Отражаясь в людях: почему мы понимаем друг друга

Примечания

Какие же они обезьяны!

V.S. Ramachandran, “Mirror Neurons and Imitation Learning as the Driving Force Behind ‘the Great Leap Forward’ in Human Evolution,” Edge 69, June 29, 2000 (www.cdge. org/3rd_culturc/ramachandran/ramachandran_indcx.html). Примечания, подобные этому, будут содержать ссылки и комментарии, которые могут представлять интерес главным образом для специалистов.

2 По правде говоря, Ридзолатти и его коллеги определенно проявили себя как более свободные от предубеждений и внутренне более готовые к открытиям люди, чем основная масса нейроспециалистов. Вероятно, именно поэтому они и открыли зеркальные нейроны. Те же самые явления, происходи они даже под самым носом у более узкомыслящих нейроспециалистов, не привлекли бы к себе их внимания. Кто знает, сколько раз разрядка зеркальных нейронов оставалась незамеченной в нейрофизиологических лабораториях!

3 Gentilucci, М., L. Fogassi, G. Luppino, et al., “Functional Organization of Inferior Area 6 in the Macaque Monkey. I. Somatotopy and the Control of Proximal Movements,” Experimental Brain Research 71 (1988): 475-490; Rizzolatti, G., R. Camarda, L. Fogassi, et ah, “Functional Organization of Inferior Area 6 in the Macaque Monkey 11. Area F5 and the Control of Distal Movements,” Experimental Brain Research 71 (1998): 491-507.

4 Rizzolatti, G., C. Scandolara, M. Matelli, and M. Gentilucci, “Afferent Properties of Periarcuate Neurons in Macaque Monkeys. II. Visual Responses,” Behavioural Brain Research 2 (J.981): 147—163; Rizzolatti, G., C. Scandolara, M. Macclli, and M. Gentilucci, “Afferent Properties of Periarcuate Neurons in Macaque Monkeys. I. Somatosensory Responses,” Behavioural Brain Research 2 (1981): 125-146.

5 Gallese, V, and A. Goldman, “Mirror Neurons and the Simulation Theory of Mind-reading,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2 (1998): 493-501.

6 Rizzolatti, G., L. Riggio, I. Dascola, and C. Umilta, “Reorienting Attention Across the Horizontal and Vertical Meridians: Evidence in Favor of a Premotor Theory of Attention,” Neuropsychologia 25 (1987): 31-40; Corbetta, M., E. Akbudak, T. E. Conturo, et al., “A Common Network of Functional Areas for and Eye Movements,” Neuron 21 (1998): 761-773.

7 Rizzolatti, G., et al., “Functional Organization of Inferior Area 6 in the Macaque Monkey. II,” 491-507.

8 Gallese, V. L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi, and G. Rizzolatti, “Action Recognition in the Premotor Cortex,” Brain 119 (Pt. 2) (1996): 593-609; Rizzolatti, G., and L. Craighero, “The Mirror-Neuron System.” Annual Review of Neuro-science 27 (2004): 169-192.

9 Di Pellegrino, G., L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi, et al., “Understanding Motor Events: A Neurophysiological Study,” Experimental Brain Research 91 (1992): 176-180.

10 Arbib, M. A., “From Monkeylike Action Recognition to Human Language: An Evolutionary Framework for Neurolinguistics,” Behavioral and Brain Science 28 (2005): 105-124; discussion 125-167.

11 Ferrari, P. F, V. Gallese, G. Rizzolatti, and L. Fogassi, “Mirror Neurons Responding to the Observation of Ingestive and Communicative Mouth Actions in the Monkey Ventral Premotor Cortex,” European Journal of Neuroscience 17 (2003): 1703-1014.

12 Umilta, M.A., E. Kohler, V. Gallese, et ah, “I Know What You Are Doing: A Neurophysiological Study,” Neuron 31 (2001): 155-165.

13 Fogassi, L., PF. Ferrari, B. Gesierich, et al., “Parietal Lobe: From Action Organization to Intention Understanding,” Science 308 (2005): 662-667.

14 Kohler, E., C. Keysers, M.A. Umilta, et al., “Hearing Sounds, Understanding Actions: Action Representation in Mirror Neurons,” Science 297 (2002): 846-848; Keysers, С., E. Kohler, M.A. Umilta, et al., “Audiovisual Mirror Neurons and Action Recognition.” Experimental Brain Research 153 (2003): 628- 636.

15 Rizzolatti, G., and M.A. Arbib, “Language Within Our Grasp,” Trends in Neuroscience 21 (1998): 188-194.

16 Liberman, A.M., and I.G. Mattingly, “The Motor Theory of Speech Perception Revised,” Cognition 21 (1985): 1-36.

17 Whiten, A., J. Goodall, W.C. McGrew, et al., “Cultures in Chimpanzees,” Nature 399 (1999): 682-685.

18 Ferrari, P.F., S. Rozzi, and L. Fogassi, “Mirror Neurons Responding to Observation of Actions Made with Tools in Monkey Ventral Premotor Cortex,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 17 (2005 ): 212-226.

19 Romanes, G.J., Evolution in Animals (London: Kegan Paul Trench & Co., 1883); Hurley, S., and N. Chater, Perspectives on Imitation: From Neuroscience to Social Science (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005).

20 Ferrari, P.F., E. Visalberghi, A. Paukner, et ah, “Neonatal Imitation in Rhesus Macaques,” PLoS Biology 4 (2006): 302.

21 Voelkl, B., and L. Huber, “True Imitation in Marmosets,” Animal Behavior 60 (2000): 195-202.

22 Paukner, A., J.R. Anderson, E. Borelli, et ah, “Macaques (Macaca nemestrina) Recognize When They Are Being Imitated,” Biology Letters 1 (2005): 219-222.

