where he was awarded a PhD by the University of Geneva in 1912. In Geneva, from 1913 to 1914 he edited the newspaper Tavisupali Sakartvelo (“Free Georgia”), the mouthpiece of the Committee of Independent Georgia (which he had helped found in 1904). When the latter transferred its operations to Germany upon the outbreak of the First World War, Keresselidze moved there also. He subsequently became the highest ranking Georgian officer in the Georgian Legion that fought against Russia with the Central Powers (having previously attended a military school in Switzerland). When the legion was transferred to the Caucasus Front, he moved to that theater and commanded Georgian forces in raids on Russian territory, at one point occupying Murghuli, Borchkha, and Maradidi and capturing some 600 men, 8 guns, and 14 machine guns. For his achievements, he was awarded the Ottoman Order of Crescent and the German Iron Cross. He was also involved in the lengthy but ultimately fruitless negotiations between the Committee of Independent Georgia and the Turkish government (chiefly in the person of Enver Pasha) over the future of Georgia. When negotiations stalled, he was sent to the Persian front, distinguishing himself at the battles for Rawandiz and Saraibulak. Having retired from active duty because of ill health, he then returned to Switzerland and later Germany and, from 1916 to 1918, was editor of the Berlin-based Kartuli Gazeti (“Georgian Newspaper”).

Following the proclamation of Georgian independence in May 1918, Keresselidze returned to Georgia and was active in creating the armed forces of the new republic, although he rarely saw eye-to-eye with its Menshevik government. He initially reestablished the Georgian Legion and participated in the Georgian–Armenian War, during which he distinguished himself at Shulaveri. When that conflict was over, he operated in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region, where he suppressed a local uprising, and served as the commandant of Akhaltsikhe but was seriously wounded in a combat at Kopameshi (near Atskuri) in February 1919. After recovering, Kereselidze participated in the suppression of an Ossetian uprising in the Samachablo region in the spring of 1919 (part of the Georgian–Ossetian conflict). In the summer of 1919, he commanded an expedition to Chechnia and Daghestan, leading Georgian forces that were resisting the incursions of units of General A. I. Denikin’s Armed Forces of South Russia. In 1920, the Georgian government dispatched him on a diplomatic mission to Poland (possibly to remove him from domestic politics).

Keresselidze returned to Georgia in late 1920, having spent some time studying mountain warfare in Switzerland, and in February–March 1921 he helped organize resistance to the Red Army’s invasion of Georgia, but was soon forced to flee abroad. In emigration he settled once again in Germany. There, in 1924, he helped found and became secretary general of the right-wing Georgian émigré organization Tetri Giorgi (“White George,” a colloquial name for St. George, the patron saint of Georgia), which during the Second World War would collaborate with the Nazis. He was also a founding member (shortly before his death, in 1942) of the Union of Georgian Traditionalists, the leading monarchist organization among the Georgian émigrés, promoting the claims for a restoration of the Bagrationi dynasty. Keresselidze’s life was fictionalized in Harold Armstrong’s Unending Battle (1934).

Khanzhin, Mikhail Vasil′evich (17 October 1871–14 December 1961). Colonel (June 1906), major general (29 June 1910), lieutenant general (August 1916), general of infantry (20 April 1919). One of the most senior (and, for a time, successful) White commanders in Siberia, M. V. Khanzhin was born at Samarkand, into the family of an officer of the Orenburg Cossack Host. He was a graduate of the Orenburg Nepliuevskii Cadet Corps (1890), the Mikhail Artillery School (1893), the Mikhail Artillery Academy (1899), and the Artillery Officers School (1903). He saw action in the Russo–Japanese War, as commander of the 4th Battalion of the 3rd East Siberian Brigade, and subsequently, from late 1905, taught at the Artillery Officers School at Tsarskoe Selo. From September 1909, he commanded the 44th Artillery Brigade. In the First World War, he first commanded the 19th Artillery Brigade of the 8th Army (February 1914–5 July 1915) and then the 12th Infantry Division (5 July 1915–1916) and was Inspector of Artillery of the 8th Army (from 18 April 1916) and then of the Romanian Front (from 4 October 1916). Finally, he was named by General L. G. Kornilov as inspector of artillery at the stavka of the main commander in chief on 19 July 1917.

Following the October Revolution, Khanzhin retired from the service (4 December 1917) and went with his family to Troitsk, Orenburg guberniia, but became active in the White movement when he was summoned to Omsk by General A. N. Grishin-Almazov, in June 1918, and put in charge of the formation of the 3rd Urals Rifle Corps of the Siberian Army. He subsequently commanded that force in battles against Red partisans in the Ufa region. On 24 December 1918, Admiral A. V. Kolchak placed Khanzhin in command of the newly organized Western Army, which, during the spring offensive of the Russian Army, captured Ufa, Belebei, and other centers and advanced to within some 50 miles of the Volga. In recognition of this success, Kolchak promoted Khanzhin to the rank of general of artillery, one of the very rare promotions to such an exalted rank that occurred in the White forces during the civil wars. (A comparable example from South Russia was the promotion to general of cavalry, in November 1920, of P. N. Shatilov, General P. N. Wrangel’s most trusted advisor.) However, the Red counteroffensive of May–June 1919 forced the Western Army to retire, and on 20 June 1919 Khanzhin, at his own request, stepped down from his command and was replaced at the head of the Western Army by General K. V. Sakharov. Due to ill health, he was subsequently placed on the reserve list of Kolchak’s stavka (the Staff of the Supreme Ruler, July–October 1919), then became minister of war in the Omsk government, remaining in that post when the government transferred to Irkutsk (6 October 1919–4 January 1920).

At Irkutsk, as the White regime disintegrated, together with A. A. Cherven-Vodali and V. M. Larionov, Khanzhin formed part of the governing triumvirate that engaged in the fruitless negotiations regarding the transfer of power with the socialist Political Center during the uprising of December 1919–January 1920. When the Kolchak regime collapsed entirely in January 1920, Khanzhin managed to find a berth on an eastbound Allied train and went into emigration, living briefly in Manchuria before settling in Dairen (Dalian), where he was active in ROVS, as head (29 August 1928–19 June 1930) of its 9th (Far Eastern) Section, and (from October 1933) was employed as a draftsman on the South Manchurian Railway. On 15 September 1945, following the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, Khanzhin was arrested at Mukden by agents of SMERSH and sent back to the USSR, where he was sentenced to 10 years in the Gulag. He was released under amnesty in 1954 and allowed to live out his years in exile in Dzhambul (now Taraz), Kazakhstan, where he subsequently died and was buried. He was posthumously rehabilitated in June 1992.

KHARLAMOV, SERGEI DMITRIEVICH (26 September 1881–25 May 1965). Colonel (1917), kombrig (November 1935). The Soviet military commander S. D. Kharlamov was born into a noble family at Simferopol′ and was a graduate of the Kiev Cadet Corps, the Mikhail Artillery School (1902), and the Academy of the General Staff (1909). He then occupied several staff posts in the imperial army, including that of senior commissioned officer of the Irkutsk Military District (5 December 1912–1914). During the First World War, he was chief of staff of the 73rd Infantry Division (2 October 1915–December 1917). He volunteered for service with the Red Army in May 1918 and was attached to Vseroglavshtab for nine months, as head of its operational directorate, and also taught at the Red Military Academy before becoming chief of staff of the 15th Red Army (14 June–23 September 1919). He also served briefly as acting commander of that force (25 June–31 July 1917), before becoming commander of the 7th Red Army (26 September–17 October 1919) during its successful defense of Petrograd against the advance of the North-West Army of General N. N. Iudenich. He was subsequently chief of staff of the 7th Red Army (14 November–31 December 1919), from 24 February 1920 was chief of staff and commander of the Ukrainian Labor Army, and also served as chief of staff of the 2nd Cavalry Army (17–28 July 1920). From 2 May 1921, he was assistant commander of forces of the Ukraine and Crimea and subsequently worked in a variety of educational posts in Ukraine.

Kharlamov was arrested on 28 February 1931, during Operation “Spring,” and on 10 May 1931 received a sentence of three years’ imprisonment. He subsequently returned to educational work and somehow survived the purges.

KHARLAMOV, VASILII AKIMOVICH (1 January 1875–13 March 1957). The Cossack politician V. A. Kharlamov was born at Kremensk khutor, Ust′-Bystriansk stanitsa, the son of an NCO (uriadnik) of the Don Cossack Host, and was a graduate of the Moscow Spiritual Academy (1899) and the Historical-Philosophical Faculty of Moscow University (1904). He subsequently became a teacher at the Novocherkassk Gymnasium and published works on the ethnography of the Don region. He joined the Kadets in 1906 (becoming a member of the party Central Committee in 1917) and was elected to all four of the State Dumas, as representative of the Don oblast′. During the First World War, he was chairman of the Don–Kuban branch of Zemgor. From 9 March 1917, he served as a member of the Russian Provisional Government’s Special Transcaucasian Committee (Ozakom) and from 11 March 1917 was its chairman. On 20 October 1917, he was named head of the United Government of the Union of South-Eastern Union of Cossack Hosts, Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus, and Free Peoples of the Steppe. From 1918, he was chairman of the Don Krug, the parliament of the Don Cossack Host, in which capacity he strove to restrain Cossack separatism and to maintain the Host’s support for General A. I. Denikin and the Armed Forces of South Russia, even joining the White Government of South Russia, which Denikin established under N. M. Mel′nikov in January 1920.

When Denikin’s regime collapsed in 1920, Kharlamov went into emigration and lived subsequently in Belgrade, Prague, and Paris. During the interwar years, he was associated with the Democratic Group of the Kadets around P. N. Miliukov. Following the Second World War, he moved to Argentina, where he was later killed in a car accident in Buenos Aires.

