The Norton Anthology of English literature. Volume 2

ELIZABETH BABBETT BBOWNING From The Bunaway Slave at Pilgrim's Point1 [From the British Library manuscript, 1846]

Why

An d in that single glance I had Of my child's face . . I tell you all . . I saw a look that made me mad�! Th e master's look, that used to fall On my soul like his lash . . or worse: An d so, to save it from my curse

I twisted it roun d in my shawl. Does this sound like a slave's article of clothing?"

trembled

And he moaned and-sLioggfa} from foot to head�

shivered

He-tremHrd from head to foot� Till after a time he lay instead Too suddenly still and mute . . And I felt, beside, a creeping cold� I dared to lift up just a fold, As in lifting a leaf of the mango-fruit.

But my fruit . . . ha, ha�there, had been . . (I laugh to think on't at this hour . . ) Your fine white angels, (who have seen God's secrets nearest to His power) And plucked my fruit to make them wine, An d sucked the soul of that child of mine,

the soul of

As the hummingbird sucks the flower.

Ha, ha, for the trick of the angels white! 'They freed the white child's spirit so, I said not a word, but day and night

1. On e part of Barrett Browning's manuscript draft of her abolitionist poe m is in the British Library in London; another, fittingly, given the poem's initial publication by a Boston abolitionist society, is on the other side of the Atlantic, in the Baylor University's Armstrong Library; a third is in the hands of a private collector. We give six stanzas from the British Library manuscript, along with, first, their counterparts in the initial printed version of the poem in The Liberty Bell for 1848 (published in December 1847 for the National Anti-Slavery Bazaar), and, then, their counterparts in Barrett Browning's Poems of 1850. Barrett Browning added a stanza to the poem after 1847 (the seventh stanza of the 1850 version); stanza 20 in the Liberty Bell version corresponds accordingly to stanza 21 in Poems and so forth. For discussion of Barrett Browning's revision of the Liberty Bell version, see Andrew M. Stauffer, "Elizabeth Barrett Browning's (Re)Vision of Slavery," in English Language Notes 34 (1997): 29-48.

2. Written sideways in the right-hand margin of the manuscript, in Robert Browning's handwriting.

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A16 / POEMS IN PROCESS

I carried the body to and fro� And it lay on my heart like a stone . . as chill. The sun may shine out as much as he will.

month

I am cold, though it happened a yaofago.

From the white man's house, and the black man's hut I carried the little body on�

's arms

The forest trow did around us shut

trees

And silence through the leaves did run� They asked no questions as I went:

They stood

-Th e tiLL", HLIL1 too high, for astonishment; They could see God rise on His throne.

My little body, kerchiefed fast, I bore it on through the forest . . on: And, when I felt it was tired at last, I scooped a hole beneath the moon� Through the forest-tops the angels far With a white fine finger from every star,

and mock

Did point ^ at what was done.

[First printed version, from The Liberty Bell for 1848]

xx. Even in that single glance I had Of my child's face,�I tell you all,� I saw a look that made me mad,�

The master's look, that used to fall On my soul like this lash, or worse,� Therefore, to save it from my curse,

I twisted it round in my shawl.

XXI. And he moaned and trembled from foot to head,� He shivered from head to foot,� Till, after a time, he lay, instead,

Too suddenly still and mute; And I felt, beside, a creeping cold,� I dared to lift up just a fold,

As in lifting a leaf of the mango fruit.

XXII. But MY fruit! ha, ha!�there had been (I laugh to think on't at this hour!) Your fine white angels,�who have seen God's secret nearest to His power,� And gathered my fruit to make them wine,

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POEMS IN PROCESS / A17

And sucked the soul of that child of mine, As the humming-bird sucks the soul of the flower.

XXIII. Ha, ha! for the trick of the angels white! They freed the white child's spirit so; I said not a word, but day and night

I carried the body to and fro; And it lay on my heart like a stone�as chill; The sun may shine out as much as he will,�

I am cold, though it happened a month ago.

XXIV. From the white man's house and the black man's hut I carried the little body on; The forest's arms did around us shut,

And silence through the trees did run! They asked no questions as I went,� They stood too high for astonishment,�

They could see God rise on his throne.

xxv. My little body, kerchiefed fast, I bore it on through the forest�on� And when I felt it was tired at last,

I scooped a hole beneath the moon. Through the forest-tops the angels far, With a white fine finger in every star

Did point and mock at what was done.

[From Poems, 1850]

XXI. Why, in that single glance I had Of my child's face, .. . I tell you all, I saw a look that made me mad!

The master's look, that used to fall On my soul like his lash .. . or worse! And so, to save it from my curse,

I twisted it round in my shawl.

XXII. And he moaned and trembled from foot to head, He shivered from head to foot; Till after a time, he lay instead

Too suddenly still and mute. I felt, beside, a stiffening cold: I dared to lift up just a fold,

As in lifting a leaf of the mango-fruit.

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A1 8 / POEMS IN PROCESS

XXIII. But my fruit . . . ha, ha!�there, had been (I laugh to think on't at this hour!) Your fine white angels (who have seen

Nearest the secret of God's power) And plucked my fruit to make them wine, And sucked the soul of that child of mine

As the humming-bird sucks the soul of the flower.

XXIV. Ha, ha, the trick of the angels white! They freed the white child's spirit so. I said not a word, but day and night

I carried the body to and fro, An d it lay on my heart like a stone, as chill. �The sun may shine out as much as he will:

1 am cold, though it happened a month ago.

xxv. From the white man's house, and the black man's hut, I carried the little body on; Th e forest's arms did round us shut,

An d silence through the trees did run: They asked no question as I went, They stood too high for astonishment,

They could see God sit on His throne.

XXVI. My little body, kerchiefed fast, I bore it on through the forest, on; And when I felt it was tired at last,

I scooped a hole beneath the moon: Through the forest-tops the angels far, With a white sharp finger from every star,

Did point and mock at what was done.

GERARD MANLEY HOPKINS Thou art indeed just, Lord1

Justus quidem tu es, Domine, si disputem tecum; verumtamen

justa loquar ad te: quare via impiorutn prosperatur? etc. �Jer. xii 1.

1. From a manuscript in the Bodleian Library, nificance in the "Author's Preface," included in Oxford University; it is a clean copy, made after Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins (1970), ed. W . earlier drafts, which Hopkins goes on to revise fur-H. Gardner and N. H. Mackenzie. ther. Differences in the ink show that the emen-The epigraph is from the Vulgate translation of dation "laced they are" (line 10) was made during Jeremiah 12.1; a literal translation of the Latin is the first writing, but that the other verbal changes "Thou art indeed just, Lord, [even] if 1 plead with were made later. The interlinear markings are Thee; nevertheless I will speak what is just to Thee: Hopkins's metrical indicators; he explains their sig-Wh y does the way of the wicked prosper? etc."

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POEMS IN PROCESS / A1 9

March 17 1889

Lord, if i

ho u art indeed just, *vci'n I to contend

sir, plead

Wit h thee; but, .Lord, so what I j>pcalr is just.

Wh y do sinners' ways prosper? and why must

Disappointment all I endeavour end? j Wert thou my enemy, O thou my friend, / Ho w wouldst thou worse, I wonder, than thou dost

/ ^^^ ^ O the sots and of

[ Defeat, thwart me ? �ALL! MJTV U ILIILM, thrallsNK^lust

V Do in that

spare hours ikfmor e thrive than I J*4*erspend,

great See,

Sir,-nr^life on thv.cause. Luuk, banks and brakes

Now, leaved laced they are

�Lowed how thick! bi'oidorcd oil again look

�With fretty chervil, and fresh wind / shakes I ^Them ; birds build�but not I build; no, hut strain, | Time's eunuch, and not breed one work that wakes.

Mine, O send my

' TIILII kiilid, thou lord of life, thong rootsj^oir rain.

WILLIAM BUTLER YEATS

Yeats usually composed very slowly and with painful effort. He tells us in his autobiography that "five or six lines in two or three laborious hours were a day's work, and I longed for somebody to interrupt me." His manuscripts show the slow evolution of his best poems, which sometimes began with a prose sketch, were then versified, and underwent numerous revisions. In many instances, even after the poems had been published, Yeats continued to revise them, sometimes drastically, in later printings.

The Sorrow of Love1

[Manuscript, 1891]2

Th e quarrel of the sparrows in the eaves,

The full round moon and the star-laden sky,

Th e song of the ever-singing leaves,

Ha d hushed away earth's old and weary cry.

1. Originally composed in Yeats's Pre-Raphaelite precision and colloquial vigor. mode of the early 1890s, "The Sorrow of Love" was 2. Manuscript version composed in October one of his most popular poems. Nonetheless, some 1891. as transcribed by Jon Stallw orthy, Betiveen thirty years after publication, Yeats rewrote the the Lines: Yeats's Poetry in the Making (Oxford Unilyric in accordance with modernism's emphasis on versity Press, 1963), pp. 47-48.

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A2 0 / POEMS IN PROCESS

And then you came with those red mournful lips, And with you came the whole of the world's tears, An d all the sorrows of her labouring ships, An d all the burden of her million years.

And now the angry sparrows in the eaves, Th e withered moon, the white stars in the sky, Th e wearisome loud chanting of the leaves, Are shaken with earth's old and weary cry.

3

[First Printed Version, I892]

Th e quarrel of the sparrows in the eaves, The full round moon and the star-laden sky, An d the loud song of the ever-singing leaves Ha d hid away earth's old and weary cry.

And then you came with those red mournful lips, And with you came the whole of the world's tears, An d all the sorrows of her labouring ships, An d all burden of her myriad years.

An d now the sparrows warring in the eaves, Th e crumbling moon, the white stars in the sky, An d the loud chanting of the unquiet leaves, Are shaken with earth's old and weary cry.

[Final Printed Version, 1925]4

Th e brawling of a sparrow in the eaves, Th e brilliant moo n and all the milky sky, And all that famous harmony of leaves, Ha d blotted out man's image and his cry.

A girl arose that had red mournful lips An d seemed the greatness of the world in tears, Doome d like Odysseus and the labouring ships And proud as Priam murdered with his peers;

3. From Yeats's The Countess Kathleen and Vari-p. 321, that "in later years" he had "learnt that ous Legends and Lyrics (1892). In a corrected page occasional prosaic words gave the impression of an proof for this printing, now in the Garvan Collec-active man speaking," so that "certain words must tion of the Yale University Library, lines 7�8 orig-be dull and numb. Here and there in correcting my inally read "And all the sorrows of his labouring early poems I have introduced such numbness and ships, / An d all the burden of his married years." dullness, turned, for instance, 'the curd-pale moon' Also, in lines 4 and 12, the adjective was "bitter" into the 'brilliant moon', that all might seem, as it instead of "weary." In his Poems (1895), Yeats were, remembered with indifference, except some inserted the missing "the" in line 8 and changed one vivid image." Yeats, however, did not recall his "sorrows" (line 7) to "trouble"; "burden" (line 8) to emendations accurately. He had in 1925 altered "trouble"; and "crumbling moon" (line 10) to "the full round moon" (line 2) to "the brilliant "curd-pale moon." moon," and "the curd-pale moon" (line 10, version 4. From Early Poems and Stories (1925). Yeats of 1895) to "a climbing moon." wrote in his Autobiographies (Ne w York, 1999),

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POEMS IN PROCESS / A21

Arose, and on the instant clamorous eaves, A climbing moon upon an empty sky, And all that lamentation of the leaves, Could but compose man's image and his cry.