Саймон говорит

23 Я нашел эту цитату в прекрасной книге об «эмоциональном заражении»: Е. Hatfield, J.T. Cacioppo, and R.L. Rapson, Emotional Contagion (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). Авторы, однако, не указывают источник цитаты.

24 Meltzoff, A.N., and М.К. Moore, “Imitation of Facial and Manual Gestures by Human Neonates,” Science 198 (1977): 74-78; Piaget, J., Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood (London: Routledge, 1951).

25 Nadel, J., “Imitation and Imitation Recognition: Functional Use in Pre-verbal Infants and Nonverbal Children with Autism,” in A.N. Meltzoff and W. Prinz, The Imitative Mind: Development, Evolution, and Brain Bases (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Eckerman, C.O., and S.M. Didow, “Nonverbal Imitation and Toddlers’ Mastery of Verbal Means of Achieving Coordinated Actions,” Developmental Psychology 32 (1996): 141-152.

26 Dawkins, R., The Selfish Gene (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1976); Blackmore, S., The Meme Machine (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999).

27 См., например: Dennett, D., Consciousness Explained (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991); Hull, D.L, “The Naked Meme,” in H.C. Plotkin, ed., Learning Development and Culture: Essays in Evolutionary Epistemology (London: Wiley, 1982).

28 Berger, S.M., and S.W. Hadley, “Some Effects of a Model’s Performance on an Observer’s Electromyographic Activity,” American Journal of Psychology 88 (1975): 263-276.

29 Rizzolatti, G., L. Fadiga, M. Matelli, et al., “Localization of Grasp Representations in Humans by PET: 1. Observation Versus Execution,” Experimental Brain Research 111 (1996): 246-252; Grafton, S.T., M.A. Arbib, L. Fadiga, and G. Rizzolatti, “Localization of Grasp Representations in Humans by Positron Emission Tomography. 2. Observation Compared with Imagination,” Experimental Brain Research 112 (1996): 103-111.

30 Fadiga, L. L. Fogassi, G. Pavesi, and G. Rizzolatti, “Motor Facilitation During Action Observation: A Magnetic Stimulation Study,” Journal of Neurophysiology 73 (1995): 2608-2611.

31 Prinz, W., “An Ideomotor Approach to Imitation,” in S. Hurley, and N. Chater, Perspectives on Imitation: From Neuroscience to Social Science. Volume 1: Mechanisms of Imitation and Imitation in Animals (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005): 141-156.

32 James, W., Principles of Psychology (New York: Holt, 1890).

33 Gleissner, B., A.N. Meltzoff, and H. Bekkering, “Children’s Coding of Human Action: Cognitive Factors Influencing Imitation in Three-Year-Olds,” Developmental Science 3 (2000): 405-414; Bekkering, H., A. Wohlschlager, and M. Gattis, “Imitation of Gestures in Children Is Goal- Directed,” Quarterly journal of Experimental Psychology A 53 (2000): 153-164; Wohlschlager, A., and H. Bekkering, “Is Human Imitation Based on a Mirror-Neurone System? Some Behavioural Evidence,” Experimental Brain Research 143 (2002): 335-341.

34 Koski, L., A. Wohlschlager, H. Bekkering, et ah, “Modulation of Motor and Premotor Activity During Imitation of Target- Directed Actions,” Cerebral Cortex 12 (2002): 847-855.

35 Wapner, S., and L. Cirillo, “Imitation of a Model’s Hand Movement: Age Changes in Transposition of Left-Right Relations.” Child Development 39 (1968): 887-894; Koski, , M. Iacoboni, M.C. Dubeau, et al., “Modulation of Cortical Activity During Different Imitative Behaviors,” Journal of Neurophysiology 89 (2003): 460-471.

36 Hatfield, et ah, Emotional Contagion; Bavelas, J.B., A. Black, N. Chovil, et ah, “Form and Function in Motor Mimicry: Topographic Evidence That the Primary Function Is Communication,” Communications Research 14 (1988): 275-299; LaFrance, M., “Posture Mirroring and Rapport,” in M. Davis, ed., Interaction Rhythms: Periodicity in Communicative Behavior (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1982): 279-298.

37 Rogers, S.J., and B.E. Pennington, “A Theoretical Approach to the Deficits in Infantile Autism,” Developmental Psychology 3 (1991): 137-162; Whiten, A., and J.D. Brown, “Imitation and the Reading of Other Minds: Perspectives from the Study of Autism, Normal Children and Non-human Primates,” in S. Braten, ed., Intersubjective Communication and Emotion in Early Ontogeny (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 260-280; Williams, J.R., A. Whiten, T. Suddendorf, et ah, “Imitation, Mirror Neurons and Autism,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 25 (2001): 287-295.

38 Gallese, V, and A. Goldman, “Mirror Neurons and the Simulation Theory of Mind-reading,” Trends in Cognitive Science 2 (1998): 493-501; Carruthers, P, and P Smith, Theories of Theories of Mind (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Goldman, A.I., “Imitation, Mind Reading, and Simulation,” in S. Hurley and N. Chater, eds., Perspectives on Imitation: From Neuroscience to Social Science, Volume 2: Imitation, Human Development, and Culture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 79-94; Gordon, R.M., “Intentional Agents Like Myself,” in Hurley and Chater, Perspectives on Imitation, Volume 2, 95-106; Goldman, A., Simulating Minds: The Philosophy, Psychology, and Neuroscience of Mindreading (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

39 Iacoboni, M., I. Molnar-Szakacs, V. Gallese, et al., “Grasping the Intentions of Others with One’s Own Mirror Neuron System,” PLoS Biology 3 (2005): e79.