Khatisyan, Alexander (17 February 1874–10 March 1945). Born in Tiflis, into the family of a prominent government official, the well-known Armenian politician Alexander Khatisyan was a graduate of the medical schools of Khar′kov and Moscow Universities and an expert in public health and municipal administration. From 1910 to 1917, he was mayor of Tiflis and during the First World War was one of the organizers of Armenian volunteer detachments in the Russian Army. Following the February Revolution of 1917, he joined the Dashnaks, became chairman of the Armenian National Bureau, and was a supporter of the Russian Provisional Government, preaching discipline and patience with regard to the solution of the “Armenian question.”

From 1917 to 1918, Khatisyan served as mayor of Alexandropol. In April 1918, he became minister of finance, minister of supply, and minister of welfare in the Transcaucasian Sejm. From August 1919 to 5 May 1920, he was prime minister of the Democratic Republic of Armenia, and from September 1920 he acted as the chief Armenian negotiator at the conference that resulted in the Treaty of Alexandropol (2 December 1920), which brought an end to the Turkish–Armenian War. Following the Sovietization of Armenia, he emigrated to Paris, where he acted as deputy chairman and later chairman of the Armenian National Delegation and participated in the Lausanne Conference of 1922–1923, which eventually granted most of the lands claimed by Armenia to Turkey. When Nazi Germany invaded France in June 1940, Khatisyan moved to Porto, Portugal, but he returned to Paris after the liberation.

Khojaev, Faizullah Ubaidullaevich (1893/1896–13 March 1938). The Uzbek politician Faizullah Khojaev was born into a wealthy merchant family in Bukhara and educated (from 1907) in Moscow. He became an advocate of Jadidism and helped found the Young Bukharan Party in 1916. When Red Guards of the Tashkent Soviet failed to capture Bukhara in late 1917, he was forced to flee to Tashkent to seek the protection of the Bolsheviks. He then represented the Young Bukharans in Moscow and only returned to Bukhara following the flight of the emir, Said-Alim-khan, in September 1920. Just prior to that event, he had been chosen as head of the regional Revolutionary Committee and had joined the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). He was then appointed chairman of the council of ministers of the Bukharan People’s Soviet Republic (18 August 1922–17 February 1925) and led the local struggle against the Basmachi, at one point narrowly escaping assassination at the hands of Enver Pasha.

In February 1925, Khojaev was confirmed as chairman of the Sovnarkom of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic. However, he remained at heart a Jadid and opposed Soviet efforts to impose central control and a cotton-growing monoculture on Uzbekistan; he was arrested as a “Rightist” and the instigator of a “nationalist plot” in 1937 (either on 17 June or on 9 July; sources differ). He appeared at the third Moscow show trial (“The Trial of the Trotskyite and Rightist Bloc of 21”) alongside N. I. Bukharin and others and was executed on 13 March 1938. He was posthumously rehabilitated on 6 March 1965.

KHOL′MSEN, IVAN ALEKSEEVICH (28 September 1865–19 March 1941). Colonel (6 December 1904), major general (6 December 1910), lieutenant general (1919). The White general I. A. Khol′msen, whose family was of Norwegian ancestry, was a graduate of the Finland Cadet Corps (1886) and the Academy of the General Staff (1896). In 1900–1901, he participated in the Russian military expedition to Manchuria, and he served subsequently as a senior military attaché in Athens (1901–1906) and Constantinople (1906–1913). In 1913, he worked as the chief negotiator in the Bulgarian–Serbian peace talks that followed the Second Balkan War, before being assigned to the suite of Nicholas II. During the First World War, he commanded a brigade of the 53rd Infantry Division, but in February 1915 he was captured by the Austrians and was subsequently imprisoned near Stralsund. He was released in April 1917, during an exchange of prisoners, and moved to a camp at Lillehammer in Norway.

In late 1918, Khol′msen moved to London, where he was named assistant to General B. V. Gerua, the head of the White military mission in Western Europe that was charged with supplying the forces of General E. K. Miller in North Russia and General N. N. Iudenich in the Baltic. In March 1919, the head of all White missions in Europe, General D. G. Shcherbachev, named Khol′msen as White plenipotentiary to Berlin. There he sought to secure, for the use of the Whites, arms and other materials captured from Russia by the Germans in the course of the world war. He remained in Germany, latterly as the plenipotentiary of General P. N. Wrangel, until 1 April 1922, when he was transferred to Paris, where he headed the 1st Section of ROVS. He remained in that post until January 1930, when, following the abduction by Soviet agents of General A. P. Kutepov, he was named by General Miller as chief paymaster of ROVS. From 1929, he also helped edit the journal Chasovoi (“The Sentinel”). When, in 1938, Miller was also abducted by the NKVD, Khol′msen resigned from ROVS and subsequently moved to Norway. He died and is buried in Oslo.

KHOMERIKI, NOE (1 January 1883–1 September 1924). A leading figure in the government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, Noe Khomeriki was born in Guria, then part of the Kutaisi guberniia, and joined the Russian Social-Democratic Party at an early age, gravitating toward the Mensheviks following the party split in 1903. During the revolution of 1905, he involved himself in the peasant movement and played a prominent part in the Gurian Republic, a self-governing, social-democratic territory that endured from 1903 to 1906.

Having already worked in the Transcaucasian Sejm, in 1918 Khomeriki was elected to the constituent assembly of independent Georgia and served as minister of agriculture in the republic’s government. In that capacity, he oversaw a remarkably successful land reform beginning in January 1919, which by the following January had redistributed private lands from some 4,000 estates to the peasantry (despite Khomeriki’s personal preference for collectivization) and granted to the state control of forests, rivers, and some pastureland. Following the Red Army invasion of Georgia in February 1921, he fled to France, where he remained a member of the Government-in-Exile of the Democratic Republic of Georgia. In 1922, however, he returned to Georgia to support the resistance efforts of the Committee for the Independence of Georgia. Khomeriki was arrested by the Cheka on 9 November 1923 and in the following year was executed in the wake of the failed August Uprising.

Khorezm (Khwarazm) People’s soviet Republic. This short-lived polity was created in February 1920, as the successor to the Khanate of Khiva, following the overthrow of Khan Said-Abdulla and his protector, Junaïd-khan, by local Soviet forces supported by the Red Army. Officially proclaimed at the 1st All-Khiva Congress of Soviets on 26 April 1920, it was subsequently (20 October 1923) transformed into the Khorezm Socialist People’s Republic and on 17 February 1925 was formally abolished, its territory being divided among the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic, and the Karakalpak Autonomous Oblast′.

KHORVAT, DMITRII LEONIDOVICH (25 July 1858–16 May 1937). Major general (1912), lieutenant general (26 November 1912). A scion of a grand, noble landowning family from Kherson guberniia, the White leader D. L. Khorvat was a graduate of the Nicholas Engineering School (1878) and the Academy of the General Staff (1885) and saw service in the Russo–Turkish War of 1877–1878. He subsequently worked as a leading military administrator on the Ussurii and Transcaspian Railways and in November 1902 became director of the Chinese Eastern Railway in Manchuria. Following the October Revolution, he refused to recognize Soviet power.

Khorvat headed, at Harbin, the “Far Eastern Committee for the Defense of the Fatherland and the Constituent Assembly,” and for the first six months of 1918 became the most powerful political and military figure in the Russian Far East, much to the displeasure of Ataman G. M. Semenov, whom Khorvat attempted to arrest and who refused to recognize his authority. At Grodekovo, in the Maritime Province, he proclaimed an All-Russian Government and subsequently headed its Business Cabinet (July–September 1918), at the same time (4 August 1918) proclaiming himself to be the “Provisional Supreme Ruler of Russia.” Although ignored by the socialist leaders of the Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia, who regarded him as a relic of the autocracy, from 31 August 1918 Khorvat accepted the post of “Supreme Plenipotentiary” of the Provisional Siberian Government in the Far East, and from 28 October 1918 fulfilled the same role for the Ufa Directory. Subsequently (18 November 1918–18 August 1919), he served loyally as Admiral A. V. Kolchak’s plenipotentiary in the Far East, despite his name having been put forward (by L. A. Ustrugov) during the Omsk coup as a preferable choice for the role of military dictator (supreme ruler).

In April 1920, Khorvat’s authority over the railway zone was rescinded by the Chinese authorities. He subsequently lived in emigration, in Peking and Harbin, acting as the senior political and social leader among the émigrés and as a local representative of ROVS and working as an advisor to the Chinese (and from 1931 the Manchukuo) regimes on the Chinese Eastern Railway. He is buried beneath one of the walls of the Muchenikov Church at the Russian Orthodox mission in Peking.

KHOTYN UPRISING. This term refers to the events that took place in early 1919 at Khotyn (Hotin), when Ukrainians in and around the town rose up against the governing Romanian authorities and then suffered bloody reprisals.

On 9 April 1918, Khotyn, along with the rest of Bessarabia, had been formally united with Romania by a vote of the Bessarabian parliament (the Sfatul Ţării), although the region was occupied by Austrian and German troops, and Romanian forces only arrived in November 1918, in the wake of the Central Powers’ defeat in the First World War. On 23 January 1919, the Ukrainian population of Khotyn drove these forces from the city (killing the Romanian general Stan Poetaş in the process) and established an interim government (the Khotyn Directory), under M. Liskun, that sought union with the neighboring Ukrainian National Republic (UNR). The latter, however, at a critical point of the Soviet–Ukrainian War, could not afford to become embroiled in conflict with Romania—still less could the West Ukrainian National Republic, to Khotyn’s north, which was in the midst of the Ukrainian–Polish War—and Romanian forces reoccupied the area on 1 February 1919. Ukrainian sources suggest that some 55,000 Ukrainians then fled east, across the Dnestr River, into the UNR, and that at least 15,000 of those who did not flee were slaughtered by the Romanians. The area was returned to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic on 28 June 1940, following the USSR’s ultimatum to Romania, and is now part of the Chernivtsi oblast′ of Ukraine.