Leda and the Swan5

[First Version]

^^^^ ^ Annunciation

Now CEML the swooping Godhead have his will Yet hovors, though her helpless thighs are pressed By the webbed toes; and that all powerful bill Has suddenly bowed her face upon his breast. How can those terrified vague fingers push The feathered glory from her loosening thighs? All the stretched body's laid on that white rush

strange

And feels the Strang heart beating where it lies A shudder in the loins engenders there The broken wall, the burning roof and tower And Agamemnon dead. . . .

Being so caught up Did nothing pass before her in the air? Did she put on his knowledge with his power Before the indifferent beak could let her drop

Sept 18 1923

* swooping rThe Utuiibt godhead is half hovering still,

climbs

Yet �4iiill5*. upon her trembling body pressed

webbed

By the toes; & through that all powerful bill

tfcpoan* bowed

^Has suddenly bowed her face upon his breast. How those terrified vague fingers push The feathered glory from her loosening thighs

All th^tretched body leans on fchatiwhite rush

�F He/falling bnrly thrnnm nn thr nlutr nlutr rirh

/

5. From Yeats's manuscriptJournal, Sections 248 and 250. This Journal, including facsimiles and transcriptions of the drafts of "Leda and the Swan," has been published in W. B. Yeats, Memoirs, ed. Denis Donoghue (London, 1972). The first version, entitled "Annunciation,"seems to be a clean copy of earlier drafts; Yeats went on to revise it further, especially the opening octave. Neither of the other two complete drafts, each of

which Yeats labeled "Final Version," was in fact final. Yeats crossed out the first draft. The second, although Yeats published it in 1924, was subjected to further revision before he published the poem in The Tower (1928), in the final form reprinted in the selections from Yeats, above.

Yeats's handwriting is hasty and very difficult to decipher. The readings of some words in the manuscript are uncertain.

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A22 / POEMS IN PROCESS

feel etc body can but lean on the white rush

But mounts until her trembling thighs are pressed6

By the webbed toes; & that all powerful bill Has suddenly bowed her head on his breast

ation

Th e sw/oping godhead is half^nvering still But mAints, until her tremblin^highs are pressed By the \ebbe d toes, & that all p<\verful bill

Has hung hcrj^lpi^ body

Has snddenlv bowed f|f[- |-)fart |lpnV hl'r Ho w can those terrified vague fingtVs push Th e feathered glory from her loosening thighs?

How nowjj^i^ hp^awvi^

With hrr hndy hid nn fhu II.TITTL IUJJH

all the stretched body laid on the white rush

and Ca n feelJ^m strange heart beating wl ere it lies? A shudder in the loins engenders the Th e broken wall, the burning roof & ower And Agamemnon dead .

Being master d s

et

Being �� cuuglit up"

So

And mitf toi'cd by the brute blood of tl e air

Being HL Did nnt|-iir.rr nfl^tj hpf1"""** ^ff 'fl thr till Did she put on his knowledge with hi; power Before the indifferent beak could let f :r drop.

WB Y Sept 18 1923

swoop

A rush up"n grrnt wings & hovering st 11 H e sinks until � He has smalt an dam*, g- faaif Th e great Jbii-d ainlu, till Th e bird descends, & her frail thigh

pressed By the webbed toes, & that all

6. This passage is written across the blank page 7. Written on the blank page across from the corn- opposite the first version; Yeats drew a line indi- plete version, with an arrow indicating that it was eating that it was to replace the revised lines 2�4, a revision of the seventh line, which he had written below the first version.

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POEMS IN PROCESS / A2 3

Final Version

Leda & the Swan

A rush, a sudden wheel and

A !nvno|) upon grout wingr Sr hovering still

stet Th e bird & her frail^highs are pressed By the toes'w'eBbed toes, & that all powerful bill

laid

Has driiram her helpless face upon his breast. Ho w can those terrified vague fingers push Th e feathered glory from her loosening thighs?

s laid

All the stretched body laid on that white rush An d feels the strange heart beating where it lies. A shudder in the loins engenders there Th e broken wall, the burning roof & tower And Agamemnon dead.

Being so caught up So mastered by thei*� brute blood of the air Did she put on his knowledge with his power Before the indifferent beak could let her drop.

D. H. LAWRENCE The Piano1 Somewhere beneath that piano's superb sleek 1 Must hide my mother's piano, little and bpe^n, with the back

stood close to

That Mwr ngpinrt the wall, an^^fne front's faded silk, both torn And the keys with little h^Hows, that my mother's fingers h\d wji

Softly, in the shrfdoite, a woma n is singing to me Quietly, through the y^ars I have crept back to see A child sitting under thiNoiano, in the boom of the

shakmg^mgkng string

1. Transcribed from a notebook in which Law-remaining three stanzas, sometimes radically; and rence at first entered various academic assign-most surprisingly, reversed his original conclusion. ments while he was a student at the University As Lawrence explained, some of his early poems College of Nottingham, 1906-8, but then used to "had to be altered, where sometimes the hand of write drafts of some of his early poems. These were commonplace youth had been laid on the mouth probably composed in the period from 1906 to of the demon. It is not for technique that these 1910. The text reproduced here was revised and poems are altered: it is to say the real say." published with the title "Piano" in Lawrence's New For transcriptions and discussions of this and Poems, 1918. A comparison of this draft with other poems in Lawrence's early notebook, see "Piano," reprinted above, will show that Lawrence Vivian de Sola Pinto, "D. H. Lawrence: Letter- eliminated the first and fourth stanzas (as well as Writer and Craftsman in Verse," in Renaissance the last two lines of the third stanza); revised the and Modem Studies 1 (1957): 5-34.

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A24 / POEMS IN PROCESS

Pressing the little\ois^ feet of the mother who smiles as^lfesings

The full throated woma^^ias chosen a winning, living2 sonjNs^

And surely the heart that is in mbspust belong

To the old Sunday evenings, when aJhd^iess wandered outside And hymns gleamed on our warm lips, as we watched mother's fingers glide

is

Oi^thisrny sister at home in the old front room Singing love's first surprised gladness, alone in the gloom. She will start when she sees me, and blushing, spread out her haorfs T o cover m y mouth's raillery, tJnl I'm bound in

heart-spun

her shame's pleading hands.

A womaiSi singing me a wijd'nungarian airS. y ' And her arms^Suid het�osom and the whole of her soulu^are An d the great bla^Npiano is clamouring as my mother's na^er could clamour

my mothers [ ]3 tukes are

IK

And thn tnnric of the ptitrW de\ devoured of this music's

vaging glamour. \

2. A conjectural reading; the word is not clearly 3. An undecipherable word is crossed out here. legible.

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THE TWENTIETH CENTURY AND AFTER / A73

fares, 1977, provides a reception history and

contemporary reviews. Jeffares's A Ne w Com

mentary on the Poems of W. B. Yeats, rev. ed.

1984, and A Commentary on the Plays ofW. B. Yeats, 1975, are indispensable references. Also valuable are Sa m McCready's A William Butler Yeats Encyclopedia, 1997, and Lester I. Conner's A Yeats Dictionary, 1998.

In the vast body of Yeats criticism, some important studies are Richard Ellmann's Yeats: The Man and the Masks, 1948, and The Identity of Yeats, 2n d ed. 1964; Thoma s Parkinson's

W. B. Yeats, Self-Critic: A Study of his Early Verse, 1951, rpt. 1971 with The Later Poetry and a new foreword; Frank Kermode's Romantic Image, 1957; Jon Stallworthy's Between the Lines: W. B. Yeats's Poetry in the Making, 1963; Helen Vendler's Yeats's Vision and Later Plays, 1963; Thomas R. Whitaker's Swan and Shadow: Yeats's Dialogue with History, 1964; Harold Bloom's Yeats, 1970; Bornstein's Yeats and Shelley, 1970; Donoghue's William Butler Yeats, 1971; Mary Helen Thuente's W. B. Yeats and Irish Folklore, 1981; Elizabeth Butler Cullingford's Yeats, Ireland and Fascism, 1981; Loizeaux's Yeats and the Visual Arts, 1986; Paul Scott Stanfield's Yeats and Politics in the 1930s, 1988; Finneran's Editing Yeats's Poems, 1990; Stan Smith's W. B. Yeats: A Critical Introduction, 1990; Jahan Ramazani's Yeats and the Poetr)' of Death: Elegy, Self-Elegy, and the Sublime, 1990; Hazard Adams's The Book of Yeats's Poems, 1991; Michael North's The Political Aesthetic of Yeats, Eliot, and Pound, 1991; Cullingford's Gender and History in Yeats's Love Poetry, 1993; M . L. Rosenthal's Running to Paradise: Yeats's Poetic Art, 1994; Maijorie Howes's Yeats's Natiotis: Gender, Class, and Irishness, 1996; Michael J. Sidnell's Yeats's Poetry and Poetics, 1996; Vicki Mahaffey's States of Desire: Wilde, Yeats, Joyce, and the Irish Experiment, 1998; Bornstein's Material Modernism: The Politics of the Page, 2001; Gregory Castle's Modernism and the Celtic Revival, 2001; and Richard Greaves's Transition, Reception, and Modernism in W. B. Yeats, 2002. Collections of essays include William Butler Yeats, ed. Bloom, 1986; Yeats's Political Identities, ed. Jonathan Allison, 1996; and W. B. Yeats: Critical Assessments, ed. David Pierce, 2000. Man y essays

have appeared annually in the journals Yeats and Yeats Annual.

.

Literary Terminology*

Using simple technical terms can sharpen our understanding and streamline our discussion of literary works. Som e terms, such as the ones in Sections A, B, and C of this appendix, help us address the internal style, form, and structure of works. Other terms, such as those in Section D, provide insight into the material forms in which literary works have been produced.

In analyzing what they called "rhetoric," ancient Greek and Boman writers determined the elements of what we call "style" and "structure." Ou r literary terms are derived, via medieval and Benaissance intermediaries, from the Greek and Latin sources. In the definitions that follow, the etymology, or root, of the word is given when it helps illuminate the word's current usage.

Most of the examples are drawn from texts in this anthology. Words boldfaced within definitions are themselves defined in this appendix. Some terms are defined within definitions; such words are italicized.