40 Gallese, V, “Intentional Attunement: A Neurophysiological Perspective on Social Cognition and Its Disruption in Autism,” Brain Research 1079 (2006): 15-24, Merleau-Ponty, M., Phenomenology of Perception (London: Routledge, 1945).

Ручная речь

41 Napier, J., Hands (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980).

42 McNeill, D., Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal About Thought (University of Chicago Press, 1992).

43 Goldin-Meadow, S., “When Gestures and Words Speak Differently,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 6 (1997): 138-143; Goldin-Meadow, S., “The Role of Gesture in Communication and Thinking,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3’цГ999): 419-429.

44 Alibali, M.W., D.C. Heath, and H.J. Myers, “Effects of Visibility Between Speaker and Listener on Gesture Production: Some Gestures Are Meant to Be Seen,” Journal of Memory and Language 44 (2001): 169-188.

45 Molnar-Szakacs, I., S.M. Wilson, and M. Iacoboni, “I See What You Are Saying: The Neural Correlates of Gesture Perception,: Program No. 128.7. 2005 Abstract Viewer, CD- ROM. Washington, DC: Society for Neuroscience meeting.

46 Rizzolatti, G., and M.A. Arbib, “Language Within Our Grasp,” Trends in Neurosience 21 (1998): 188-194; G. von Bonin and P. Bailey, The Neocortex of Macaca Mulatta (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1947).

47 Iverson, J.M., and E. Thelen, “Hand, Mouth and Brain. The Dynamic Emergence of Speech and Gesture,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 6 (1999): 19-40; Goldin-Meadow, “The Role of Gesture in Communication and Thinking,” 419-429.

48 Greenfield, P.M., “Language, Tools and Brain: The Ontogeny and Phytogeny of Hierarchically Organized Sequential Behavior,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14 (1991): 531- 595; Molnar-Szakacs, I., J. Kaplan, PM. Greenfield, and M. Iacoboni, “Observing Complex Action Sequences: The Role of the Lrontoparietal Mirror Neuron System,” Neuroimage 33 (2006): 923-935; Greenfield, P, “Implications of Mirror Neurons for the Ontogeny and Phylogeny of Cultural Processes: The Examples of Tools and Language,” in M.A. Arbib, ed., Action to Language Via the Mirror Neuron System (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006): 503-535.

49 Heiser, M., M. Iacoboni, L Maeda, et al. “The Essential Role of Broca’s Area in Imitation,” European Journal of Neuroscience 17(2003): 1123-1128.

50 Glenberg, A.M., and M.P Kaschak, “Grounding Language in Action,” Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 9 (2002): 558-565.

51 Ochs, E., P. Gonzales, and S. Jacoby, “ When I Come Down I’m in the Domain State’: Grammar and Graphic Representation in the Interpretive Activity of Physicists,” in E. Ochs, E.A. Schegloff, and S.A. Thompson, eds., Interaction and Grammar (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 328-369.

52 Gallese, V, and G. Lakoff, “The Brain’s Concepts: The Role of the Sensory-Motor System in Conceptual Knowledge,” Cognitive Neuropsychology 22 (2005): 455-479.

53 Aziz-Zadeh, L., S.M. Wilson, G. Rizzolatti, and M. Iacoboni, “Congruent Embodied Representations for Visually Presented Actions and Linguistic Phrases Describing Actions,” Current Biology 16 (2006): 1818-1823.

54 Garrod, S., and M.J. Pickering, “Why Is Conversation So Easy?”, Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8 (2004): 8-11.

55 Brennan, S.E., and H.H. Clark, “Conceptual Pacts and Lexical Choice in Conversation,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 22 (1996): 1482-1493; Schober, M.F., and H.H. Clark, “Understanding by Addressees and Over-Hearers,” Cognitive Psychology 21 (1989): 211-232.

56 Goodwin, C., “Restarts, Pauses, and the Achievement of a State of Mutual Gaze at Turn-beginning,” Sociological Inquiry 50 (1980):272-302; Kendon, A., “Some Functions of Gaze- direction in Social Interaction,” Acta Psychologica 26 (1967): 22-63; Goodwin, C., and J. Heritage, “Conversation Analysis,” Annual Review of Anthropology 19 (1990): 283-307.

57 Kegl, J., “The Nicaraguan Sign Language Project: An Overview,” Signpost 7 (1994): 24-31.

58 См., например: S. Pinker, The Language Instinct (New York: Morrow, 1994).

59 Tomasello, M., “The Item-based Nature of Children’s Early Syntactic Development,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (2000): 156-163.

60 Clark, H., Using Language (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Garrod, S., and A. Anderson, “Saying What You Mean in Dialogue: A Study in Conceptual and Semantic Co-ordination,” Cognition 27 (1987): 181-218; Galantucci, B., “An Experimental Study of the Emergence of Human Communication Systems,” Cognitive Science 29 (2005): 737-767.

61 Aziz-Zadeh, L., M. Iacoboni, E. Zaidel, et ah, “Left Hemisphere Motor Facilitation in Response to Manual Action Sounds,” European Journal of Neuroscience 19 (2004): 2609-2612; Gazzola, V., L. Aziz-Zadeh, and C. Keysers, “Empathy and the Somatotopic Auditory Mirror System in Humans,” Current Biology 16 (2006): 1824-1829.

62 McGurk, H. and J. MacDonald, “Heating Lips and Seeing Voices,” Nature 264 (1976): 746-748.

63 Liberman, A.M., and I.G. Mattingly, “The Motor Theory of Speech Perception Revised,” Cognition 21 (1985): 1-36.

64 Fadiga, L., L. Craighero, G. Buccino, and G. Rizzolatti, “Speech Listening Specifically Modulates the Excitability of Tongue

Muscles: A TMS Study,” European Journal of Neuroscience 15 (2002): 399-402.