KHOYSKI, FATALI KHAN ISGENDER (7 December 1875–19 June 1920). Fatali Khoyski, the first prime minister of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan, was born at Shaki, in northern Azerbaijan, into the family of a lieutenant general in the tsarist army who claimed descent from the khans of Xoy (Khoy), in Persia (western Azerbaijan). After completing his schooling at the Ganja Gymnasium, he graduated from the Law Faculty of Moscow University (1901). He subsequently worked as a lawyer and a judge in various parts of the Caucasus and was promoted to deputy prosecutor of the district court. In February 1907, he was elected to the Second State Duma as a Muslim representative and acted as spokesman for the Union of Russian Muslims (Ittifaq), although politically he was closely associated with the Kadets. He never joined a political party in the prerevolutionary period, but was among those to demand autonomy for Azerbaijan at the Musavat congress in October 1917.

In December 1917, Khoyski was elected to the Transcaucasian Sejm and soon became minister of justice in the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic, also serving as Azerbaijan’s representative at the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Batumi (4 June 1918). Following the collapse of the Transcaucasian federation, he led the moderate National Democratic Party in the Azeri parliament, from 28 May 1918 to 14 April 1919 headed the first three coalition cabinets of independent Azerbaijan, and subsequently held the post of minister of foreign affairs. As prime minister, he welcomed the occupation of Muslim areas of Transcaucasia by the Turkish Army of Islam and rejected offers of a military alliance from both Red and White leaders in the “Russian” Civil Wars, while his pronouncement, “Our right to live as a free nation is indisputable,” became one of the mottoes of the Azeri republic. He was also closely involved in the establishment of the Azerbaijan (now Baku) State University in September 1919.

When Soviet forces entered Baku in late April 1920, Khoyski was briefly arrested; upon his release, he fled with his family to Tiflis. Two months later, he was assassinated on that city’s Yerevan Square by Aram Yerganian, a member of an Armenian group that held Khoyski responsible for the massacres of Armenians in Baku in September 1918 (the September Days). Among other sites, a major street in Baku now bears his name.

KHRESHCHATITSKII, BORIS ROSTISLAVOVICH (11 July 1881–22 July 1940). Colonel (13 April 1913), major general (18 May 1916), lieutenant general (August 1919), lieutenant (French Army, 11 January 1929). The White general B. R. Khreshchatitskii was born at Lugansk, into the family of a senior officer of the Don Cossack Host (his father was a general of artillery), and was raised at Novonikolaevsk stanitsa in the Taganrog region. After graduating from the Aleksander Cadet Corps (1900), he served with Cossack forces in the Russo–Japanese War and subsequently remained in service in the Far East. In August 1914, he transferred to the Eastern Front as commander of the 52nd Don Cossack Regiment, and on 9 September 1916 he was named commander of the 2nd Brigade of the 1st Don Cossack Division. On 22 October 1917, he was placed in command of Ussurii Cossack Division and, following the October Revolution, he led that force back to its own territory in the Far East, where it demobilized.

Khreshchatitskii moved to Harbin in January 1918, to put himself at the disposal of General D. L. Khorvat, and from 8 March to 14 November 1918 served as chief of staff to anti-Bolshevik Russian forces in the Chinese Eastern Railway zone. In that capacity, he raised a Ukrainian force from Green Ukraine, which named him as ataman of Ukrainian Far Eastern Forces on 14 December 1918. From November 1918 to August 1919, he commanded that force on the anti-Bolshevik front as part of the Russian Army of Admiral A. V. Kolchak, before becoming inspector of reserve forces in the Russian Far East (September–November 1919). In March 1920, he placed himself under the command of Ataman G. M. Semenov with the Far Eastern (White) Army and subsequently served as chief of staff of all Cossack Forces in the Far East (27 April 1920–1 July 1921). From 26 June 1920, he also served as head of foreign affairs in the administration of Semenov and as special plenipotentiary to China, before moving to Harbin later that year.

In 1924, Khreshchatitskii arrived, penniless, in France and volunteered for the Foreign Legion as a private. He served thereafter on various missions in Syria, Lebanon, and North Africa. In 1935, he obtained French citizenship. When France collapsed before the German onslaught in June 1940, he moved with his unit to Tunisia, arriving there on 11 July 1940. He died of an unspecified illness soon thereafter at Sousse.

KHUDIAKOV, NIKOLAI AKIMOVICH (1890–26 April 1938). Ensign (1915), staff captain (1916). The Soviet commander N. A. Khudiakov was born at Rylsk, Kursk guberniia, and graduated from a commercial school before being mobilized in 1914. He then graduated from the Alekseev Military School (1915). He joined the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries in 1915 and was sentenced to death for revolutionary agitation among soldiers at the front (where he was several times also decorated for valor). He was freed from imprisonment in 1917, was elected as commander of the 4th Trans-Amur Regiment, joined the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in early 1918, and was active as a commander of Red Guards on the Don (from February 1918). He subsequently commanded the Bakhmutsk Regiment, from May 1918 was chief of staff on the Tsaritsyn Front, then commanded the 1st Communist Rifle Division (10 July–28 October 1918) and was simultaneously (from August 1918) commander of the central group of forces on the Tsaritsyn Front. He then commanded the 10th Red Army (18–26 December 1918), the 3rd Ukrainian Soviet Army (15 April–23 June 1919), and the 57th Rifle Division (4 August–11 October 1918) and was commandant of Kherson guberniia (from January 1920), in the latter capacity overseeing operations against Nestor Makhno’s Revolutionary-Insurgent Army of Ukraine. Khudiakov subsequently became chef d’arrière of Kiev guberniia (from August 1920), commander of the Ekaterinoslav garrison (from December 1920) and assistant commander of the Don oblast′ (from August 1921).

Following the civil wars, he was assigned to numerous economic-management roles and then led a series of successful oil-exploration expeditions to Sakhalin and Kamchatka. His last appointment was as head of the “Glavnikel′olovo” trust (from 1936). Khudiakov was arrested by the NKVD on 17 January 1938 and, having been found guilty of membership in a “counterrevolutionary terrorist organization,” was executed at Kommunarka, Moscow, on 26 April 1938. He was posthumously rehabilitated on 23 July 1955.

KHVESIN, TIKHON SERAFIMOVICH (9 September 1894–10 February 1938). The Soviet military commander T. S. Khvesin was born into a Jewish worker’s family in Orenburg. He joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party in 1911, sympathizing with the Bolsheviks, and served as an NCO in the First World War before becoming the Red Army’s commandant of Saratov guberniia in the summer of 1918.

During the civil wars, Khvesin held numerous command posts, including commander of the 4th Red Army (10 September–5 November 1918) and commander of the 8th Red Army (15 March–18 May 1919). In May–June 1919, he led an expeditionary force that sought to suppress a Cossack uprising on the Don, and in 1920 led a special group of forces on the Turkestan Front. During the Soviet–Polish War, he commanded the Mozyr Group of Forces of the Red Army. From 1921 to 1923, Khvesin was assistant commander of the Urals Military District, and from 1924 he worked in the State Planning Commission (Gosplan) of the USSR. He was arrested on 23 September 1937, accused of membership in a “counterrevolutionary terrorist organization.” He was sentenced to death by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR on 8 February 1937 and was executed two days later at Kommunarka, Moscow. Khvesin was posthumously rehabilitated on 5 October 1955.

Khwarazm People’s soviet Republic. See Khorezm (Khwarazm) People’s soviet Republic.

KIKVIDZE, VASILII (“VASO”) ISIDOROVICH (2 February 1895–11 January 1919). The flamboyant Red Army commander “Vaso” Kikvidze, the son of a petty official in the tsarist bureaucracy, was born at Kutaisi, in western Georgia. He volunteered for service with the Russian Army during the First World War and was assigned to a cavalry unit, but was repeatedly arrested for revolutionary activity. He was released from prison following the February Revolution and in 1917 was elected chairman of the soldiers’ committee of the 6th Cavalry Division and deputy chairman of the military-revolutionary committee of the South-West Front.

Following the October Revolution, Kikvidze organized Red Guards detachments around Rovno (Rivne) and Dubno, in opposition to the Ukrainian Central Rada. In May 1918, he raised a Red Army division (later the 16th Rifle Division) at Tambov and led it in punitive actions against the Don Cossack Host. From June 1918, his division was incorporated into the 9th Red Army on the South-West Front, but Kikvidze retained operational independence and refused orders to purge his forces of adherents to anarchism, such as A. G. Zhelezniakov. According to official Soviet historiography, he was killed in battle near the Zubilovka khutor (later rechristened Kikvidze, in the Novonikolaevsk region of what is now Volgograd oblast′) and is buried in the Vagan′kovo cemetery in Moscow. However, some sources suggest that he was assassinated by the Cheka. Kikvidze is the subject of a Georgian-language biographical feature film, The Stray Bullet (dir. Gizo Gabeskiriye and Giorgi Kalatozishvili, 1980).

KINGDOM OF FINLAND. See FINLAND, KINGDOM OF.

Kingdom of Lithuania. See Lithuania, Kingdom of.