A. Style In literary works the manner in which something is expressed contributes substantially to its meaning. The manner of a literary work is its "style," the effect of which is its "tone." We often can intuit the tone of a text; the following terms offer a set of concepts by which we can analyze the stylistic features that produce the tone. The groups within this section move from the micro to the macro level internal to works.

(i) Diction "Diction," or "lexis" (from, respectively, Latin "dictio" and Greek "lexis," each meaning "word"), designates the actual words used in any utterance�speech, writing, and, for our purposes here, literary works. The choice of words contributes significantly to the style of a given work.

Connotation: To understand connotation, we need to understand denotation. While many words can denote the same concept�that is, have the same basic meaning�those words can evoke different associations, or connotations. Contrast, for example, the clinical-sounding term "depression" and the more colorful, musical, even poetic phrase "the blues."

Denotation: A word has a basic, "prosaic" (factual) meaning prior to the associations it connotes (see connotation). Th e word "steed," for example, might call to mind a horse fitted with battle gear, to be ridden by a warrior, but its denotation is simply "horse."

* This appendix was devised and compiled by James Simpson with the collaboration of all the editors. A74

.

LITERARY TERMINOLOGY / A75

Lexical set: Words that habitually recur together (e.g., January, February, March, etc.; or red, white, and blue) form a lexical set.

Register: The register of a word is its stylistic level, which can be distinguished by degree of technicality but also by degree of formality. We choose our words from different registers according to context, that is, audience and/ or environment. Thu s a chemist in a laboratory will say "sodium chloride," a cook in a kitchen "salt." A formal register designates the kind of language used in polite society (e.g., "Mr. President"), while an informal or colloquial register is used in less formal or more relaxed social situations (e.g., "the boss"). In classical and medieval rhetoric, these registers of formality were called high style and low style. A middle style was defined as the style fit for narrative, not drawing attention to itself.

(ii) Rhetorical Figures: Figures of Speech Literary language often employs patterns perceptihle to the eye and/or to the ear. Such patterns are called "figures of speech"; in classical rhetoric they were called "schemes" (from Greek "schema," meaning "form, figure").

Alliteration (from Latin "litera," alphabetic letter): the repetition of an initial consonant sound or consonant cluster in consecutive or closely positioned words. This pattern is often an inseparable part of the meter in Germanic languages, where the tonic, or accented syllable, is usually the first syllable. Thus all Old English poetry and some varieties of Middle English poetry use alliteration as part of their basic metrical practice. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, line 1: "Sithen the sege and the assaut was sesed at Troye" (see vol. 1, p. 161). Otherwise used for local effects; Stevie Smith, "Pretty," lines 4�5: "And in the pretty pool the pike stalks / He stalks his prey . . ." (see vol. 2, p. 2377).

Anaphor a (Greek "carrying back"): the repetition of words or groups of words at the beginning of consecutive sentences, clauses, or phrases. Blake, "London," lines 5�8: "In every cry of every Man, / In every Infant's cry of fear, / In every voice, in every ban . . ." (see vol. 2, p. 94); Louise Bennett, "Jamaica Oman," lines 17�20: "Some backa man a push, some side-a / Ma n a hole him han, / Some a lick sense eena him head, / Some a guide him pon him plan!" (see vol. 2, p. 2473). Assonance (Latin "sounding to"): the repetition of identical or near identical stressed vowel sounds in words whose final consonants differ, producing half-rhyme. Tennyson, "The Lady of Shalott," line 100: "His broad clear brow in sunlight glowed" (see vol. 2, p. 1116). Chiasmu s (Greek "crosswise"): the inversion of an already established sequence. This can involve verbal echoes: Pope, "Eloisa to Abelard," line 104, "The crime was common, common be the pain" (see vol. 1, p. 2535); or it can be purely a matter of syntactic inversion: Pope, Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot, line 8: "They pierce my thickets, through my grot they glide" (see vol. 1, p. 2549). Consonanc e (Latin "sounding with"): the repetition of final consonants in words or stressed syllables whose vowel sounds are different. Herbert, "Easter," line 13: "Consort, both heart and lute . . ." (see vol. 1, p. 1608).

.

A7 6 / LITERARY TERMINOLOGY

Homophone (Greek "same sound"): a word that sounds identical to another word but has a different meaning ("bear" / "bare").

Onomatopoeia (Greek "name making"): verbal sounds that imitate and evoke the sounds they denotate. Hopkins, "Binsey Poplars," lines 10�12 (about some felled trees): "O if we but knew what we do / Whe n we delve [dig] or hew � / Hac k and rack the growing green!" (see vol. 2, p. 1519).

Rhyme: the repetition of identical vowel sounds in stressed syllables whose initial consonants differ ("dead" / "head"). In poetry, rhyme often links the end of one line with another. Masculine rhyme: full rhyme on the final syllable of the line ("decays" / "days"). Feminine rhyme: full rhyme on syllables that are followed by unaccented syllables ("fountains"/"mountains"). Internal rhyme: full rhyme within a single line; Coleridge, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, line 7: "The guests are met, the feast is set" (see vol. 2,

p. 430). Rhyme riche: rhyming on homophones; Chaucer, General Prologue, lines 17/18: "seeke" / "seke." Off rhyme (also known as half rhyme, near rhyme, or slant rhyme): differs from perfect rhyme in changing the vowel sound and/or the concluding consonants expected of perfect rhyme; Byron, "They say that Hope is Happiness," lines 5�7: "most" / "lost" (see vol. 2, p. 613). Pararhyme: stressed vowel sounds differ but are flanked by identical or similar consonants; Owen, "Miners," lines 9�11: "simmer" / "summer" (see vol. 2, p. 1973). (in) Rhetorical Figures: Figures of Thought

Language can also he patterned conceptually, even outside the rides that nor

mally govern it. Literary language in particular exploits this licensed linguistic

irregularity. Synonyms for figures of thought are "trope" (Greek "twisting," refer

ring to the irregularity of use) and "conceit" (Latin "concept," referring to the

fact that these figures are perceptible only to the mind). Be careful not to confuse "trope" with "topos" (a common error).

Allegory (Greek "saying otherwise"): saying one thing (the "vehicle" of the allegory) and meaning another (the allegory's "tenor"). Allegories may be momentary aspects of a work, as in metaphor ("John is a lion"), or, through extended metaphor, may constitute the basis of narrative, as in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; this second meaning is the dominant one. See also symbol and type.

Antithesis (Greek "placing against"): juxtaposition of opposed terms in clauses or sentences that are next to or near each other; Milton, Paradise Lost 1.777�80: "They but now who seemed / In bigness to surpass Earth's giant sons / Now less than smallest dwarfs, in narrow room / Throng numberless" (see vol. 1, p. 1849).

Bathos (Greek "depth"): a sudden and sometimes ridiculous descent of tone; Pope, The Rape of the Lock 3.157�58: "Not louder shrieks to pitying heaven are cast, / Whe n husbands, or when lapdogs breathe their last" (see vol. 1,

p. 2524). Emblem (Greek "an insertion"): a picture allegorically expressing a moral, or a verbal picture open to such interpretation. Donne, "A Hym n to Christ," lines 1�2: "In what torn ship soever I embark, / That ship shall be my emblem of thy ark" (see vol. 1, p. 1300).

Euphemism (Greek "sweet saying"): the figure by which something distasteful

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is described in alternative, less repugnant terms (e.g., "he passed away").

Hyperbole (Greek "throwing over"): overstatement, exaggeration; Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress," lines 11�12: "My vegetable love would grow/Vaster than empires, and more slow" (see vol. 1, p. 1703); Auden, "As I Walked Out One Evening," lines 9�12: " 'I'll love you, dear, I'll love you / Till China and Africa meet / And the river jumps over the mountain / And the salmon sing in the street" (see vol. 2, p. 2427).

Irony (Greek "dissimulation"): strictly, a subset of allegory: whereas allegory says one thing and means another, irony says one thing and means its opposite; Byron, Don Juan 1.1�2: "I want a hero: an uncommon want, / Whe n every year and month sends forth a new one" (see vol. 2, p. 670). For an extended example of irony, see Swift's "Modest Proposal." Litotes (from Greek "smooth"): strictly, understatement by denying the contrary; More, Utopia: "differences of no slight import" (see vol. 1, p. 524). More loosely, understatement; Swift, "A Tale of a Tub": "Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse" (see vol. 1, p. 2320). Stevie Smith, "Sunt Leones," lines 11�

12: "And if the Christians felt a little blue� / Well people being eaten often do" (see vol. 2, p. 2373). Metaphor (Greek "carrying across," etymologically parallel to Latin "translation") : the identification or implicit identification of one thing with another with which it is not literally identifiable. Blake, "London," lines 11�12: "And the hapless Soldier's sigh / Runs in blood down Palace walls" (see vol. 2, p. 94).

Metonymy (Greek "change of name"): using a word to denote another concept or other concepts, by virtue of habitual association. Thu s "The Press," designating printed news media. Fictional names often work by associations of this kind. A figure closely related to synecdoche.

Occupatio (Latin "taking possession"): denying that one will discuss a subject while actually discussing it; also known as "praeteritio" (Latin "passing by"). See Chaucer, Nun's Priest's Tale, lines 414�32 (see vol. 1, p. 308).

Oxymoron (Greek "sharp blunt"): conjunction of normally incompatible terms; Milton, Paradise Lost 1.63: "darkness visible" (see vol. 1, p. 1833). Ramanujan, "Foundlings in the Yukon," line 41: "these infants compact with age" (see vol. 2, p. 2582).

Paradox (Greek "contrary to received opinion"): an apparent contradiction that requires thought to reveal an inner consistency. Chaucer, "Troilus's Song," line 12: "O sweete harm so quainte" (see vol. 1, p. 316).

Periphrasis (Greek "declaring around"): circumlocution; the use of many words to express what could be expressed in few or one; Sidney, Astroph.il and Stella 39.1-4 (vol. 1, p. 982).

Personification, or prosopopoeia (Greek "person making"): the attribution of huma n qualities to nonhuma n forces or objects; Shakespeare, King Lear

3.2.1: "Blow winds and crack your cheeks, rage! Blow!" (see vol. 1, p. 1182). Pun: a sometimes irresolvable doubleness of meaning in a single word or expression; Shakespeare, Sonnet 135, line 1: "Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy Will" (see vol. 1, p. 1075).

Sarcasm (Greek "flesh tearing"): a wounding remark, often expressed ironically; Boswell, Life of Johnson: Johnson [asked if any ma n of the modern age could have written the epic poem Fingal] replied, "Yes, Sir, many men, many women, and many children" (see vol. 1, p. 2792).

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Simile (Latin "like"): comparison, usually using the word "like" or "as," of one thing with another so as to produce sometimes surprising analogies. Donne, "The Storm," lines 29�30: "Sooner than you read this line did the gale, / Like shot, not feared till felt, our sails assail." Frequently used, in extended form, in epic poetry; Milton, Paradise Lost 1.338�46 (see vol. 1, p. 1839).