65 Wilson, S.M., A.P. Saygin, M.I. Sereno, and M. Iacoboni, “Listening to Speech Activates Motor Areas Involved in Speech Production,” Nature Neuroscience 7 (2004): 701-702.

66 Meister, I., S.M. Wilson, C. Deblieck, et ah, “The Essential Role of Pre-motor Cortex in Speech Perception,” Current Biology 17 (2007): 1692-1696.

67 Warren, J.E., D.A. Sauter, E. Eisner, et ah, “Positive Emotions Preferentially Engage an Auditory-Motor ‘Mirror’ System,” Journal of Neuroscience 26 (2006): 13067-13075.

Взгляни на меня, притронься ко мне

68 Smith, A., The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1976).

69 Gallese, V., “The ‘Shared Manifold’ Hypothesis,” journal of Consciousness Studies 8 (2001): 33-50; Lipps, T, “Einfuhlung, innere nachahmung und organ-enempfindung,” in Archiv fur die Gesamte Psychologic, volume 1, part 2 (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1903).

70 Hatfield et ah, Emotional Contagion.

71 Dimberg, U., “Facial Reactions to Facial Expressions,” Psychophysiology 19 (1982): 643-647.

72 Niedenthal, P.M., L.W. Barsalou, P. Winkielman, et al., “Embodiment in Attitudes, Social Perception, and Emotion,” Personality and Social Psychology Reviews 9 (2005): 184-211.

73 Chartrand, T.L., and J.A. Bargh, “The Chameleon Effect: The Perception-Behavior Link and Social Interaction,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 76 (1999): 893-910.

74 Zajonc, R.B., PK. Adelmann, S.T. Murphy, et ah, “Convergence

in the Physical Appearance of Spouses,” Motivation and Emotion 11 (1987): 335-346; Cole, J., “Empathy Needs a Face,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 8 (2001): 51-68; Merleau-Ponty, M., The Primacy of Perception (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964).

75 Augustine, J.R., “Circuitry and Functional Aspects of the Insular Lobes in Primates Including Humans,” Brain Research Reviews 22 (1996): 229-294.

76 Рое, E.A., The Tell-Tale Heart and Other Writings (New York: Bantam Books, 1982); Darwin, C., The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (University of Chicago Press, 1965); James, W. (1890), “What Is an Emotion?” in C. Calhoun and R.C/ Solomon, eds., What Is an Emotion? (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984): 125-142.

77 Carr, L., M. Iacoboni, M.C. Dubeau, et ah, “Neural Mechanisms of Empathy in Humans: A Relay from Neural Systems for Imitation to Limbic Areas,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100 (2003): 5497-5502.

78 Hutchison, W.D., K.D. Davis, A.M. Lozano, et ah, “Pain- related Neurons in the Human Cingulate Cortex,” Nature Neuroscience 2 (1999): 403-405.

79 Avenanti, A., D. Bucti, G. Galati, et ah, “Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Highlights the Sensorimotor Side of Empathy for Pain,” Nature Neuroscience 8 (2005): 955-960.

80 Singer, T, B. Seymour, J. O’Doherty, et al., “Empathy for Pain Involves the Affective but Not Sensory Components of Pain,” Science 303 (2004): 1157-1562.

81 Теория Антонио Дамасио, связанная с понятием мозгового контура «как будто» (as if loop), хоть и не ссылается прямо на зеркальные нейроны (по крайней мере, в ее первоначальных версиях, появившихся до открытия зеркальных нейронов), тем не менее также подчеркивает центральную роль симулятивных процессов в эмоциях. См.: Damasio, A.R., Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: Putnam, 1994); Damasio, A.R., The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999); Damasio, A.R., Looking/or Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain (Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 2003).

82 Haviland, J.M., and M. Lilac, “The Induced Affect Response: 10-Week-Old Infants’ Responses to Three Emotion Expressions,” Developmental Psychology 23 (1987): 97-104; Termine, N.T., and C.E. Izard, “Infants’ Response to Their Mother’s Expressions of Joy and Sadness,” Developmental Psychology 24 (1988): 223-229.

83 Bernieri, F.J., J.S. Rcznick, and R. Rosenthal, “Synchrony, Pseudosynchrony, and Dissynchrony: Measuring the Entrainment Process in Mother-Infant Interactions,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988): 243-253.

84 Rizzolatti, G., and G. Luppino, “The Cortical Motor System,” Neuron 31 (2001): 889-901.

Лицом к себе

85 Iacoboni, M., R.P Woods, M. Brass, et al., “Cortical Mechanisms of Human Imitation,” Science 286 (1999): 2526-2528.

86 Zahavi, D., “Beyond Empathy: Phenomenological Approaches to Intersubjectivity,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 8 (2001): 151-167.

87 Asendorpf, J.B., and P.-M. Baudonniere, “Self-awareness and Otherawareness: Mirror Self-recognition and Synchronic Imitation Among Unfamiliar Peers,” Developmental Psychology 29 (1993): 88-95.

88 Keenan, J.P, G.G. Gallup, and D. Falk, The Face in the Mirror: The Search for the Origins of Consciousness (New York: Ecco, 2003).

89 Gallup, G.G., “Chimpanzees: Self-recognition,” Science 167 (1970): 86-87.

90 Miles, H., “Me Chantek: The Development of Self-Awareness in a Signing Orangutan,” in S. Parker and R. Mitchell, Self-awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994): 254-272.