KINSHIP WARS. This term (derived from the Finnish Heimosodat) denotes the series of conflicts along the Russo–Finnish border in 1918 to 1922, in the wake of the Whites’ victory in the Finnish Civil War, some initiated by expeditions launched from Finland and others a consequence of risings against Soviet/Russian authority by the local populace (chiefly the Karelians). Chief among them were the revolt that led to the foundation of the North Ingrian Republic, the Viena expedition into East Karelia of March 1918, the Aunus expedition launched against Petrozavodsk and the Murmansk railway in April 1919, the incursions into Pechenga (Petsamo) in 1918 and 1920, and the Soviet–Finnish Conflict of 1921–1922 and the accompanying East Karelian uprising.

KIRGIZ AUTONOMOUS SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC. This Soviet polity, with its capital at Orenburg, was founded on 26 August 1920 as an autonomous region of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, incorporating the homelands of the Kazakhs (who were then called Kirgiz by the Russians). It incorporated parts of the former Ural, Turgai, Semipalatinsk, and Transcaspian oblasti and parts of Bukeevsk and Orenburg gubernii. In 1921, a large part of Omsk guberniia was transferred to the Kirgiz ASSR. In April 1925, the region was renamed the Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. (The Kirgiz ASSR of 1920–1925 should not be confused with the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic, established in southeast Central Asia on 1 February 1926, which is now Kyrgystan.)

KIRIENKO, IVAN KASIANOVICH (1888–25 May 1971). Colonel (1914), major general (1918). A prominent figure among the White movement in South Russia, I. K. Kirienko was a graduate of the Kiev Cadet Corps and the Kiev Military School. He saw action in the Russo–Japanese War with the 88th Pernovsk Regiment, and during the First World War commanded a company of the 310th Shchatsk Regiment. In June 1917, he was detailed to form a shock regiment of holders of the Cross of St. George (he had won his for exploits in battle in August 1914).

Following the October Revolution, Kirienko led a group of his 25th St., George Cavaliers to the Don region, where Ataman A. M. Kaledin instructed him to place himself and his men at the disposal of the Volunteer Army. This unit subsequently covered the retreat of the Volunteers from Rostov-on-Don at the commencement of the First Kuban (Ice) March in January 1918. Kirienko then assumed numerous important administrative and command responsibilities within the Volunteer Army and, later, the Armed Forces of South Russia, including postings as commandant of Khar′kov (from 10 July 1919). Subsequently, in the Russian Army of General P. N. Wrangel, he was commander of the 1st Army Corps (April–November 1920).

Following the Whites’ evacuation of Crimea in November 1920, Kirienko lived in the refugee camps at Gallipoli and then in emigration, first in Salonika, then (from 1923) Belgrade. Following the Second World War, he moved via Germany to Belgium, where he spent the remainder of his days in a retirement home at Braine-le-Comte.

KIROV (KOSTRIKOV), SERGEI MIKHAILOVICH (15 March 1886–1 December 1934). A central figure in the establishment of Soviet power at Astrakhan and in the Caucasus (and later, in death, a key figure in the purges), S. M. Kirov was born at Urzhum, Viatka guberniia, the son of a forester, and raised in an orphanage from the age of seven years. He was a graduate of the Kazan′ Mechanical-Technical School (1904), became involved with revolutionary politics as a student, and joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party in 1904, after moving to Tomsk. During the revolution of 1905, he gravitated toward the Bolsheviks. He was arrested and served prison sentences on a number of occasions from 1905 onward for his political activities, in between relocating to Vladikavkaz in 1909, but was freed following the February Revolution of 1917, becoming a leading member of the Vladikavkaz Soviet and the local branch of the Military Organization of the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks).

During the civil wars, Kirov served initially, in 1918, as a party troubleshooter and organizer in the Terek region and around Astrakhan, and in October of that year managed Soviet resistance to the mutiny of the commander of the 11th Red Army, I. L. Sorokin. He then became chairman of the Provisional Revolutionary Committee of Astrakhan krai (25 February–April 1919), head of the Political Section (PUR) of the 11th Red Army (from April 1919), a member of the Revvoensovet of the 11th Red Army (7 May–25 June 1919), a member of the Revvoensovet of the Astrakhan Group of Forces (7 July–14 August 1919), and a member of the Revvoensovet of the 11th Red Army on the Southern Front and the South-West Front (10 September–30 December 1919). In those capacities he helped organize the Red Army’s defense of Astrakhan, denying the Whites the opportunity to form a single front by closing the gap between their forces in Siberia and South Russia. He subsequently shifted the focus of his operations to the Caucasus, as deputy chairman of the bureau for the establishment of Soviet power in the North Caucasus (from 11 February 1920), Soviet ambassador to the Democratic Republic of Georgia (29 May–August 1920), and a member of the Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (October 1920–February 1922). He was also (September–October 1920) a member of the Soviet delegation that negotiated preliminary peace terms with Poland at Riga to bring an end to the Soviet–Polish War.

In July 1921, Kirov was made first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Azerbaijan and the following year helped organize the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. He became a member of the Central Committee of the RKP(b) on 25 April 1923 (having been a candidate member since 16 March 1921) and a candidate member of the Politbiuro on 23 July 1926, and at the same time assumed the post of first secretary of the party organization in Leningrad, thereafter conducting a ruthless campaign to purge the region of oppositionists. He became a full member of the Politbiuro on 13 July 1930 and was made secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and a member of the Orgbiuro on 10 February 1934.

On 1 December 1934, at his headquarters (the Smolny Institute) in Leningrad, Kirov was assassinated by L. V. Nikolaev. Although it now seems likely that the killer acted independently (a recent suggestion is that it was a cuckold’s act of revenge against a notorious womanizer), the fact that J. V. Stalin used Kirov’s murder as a pretext to round up and then execute oppositionists, notably L. B. Kamenev and G. E. Zinov′ev, has led some historians to argue that the assassination was orchestrated by Stalin, the theory being that Kirov was the focus of plans to oust Stalin from the leadership of the party and to moderate policy on a number of fronts. (It is known, for example, that at the 17th Party Congress in January 1934, Kirov received only three votes against his candidacy for the Central Committee, compared to 292 against Stalin.) Kirov was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis in Moscow. Stalin was among his pallbearers. Monuments were raised to him across the Soviet Union (notably on Kirov Square in Leningrad) and (in December 1934) the city of Viatka and its region were among the numerous locations renamed in his honor (including Kirov Squares in Irkutsk, Ekaterinburg, and Petrozavodsk), as was Elizavetgrad (Kirovohrad) in Ukraine. His name was attached also to two classes of battle cruisers, the former Putilov engineering works in Leningrad, and the former Mariinskii Ballet. The Kirovskaia metro station in Moscow is now the Chistie prudy, Kirovakan in northern Armenia is now called Vanadzor, and Kirovobad in northwestern Azarbaijan is now again called Ganja. The huge bronze and granite statue of Kirov (sculpted by Pinkhos Sabsay) in Dagustu Park that dominated the skyline of Baku from 1939 onward was dismantled in January 1992.

Kislyi, Porfirii Grigor′evich (26 February 1874–1 January 1960). Colonel (15 June 1915), major general (18 May 1917). One of the leaders of a celebrated forced march of White officers, P. G. Kislyi, who was born into a family of the Kuban Cossack Host, was a graduate of the Kuban-Alexander Realschule, the Kiev Infantry Officer School (1895), and the Academy of the General Staff (1906). Prior to the outbreak of war in 1914, he served in the Caucasus, at Kiev, and on the Chinese border. During the First World War, he rose to the position of chief of staff of the 158th Rifle Division (from 8 February 1917).

In 1918, the Ukrainized 158th became the 8th Hetman Corps, and Kislyi remained with it at Ekaterinoslav. By the summer of 1918, however, barely 1,000 men (almost exclusively officers) remained in the corps, and most of them favored the Volunteer Army over the forces of Hetman P. P. Skoropadskii. Following a bloody battle against the advancing forces of S. V. Petliura at Ekaterinoslav on 27 November 1918, Kislyi and the other commanders of the Corps decided to join the Volunteers. After a month-long trek, during which constant attacks by Red Army and Ukrainian nationalist forces had to be deflected, he and his associates reached Simferopol′ and linked up with the Crimean-Azov Volunteer Army. Kislyi had been seriously injured en route, but he oversaw the reformation of the new force before allowing himself to be admitted to hospital. Upon his release, he was placed in the reserve ranks of the staff of the Armed Forces of South Russia.

Following the Whites’ evacuation of the Crimea in November 1920, Kislyi settled in the town of Ostrov, in the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). After the rise to power of Josip Tito in 1945, he was constantly harried by the Communist authorities and was twice arrested, until, in the early 1950s, he was dispatched to a refugee camp at Trieste. The good offices of the representative of the Church Council eventually secured his release, and he ended his days in a rest home at St. Gallen, Switzerland, where he is buried.

KLAFTON, ALEKSANDR KONSTANTINOVICH (15 December 1871–23 June 1920). A political and propagandistic pillar of the Whites in Siberia, A. K. Klafton was born in Viatka guberniia, the son of a merchant of Scottish ancestry. He entered the medical faculty of Kazan′ University but was debarred from his examinations after an arrest for participating in illegal student societies. In 1894, he was exiled to Samara and subsequently worked as a journalist (sometimes under the pen name “Sphinx”) on the Samarskii vestnik (“Herald of Samara”) and the Volzhskii den′ (“Volga Day”), as well as becoming a leading figure in the Samara guberniia zemstvo (serving as secretary of its board from 1901 to 1916). From 1905, he was a member of the Kadets and chairman of the party’s Samara guberniia committee; he became a well-known public figure in eastern Russia, concerning himself with popular education and other liberal causes.