Symbol (Greek "token"): something that stands for something else, and yet seems necessarily to evoke that other thing. Blake, "The Sick Rose," lines 1-8: "O Rose, thou art sick. / The invisible worm / That flies in the night / In the howling storm / Has found out thy bed / Of crimson joy, And his dark secret love / Does thy life destroy" (see vol. 2, p. 91). In Neoplatonic, and therefore Romantic, theory, to be distinguished from allegory thus: whereas allegory involves connections between vehicle and tenor agreed by convention or made explicit, the meanings of a symbol are supposedly inherent to it. For discussion, see Coleridge, "On Symbol and Allegory" (vol. 2, p. 488).

Synecdoche (Greek "to take with something else"): using a part to express the whole, or vice versa; "Donne, "A Hym n to Christ," lines 1�2: "In what torn ship soever I embark / That ship shall be my emblem of thy ark" (see vol. 1, p. 1300).

Type (Greek "impression, figure"): In Christian allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament, pre-Christian figures were regarded as "types," or foreshadowings, of Christ or the Christian dispensation. Typology has been the source of much visual and literary art in which the parallelisms between old and new are extended to nonbiblical figures; thus the virtuous plowman in Piers Plowman becomes a type of Christ.

Zeugma (Greek "a yoking"): a syntactic pun whereby the one word is revealed to have more than one sense in the sentence as a whole; Pope, Rape of the Lock 3.7�8, in which the word "take" is used in two senses: "Here thou, great Anna! who m three realms obey, / Dost sometimes counsel take�and sometimes tea" (see vol. 1, p. 2521).

(iv) Meter, Rhythm Verse (from Latin "versus," turned) is distinguished from prose (from Latin "prorsus," straightforward) as a more compressed form of expression, shaped by metrical norms. Meter (Greek "measure") refers to the regularly recurring sound pattern of verse lines. The means of producing sound patterns across lines differ in different poetic traditions. Verse may be quantitative, or determined by the quantities of syllables (set patterns of long and short syllables), as in Latin and Greek poetry. It may be syllabic, determined by fixed numbers of syllables in the line, as in the verse of Romance languages (e.g., French and Italian). It may be accentual, determined by the number of accents, or stresses in the line, with variable numbers of syllables, as in Old English and some varieties of Middle English alliterative verse. Or it may be accentual-syllabic, determined by the numbers of accents, but possessing a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables, so as to produce regular numbers of syllables per line. Since Chaucer, English verse has worked primarily within the many possibilities of accentual- syllabic meter. The unit of meter is the foot. In English verse the number of feet per line corresponds to the number of accents in a line. For the types and examples of different meters, see monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, and hexameter. In the definitions below, "u" designates one unstressed syllable, and "/" one stressed syllable.

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Rhythm is not absolutely distinguishable from meter. One way of making a clear distinction between these terms is to say that rhythm (from the Greek "to flow") denotes the patterns of sound within the feet of verse lines and the combination of those feet. Very often a particidar meter will raise expectations that a given rhythm will be used regularly through a whole line or a whole poem. Thus in English verse the pentameter regidarly uses an iambic rhythm. Rhythm, however, is much more fluid than meter, and many lines within the same poem using a single meter will frequently exploit different rhythmic possibilities. For examples of different rhythms, see iamb, trochee, ana-pest, spondee, and dactyl.

Accent (synonym "stress"): the special force devoted to the voicing of one syllable in a word over others. In the noun "accent," for example, the stress is on the first syllable.

Alexandrine: in French verse a line of twelve syllables, and, by analogy, in English verse a line of six stresses. See hexameter.

Anapest: a three-syllable foot following the rhythmic pattern, in English verse, of two unstressed (uu) syllables followed by one stressed (/). Thus, for example, "Illinois." Caesura (Latin "cut"): a pause or breathing space within a line of verse, generally occurring between syntactic units; Louise Bennett, "Colonization in Reverse," lines 5�8: "By de hundred, by de tousan, / From country an from town, / By de ship-load, by de plane-load, / Jamaica is Englan boun" (see vol. 2, p. 2472). Dactyl (Greek "finger," because of the finger's three joints): a three-syllable foot following the rhythmic pattern, in English verse, of one stressed (/) followed by two unstressed (uu) syllables. Thus, for example, "Oregon." Dimeter (Greek "two measure"): a two-stress line, rarely used as the meter of whole poems, though used with great frequency in single poems by Skelton, e.g., "The Tunning of Elinour Rumming" (see vol. 1, p. 516). Otherwise used for single lines, as in Herbert, "Discipline," line 3: "O my God" (see vol. 1, p. 1623). End-stopping: the placement of a complete syntactic unit within a complete metrical pattern; Auden, "In Memor y of W. B. Yeats," line 42: "Earth, receive an honoured guest" (see vol. 2, p. 2430). Compare enjambment. Enjambment (French "striding," encroaching): Th e opposite of end- stopping, enjambment occurs when the syntactic unit does not end with the metrical pattern, i.e., when the sense of the line overflows its meter and, therefore, the line break; Auden, "In Memor y of W. B. Yeats," lines 44-45: "Let the Irish vessel lie / Emptied of its poetry" (see vol. 2, p. 2430). Hexameter (Greek "six measure"): Th e hexameter line (a six-stress line) is the meter of classical Latin epic; while not imitated in that form for epic verse in English, some instances of the hexameter exist. See, for example, the last line of a Spenserian stanza, Faerie Queene 1.1.2: "O help thou my weake wit, and sharpen my dull tong" (vol. 1, p. 720), or Yeats, "The Lake Isle of Innisfree," line 1: "I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree" (vol. 2, p. 2025). Hypermetrical (adj.; Greek "over measured"): describes a breaking of the expected metrical pattern by at least one extra syllable. Iamb: the basic foot of English verse; two syllables following the rhythmic pattern of unstressed (u) followed by stressed (/) and producing a rising effect. Thus, for example, "Vermont." Monometer (Greek "one measure"): an entire line with just one stress; Sir

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Gawain and the Green Knight, line 15, "wyth (u) wynne (/)" (see vol. 1,

p. 162). Pentameter (Greek "five measure"): in English verse, a five-stress line. Between the late fourteenth and the nineteenth centuries, this meter, frequently employing an iambic rhythm, was the basic line of English verse. Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, and Wordsworth each, for example, deployed this very flexible line as their primary resource; Milton, Paradise Lost 1.128: "O Prince, O Chief of many throned Powers" (see vol. 1,

p. 1835). Spondee: a two-syllable foot following the rhythmic pattern, in English verse, of two stressed (//) syllables. Thus, for example, "Utah." Syllable: the smallest unit of sound in a pronounced word. Th e syllable that receives the greatest stress is called the tonic syllable. Tetrameter (Greek "four measure"): a line with four stresses. Coleridge, Christabel, line 31: "She stole along, she nothing spoke" (see vol. 2, p. 450). Trimeter (Greek "three measure"): a line with three stresses. Herbert, "Discipline," line 1: "Throw away thy rod" (see vol. 1, p. 1623). Trochee: a two-syllable foot following the pattern, in English verse, of stressed (/) followed by unstressed (u) syllable, producing a falling effect. Thus, for example, "Texas."

(vi) Verse Forms The terms related to meter and rhythm describe the shape of individual lines. Lines of verse are combined to produce larger groupings, called verse forms. These larger groupings are in the first instance stanzas (Italian "rooms"): groupings of two or more lines, though "stanza" is usually reserved for groupings of at least four lines. Stanzas are often joined by rhyme, often in sequence, where each group shares the same metrical pattern and, when rhymed, rhyme scheme. Stanzas can themselves be arranged into larger groupings. Poets often invent new verse forms, or they may work within established forms, a list of which follows.

Ballad stanza: usually a quatrain in alternating iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter lines, rhyming abcb. See "Sir Patrick Spens" (vol. 1, p. 2902); Louise Bennett's poems (vol. 2, pp. 2469�74); Eliot, "Sweeney among the Nightingales" (vol. 2, p. 2293); Larkin, "This Be The Verse" (vol. 2,

p. 2572). Ballade: a form consisting usually of three stanzas followed by a four-line envoi (French, "send off"). Th e last line of the first stanza establishes a refrain, which is repeated, or subtly varied, as the last line of each stanza. The form was derived from French medieval poetry; English poets, from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries especially, used it with varying stanza forms. Chaucer, "Complaint to His Purse" (see vol. 1, p. 318).

Blank verse: unrhymed iambic pentameter lines. Blank verse has no stanzas, but is broken up into uneven units (verse paragraphs) determined by sense rather than form. First devised in English by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, in his translation of two books of Virgil's Aeneid (see vol. 1, p. 614), this very flexible verse type became the standard form for dramatic poetry in the seventeenth century, as in most of Shakespeare's plays. Milton and Wordsworth, among many others, also used it to create an English equivalent to classical epic.

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Couplet: in English verse two consecutive, rhyming lines usually containing the same number of stresses. Chaucer first introduced the iambic pentameter couplet into English (Canterbury Tales); the form was later used in many types of writing, including drama; imitations and translations of classical epic (thus heroic couplet); essays; and satire (see Dryden and Pope). The distich (Greek "two lines") is a couplet usually making complete sense; Aemilia Lanyer, Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum, lines 5�6: "Read it fair queen, though it defective be, / Your excellence can grace both it and me" (see vol. l,p. 1315).

Ottava rima: an eight-line stanza form, rhyming abababcc, using iambic pentameter; Yeats, "Sailing to Byzantium" (see vol. 2, p. 2040). Derived from the Italian poet Boccaccio, an eight-line stanza was used by fifteenth- century English poets for inset passages (e.g., Christ's speech from the Cross in Lydgate's Testament, lines 754�897). Th e form in this rhyme scheme was used in English poetry for long narrative by, for example, Byron (Don Juan; see vol. 2, p. 669). Quatrain: a stanza of four lines, usually rhyming abcb, abab, or abba. Of many possible examples, see Crashaw, "On the Wounds of Our Crucified Lord" (see vol. 1, p. 1644). Refrain: usually a single line repeated as the last line of consecutive stanzas, sometimes with subtly different wording and ideally with subtly different meaning as the poem progresses. See, for example, Wyatt, "Blame not my lute" (vol. 1, p. 602). Rhyme royal: a stanza form of seven iambic pentameter lines, rhyming ababbcc; first introduced by Chaucer and called "royal" because the form was used by James I of Scotland for his Kingis Ouair in the early fifteenth century. Chaucer, "Troilus's Song" (see vol. 1, p. 316). Sonnet: a form combining a variable number of units of rhymed lines to produce a fourteen-line poem, usually in rhyming iambic pentameter lines. In English there are two principal varieties: the Petrarchan sonnet, formed by an octave (an eight-line stanza, often broken into two quatrains having the same rhyme scheme, typically abba abba) and a sestet (a six-line stanza, typically cdecde or cdcdcd); and the Shakespearean sonnet, formed by three quatrains (abab cdcd efef) and a couplet (gg). Th e declaration of a sonnet can take a sharp turn, or "volta," often at the decisive formal shift from octave to sestet in the Petrarchan sonnet, or in the final couplet of a Shakespearean sonnet, introducing a trenchant counterstatement. Derived from Italian poetry, and especially from the poetry of Petrarch, the sonnet was first introduced to English poetry by Wyatt, and initially used principally for the expression of unrequited erotic love, though later poets used the form for many other purposes. See Wyatt, "Whoso list to hunt" (vol. 1,

p. 595); Sidney, Astrophil and Stella (vol. 1, p. 975); Shakespeare, Sonnets (vol. 1, p. 1060); Wordsworth, "London, 1802" (vol. 2, p. 319); McKay, "If We Must Die" (vol. 2, p. 2464); Heaney, "Clearances" (vol. 2, p. 2833). Spenserian stanza: the stanza developed by Spenser for The Faerie Queene; nine iambic lines, the first eight of which are pentameters, followed by one hexameter, rhyming ababbcbcc. See also, for example, Shelley, Adonais (vol. 2, p. 822), and Keats, The Eve of St. Agnes (vol. 2, p. 888).