91 Reiss, D., and L. Marino, “Mirror Self-recognition in the Bottlenose Dolphin: A Case of Cognitive Convergence,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98 (2001): 5937-5942; Rendell, L., and H. Whitehead, “Culture in Whales and Dolphins,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24 (2001): 309-324; discussion 324-382.

92 Gallup, G.G., “Self-awareness and the Emergence of Mind in Primates,” American Journal of Primatology (1982): 237-248; Povinelli, D.J., “Failure to Find Self-recognition in Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Contrast to Their Use of Mirror Cues to Discover Hidden Food,” Journal of Comparative Psychology 103 (1989): 122-131; Plotnick, J.M., B.M. de Waal, and D. Reiss, “Self-Recognition in an Asian Elephant,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103 (2006): 17053-17057.

93 Amsterdam, B., “Mirror Self-image Reactions Before Age Two,” Developmental Psychobiology 5 (1972): 297-305.

94 Sperry, R.W., E. Zaidel, and D. Zaidel, “Self-recognition and Social Awareness in the Deconnectcd Minor Hemisphere,” Neuropsychologia 17 (1979): 153-166.

95 Uddin, L.Q.,J. Rayman, and E. Zaidel, “Split-brain Reveals Separate but Equal Self-recognition in the Two Cerebral Hemispheres,” Consciousness and Cognition 14 (2005): 633-640.

96 Kourtzi, J., and N. Kanwisher, “Activation in Human MT/MST by Static Images with Implied Motion,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12 (2000): 48-55; Urgesi, С., V. Moro, M. Candidi, et al., “Mapping Implied Body Actions in the Human Motor System,” Journal of Neuroscience 26 (2006): 7942-7949.

97 Uddin, L.Q., J.T. Kaplan, I. Molnar-Szakacs, et al., “Self-face Recognition Activates a Frontoparietal ‘Mirror’ Network in the Right Hemisphere: An Event-related fMRl Study,” Neuroimage 25 (2005): 926-935.

98 Feinberg, T, and R. Shapiro, “Misidentification-Reduplication and the Right Hemisphere,” Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsycho-logy, and Behavioral Neurology 2 (1989): 39-48; Spangenberger, K, M. Wagner, and D. Bachman, “Neuropsychological Analysis of a Case of Abrupt Onset Following a Hypotensive Crisis in a Patient with Vascular Dementia,” NeuroCase 4 (1998): 149-154; Breen, N., D. Caine, and M. Coltheart, “Mirrored-Self Misidentification: Two Cases of Focal Onset Dementia,” NeuroCase 7 (2001): 239-254.

99 Этот способ стимуляции мозга, безусловно, совершенно безопасен для испытуемых.

100 Uddin, F., I. Molnar-Szakacs, Е. Zaidel, et al., “rTMS to the Right Inferior Parietal Area Disrupts Self-Other Discrimination,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 1 (2006): 65-71.

101 Feinberg, T.E., F.D. Haber, and N.E. Feeds, “Verbal Asomatognosia,” Neurology 40 (1990): 1391-1394.

102 Trevarthen, C., “Communication and Cooperation in Early Infancy: A Description of Primary Intersubjectivity,” in М. Bullowa, ed., Before Speech (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

Разбитые зеркала

103 Shimada, S., and K. Hiraki, “Infant’s Brain Responses to Live and Televised Action,” Neuroimage 32 (2006): 930-939.

104 Flanagan, J.R., and R.S. Johansson, “Action Plans Used in Action Observation,” Nature 424 (2003): 769-771.

105 Falck-Ytter, T., G. Gredeback, and C. von Hofsten, “Infants Predict Other People’s Action Goals,” Nature Neuroscience 9 (2006): 878-879.

106 Hari, R., N. Forss, S. Avikainen, et ah, “Activation of Human Primary Motor Cortex During Action Observation: A Neu- romagnetic Study,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 95 (1998): 15061-15065.

107 Davis, M.H., “Measuring Individual Differences in Empathy: Evidence for a Multidimensional Approach,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 44 (1983): 113-126; Cairns, R.B., M.-C. Leung, S.D. Gest, et ah, “A Brief Method for Assessing Social Development: Structure, Reliability, Stability, and Developmental Validity of the Interpersonal Competence Scale,” Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995): 725-736.

108 Pfeifer, J., M. Iacoboni, J.C. Mazziotta, and M. Dapretto, “Mirroring Others’ Emotions Relates to Empathy and Interpersonal Competence in Children,” Neuroimage (2008), in press.

109 Ritvo, S., and S. Provence, “From Perception and Imitation in Some Autistic Children: Diagnostic Findings and Their Contextual Interpretation,” The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, Volume VIII (New York: International Universities Press, 1953), 155-161.

110 Gopnik, A., A.N. Meltzoff, and P.K. Kuhl, The Scientist in the Crib (New York: Perennial, 2001). Мельцофф, один из авторов этой книги, не так давно несколько изменил свою позицию. Его гипотеза о социальном познании, которую он назвал «ты похож на меня» («like те»), напоминает теорию «симуляции». См. его недавние работы: Meltzoff, A.N., “Imitation and Other Minds: the ‘Like Me’ Hypothesis,” in Hurley and Chater, Perspectives on Imitation, Volume 2, 55-77; Meltzoff, A.N., “‘Like Me’: A Loundation for Social Cognition,” Developmental Science 10: 126-134; Meltzoff, A.N., “ ‘Like Me’ Lramework for Recognizing and Becoming an Intentional Agent,” Acta Psychologica 124 (2007): 26-43.

111 Rogers, S.J., and B.L Pennington, “A Theoretical Approach to the Deficits of Infantile Autism,” Development & Psychopathology 3 (1991): 137-162.