After moving to Siberia in the summer of 1918 to evade the Bolsheviks, Klafton became chairman of the Eastern Section of the Kadet Central Committee. In that capacity, he was a prominent and active supporter of the Omsk coup, subsequently commenting that “we [the Kadets] became the party of the coup d’état.” Under Admiral A. V. Kolchak, he served (from 2 May 1919) as director of the Russian Society for Press Affairs (from 1 June 1919 renamed the Russian Press Bureau), the mouthpiece of the Omsk government; participated in a number of public organizations that offered support to the White regime (the Bloc of Public Organizations, the Political Bloc, etc.); and was a delegate to the State Economic Conference. As the White regime collapsed in Siberia, he was arrested by the Political Center at Irkutsk in January 1920, and later passed into the custody of the Bolsheviks. Klafton was subsequently executed, having been found guilty of counterrevolutionary crimes by an extraordinary Revolutionary Tribunal at Omsk in May 1920.

KLIMOVICH, ANTON KARLOVICH (PAVLOVICH) (11 September 1869–?). Colonel (25 March 1912), major general (11 July 1917). One of the leading military specialists of the Red Army, A. K. Klimovich was a graduate of the Moscow Infantry Officers School and the Academy of the General Staff (1904). Having entered military service in 1890, he participated in the Russo–Japanese War as a staff officer with the Amur Military District, and subsequently served with various units in Siberia and the Far East before, during the First World War, commanding the 32nd Kremenchug Regiment (from 21 August 1915), serving as chief of staff to the 8th Infantry Division (from 30 September 1916) and the 15th Army Corps (from 11 July 1917), and then commanding the 6th Infantry Division (from 17 October 1917). He volunteered for service in the Red Army in 1918 and became founding head of the Red Military Academy (8 December 1918–July 1919). He was subsequently assistant commander of the Eastern Front (from August 1919) and then inspector (and later head) of military-educational establishments on the Turkestan Front (1920). He retired from active service in 1920 and remained in military-educational work for the rest of his career, rising to head the Karl Liebknecht Military College in Moscow from 1937.

KLIMUSHKIN, PROKOPII DIOMIDOVICH (1887–1958/1969?). A key figure of the Democratic Counter-Revolution on the Volga, P. D. Klimushkin, a native of Samara guberniia (his family were peasants), was a member of the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries (PSR), an elected member of the Constituent Assembly (for Samara guberniia), and one of the founders and leading members of Komuch, as a member of its council and as director of its department of internal affairs.

A former village schoolteacher and political exile (he had been sentenced to 12 years’ hard labor in 1907 but was released in 1917), it was Klimushkin who coined the name “People’s Army” for Komuch’s forces, to underline the regime’s democratic ambitions. He remained in Siberia, in hiding, following the Omsk coup, attempting to organize opposition to the White regime of Admiral A. V. Kolchak. In 1920, he emigrated, settling in Czechoslovakia as a leader of the émigré organization of the PSR.

Klimushkin played a leading role in the Prague uprising against the Nazis on 5 May 1945, but was nevertheless arrested by the security forces attached to the Red Army, which arrived in the city a few days later (on 9 May 1945), and was deported to the USSR. A court in Moscow subsequently found him guilty of anti-Soviet activities and sentenced him to 10 years’ imprisonment in a labor camp. He was released in 1956 and, according to unconfirmed accounts, spent his final years in Kuibyshev (Samara) oblast′. According to other accounts, he managed to return to Czechoslovakia. Klimushkin was posthumously rehabilitated in 1992.

Kliuchnikov, Iurii Veniaminovich (1886–10 January 1938). The man in charge of the foreign policy of the anti-Bolshevik governments in Siberia from July 1918 to January 1919, Iu. V. Kliuchnikov was a leading member of the Kadets and an expert in international law. A native of Kazan′, in 1917 he was made a professor at Moscow University. After participating in the Iaroslavl′ Revolt, he moved east and became director of the ministry of foreign affairs in, successively, the Provisional Siberian Government (July–September 1918), the council of ministers of the Ufa Directory (September–November 1919), and the All-Russian Government (the Omsk government) of Admiral A. V. Kolchak (November 1918–January 1919). He was ousted by the ambitious I. I. Sukin, who persuaded the supreme ruler that Kliuchnikov was too cautious in his activities. Kliuchnikov then moved abroad.

Initially, Kliuchnikov worked in Paris for the Whites’ Russian Political Conference, but soon came to associate himself with the publication (in Prague, in 1921) of the influential collection Smena vekh (“Change of Signposts”) and became an advocate of accommodation with and return to the USSR (Smenovekhovstvo). After briefly working on the Berlin émigré newspaper Nakanune (“On the Eve”), in 1923 he returned to Russia. There, he was permitted to undertake teaching work, becoming a consultant in international law at the Communist Academy, and was also employed as an advisor to the People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs and as an advisor to its journal Mezhdunarodnaia zhizn′ (“International Life”). However, on 25 February 1934, as the purges began, he was arrested and exiled to Karelia for three years for “anti-Soviet activities.” On 5 November 1937, he was arrested again, on charges of espionage and terrorism, and was executed on 10 January 1938, by order of the Military College of the Supreme Court of the USSR. Kliuchnikov was posthumously rehabilitated on 28 October 1992.

KLIUEV, LEONID LAVROVICH (4 August 1880–29 January 1943). Lieutenant (1917), komdiv (28 November 1935), lieutenant general (4 June 1940). The Soviet military commander L. L. Kliuev was born into a peasant family in Kazan′ guberniia. Following service in the Russo–Japanese War, he served with the 149th Black Sea Regiment (from 1 January 1909) and subsequently graduated from the Academy of the General Staff (1914). During the first World War, he served on the staff of the 5th Army Corps (from 24 September 1916) and in October 1917 was made commander of that force.

Kliuev volunteered for service with the Red Army in March 1918, and during the civil wars was assistant commander of Nizhnii Novgorod region (from May 1918); chief of the operational-intelligence section of the staff of the Southern Front (from November 1918); and chief of staff (from 26 December 1918), then commander (26 May–28 December 1919), of the 10th Red Army. He joined the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1919. Kliuev subsequently served as chief of staff of the 1st Cavalry Army (June 1920–February 1921) during the Soviet–Polish War. After the civil wars, he occupied a number of teaching posts with the Red Army, rising to the rank of professor and specializing in chemical warfare. He died and is buried in Moscow.

KLOCHURAK (KLOČURAK), STEPAN (27 February 1895). The pro-Ukrainian Rusyn political activist and journalist Stepan Klochurak was born at Chorna Tysa in the Hungarian kingdom. He studied at the Uzhhorod Gymnasium (1906–1910) and the Piarist Gymnasium in Sighet (1910–1914), before being mobilized into the Austro-Hungarian Army in 1915. He saw action in the First World War, but managed to graduate from the Law Faculty in Sighet in 1918.

Immediately after the war, Klochurak returned to his home district and was made chairman of the newly formed Ukrainian National Council of Subcarpathian Rus′ (November 1918). On 8 January 1919, having failed to forge a union with the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic, this body proclaimed the independent Hutsul Republic, and Klochurak became its prime minister. As the republic began to collapse under Romanian pressure, in June 1919 Klochurak professed support for a union with Czechoslovakia. He subsequently lived in Czechoslovakia, where he was a leading member of the Social-Democratic Party, although in 1934 he switched allegiance to the progovernment Agrarian (Republican) Party. Following the attainment of Rusyn autonomy from Slovakia in late 1938, Klochurak served as secretary to the prime minister (Avhustyn Voloshyn) and was minister of defense for the one-day existence of the independent Carpatho-Ukraine state (15 March 1939). He then fled to Prague, where in May 1945 he was apprehended by Soviet intelligence agents and sent to the USSR. There, he was sentenced to a term in the Gulag, being freed only in 1956. The following year, Klochurak was allowed to return to Prague to rejoin his wife and family. He remained in Prague for the rest of his life.

KLYCH, SULTAN-GIREI (1880–16 January 1947). Colonel (August 1917), major general (March 1918). Also known as Sultan Kelech-Girei, Sultan-girei Klych was of mixed ethnicity: part Adyghe, part Nogai, part Cherkess. He also claimed descent from the khans of the Crimean Tatar Horde. He was born at the Uiala aul (or, according to other sources, Maikop) and attended Elizavetgrad Cavalry Officers School. He participated in the suppression of the 1905 Revolution and during the First World War rose to the command of the 3rd Sotnia of the Cherkess Cavalry Regiment. In 1918, he allied himself with the Kuban Cossack Host to fight the Bolsheviks before joining the Volunteer Army to command the 2nd Brigade of the 1st Cavalry Division and (from 21 December 1918) the Cherkess Cavalry Division (the “Savage Division”).

In 1920, following the collapse of the Armed Forces of South Russia, Klych led his men into the Democratic Republic of Georgia, where he was briefly interned. He then organized various anti-Bolshevik partisan groups in the North Caucasus in support of the Russian Army of General P. N. Wrangel, before retreating once more into Georgia in late 1920 and then making his way into emigration, settling in Paris after some time in Turkey.

Between the wars, Klych was a prominent figure among anti-Soviet Caucasian émigrés, as a member of the Central Committee of the People’s Party of Mountaineers of the North Caucasus, which sought to detach the region from the USSR. During the Second World War, he formed a Caucasian Division and joined the Cossack forces of General P. N. Krasnov in collaborating with the Nazis. His unit was interned by the British at Oberdrauburg in May 1945, and (despite his French citizenship) Klych was among 125 Caucasian officers who were subsequently handed over to the NKVD for transfer to Moscow, where he was subsequently sentenced to execution by hanging by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR.