Tercet: a stanza or group of three lines, used in larger forms such as terza rima, the Petrarchan sonnet, and the villanelle. Terza rima: a sequence of rhymed tercets linked by rhyme thus: aba bcb cdc,

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etc. First used extensively by Dante in The Divine Comedy, the form was adapted in English iambic pentameters by Wyatt and revived in the nineteenth century. See Wyatt, "Mine own John Poins" (vol. 1, p. 604); Shelley, "Ode to the West Wind" (vol. 2, p. 772); and Morris, "The Death of Guinevere" (vol. 2, p. 1483). For modern adaptations see Eliot, lines 78�149 (though unrhymed) of "Little Gidding" (vol. 2, pp. 2315-16) ; Heaney, "Station Island" (vol. 2, p. 2831); Walcott, Omeros (vol. 2, p. 2591).

Triplet: a tercet rhyming on the same sound. Pope inserts triplets among heroic couplets to emphasize a particular thought; see Essay on Criticism, 315-17 (vol. 1, p. 2504). Villanelle: a fixed form of usually five tercets and a quatrain employing only two rhyme sounds altogether, rhyming aba for the tercets and abaa for the quatrain, with a complex pattern of two refrains. Derived from a French fixed form. Thomas, "Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night" (see vol. 2,

p. 2450). (v) Syntax Syntax (Greek "ordering with") designates the rides by which sentences are constructed in a given language. Discussion of meter is impossible without some reference to syntax, since the overall effect of a poem is, in part, ahvays the product of a subtle balance of meter and sentence construction. Syntax is also essential to the understanding of prose style, since prose writers, deprived of the full shaping possibilities of meter, rely all the more heavily on syntactic resources. A working command of syntactical practice requires an understanding of the parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, and interjections), since writers exploit syntactic possibilities by using particular combinations and concentrations of the parts of speech. The list below offers some useful terms for the description of syntactic features of a work.

Apposition: the repetition of elements serving an identical grammatical function in one sentence. Th e effect of this repetition is to arrest the flow of the sentence, but in doing so to add extra semantic nuance to repeated elements. This is an especially important feature of Ol d English poetic style. See, for example, Caedmon's Hym n (vol. 1, p. 24), where the phrases "heaven kingdom's guardian," "the Measurer's might," "his mind-plans," and "the work of the Glory-Father" each serve an identical syntactic function as the direct objects of "praise."

Hyperbaton (Greek "overstepping"): the rearrangement, or inversion, of the expected word order in a sentence or clause. Gray, "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard," line 38: "If Memor y o'er their tomb no trophies raise" (vol. 1, p. 2867). Poets can suspend the expected syntax over many lines, as in the first sentences of the Canterbury Tales (vol. 1, p. 218) and of Paradise Lost (vol. 1, p. 1832).

Hypotaxis, or subordination (respectively Greek and Latin "orderingunder"): the subordination, by the use of subordinate clauses, of different elements of a sentence to a single main verb. Milton, Paradise Lost 9.513�15: "As when a ship by skillful steersman wrought / Nigh river's mouth or foreland, where the wind / Veers oft, as oft so steers, and shifts her sail; So varied he" (vol. 1, p. 1984). Th e contrary principle to parataxis.

Parataxis, or coordination (respectively Greek and Latin "ordering beside"):

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the coordination, by the use of coordinating conjunctions, of different main clauses in a single sentence. Malory, "Morte Darthur": "So Sir Lancelot departed and took his sword under his arm, and so he walked in his mantel, that noble knight, and put himself in great jeopardy" (see vol. 1, p. 442). Th e opposite principle to hypotaxis.

(vii) Point of View All of the many kinds of writing (see "B. Genre and Mode," below) involve a point of view from which a text is, or seems to he, generated. The presence of such a point of view may he powerful and explicit, as in many novels, or deliberately invisible, as in much drama. In some genres, such as the novel, the narrator does not necessarily tell the story from a position we can predict; that is, the needs of a particular story, not the conventions of the genre, determine the narrator's position. In other genres, the narrator's position is fixed by convention; in certain kinds of love poetry, for example, the narrating voice is always that of a suffering lover. Not only does the point of view significantly inform the style of a work, but it also informs the structure of that work. Most of the terms below are especially relevant to narrative in either verse or prose, but many also apply to other modes of writing.

Deixis (Greek "pointing"): Every work has, implicitly or explicitly, a "here" and a "now" from which it is narrated. Words that refer to or imply this point from which the voice of the work is projected (such as "here," "there," "this," "that," "now," "then") are examples of deixis, or "deictics." This technique is especially important in drama, where it is used to create a sense of the events happening as the spectator witnesses them.

First-person narration: a narrative in which the voice narrating refers to itself with forms of the first-person pronoun ("I," "me," "my," etc., or possibly "we," "us," "our"), and in which the narrative is determined by the limitations of that voice. Thus Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, Frankenstein.

Frame narrative: Som e narratives, particularly collections of narratives, involve a frame narrative that explains the genesis of, and/or gives a perspective on, the main narrative or narratives to follow. Thus Chaucer, Canterbury Tales; Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, Frankenstein; or Conrad, Heart of Darkness.

Free indirect style: a narratorial voice that manages, without explicit reference, to imply, and often implicitly to comment on, the voice of a character in the narrative itself. Virginia Woolf, "A Sketch of the Past," where the voice, although strictly that of the adult narrator, manages to convey the child's manner of perception: "�I begin: the first memory. This was of red and purple flowers on a black background�my mother's dress" (see vol. 2,

p. 2155). Omniscient narrator (Latin "all-knowing narrator"): a narrator who, in the fiction of the narrative, has complete access to both the deeds and the thoughts of all characters in the narrative. Thus Thomas Hardy, "On the Western Circuit" (see vol. 2, p. 1852).

Order: A story may be told in different orders. A narrator might use the sequence of events as they happened, and thereby follow what classical rhetoricians called the natural order; alternatively, the narrator might reorder the sequence of events, beginning the narration either in the middle or

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at the end of the sequence of events, thereby following an artificial order. If a narrator begins in the middle of events, he or she is said to begin in medias res (Latin "in the middle of the matter"). For a brief discussion of these concepts, see Spenser, Faerie Queene, "A Letter of the Authors" (vol. 1, p. 716). Modern narratology makes a related distinction, between histoire (French "story") for the natural order that readers mentally reconstruct, and discours (French, here "narration") for the narrative as presented.

Plot: the sequence of events in a story as narrated.

Stream of consciousness: usually a first-person narrative that seems to give the reader access to the narrator's min d as it perceives or reflects on events, prior to organizing those perceptions into a coherent narrative. Thu s (though generated from a third-person narrative) Joyce, Ulysses, "Lestrygonians" (see vol. 2, p. 2213).

Third-person narration: a narration in which the narrator recounts a narrative of characters referred to explicitly or implicitly by third-person pronouns ("he," she," etc.), without the limitation of a first-person narration. Thus Johnson, The History of Rasselas. Unities: According to a theory supposedly derived from Aristotle's Poetics, the events represented in a play should have unity of time, place, and action: that the play take up no more time than the time of the play, or at most a day; that the space of action should be within a single city; and that there should be no subplot. See Johnson, The Preface to Shakes-peare (vol. 1,

p. 2756). B. Genre and Mode The style, structure, and, often, length of a work, when cowpled with a certain subject matter, raise expectations that a literary work conforms to a certain genre (French "kind"). Good writers might upset these expectations, but they remain aware of the expectations and thwart them purposefully. Works in different genres may nevertheless participate in the same mode, a broader category designating the fundamental perspectives governing various genres of writing. For mode, see tragic, comic, satiric, and didactic modes. All the other terms in this list refer to more or less specific literary genres. Genres are fluid, sometimes very fluid (e.g., the novel); the word "usually" should he added to almost every statement!

Animal fable: a short narrative of speaking animals, followed by moralizing comment, written in a low style and gathered into a collection. Robert Henryson, "The Coc k and the Fox" (see vol. 1, p. 457).

Aubade (originally from Spanish "alba," dawn): a lover's dawn song or lyric bewailing the arrival of the day and the necessary separation of the lovers; Donne, "The Su n Rising" (see vol. 1, p. 1266). Larkin recasts the genre in "Aubade" (see vol. 2, p. 2573).

Autobiography (Greek "self-life writing"): a narrative of a life written by the subject; Wordsworth, The Prelude (see vol. 2, p. 322). There are subgenres, such as the spiritual autobiography, narrating the author's path to conversion and subsequent spiritual trials, as in Bunyan's Grace Abounding.

Beast epic: a continuous, unmoralized narrative, in prose or verse, relating the victories of the wholly unscrupulous but brilliant strategist Reynard the

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Fox over all adversaries. Chaucer arouses, only to deflate, expectations of the genre in The Nun's Priest's Tale (see vol. 1, p. 298). Biography (Greek "life-writing"): a life as the subject of an extended narrative. Thus Izaak Walton, The Life of Dr. Donne (see vol. 1, p. 1309).

Comedy: a term primarily applied to drama, and derived from ancient drama, in opposition to tragedy. Comed y deals with humorously confusing, sometimes ridiculous situations in which the ending is, nevertheless, happy. Shakespeare, Twelfth Night (see vol. 1, p. 1079).

Comic mode: man y genres (e.g., romance, fabliau, comedy) involve a happy ending in which justice is done, the ravages of time are arrested, and that which is lost is found. Such genres participate in a comic mode.