112 Hobson, P, The Cradle of Thought (London: Pan Macmillan, 2002); Weeks, S.J., and R.P Hobson, “The Salience of Lacial Expression for Autistic Children,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 28 (1987): 137-152.

113 Hobson, The Cradle of Thought.

114 Ibid.; Hobson, R.P, and A. Lee, “Imitation and Identification in Autism,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40 : 649-659.

115 Williams, J.H., A. Whiten, T. Suddendorf, and D.I. Perrett, “Imitation, Mirror Neurons and Autism,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Review 25 (2001): 287-295.

116 Altschuler, E.L., A. Vankov, E.M. Hubbard, et ah, “Mu Wave Blocking by Observation of Movement and Its Possible Use to Study the Theory of Other Minds,” Society for Neuroscience 2000. Abstracts 68.1.

117 Nishitani, N., S. Avikainen, and R. Hari, “Abnormal Imitation- Related Cortical Activation Sequences in Asperger’s Syndrome,” Annals of Neurology 55 (2004): 558-562.

118 Статья Хари (Nishitani, et ah, “Abnormal Imitation-Related Cortical Activation Sequences in Asperger’s Syndrome”) была опубликована в 2004 году К тому времени Рамачан- дран и его сотрудники уже завершили исследование подавления мю-ритма (о предварительных его результатах они рассказали на крупном форуме нейроспециалистов в 2000 году). Эта работа также убедительно говорит о том, что лица, страдающие аутизмом, испытывают трудности из-за недостаточной активности зеркальных нейронов (Oberman, L.M., Е.М. Hubbard, J.P. McCleery, et. al., “EEG Evidence for Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Autism Spectrum Disorders”, Brain Research: Cognitive Brain Research 24 (2005): 190-198). Шотландская группа, возглавляемая Джастином Уильямсом, недавно завершила свое исследование аутичных подростков с помощью ФМРТ. Когда эти подростки имитировали чужие действия, активность в зеркально-нейронных областях их мозга была ниже, чем у типично развивающихся подростков. Это было первое свидетельство, полученное методами нейровизуализации, в пользу гипотезы о том, что нарушения имитации, наблюдаемые у аутистов, действительно связаны с недостаточным функционированием зеркальных нейронов (Williams, J.H., D. Waiter, A. Gilchrist, et al., “Neural Mechanisms of Imitation and ‘Mirror Neuron’ Functioning in Autistic Spectrum Disorder,” Neuropsychologia 44 (2006): 610-621). Кроме того, группа Юго Теоре в Монреале недавно использовала ТМС для исследования зеркально-нейронного дефицита у аутистов. Измерялась возбудимость моторной системы при наблюдении за чужими действиями. Как говорилось выше, в этой возбудимости проявляется механизм «моторного резонанса», который считается одним из показателей функционирования зеркальных нейронов, и неудивительно, что Теоре и его сотрудники зафиксировали у аутистов гораздо меньший резонанс, чем у здоровых добровольцев (Theoret, Н., Е. Halligan, М. Kobayashi, et al., “Impaired Motor Facilitation During Action Observation in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder”, Current Biology 15 (2005): R84-R85).

119 Dapretto, M., M.S. Davies, J.H. Pfeifer, et al., “Understanding Emotions in Others: Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Nature Neuroscience 9 (2006): 28-30.

120 Klin, A., W. Jones, R. Schultz, et al., “Visual Fixation Patterns During Viewing of Naturalistic Social Situations as Predictors of Social Competence in Individuals with Autism,” Archives of General Psychiatry 59 (2002): 809-816; Klin, A., W. Jones, R. Schultz, et al., “The Enactive Mind, or From Actions to Cognition: Lessons from Autism,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: В Biological Series 358 (2003): 345-360.

121 Field, T, C. Sanders, and J. Nadel, “Children with Autism Display More Social Behaviors After Repeated Imitation Sessions,” Autism 5 (2001): 317-323; Escalona, A., T. Field, Nadel, et al., “Brief Report: Imitation Effects on Children with Autism,” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 32 (2002): 141-144.

122 Ingersoll, В., E. Lewis, and E. Kroman, “Teaching the Imitation and Spontaneous Use of Descriptive Gestures in Young Children with Autism Using a Naturalistic Behavioral Intervention,” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 37 (2007): 1446-1456; Ingersoll, B., and L. Schreibman, “Teaching Reciprocal Imitation Skills to Young Children with Autism Using a Naturalistic Behavioral Approach: Effects on Language, Pretend Play, and Joint Attention,” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 36 (2006): 487-505; Ingersoll, B., and S. Gergans, “The Effect of a Parent-Implemented Imitation Intervention on Spontaneous Imitation Skills in Young Children with Autism,” Research and Developmental Disability 28 (2007): 163-175.

Суперзеркала и «подключенный» мозг

123 Хороший пример - совместная работа лабораторий Джакомо Ридзолатти и Ги Орбана, в ходе которой мозговая активность обезьян при наблюдении за действиями измерялась не на клеточном уровне с помощью электродов, а посредством ФМРТ: Nelissen, К., G. Luppino, W. Vanduffel, et ah, “Observing Others: Multiple Action Representation in the Frontal Lobe,” Science 310 (2005): 332-336.

124 Leao, A.A.P, “Spreading Depression of Activity in the Cerebral Cortex,” Journal of Neurophysiology 7 (1944): 359-390; Leao, A.A.P, and R.S. Morrison, “Propagation of Spreading Cortical Depression,” of Neurophysiology 8 (1945): 33-45.

125 Woods, R.P, M. Iacoboni, and J.C. Mazziotta, “Brief Report: Bilateral Spreading Cerebral Hypoperfusion During Spontaneous Migraine Headache,” New England Journal of Medicine 331 (1994): 1689-1692.