KNIAGNITSKII, PAVEL EFIMOVICH (15 January 1884–10 September 1938). Ensign (1917), komdiv (26 November 1935). The Soviet military commander P. E. Kniagnitskii was born at Tiraspol′, Kherson guberniia, into the family of a merchant and was a graduate of the Nikolaevsk Engineering Institute (1917). He was active in St. Petersburg and Kronshtadt during the 1905 Revolution, and subsequently studied architecture and participated in scientific expeditions to Turkey, Persia, and the Caucasus.

Kniagnitskii joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks) in August 1917, while serving on the Romanian Front with the 68th Infantry Division, and during the civil wars commanded various Red Army formations and fleets of armored trains in the Odessa region, before becoming commander of the 9th Red Army (23 November 1918–6 June 1919) during its battles with the Armed Forces of South Russia across the Donbass region. From October 1919, he commanded the 58th Rifle Division during campaigns against the Ukrainian Army and the Poles, his division forcing the Dnepr River and capturing Kiev in December 1919. From October 1920, he commanded the 9th Division of the forces of VOKhR and from December of that year commanded the Independent Chernigov Brigade.

Kniagnitskii subsequently commanded the 45th Rifle Division (from April 1921) and the 51st Rifle Division (from August 1922), and from 1924 was commander of the 14th Rifle Corps. In January 1927, he was named head of the S. S. Kamenev Military College, and from 13 August 1928 was commander of the Kiev Fortified Region. He was twice awarded the Order of the Red Banner. Kniagnitskii was arrested on 11 July 1937 and, having been found guilty of membership in “a counterrevolutionary terrorist organization” by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR, was sentenced to death on 9 September 1938. He was executed the following day. He was posthumously rehabilitated on 13 May 1958.

KNOX, ALFRED WILLIAM FORTESCUE KNOX (30 October 1870–9 March 1964). Major general (1918). General (later Sir) Alfred Knox was the most influential soldier in the formulation of British policy toward Russia throughout the revolutionary period. He was born in Ulster and attended St. Columba’s College, Dublin, before graduating from the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in 1901. After a brief period of service in the Indian Army, he became aide-de-camp to Lord Curzon, the viceroy of India, from 1899 to 1900, and fought on the North-West Frontier. He returned to Britain to attend the Army Staff College at Camberley and in 1908 entered the General Staff of the War Office. In 1911, he was appointed British military attaché to Russia; upon the outbreak of war in 1914, he became the chief British liaison officer with the Russian Army, gaining a reputation for being the best-informed British military observer of the Russian scene.

In 1917, Knox became an advocate of the restoration of “order” in the Russian Army and gave at least vocal (and possibly material) support to the efforts in that direction of General L. G. Kornilov, both in Russia and during meetings with members of the British government during a visit to London in August–September of that year. Following the October Revolution (which he later characterized as the work of “a handful of fanatics”) and the Soviet government’s armistice with the Central Powers, Knox returned to London in January 1918, where he immediately became a leading proponent of Allied intervention in the “Russian” Civil Wars, dismissing the arguments of those, like R. H. Bruce Lockhart, who believed that the Bolsheviks could be induced to re-open hostilities on the Eastern Front. When intervention began, Knox was made head of the British Military Mission to Siberia (Britmis) in July 1918. En route to Vladivostok, in Japan he met Admiral A. V. Kolchak, with whom he agreed that only a military dictatorship could save Russia and whom he described to the War Office as “the best Russian for our purpose” in Siberia. Unsurprisingly, therefore, it has often been suggested that Knox was a key figure in the planning of the Omsk coup that would bring Kolchak to power in November 1918, although evidence to support that contention remains largely circumstantial (and Knox was not even in Omsk at the time of the coup). Certainly, though, he enjoyed a good relationship with Kolchak, at least initially, being named chef d’arrière of the Russian Army and overseeing the running of officer training schools at Tomsk and Vladivostok, managing the supply of British weaponry and uniforms that were sent to Kolchak’s forces, and arguing in his dispatches for the Allies’ recognition of the Kolchak regime. His counsels may also have influenced White strategy in Siberia; certainly during the 1919 spring offensive of the Russian Army, Knox was in favor of giving preponderance to the northern flank of the Eastern Front, in order to effect a union with British forces in North Russia, rather than the southern, which might have achieved a union with the Armed Forces of South Russia of General A. I. Denikin. However, he strongly disagreed with Kolchak and his chief of staff, General D. A. Lebedev, on the timing of the offensive, arguing that it was launched too early.

When Kolchak’s efforts collapsed, Knox returned to London and set about writing his memoirs, With the Russian Army, 1914–17, 2 vols. (London, 1921). The work ends, however, prior to his controversial activities in the “Russian” Civil Wars. In the parliamentary elections of October 1924, Knox was elected as Conservative MP for Wycombe, a seat he held until 1945. In the 1930s, he was prominent as chairman of the Indian Defense League, which opposed the idea of granting any measure of devolution to India, and during the Second World War, he was a supporter of the Home Guard.

KOBOZEV, PETR ALEKSEEVICH (13 August 1878–4 January 1941). One of the leading Red military-political organizers in Central Asia and elsewhere, P. A. Kobozev was born in the village of Pesochnia, Riazan′ guberniia, the son of a railwayman, and was a graduate of the Riga Polytechnical Institute (1904). He joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party at its inception, in 1898; became one of the leaders of the party’s military organization in Latvia during the revolution of 1905–1906; and was an editor of the Bolsheviks’ journal Golos soldata (“The Soldier’s Voice”). He was arrested and exiled in 1915, first to the far north, to work on the Murmansk Railway, and then to Central Asia, where he worked on the Orenburg–Tashkent line while organizing party cells in the region.

Kobozev returned to Petrograd in 1917, but after the October Revolution, in January 1918 he was dispatched as an extraordinary commissar of Sovnarkom to Western Siberia and Central Asia, there organizing military resistance to the rising of the Orenburg Cossack Host (the Dutov Uprising) and attempting to fulfill a personal commission from V. I. Lenin to establish communication across the Caspian with the Bolsheviks of oil-rich Baku. From 9 May to June 1918, he was People’s Commissar for Ways and Communications of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), but was more active as chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the Sovnarkom of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (30 April–June 1918) and a member of the Bolsheviks’ Turkestan Regional Committee. From June 1918, he was chairman of the Revvoensovet of the Eastern Front, organizing resistance to the Czechoslovak Legion on the Volga, and was subsequently one of the first members of the Revvoensovet of the Republic (6 September 1918–27 April 1919). From February 1919, he was also a member of the Turkestan Commission of Sovnarkom. In that capacity, he fought against so-called partizanshchina in the region’s Red forces and sought to build a more regular army. From November 1919, he was a member of the collegium of the Commissariat for Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspection (Rabkrin), and from November 1922 to October 1923, served on the Far Eastern Bureau (Dal′biuro) of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). He was also, briefly, the last chairman of the council of ministers of the Far Eastern Republic (14–15 November 1922), before its union with the RSFSR.

After the civil wars, and once he had recovered from a serious illness, Kobozev held a number of teaching and research posts in the fields of surveying, aerial photography, and cartography, including being rector of the Mezhev Institute (from 1923) and rector of the Leningrad Polytechnical Institute (2 November 1928–29 August 1929).

Kochubei, ivan antonovich (13 July 1893–4 April 1919). Uriadnik (1916). The much-mythologized Red hero I. A. Kochubei was born at the Roshchinskaia stanitsa, in the territory of the Kuban Cossack Host. During the First World War, he served in the Cossack partisan detachment of Colonel A. G. Shkuro, his future opponent in the civil wars, and on the Caucasus Front, where he was several times decorated for bravery. In April 1918, he served with Red Guards units during the defense of Ekaterinodar against the siege of the Volunteer Army, in May 1918 saw action around Rostov-on-Don, and was subsequently made commander of rifle and cavalry brigades in the 11th Red Army and the 12th Red Army, but in February 1919, he fell foul of the Soviet authorities and was briefly arrested, accused of anarchism. Later that month, ill with typhus, he was captured by enemy forces near Sviatoi Krest (Buddenovsk) and, having refused to serve the Whites, was executed.

Kochubei was subsequently promoted by the Soviet authorities as a martyr of the civil wars. Many streets, schools, collective farms, etc. were named in his honor, as was Kochubei village in the Kochubei district of Stavropol′ region, and a statue of him was raised at Sviatoi Krest (where he was buried in the Old Cemetery). His legendary status was sealed with the publication of the popular novel Kochubei by A. A. Perventsev in 1937, which in 1958 was filmed by Iu. N. Ozerov.

KOKAND (QUQON) AUTONOMY. The Kokand Autonomy (that is, the Kokand Autonomous Region) was the nationalist governance of Turkestan, proclaimed at Kokand during the 4th Extraordinary Regional Muslim Congress of 26–29 November 1917. It had as its aim the overthrow of Russian/Soviet power in Turkestan (as defined by the borders of the former tsarist governor-generalship); the reestablishment of the Kokand khanate (which had been dissolved in 1876); and more broadly, the union of all Muslims under the aegis of Turkey. Its executive organs, the 54-man Turkestan Provisional Council and the 12-man Provisional Government, led by Mohammed Tynyshpaev (minister president and minister of internal affairs) and Mustafa Chokai-oghlu (Chokaev) (minister of foreign affairs), were offered support by British diplomats and military personnel in the region and established friendly relations with Ataman A. I. Dutov of the Orenburg Cossack Host and the Russian Provisional Government’s commissar to Khiva, Colonel I. M. Zaitsev, although no substantial military aid was forthcoming from any of these sources.