Dialogue (Greek "conversation"): Dialogue is a feature of many genres, especially in both the novel and drama. As a genre itself, dialogue is used in philosophical traditions especially (most famously in Plato's Dialogues), as the representation of a conversation in which a philosophical question is pursued among various speakers. Didactic mode (Greek "teaching mode"): genres in a didactic mode are designed to instruct or teach, sometimes explicitly (e.g., sermons, philosophical discourses, georgic), and sometimes through the medium of fiction (e.g., animal fable, parable). Discourse (Latin "running to and fro"): broadly, any nonfictional speech or writing; as a more specific genre, a philosophical meditation on a set theme. Thus Newman, The Idea of a University (see vol. 2, p. 1035). Dramatic monologue (Greek "single speaking"): a poem in which the voice of a historical or fictional character speaks, unmediated by any narrator, to an implied though silent audience. See Tennyson, "Ulysses" (vol. 2,

p. 1123); Browning, "The Bishop Orders His Tomb" (vol. 2, p. 1259); Eliot, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" (vol. 2, p. 2289); Carol An n Duffy, "Medusa" and "Mrs Lazarus" (vol. 2, pp. 2875-76). Elegy: In classical literature elegy was a form written in elegiac couplets (a hexameter followed by a pentameter) devoted to many possible topics. In Ovidian elegy a lover meditates on the trials of erotic desire (e.g., Ovid's Amores). The sonnet sequences of both Sidney and Shakespeare exploit this genre, and, while it was still practiced in classical tradition by Donne ("On His Mistress" [see vol. 1, p. 1281]), by the later seventeenth century the term came to denote the poetry of loss, especially through the death of a loved person. See Tennyson, In Memoriam (vol. 2, p. 1138); Yeats, "In Memory of Major Robert Gregory" (vol. 2, p. 2034); Auden, "In Memory of W. B. Yeats" (see vol. 2, p. 2429); Heaney, "Clearances" (vol. 2, p. 2833).

Epic (synonym, heroic poetry): an extended narrative poem celebrating martial heroes, invoking divine inspiration, beginning in medias res (see order), written in a high style (including the deployment of epic similes; on high style, see register), and divided into long narrative sequences. Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid were the prime models for English writers of epic verse. Thu s Milton, Paradise Lost (see vol. 1, p. 1829); Wordsworth, The Prelude (see vol. 2, p. 322); and Walcott, Omeros (see vol. 2, p. 2591). With its precise repertoire of stylistic resources, epic lent itself easily to parodic and burlesque forms, known as mock epic; thus Pope, The Rape of the Lock (see vol. 1, p. 2513).

Epigram: a short, pithy poem wittily expressed, often with wounding intent. See Jonson, Epigrams (see vol. 1, p. 1427).

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Epigraph (Greek "inscription"): any formal statement inscribed on stone; also the brief formulation on a book's title page, or a quotation at the beginning of a poem, introducing the work's themes in the most compressed form possible.

Epistle (Latin "letter"): the letter can be shaped as a literary form, involving an intimate address often between equals. Th e Epistles of Horace provided a model for English writers from the sixteenth century. Thus Wyatt, "Mine own John Poins" (see vol. 1, p. 604), or Pope, "Epistle to a Lady" (vol. 1,

p. 2598). Letters can be shaped to form the matter of an extended fiction, as the eighteenth-century epistolary novel (e.g., Samuel Richardson's Pamela).

Epitaph: a pithy formulation to be inscribed on a funeral monument. Thus Ralegh, "The Author's Epitaph, Made by Himself" (see vol. 1, p. 923). Epithalamion (Greek "concerning the bridal chamber"): a wedding poem,

celebrating the marriage and wishing the couple good fortune. Thu s Spen

ser, Epithalamion (see vol. 1, p. 907).

Essay (French "trial, attempt"): an informal philosophical meditation, usually in prose and sometimes in verse. Th e journalistic periodical essay was developed in the early eighteenth century. Thus Addison and Steele, periodical essays (see vol. 1, p. 2470); Pope, An Essay on Criticism (see vol. 1,

p. 2496). Fabliau (French "little story," plural fabliaux): a short, funny, often bawdy narrative in low style (see register) imitated and developed from French models most subtly by Chaucer; see The Miller's Prologue and Tale (vol. 1,

p. 239). Farce: a play designed to provoke laughter through the often humiliating antics of stock characters. Congreve's The Way of the World (see vol. 1,

p. 2228) draws on this tradition. Georgic (Greek "farming"): Virgil's Georgics treat agricultural and occasionally scientific subjects, giving instructions on the proper management of farms. Unlike pastoral, which treats the countryside as a place of recreational idleness among shepherds, the georgic treats it as a place of productive labor. For an English poem that critiques both genres, see Crabbe, "The Village" (vol. 1, p. 2887).

Heroic poetry: see epic.

Homily (Greek "discourse"): a sermon, to be preached in church; Book of Homilies (see vol. 1, p. 635). Writers of literary fiction sometimes exploit the homily, or sermon, as in Chaucer, The Pardoner's Tale (see vol. 1,

p. 284). Journal (French "daily"): a diary, or daily record of ephemeral experience, whose perspectives are concentrated on, and limited by, the experiences of single days. Thu s Pepys, Diary (see vol. 1, p. 2134). Lai: a short narrative, often characterized by images of great intensity; a French term, and a form practiced by Marie de France (see vol. 1, p. 141). Legend (Latin "requiring to be read"): a narrative of a celebrated, possibly historical, but mortal protagonist. T o be distinguished from myth. Thus the "Arthurian legend" but the "myth of Proserpine." Lullaby: a bedtime, sleep-inducing song for children, in simple and regular meter. Adapted by Auden, "Lullaby" (see vol. 2, p. 2423).

Lyric (from Greek "lyre"): Initially meaning a song, "lyric" refers to a short poetic form, without restriction of meter, in which the expression of personal emotion, often by a voice in the first person, is given primacy over

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narrative sequence. Thu s "The Wife's Lament" (see vol. 1, p. 113); Yeats, "The Wild Swans at Coole" (see vol. 2, p. 2033).

Masque: costly entertainments of the Stuart court, involving dance, song, speech, and elaborate stage effects, in which courtiers themselves participated. See Jonson, The Masque of Blackness (see vol. 1, p. 1327).

Myth: the narrative of protagonists with, or subject to, superhuman powers. A myth expresses some profound foundational truth, often by accounting for the origin of natural phenomena. T o be distinguished from legend. Thu s the "Arthurian legend" but the "myth of Proserpine."

Novel: an extremely flexible genre in both form and subject matter. Usually in prose, giving high priority to narration of events, with a certain expectation of length, novels are preponderantly rooted in a specific, and often complex, social world; sensitive to the realities of material life; and often focused on one character or a small circle of central characters. By contrast with chivalric romance (the main European narrative genre prior to the novel), novels tend to eschew the marvelous in favor of a recognizable social world and credible action. Th e novel's openness allows it to participate in all modes, and to be co-opted for a huge variety of subgenres. In English literature the novel dates from the late seventeenth century and has been astonishingly successful in appealing to a huge readership, particularly in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Th e English and Irish tradition of the novel includes, for example, Fielding, Austen, the Bronte sisters, Dickens, George Eliot, Conrad, Woolf, Lawrence, Joyce, to name but a few very great exponents of the genre. Novella: a short novel, often characterized by imagistic intensity. Conrad, Heart of Darkness (see vol. 2, p. 1890). Ode (Greek "song"): a lyric poem in elevated, or high style (see register), often addressed to a natural force, a person, or an abstract quality. Th e Pindaric ode in English is made up of stanzas of unequal length, while the Horatian ode has stanzas of equal length. For examples of both types, see, respectively, Wordsworth, "Ode: Intimations of Immortality" (vol. 2,

p. 306); and Marvell, "An Horatian Ode" (vol. 1, p. 1712), or Keats, "Ode on Melancholy" (vol. 2, p. 906). For a fuller discussion, see the headnote to Jonson's "Ode on Cary and Morison" (vol. 1, p. 1439). Panegyric: Demonstrative, or epideictic (Greek "showing"), rhetoric was a branch of classical rhetoric. Its own two main branches were the rhetoric of praise on the one hand and of vituperation on the other. Panegyric, or eulogy (Greek "sweet speaking"), or encomium (plural encomia), is the term used to describe the speeches or writings of praise.

Parable: a simple story designed to provoke, and often accompanied by, allegorical interpretation, most famously by Christ as reported in the Gospels.

Pastoral (from Latin "pastor," shepherd): Pastoral is set among shepherds, making often refined allusion to other apparently unconnected subjects (sometimes politics) from the potentially idyllic world of highly literary if illiterate shepherds. Pastoral is distinguished from georgic by representing recreational rural idleness, whereas the georgic offers instruction on how to manage rural labor. English writers had classical models in the Idylls of Theocritus in Greek and Virgil's Eclogues in Latin. Pastoral is also called bucolic (from the Greek word for "herdsman"). Thus Spenser, Shepheardes Calender (see vol. 1, p. 708).

Romance: From the twelfth to the sixteenth century, the main form of European narrative, in either verse or prose, was that of chivalric romance.

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Romance, like the later novel, is a very fluid genre, but romances are often characterized by (i) a tripartite structure of social integration, followed by disintegration, involving moral tests and often marvelous events, itself the prelude to reintegration in a happy ending, frequently of marriage; (ii) high- style diction; (iii) aristocratic social mileux. Thu s Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (see vol. 1, p. 160); Spenser's (unfinished) Faerie Queene (vol. 1,

p. 713). Th e immensely popular, fertile genre was absorbed, in both domesticated and undomesticated form, by the novel. For an adaptation of romance, see Chaucer, Wife of Bath's Tale (vol. 1, p. 256). Satire: In Roma n literature (e.g., Juvenal), the communication, in the form of a letter between equals, complaining of the ills of contemporary society. Th e genre in this form is characterized by a first-person narrator exasperated by social ills; the letter form; a high frequency of contemporary reference; and the use of invective in low-style language. Pope practices the genre thus in the Epistle to Dr. Arhuthnot (see vol. 1, p. 2548). Wyatt's "Mine own John Poins" (see vol. 1, p. 604) draws ultimately on a gentler, Horatian model of the genre.

Satiric mode: Works in a very large variety of genres are devoted to the more or less savage attack on social ills. Thu s Swift's travel narrative Gulliver's Travels (see vol. 1, p. 2323), his essay "A Modest Proposal" (vol. 1,

p. 2462), Pope's mock-epic The Dunciad (vol. 1, p. 2559), and Gay's Beggar's Opera (vol. 1, p. 2613), to look no further than the eighteenth century, are all within a satiric mode. Short story: generically similar to, though shorter and more concentrated than, the novel; often published as part of a collection. Thus Mansfield, "The Daughters of the Late Colonel" (see vol. 2, p. 2333).

Topographical poem (Greek "place writing"): a poem devoted to the meditative description of particular places. Thu s Gray, "Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College" (see vol. 1, p. 2863).