126 Mukamel, R., H. Gelbard, A. Arieli, et al., “Coupling Between Neuronal Firing, Field Potential, and fMRI in Human Auditory Cortex,” Science 309 (2005): 951-954.

127 Gross, C.G., “Genealogy of the Grandmother Cell,” Neuroscientist 8 (2002): 512-518.

128 Gallese, V., L., Fadiga, L. Fogassi, et ah, “Action Recognition in the Premotor Cortex,” 119 (Pt 2) (1996): 593-609.

129 Quiroga, R.Q., L. Reddy, G. Kreiman, et al., “Invariant Visual Representation by Single Neurons in the Human Brain,” Nature 435 (2005): 1102-1107.

130 Одно из возможных объяснений состоит в том, что «клетка Дженнифер Энистон» кодирует не актрису Дженнифер Энистон, а Рэйчел, которую она играет в сериале «Друзья». Может быть, именно поэтому клетка не отреагировала на фотографию Энистон с Брэдом Питтом. Спасибо Келси Лэрд за это соображение.

131 Ekstrom, A.D., M.J. Kahana, J.B. Caplan, et al., “Cellular Networks Underlying Human Spatial Navigation,” Nature 425 (2003): 184-188; Kreiman, G., C. Koch, and I. Fried, “Imagery Neurons in the Human Brain,” Nature 408 (2000): 357-361.

132 Dijksterhuis, A., “Why We Are Social Animals: The High Road to Imitationas Social Glue, ” in Hurley and Chafer, Perspectives on Imitation, Volume 2, 207-220.

133 Mukamel, R., A.D. Ekstrom, J. Kaplan, et al., “Mirror Neurons of Single Cells in Human Medial Frontal Cortex,” Program No. 127.4 2007 Abstract Viewer, CD-ROM, Society for Neuroscience meeting, San Diego, CA.

Плохой, злой: насилие и наркомания

134 Первые два раздела этой главы основаны на моем ответе на «всемирный вопрос» сетевого журнала Edge (www.edge. org) в 2006 году. Ответ был напечатан в книге J. Brockman, What Is Your Dangerous Idea?: Today’s Leading Thinkers on the Unthinkable (London: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 71-74.

135 Brison, S., “Imitating Violence,” in Hurley and Chater, Perspectives on Imitation, Volume 2, 202-204; Eldridge, J., “What Effects Does the Treatment of Violence in the Mass Media Have on People’s Conduct? A Controversy Reconsidered,” in Hurley and Chater, Perspectives on Imitation, Volume 2, 243-255.

136 Bandura, A., Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977); Geen, R., and S. Thomas, “The Immediate Effects of Media Violence on Behaviour,” Journal of Social Issues 42 (1986): 7-28; Paik, H., and G. Comstock, “The Effects of Television Violence on Antisocial Behavior: A Meta-analysis,” Communication Research 21 (1994): 516-546; Bushman, B., and L. Huesmann, “Effects of Television Violence on Aggression,” in D. Singer and J. Singer, eds., Handbook of Children and the Media (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 223-254.

137 Kostinsky, S., E.O. Bixler, and PA. Kettl, “Threats of School Violence in Pennsylvania After Media Coverage of the Columbine High School Massacre: Examining the Role of Imitation,” Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 155 (2001): 994-1001; Huesmann, L. and L. Eron, “Television and the Aggressive Child: A Cross-national Comparison,” (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1986); Milavsky, J., R. Kessler, Stipp, et ah, Television and Aggression: A Panel Study (New York: Academic Press, 1982).

138 Huesmann, L.R.,“Imitation and the Effects of Observing Media Violence on Behavior,” in Hurley and Chater, Perspectives on Imitation, Volume 2, 257-266.

139 Comstock, G., “Media Violence and Aggression, Properly Considered,” in Hurley and Chater, Perspectives on Imitation, Volume 2, 371-380.

140 Hurley, S., “Imitation, Media Violence, and Freedom of Speech,” Philosophical Studies 117 (2004): 165—218; Brison, S., “Imitating Violence,” in Hurley and Chater, Perspectives on Imitation, Volume 2, 202-204.

141 Marcus, S., Neuroethics: Mapping the Field (New York: Dana Press, 2002); Gazzaniga, M.S., The Ethical Brain (New York: Dana Press, 2005).

142 Maisto, S.A., and G.J. Connors, “Relapse in the Addictive Behaviors: Integration and Future Directions,” Clinical Psychology Review 26 (2006): 229-231; Gordon, S.M., R. Sterling, C. Siatkowski, et al., “Inpatient Desire to Drink as a Predictor of Relapse to Alcohol Use Following Treatment,” American Journal of Addiction 15 (2006): 242- 245; Shiftman, S., J.A. Paty, M. Gnys, et ah, “First Lapses to Smoking: Within-Subjects Analysis of Real-time Reports,” Journal of Consulting in Clinical Psychology 64 (1996): 366-379; Harakeh, Z., R.C. Engels, R.B. Van Baaren, et al., “Imitation of Cigarette Smoking: An Experimental Study on Smoking in a Naturalistic Setting,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 86 (2007): 199-206.

143 Calvo-Merino, B., D.E. Glaser, J. Grezes, et al., “Action Observation and Acquired Motor Skills: An fMRI Study with Expert Dancers,” Cerebral Cortex 15 (2005): 1243-1249; Calvo-Merino, B., J. Grezes, D.E. Glaser et al., “Seeing or Doing? Influence of Visual and-Motor Familiarity in Action Observation,” Current Biology 16 (2006): 1905-1210; Shiraishi, T, H. Saito, H. Ito, et al., “Observation and Imitation of Nursing Actions: ANIRS Study with Experts and Novices,” Student Health and Technology Information 122 (2006): 820-821.