The Kokand government planned to summon a regional parliament on 20 March 1918, in which one-third of the seats would be reserved for non-Muslims. However, great tensions existed between traditionalist Muslims and the increasingly assertive followers of reformist Jadidism, leading to the resignation of Tynyshpaev and his replacement as minister president by Chokaev. Muslim leaders united in the Shuro-i-Ulema (council of religious elders) refused to participate in the new government. After some three months of precarious existence, on 18–22 February 1918, the armed forces raised by the Kokand Autonomy were crushed by local Red Guards (led by K. P. Osipov), and the putative state ceased to exist. However, many of those involved in the autonomy period subsequently fought on against Soviet power among the Basmachi.

KOLCHAK, ALEKANDR VASIL′EVICH (4 November 1874–7 February 1920). Captain, first rank (December 1913), rear admiral (10 April 1916), vice admiral (28 June 1916), admiral (18 November 1918). The man proclaimed “supreme ruler” of Russia by White forces in November 1918, A. V. Kolchak was born in St. Petersburg and was the son of a major general (of Bosnian-Turkish heritage) in the Russian Army who had left active service to work as an engineer in the Obukhov armament works. Following an education at home and at the 6th St. Petersburg Classical Gymnasium, Kolchak graduated from the Naval Cadet Corps (1894) and joined the 7th Naval Battalion in the capital, before serving in the Far East (1895–1899) and at Kronshtadt (1899–1900). In 1900, as an already published hydrologist, he joined a polar expedition led by Baron Eduard Gustav von Toll and subsequently earned some fame for his (albeit unsuccessful) efforts in 1902–1903 to rescue Toll, after the latter had disappeared during an attempt to reach the remote Bennet Island. (In 1909 the publication of his researches into the Kara Sea ice during these voyages earned Kolchak the highest award of the Imperial Russian Geographical Association, the Great Constantine Gold Medal.)

During the Russo–Japanese War, Kolchak won the coveted Gold St. George’s Sword of Honor, for mine-laying work and for the sinking of an enemy cruiser by the first ship under his command, the Serdityi. At the siege of Port Arthur, he commanded a naval battery and was wounded, and when that city fell to the Japanese he became a POW, spending some months thereafter in hospital at Nagasaki. Having been repatriated via Canada in June 1905, he worked at the Russian Admiralty and with the new Naval General Staff (as head of its First Operational Section from 1911) and was one of the chief architects of the reorganized and modernized Russian navy. From 1912, he commanded the destroyer Ussuriets, and from May 1913 the destroyer Pogranichnik in the Baltic. During the First World War, he served with the Baltic Fleet as flag officer (chief of staff) to its commander, Admiral N. O. Essen, winning renown for mine-laying expeditions to the mouth of the Kiel Canal and for the defense of Riga. On 16 July 1916, at the remarkably young age of 41, he was named commander in chief of the Black Sea Fleet and promoted to vice admiral, the youngest man of that rank in the Russian service. In that capacity, so successful were his mine laying and deployments that not a single enemy vessel was able to leave port in the Black Sea during his period of command there.

Although he was at heart a monarchist, Kolchak was among the first senior Russian officers to declare publicly their support of the February Revolution (regarding it as a necessity, if the war was to be won) and seems, initially, to have retained the support of the men under his command. However, he soon lost faith in the Russian Provisional Government, came to detest A. F. Kerensky, and began to involve himself with the secret counterrevolutionary organizations that would spawn the Kornilov affair. Indeed, some on the right favored Kolchak above L. G. Kornilov as a potential military dictator. On 9 June 1917, however, he was forced to relinquish his command of the Black Sea Fleet by revolutionary sailors of the Sevastopol′ Soviet. Confronted by an armed mob, Kolchak threw his St. George’s Sword of Honor overboard from his flagship and headed for St. Petersburg. On 19 August 1917, he left Russia on a mission to the United States to discuss the possibility of an amphibious assault on the Straits (although it is possible that Kerensky merely wished to get a potential rival out of the country, as the Americans had apparently dismissed the idea of such an operation before Kolchak embarked).

Kolchak was in Japan, en route back to Russia, when he heard of the October Revolution and immediately offered his services to the British, who dispatched him to Mesopotamia. In March 1918, however, by which date he had only reached Singapore, his orders were rescinded, and he made his way back to Manchuria, where he joined the government of General D. L. Khorvat (the Far Eastern Committee), as commander of Russian forces in the region. In that capacity he clashed repeatedly with the unruly ataman G. M. Semenov and with the commanders of the Japanese expeditionary force. By July 1918, having despaired of organizing an anti-Bolshevik force in the Far East, he resigned his post and retired to Japan. There he met and befriended General Alfred Knox, head of the British Military Mission to Siberia, and in September 1918 traveled with him into Siberia, ostensibly en route to join the Volunteer Army in South Russia. (He also later claimed to be en route to a reunion with his wife, who was in the Crimea, but was traveling with his mistress, A. V. Timireva.) At Omsk, however, on 4 November 1918, he agreed to accept the post of minister of war and marine in the cabinet of the Ufa Directory. On 18 November 1918, following the Omsk coup, he was proclaimed Supreme Ruler and Commander in Chief of all Russian Land and Sea Forces (and was subsequently recognized as such by all other major White leaders). Kolchak later claimed that he was not party to the plot that put him in power, but some historians have cast doubt on this.

In his inaugural declaration, Kolchak defined his “chief aims” as “the organization of a fighting force, the overthrow of Bolshevism and the establishment of law and order, so that the Russian people may be able to choose a form of government in accordance with its desire and to realize the high ideas of liberty and freedom,” but over the following year he presided over a regime, the Omsk government, that became a byword for corruption and ineptitude, and over a Russian Army that sought revenge for its defeats in the field by terrorizing the Siberian population, facts that ensured that his relations with the Allies were strained and that his regime enjoyed minimal popular support in Siberia. He nevertheless put together a force that in April–May 1919 mounted successful offensive across the Urals and, in some sectors, came to within 50 miles of the Volga. However, following a successful Red Army counteroffensive across the Urals and western Siberia from May 1919, Kolchak abandoned his capital, Omsk, on 14 November 1919. He hoped to reconstruct his regime farther east, but at Nizhneudinsk, on 4 January 1920, as rebellions swept across Siberia and the Political Center seized power at Irkutsk, he announced his resignation, passing the mantle of supreme rule to General A. I. Denikin and command of the remaining White forces in eastern Siberia and the Far East to Ataman Semenov.

Kolchak then placed himself under the protection of Allied forces, which meant, in effect, the Czechoslovak Legion, although that force had been opposed to his dictatorship from the beginning. On 14 January 1920, the Czechs, with the approval of their nominal commander, General Maurice Janin, handed Kolchak and the remains of the Imperial Russian Gold Reserve over to the Political Center at Irkutsk, in return for a guarantee of safe passage into Transbaikalia. Kolchak was subsequently interrogated at the Irkutsk prison by a five-man commission that, from 20 January 1920, was controlled by the Bolshevik revkom that had taken power at Irkutsk. When it seemed possible that retreating White forces under Generals V. O. Kappel′ and S. N. Voitsekhovskii might storm Irkutsk, in order to liberate Kolchak, V. I. Lenin ordered his execution on 6 February 1920. Kolchak faced a firing squad the following morning, alongside his last prime minister, V. N. Pepeliaev. Their bodies were then pushed through a hole in the ice of the river Ushakovka.

In 2004, an imposing statue of Kolchak by Viacheslav Klykov was raised near the site of his execution (another had already been erected in St. Petersburg, adjacent to the building that housed the Naval Corps, in 2002, and another has been raised in Omsk), and in 2005 the name Kolchak (with which it had been christened in 1901) was restored to an island in the Kara Sea that since 1937 had been known as Rastorguev Island. In 2008, a sympathetic (not to say sychophantic) feature film about him was released in Russia (Admiral, dir. Andrei Kravchuk), which was said to be the most expensive film ever made in that country; subsequently a much-expanded and improved version of the film was broadcast on Russian television as a mini-series. An “Admiral Kolchak” beer, brewed at Irkutsk, is also popular in contemporary Russia. However, two attempts to have him officially rehabilitated have been turned down, by an Irkutsk regional court in 1999 and by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation in 2001. The latter concluded that the Irkutsk revkom was irrefutably correct in its judgment that Kolchak was responsible for the mass repression meted out to the Siberian populace by White forces in 1919 and that, consequently, the death penalty had been justified.

KOLEGAEV, ANDREI KUKICH (22 March 1887–22 March 1937). The revolutionary activist A. K. Kolegaev was born at Surgut, Tiumen oblast′, the son of a noted narodnik, and was educated at Khar′kov University, but was expelled for political activities in 1906 (by which time he was a member of the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries). He was subsequently arrested on four occasions and spent seven years in exile, mostly in Paris. Having returned to Russia following the February Revolution, he became (from 11 May 1917) chairman of the Kazan′ guberniia Soviet of Peasants’ Deputies, a leading member of the Party of Left Socialists-Revolutionaries, and a delegate to the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets. He was also elected to the Constituent Assembly and, from 24 November 1917, was a member of Sovnarkom, as People’s Commissar for Agriculture. In that latter capacity, he was responsible for the Soviet government’s decree on the socialization of the land (19 February 1919).

Kolegaev resigned from Sovnarkom on 18 March 1918, in protest against the Soviet government’s signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918). Following the Left-SR Uprising (which he had opposed) and the banning of his party, Kolegaev joined the Party of Revolutionary Communism and then, in November 1918, joined the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). He thereafter worked in a variety of food procurement agencies (chiefly as head of supply to the Southern Front and as a member of its Revvoensovet), and from 1920 to 1921 was a member of the collegium of the Commissariat for Ways and Communications. He was arrested in 1936 and was later shot as a “counterrevolutionary” at Sverdlovsk (Ekaterinburg). He was posthumously rehabilitated in 1957.