Tragedy: a dramatic representation of the fall of kings or nobles, beginning in happiness and ending in catastrophe. Later transferred to other social mileux. Th e opposite of comedy. Shakespeare, King Lear (see vol. 1,

p. 1139). Tragic mode: Man y genres (epic poetry, legendary chronicles, tragedy, the novel) either do or can participate in a tragic mode, by representing the fall of noble protagonists and the irreparable ravages of human society and history.

Tragicomedy: a play in which potentially tragic events turn out to have a happy, or comic, ending. Thu s Shakespeare, Measure for Measure.

C. Miscellaneous Act: the major subdivision of a play, usually divided into scenes.

Aesthetics (from Greek, "to feel, apprehend by the senses"): the philosophy of artistic meaning as a distinct mode of apprehending untranslatable truth, defined as an alternative to rational enquiry, which is purely abstract. Developed in the late eighteenth century by the Germa n philosopher Immanuel Kant especially.

Allusion: Literary allusion is a passing but illuminating reference within a

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literary text to another, well-known text (often biblical or classical). Topical allusions are also, of course, commo n in certain modes, especially

satire.

Anagnorisis (Greek "recognition"): the moment of protagonists' recognition in a narrative, which is also often the moment of moral understanding.

Apostrophe (from Greek "turning away"): an address, often to an absent person, a force, or a quality. For example, a poet makes an apostrophe to a Muse when invoking her for inspiration. Blazon: strictly, a heraldic shield; in rhetorical usage, a topos whereby the individual elements of a beloved's face and body are singled out for hyperbolic admiration. Spenser, Epithalamion, lines 167�84 (see vol. 1, p. 907). For an inversion of the topos, see Shakespeare, Sonnet 130 (vol. 1,

p. 1074). Burlesque (French and Italian "mocking"): a work that adopts the conventions of a genre with the aim less of comically mocking the genre than of satirically mocking the society so represented (see satire). Thu s Pope's Rape of the Lock (see vol. l ,p. 2513) does not mock classical epic so much as contemporary mores.

Canon (Greek "rule"): the group of texts regarded as worthy of special respect or attention by a given institution. Also, the group of texts regarded as definitely having been written by a certain author.

Catastrophe (Greek "overturning"): the decisive turn in tragedy by which the plot is resolved and, usually, the protagonist dies.

Catharsis (Greek "cleansing"): According to Aristotle, the effect of tragedy on its audience, through their experience of pity and terror, was a kind of spiritual cleansing, or catharsis.

Character (Greek "stamp, impression"): a person, personified animal, or other figure represented in a literary work, especially in narrative and drama. Th e more a character seems to generate the action of a narrative, and the less he or she seems merely to serve a preordained narrative pattern, the "fuller," or more "rounded," a character is said to be. A "stock" character, commo n particularly in man y comic genres, will perform a predictable function in different works of a given genre.

Classical, Classicism, Classic: Each term can be widely applied, but in English literary discourse, "classical" primarily describes the works of either Greek or Roma n antiquity. "Classicism" denotes the practice of art forms inspired by classical antiquity, in particular the observance of rhetorical norms of decorum and balance, as opposed to following the dictates of untutored inspiration, as in Romanticism. "Classic" denotes an especially famous work within a given canon.

Climax (Greek "ladder"): a moment of great intensity and structural change, especially in drama. Also a figure of speech whereby a sequence of verbally linked clauses is made, in which each successive clause is of greater consequence than its predecessor. Bacon, Of Studies: "Studies serve for pastimes, for ornaments, and for abilities. Their chief use for pastimes is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in judgement" (see vol. l,p . 1561).

Convention: a repeatedly recurring feature (in either form or content) of works, occurring in combination with other recurring formal features, constitutes a convention of a particular genre.

Decorum (Latin "that which is fitting"): a rhetorical principle whereby each

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formal aspect of a work should be in keeping with its subject matter and/ or audience.

Denouement (French "unknotting"): the point at which a narrative can be resolved and so ended.

Dramatic irony: a feature of narrative and drama, whereby the audience knows that the outcome of an action will be the opposite of that intended by a character.

Ecphrasis (Greek "speaking out"): a topos whereby a work of visual art is represented in a literary work. Auden, "Musee des Beaux Arts" (see vol. 2,

p. 2428). Exegesis (Greek "leading out"): interpretation, traditionally of the biblical text, but, by transference, of any text. Exemplum (Latin "example"): an example inserted into a usually nonfictional writing (e.g., sermon or essay) to give extra force to an abstract thesis. Thu s Johnson's example of "Sober" in his essay "On Idleness" (see vol. 1,

p. 2678). Hermeneutics (from the Greek god Hermes, messenger between the gods and humankind): the science of interpretation, first formulated as such by the Germa n philosophical theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher in the early nineteenth century.

Imitation: the practice whereby writers strive ideally to reproduce and yet renew the conventions of an older form, often derived from classical civilization. Suc h a practice will be praised in periods of classicism (e.g., the eighteenth century) and repudiated in periods dominated by a model of inspiration (e.g., Romanticism).

Parody: a work that uses the conventions of a particular genre with the aim of comically mocking a topos, a genre, or a particular exponent of a genre. Shakespeare parodies the topos of blazon in Sonnet 130 (see vol. 1,

p. 1074). Pathetic fallacy: the attribution of sentiment to natural phenomena, as if they were in sympathy with huma n feelings. Thu s Milton, Lycidas, lines 146�

47: "With cowslips wan that hang the pensive head, / And every flower that sad embroidery wears" (see vol. 1, p. 1810). For critique of the practice, see Ruskin (who coined the term), "Of the Pathetic Fallacy" (vol. 2, p. 1322). Peripeteia (Greek "turning about"): the sudden reversal of fortune (in both directions) in a dramatic work. Persona (Latin "sound through"): originally the mask worn in the Roman theater to magnify an actor's voice; in literary discourse persona (plural personae) refers to the narrator or speaker of a text, by whose voice the author may mask him- or herself. Eliot, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" (see vol. 2, p. 2289).

Protagonist (Greek "first actor"): the hero or heroine of a drama or narrative.

Rhetoric: the art of verbal persuasion. Classical rhetoricians distinguished three areas of rhetoric: the forensic, to be used in law courts; the deliberative, to be used in political or philosophical deliberations; and the demonstrative, or epideictic, to be used for the purposes of public praise or blame. Rhetorical manuals covered all the skills required of a speaker, from the management of style and structure to delivery. These manuals powerfully influenced the theory of poetics as a separate branch of verbal practice, particularly in the matter of style.

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Scene: a subdivision of an act, itself a subdivision of a dramatic performance and/or text. Th e action of a scene usually occurs in one place.

Sensibility (from Latin, "capable of being perceived by the senses"): as a literary term, an eighteenth-century concept derived from moral philosophy that stressed the social importance of fellow feeling and particularly of sympathy in social relations. Th e concept generated a literature of "sensibility," such as the sentimental novel (the most famous of which was Goethe's Sorrows of the Young Werther [1774]), or sentimental poetry, such as Cowper's passage on the stricken deer in The Task (see vol. 1, p. 2893).

Soliloquy (Latin "single speaking"): a topos of drama, in which a character, alone or thinking to be alone on stage, speaks so as to give the audience access to his or her private thoughts. Thu s Viola's soliloquy in Shakespeare, Twelfth Night 2.2.17-41 (vol. 1, p. 1095).

Sublime: As a concept generating a literary movement, the sublime refers to the realm of experience beyond the measurable, and so beyond the rational, produced especially by the terrors and grandeur of natural phenomena. Derived especially from the first-century Greek treatise On the Sublime, sometimes attributed to Longinus, the notion of the sublime was in the later eighteenth century a spur to Romanticism.

Taste (from Italian "touch"): Although medieval monastic traditions used eating and tasting as a metaphor for reading, the concept of taste as a personal ideal to be cultivated by, and applied to, the appreciation and judgment of works of art in general was developed in the eighteenth century. Topos (Greek "place," plural topoi): a commonplace in the content of a given kind of literature. Originally, in classical rhetoric, the topoi were tried-andtested stimuli to literary invention: lists of standard headings under which a subject might be investigated. In medieval narrative poems, for example, it was commonplace to begin with a description of spring. Writers did, of course, render the commonplace uncommon, as in Chaucer's spring scene at the opening of The Canterbury Tales (see vol. 1, p. 218).

Tradition (from Latin "passing on"): A literary tradition is whatever is passed on or revived from the past in a single literary culture, or drawn from others to enrich a writer's culture. "Tradition" is fluid in reference, ranging from small to large referents: thus it may refer to a relatively small aspect of texts (e.g., the tradition of iambic pentameter), or it may, at the other extreme, refer to the body of texts that constitute a canon. Translation (Latin "carrying across"): the rendering of a text written in one language into another. Vernacular (from Latin "verna," servant): the language of the people, as distinguished from learned and arcane languages. From the later Middle Ages especially, the "vernacular" languages and literatures of Europe distinguished themselves from the learned languages and literatures of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Wit: Originally a synonym for "reason" in Old and Middle English, "wit" became a literary ideal in the Renaissance as brilliant play of the full range of mental resources. For eighteenth-century writers, the notion necessarily involved pleasing expression, as in Pope's definition of true wit as "Nature to advantage dressed, / Wha t oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed" (Essay on Criticism, lines 297�98; see vol. 1, p. 2503). See also Johnson, Lives of the Poets, "Cowley," on "metaphysical wit" (see vol. 1, p. 2766). Romantic theory of the imagination deprived wit of its full range of appre

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hension, whence the word came to be restricted to its modern sense, as the clever play of mind that produces laughter.

D. Publishing History, Censorship By the time we read texts in published books, they have already been treated� that is, changed by authors, editors, and printers�in many ways. Although there are differences across history, in each period literary works are subject to pressures of many kinds, which apply before, while, and after an author writes. The pressures might be financial, as in the relations of author and patron; commercial, as in the marketing of books; and legal, as in, during some periods, the negotiation through official and unofficial censorship. In addition, texts in all periods undergo technological processes, as they move from the material forms in which an author produced them to the forms in which they are presented to readers. Some of the terms below designate important material forms in which books were produced, disseminated, and surveyed across the historical span of this anthology. Others designate the skills developed to understand these processes. The anthology's introductions to individual periods discuss the particular forms these phenomena took in different eras.

Bookseller: In England, and particularly in London, commercial bookmaking and -selling enterprises came into being in the early fourteenth century. These were loose organizations of artisans who usually lived in the same neighborhoods (around St. Paul's Cathedral in London). A bookseller or dealer would coordinate the production of hand-copied books for wealthy patrons (see patronage), who would order books to be custom-made. After the introduction of printing in the late fifteenth century, authors generally sold the rights to their work to booksellers, without any further royalties. Booksellers, who often had their own shops, belonged to the Stationers' Company. This system lasted into the eighteenth century. In 1710, however, authors were for the first time granted copyright, which tipped the commercial balance in their favor, against booksellers.