Зеркала желаний и предпочтений

144 Хороший обзор этих исследований содержится в статье: Schooler, J.W., “Re-representing Consciousness: Dissociations Between Experience and Meta-consciousness,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6 (2002): 339-344.

145 Johansson, R, L. Hall, S. Sikstrom, et ah, “Failure to Detect Mismatches Between Intention and Outcome in a Simple Decision Task,” Science 310 (2005): 116-119.

146 Schultz, W., P. Dayan, and PR. Montague, “A Neural Substrate of Prediction and Reward,” Science 275 (1997): 1593-1599; Montague, PR., B. King-Casas, and J.D. Cohen, “Imaging Valuation Models in Human Choice,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 29 (2006): 417-448.

147 McClure, S.M., J. Li, D. Tomlin, et al., “Neural Correlates of Behavioral Preference for Culturally Familiar Drinks,” Neuron 44 (2004): 379-387.

Нейрополитика

148 Converse, P, “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics,” in D. Apter, ed., Ideology and Discontent (New York: Free Press, 1964), 206-261; Achen, C., “Mass Political Attitudes and the Survey Response,” American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 1218-1231; Zaller, J.R., and S. Feldman, “A Simple Theory of the Survey Response: Answering Questions versus Revealing Preferences,” American Journal of Political Science 36 (1992): 579-616.

149 Raichle, М.Е., J.A. Fiez, T.O. Videen, et al., “Practice-Related Changes in Human Brain Functional Anatomy During Nonmotor Beaming,” Cerebral Cortex 4 (1994): 8-26.

150 Carr, F., M. Iacoboni, M.C. Dubeau, etal., “Neural Mechanisms of Empathy in Humans: A Relay from Neural Systems for Imitation to Fimbic Areas,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100 (2003): 5497-5502.

151 Schreiber, D., and M. Iacoboni, “Monkey See, Monkey Do: Mirror Neurons, Functional Brain Imaging, and Booking at Political Faces,” paper presented at the American Political Science Association Meeting, 2005, Washington, D.C.

152 Gusnard, D.A., and M.E. Raichle, “Searching for a Baseline: Functional Imaging and the Resting Human Brain,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 1 (2001): 685-694; Raichle, M.E., A.M. MacFeod, A.Z. Snyder, et ah, “A Default Mode of Brain Function,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98 (2001): 676-682.

153 Schreiber, D., and M. Iacoboni, “Thinking About Politics: Results from Three Experiments Studying Sophistication,” paper presented at the 61st Annual National Conference of the Midwest Political Science Association, 2003.

154 Iacoboni,M.,M.D.Fieberman,B.J.Knowlton,etal.,“Watching Social Interactions Produces Dorsomedial Prefrontal and Medial Parietal BOFD fMRI Signal Increases Compared to a Resting Baseline,” Neuroimage 21 (2004): 1167-1173.

155 Fiske, A.P, Structures of Special Fife: The Four Elementary Forms of Human Relations (New York: Free Press, 1991).

156 Iacoboni, M., “Failure to Deactivate in Autism: The Coconstitution of Self and Other,” Trends in Cognitive Science 10 (2006): 431-433; Uddin, F.Q., M. Iacoboni, C. Fange, and J.P. Keenan, “The Self and Social Cognition: The Role of Cortical Midline Structures and Mirror Neurons,” Trends in Cognitive Science 11 (2007): 153-157; Lieberman, M.D., “Social Cognitive Neuroscience: A Review of Core Processes,” Annual Review of Psychology 58 (2007): 259-289.

Экзистенциальная нейронаука и общество

157 Однажды я рассказал эту историю Джакомо Ридзолатти. Он заметил в ответ, что читал нечто похожее в газетном интервью Питера Брука, всемирно известного театрального режиссера. Не является ли эта история очередным мемом с высокой репликабельностью?

158 Wittgenstein, L., Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology, Volume 2 (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1980); Merleau-Ponty, M., The Primacy of Perception (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964).

159 Benner, P, “The Quest for Control and the Possibilities of Care,” in M. Wrathall and J. Malpas, eds., Heidegger, Goping, and Cognitive Science: Essays in Honor of Hubert L. Dreyfus, Volume 2 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 293-309.

160 Heidegger, M., Being and Time (New York: Harper & Row, 1962); Sartre, J-Р., Being and Nothingness: A Phenomeno- logicai Essay on Ontobgy (New York: Citadel Press, 1956).

161 Философ Хьюберт Дрейфус в своем председательском выступлении перед Тихоокеанским отделением Американской философской ассоциации подчеркнул недостатки дихотомии между аналитической и континентальной философией и убедительно объяснил, почему важны обе «стороны» философии.

162 Этот последний раздел книги отчасти основан на моем ответе на «всемирный вопрос» сетевого журнала Edge (www. edge.org) в 2007 году: «По какому поводу вы испытываете оптимизм? Почему?»

163 Heidegger, М., Being and Time; Zahavi, D., “Beyond Empathy,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 8 (2001): 151-167.

164 Olson, G., “Hard-wired for Moral Politics: Neuroscience and Empathy,” ZNet (www.zmag.org), May 20, 2007; Amin, A., “From Ethnicity to Empathy: A New Idea of Europe,” openDemocracy (www.opendemocracy.net), July 23, 2003; Olson, G., “Neuroscience and moral politics: Chomsky’s intellectual progeny,” Identitytheory.com (www.identitytheory. com/social/olson_neuro.php), October 16, 2007.