KOLENKOVSKII, ALEKSANDR KONSTANTINOVICH (23 August 1880–23 May 1942). Captain (1 September 1920), lieutenant colonel (6 December 1915), kombrig (November 1935), komdiv (1940), lieutenant general (1940). The Soviet military specialist, commander, and historian A. K. Kolenkovskii was born into the family of an officer of the Imperial Russian Army at Nikolaev and was a graduate of the Odessa Infantry Officers School (1900) and the Academy of the General Staff (1912). He entered military service on 30 September 1897 and saw action in the Russo–Japanese War with the 218th (Borisoglebskii) Infantry Regiment. During the First World War, he taught at the Odessa Infantry Officers School (from 6 August 1915) and then rose to the rank of senior adjutant with the staff of the 42nd Army Corps (from 2 January 1917), before becoming chief of staff of the 181st Infantry Division (from February 1917), then senior adjutant to the quartermaster general of the 3rd Army (from 20 February 1918) and, briefly, quartermaster general of the 3rd Army. He volunteered for service in the Red Army in April 1918, becoming chief of staff of forces in the Nevel′ region (April–August 1918). He subsequently served as chief of staff (and acting commander) of the Vitebsk Rifle Division (August–September 1918), before becoming chief of staff of the Eastern Front (28 September 1918–3 April 1919). He was removed from that post when Red forces fell back before the spring offensive of Admiral A. V. Kolchak’s Russian Army and was named commander of the Volga Military District (from 29 April 1919). He subsequently served as Soviet military attaché to Lithuania (August 1920–March 1921) and then head of the Operations Section of the Main Staff of the Red Army (9 March 1921–1924), before spending the rest of his career, with the title of full professor, as head of the History Faculty of the Red Military Academy, in which capacity he authored numerous works on the First World War and other subjects. He joined the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1940 and died in either Moscow or Tashkent (sources differ) in 1942.

Kolesov, Fedor Ivanovich (20 May 1891–29 September 1940). A leading figure among Red forces in Central Asia during the civil wars, F. I. Kolesov was born at Ural′sk into the family of a junior civil servant and was educated at the local seminary. He worked as a clerk at the Orenburg offices of the Orenburg–Tashkent Railway, transferring to Tashkent in 1916. There, during the following year, he joined the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks) and from September 1917 was a member of the executive committee of the Tashkent soviet, in which capacity he was one of the organizers of the general strike in the city in September 1917. He was in St. Petersburg, as a delegate to the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, during the October Revolution and was subsequently elected to VTsIK.

Kolesov then returned to Tashkent to serve as chairman of the Sovnarkom of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (15 November 1917–30 April 1918 and June–5 October 1918) and was also a member of the Turkestan regional committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). In this period, he served also as Turkestan’s commissar for transport, post and telegraph, justice, and foreign affairs. During the civil wars, he acted as a political commissar to numerous Red units on the Turkestan Front. He was briefly arrested by the Soviet authorities in January 1919 and accused of being a party to the anti-Soviet uprising at Tashkent organized by K. P. Osipov, but was soon released and subsequently served as a military commissar on the Southern Front. From 1923 to 1928, he was chairman of the Far Eastern branch of VSNKh. Then, after a period of study at the Moscow Institute of Architecture (1929–1933), he worked as an architect.

KOLLONTAI (DOMONTOVICH), ALEKSANDRA MIKHAILOVNA (19 March 1872–9 March 1952). The Soviet champion of women’s liberation (and the world’s first senior female diplomat), A. M. Kollontai was born in St. Petersburg, the daughter of a tsarist general. Following a privileged childhood and education at the Bestushevskii Women’s College, she briefly married an officer but separated from him and became an agitator for women’s rights and a member of the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (from 1900). Following that party’s schism in 1903, she vacillated between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. From 1908, she lived in emigration in cities across Europe (including Berlin and London), making her name as an advocate of a socialism that would overthrow the bourgeois family structure as well as the bourgeoisie, while at the same time mounting a stern critique of “bourgeois feminism.” The First World War, which she spent mostly in the United States, further radicalized her outlook and drew her closer to the outlook of V. I. Lenin, and she finally joined the Bolsheviks. Following her return to Russia (on 18 March 1917) after the collapse of tsarism, she was elected to the party Central Committee on 3 August 1917 (despite being in prison at the time, in the aftermath of the July Days).

After the October Revolution, Kollontai became the most prominent woman in the Soviet government, as People’s Commissar for State Charity (from 30 October 1917). In that capacity, she laid the foundations for Soviet Russia’s socialized obstetrical and newborn care. However, on 23 February 1918 she resigned her post in protest against the proposed signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918), and during the civil war years she worked as an effective agitator among women’s organizations (organizing, for example, the First All-Russian Congress of Working and Peasant Women, in Moscow, 16–21 November 1918) and at the front (notably in Crimea, from May to July 1919, and subsequently at Kiev) and was associated with a string of oppositionist factions within the party, notably the Left Bolsheviks in 1918 and the Workers’ Opposition (whose manifesto she wrote) in 1920–1921. In September 1920, she became head of the Women’s Section (Zhenotdel′) of the party Central Committee, and from 1921 to 1922, she served also as women’s secretary with the Komintern. However, her espousal (and practice) of free love shocked the sexually and culturally conservative leadership of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and this, together with her signing of the opposition’s “Declaration of the 22,” meant that in 1922 she was dismissed from these posts and sidelined into a diplomatic career (or what might be termed “diplomatic exile”).

Kollontai subsequently served as Soviet representative in Norway (4 October 1922–4 March 1926) and Mexico (17 September 1926–25 October 1927). She returned to head the Soviet diplomatic mission in Norway (25 October 1927–20 July 1930) and was, finally, the long-standing Soviet representative to Sweden (20 July 1930–27 July 1945). Kollontai was one of the few Old Bolsheviks to survive the Stalinist purges of the 1930s. She returned to Moscow in July 1945 and spent the remainder of her life as an advisor to the Soviet foreign ministry.

KOLOKOL′TSOV, VASILII GRIGOREVICH (27 December 1867–29 September 1934). A prominent figure in the White administration in South Russia, V. G. Kolokol′tsov, who was born into an ancient noble family at Penza, was a graduate of the Poltava Officers School (1879) and the Petrovsk Agricultural Academy (1891). He was active in public life from 1892 onward, joined the Kadets soon after the party’s formation, and from 1912 to 1917 was editor of the Volchanskii zemskii listok (“The Volchansk Zemstvo Newssheet”). He served also as chairman of both the Volchansk uezd zemstvo board and the Khar′kov guberniia zemstvo board, in which roles he sponsored the building of numerous schools and hospitals, and sat on the State Council from 1911.

From 29 April to July 1918, Kolokol′tsov was minister of agriculture in the government of the Ukrainian State of Hetman P. P. Skoropadskii and subsequently served General A. I. Denikin as director of the department of agriculture and rural affairs and as a member of the Special Council. He went into emigration in February 1920, making his way, via Salonika (where he spent time in hospital with typhus), to Belgrade and then to Berlin in 1923, before eventually settling in Paris from 1925. There, he served in numerous émigré organizations, notably being a member of the committee of the Union of Russian Trader-Industrialists and Financiers, while working in the Renault car factory as a warehouse manager. Following a stroke in 1934, he committed suicide rather than become a burden to his wife. In 2007, a bronze monument to the memory of Kolokol′tsov was installed in the central square in Volchansk.

Komańcza REPUBLIC. This Rusyn polity of some 30 eastern Lemko villages around Komańcza was established at a congress at Wisloki Dolny, on 4 November 1918, and was headed by Panteleimon Shpylka. It planned to unite with the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic but was dispersed by the Poles on 23 January 1919, during the Ukrainian–Polish War. The Ukrainophile Komańcza Republic was opposed by the Russophile Florynka Republic in Lemkivshchyna.

KOMBEDY. This was the commonly used acronym for Komitety derevenskoi bednoty (“Committees of the Village Poor”), peasant institutions created by the Soviet government following a VTsIK decree of 11 June 1918, with the aim of assisting the campaigns of the Food Army, spreading the class war to the village, and undermining the influence of the traditional peasant commune (the mir or obshchina), which the Bolsheviks believed to be a tool of the richer elements in the villages, the kulaks. By the end of October 1918, some 122,000 kombedy (or 139,000 according to other sources) were in existence across Soviet Russia and Belorussia. However, the kombedy failed to live up to expectations, as they were either ignored by the village, were despised as a foreign/urban agency imported into the countryside, or were used by peasants to defend local interests against the state in a manner not dissimilar to the village commune. A wave of peasant uprisings across Soviet territory in late 1918 was attributed to local hostility to the kombedy, and on 23 November of that year, the Sixth All-Russian Congress of Soviets duly decided to abolish them. However, the similar Komitety nezamozhnikh selian (“Committees of Poor Peasants”) survived even the introduction of the New Economic Policy in 1921. They were replaced by newly elected rural soviets that came to be dominated by members of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks).

KOMINTERN. The acronym by which was commonly known the Communist (or Third) International, the organization of world Communist parties that was established in 1919 to further the international revolution. During the First World War, V. I. Lenin, like others on the left of the socialist movement, had condemned the Second International, as almost all its constituent parties had supported their governments’ decisions to fight and had also announced a civil truce for as long as the war lasted. (The Second International had been founded in 1889; the First, “The International Workingman’s Association,” in 1864.) Lenin thereafter urged the creation of a new organization, including that demand in the “April Theses” that he presented to his fellow Bolsheviks upon his return to Russia in 1917.