Censorship: The term applies to any mechanism for restricting what can be published. Historically, the reasons for imposing censorship are heresy, sedition, blasphemy, libel, or obscenity. External censorship is imposed by institutions having legislative sanctions at their disposal. Thu s the pre- Beformation Churc h imposed the Constitutions of Archbishop Arundel of 1409, aimed at repressing the Lollard "heresy." After the Reformation, some key events in the history of censorship are as follows: 1547, when anti-Lollard legislation and legislation made by Henry VIII concerning treason by writing (1534) were abolished; the Licensing Order of 1643, which legislated that works be licensed, through the Stationers' Company, prior to publication; and 1695, when the last such Act stipulating prepublication licensing lapsed. Postpublication censorship continued in different periods for different reasons. Thus, for example, British publication of D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover (1928) was obstructed (though unsuccessfully) in 1960, under the Obscene Publications Act of 1959. Censorship can also be international: although not published in Iran, Salman Bushdie's Satanic Verses (1988) was censored in that country, where the

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leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, proclaimed a fatwa (religious decree) promising the author's execution. Very often censorship is not imposed externally, however: authors or publishers can censor work in anticipation of what will incur the wrath of readers or the penalties of the law. Victorian and Edwardian publishers of novels, for example, urged authors to remove potentially offensive material, especially for serial publication in popular magazines.

Codex (Latin "book"): having the format of a book (usually applied to manuscript books), as distinguished originally from the scroll, which was the standard form of written document in ancient Rome.

Copyright: the legal protection afforded to authors for control of their work's publication, in an attempt to ensure due financial reward. Some key dates in the history of copyright in the United Kingdom are as follows: 1710, when a statute gave authors the exclusive right to publish their work for fourteen years, and fourteen years more if the author were still alive when the first term had expired; 1842, when the period of authorial control was extended to forty-two years; and 1911, when the term was extended yet further, to fifty years after the author's death. In 1995 the period of protection was harmonized with the laws in other European countries to be the life of the author plus seventy years. In the United States no works first published before 1923 are in copyright. Works published since 1978 are, as in the United Kingdom, protected for the life of the author plus seventy years. Copy text: the particular text of a work used by a textual editor as the basis of an edition of that work. Folio: Books come in different shapes, depending originally on the number of times a standard sheet of paper is folded. On e fold produces a large volume, a folio book; two folds produce a quarto, four an octavo, and six a very small duodecimo. Generally speaking, the larger the book, the grander and more expensive. Shakespeare's plays were, for example, first printed in quartos, but were gathered into a folio edition in 1623. Foul papers: versions of a work before an author has produced, if she or he has, a final copy (a "fair copy") with all corrections removed. Manuscript (Latin, "written by hand"): Any text written physically by hand is a manuscript. Before the introduction of printing with moveable type in 1476, all texts in England were produced and reproduced by hand, in manuscript. This is an extremely labor-intensive task, using expensive materials (e.g., animal skins); the cost of books produced thereby was, accordingly, very high. Even after the introduction of printing, many texts continued to be produced in manuscript. This is obviously true of letters, for example, but until the eighteenth century, poetry written within aristocratic circles was often transmitted in manuscript copies. Paleography (Greek "ancient writing"): the art of deciphering, describing, and dating forms of handwriting. Patronage (Latin "protector"): Man y technological, legal, and commercial supports were necessary before professional authorship became possible. Although some playwrights (e.g., Shakespeare) made a living by writing for the theater, other authors needed, principally, the large-scale reproductive capacities of printing and the security of copyright to make a living from writing. Before these conditions obtained, many authors had another main occupation, and most authors had to rely on patronage. In different periods,

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institutions or individuals offered material support, or patronage, to authors. Thu s in Anglo-Saxon England, monasteries afforded the conditions of writing to monastic authors. Between the twelfth and the seventeenth centuries, the main source of patronage was the royal court. Authors offered patrons prestige and ideological support in return for financial support. Even as the conditions of professional authorship came into being at the beginning of the eighteenth century, older forms of direct patronage were not altogether displaced until the middle of the century.

Periodical: Whereas journalism, strictly, applies to daily writing (from French "jour," day), periodical writing appears at larger, but still frequent, intervals, characteristically in the form of the essay. Periodicals were developed especially in the eighteenth century.

Printing: Printing, or the mechanical reproduction of books using moveable type, was invented in German y in the mid-fifteenth century by Johannes Gutenberg; it quickly spread throughout Europe. William Caxton brought printing into England from the Low Countries in 1476. Much greater powers of reproduction at muc h lower prices transformed every aspect of literary culture.

Publisher: the person or company responsible for the commissioning and publicizing of printed matter. In the early period of printing, publisher, printer, and bookseller were often the same person. This trend continued in the ascendancy of the Stationers' Company, between the middle of the sixteenth and the end of the seventeenth centuries. Toward the end of the seventeenth century, these three functions began to separate, leading to their modern distinctions. Royalties: an agreed-upon proportion of the price of each copy of a work sold, paid by the publisher to the author, or an agreed-upon fee paid to the playwright for each performance of a play. Scribe: in manuscript culture, the scribe is the copyist who reproduces a text by hand. Stationers' Company: Th e Stationers' Compan y was an English guild incorporating various tradesmen, including printers, publishers, and booksellers, skilled in the production and selling of books. It was formed in 1403, received its royal charter in 1557, and served as a means both of producing and of regulating books. Authors would sell the manuscripts of their books to individual stationers, who incurred the risks and took the profits of producing and selling the books. Th e stationers entered their rights over given books in the Stationers' Register. They also regulated the book trade and held their monopoly by licensing books and by being empowered to seize unauthorized books and imprison resisters. This system of licensing broke down in the social unrest of the Civil Wa r and Interregnum (1640�60), and it ended in 1695. Even after the end of licensing, the Stationers' Com pany continued to be an intrinsic part of the copyright process, since the 171 0 copyright statute directed that copyright had to be registered at Stationers' Hall. Subscription: A n eighteenth-century system of bookselling somewhere between direct patronage and impersonal sales. A subscriber paid half the cost of a book before publication and half on delivery. Th e author received these payments directly. The subscriber's name appeared in the prefatory pages. Textual criticism: works in all periods often exist in many subtly or not so

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subtly different forms. This is especially true with regard to manuscript textual reproduction, but it also applies to printed texts. Textual criticism is the art, developed from the fifteenth century in Italy but raised to new levels of sophistication from the eighteenth century, of deciphering different historical states of texts. This art involves the analysis of textual variants, often with the aim of distinguishing authorial from scribal forms.

.

Geograpkic Nomenclature

The British Isles refers to the prominent group of islands off the northwest coast of Europe, especially to the two largest, Great Britain and Ireland. At present these comprise two sovereign states: the Republic of Ireland, or Eire, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland�known for short as the United Kingdom or the U.K. Most of the smaller islands are part of the U.K. but a few, like the Isle of Man and the tiny Channel Islands, are largely independent. The U.K. is often loosely referred to as "Britain" or "Great Britain" and is sometimes called simply, if inaccurately, "England." For obvious reasons, the latter usage is rarely heard among the inhabitants of the other countries of the U.K.�Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland (sometimes called Ulster). England is by far the most populous part of the kingdom, as well as the seat of its capital, London.

From the first to the fifth century c.E. most of what is now England and Wales was a province of the Boman Empire called Britain (in Latin, Britannia). After the fall of Borne, much of the island was invaded and settled by peoples from northern Germany and Denmark speaking what we now call Old English. These peoples are collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, and the word England is related to the first element of their name. By the time of the Norman Conquest (1066) most of the kingdoms founded by the Anglo-Saxons and subsequent Viking invaders had coalesced into the kingdom of England, which, in the latter Middle Ages, conquered and largely absorbed the neighboring Celtic kingdom of Wales. In 1603 James VI of Scotland inherited the island's other throne as James I of England, and for the next hundred years�except for the brief period of Puritan rule�Scotland (both its English-speaking Lowlands and its Gaelic-speaking Highlands) and England (with Wales) were two kingdoms under a single king. Jn 1707 the Act of Union welded them together as the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Ireland, where English rule had begun in the twelfth century and been tightened in the sixteenth, was incorporated by the 1800-1801 Act of Union into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. With the division of Ireland and the establishment of the Irish Free State after World War I, this name was modified to its present form, and in 1949 the Irish Free State became the Republic of Ireland. In 1999 Scotland elected a separate parliament it had relinquished in 1707, and Wales elected an assembly it lost in 1409; neither Scotland nor Wales ceased to be part of the United Kingdom.

The British Isles are further divided into counties, which in Great Britain are also known as shires. This word, with its vowel shortened in pronunciation, forms the suffix in the names of many counties, such as Yorkshire, Wiltshire, Somersetshire.

The Latin names Britannia (Britain), Caledonia (Scotland), and Hibernia (Ireland) are sometimes used in poetic diction; so too is Britain's ancient Celtic name, Albion. Because of its accidental resemblance to albtis (Latin for "white"), Albion is especially associated with the chalk cliffs that seem to gird much of the English coast like defensive walls.

The British Empire took its name from the British Isles because it was created not only by the English but also by the Irish, Scots, and Welsh, as well as by civilians and servicemen from other constituent countries of the empire. Some of the empire's overseas colonies, or crown colonies, were populated largely by settlers of European origin and their descendants. These predominantly white settler colonies, such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, were allowed significant self-government in the nineteenth century and recognized as dominions in the early twentieth century.

A96

.

GEOGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE / A9 7

The white dominions became members of the Commonwealth of Nations, also called the Commonwealth, the British Commonwealth, and "the Old Commonwealth" at different times, an association of sovereign states under the symbolic leadership of the British monarch.

Other overseas colonies of the empire had mostly indigenous populations (or, in the Caribbean, the descendants of imported slaves, indentured servants, and others). These colonies were granted political independence after World War II, later than the dominions, and have often been referred to since as postcolonial nations. In South and Southeast Asia, India and Pakistan gained independence in 1947, followed by other countries including Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), Burma (now Myanmar), Malaya (now Malaysia), and Singapore. In West and East Africa, the Gold Coast was decolonized as Ghana in 1957, Nigeria in 1960, Sierra Leone in 1961, Uganda in 1962, Kenya in 1963, and so forth, while in southern Africa, the white minority government of South Africa was already independent in 1931, though majority rule did not come until 1994. In the Caribbean, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago won independence in 1962, followed by Barbados in 1966, and other islands of the British West Indies in the 1970s and '80s. Other regions with nations emerging out of British colonial rule included Central America (British Honduras, now Belize), South America (British Guiana, now Guyana), the Pacific islands (Fiji), and Europe (Cyprus, Malta). After decolonization, many of these nations chose to remain within a newly conceived Commonwealth and are sometimes referred to as "New Commonwealth" countries. Some nations, such as Ireland, Pakistan, and South Africa, withdrew from the Commonwealth, though South Africa and Pakistan eventually rejoined, and others, such as Burma (Myanmar), gained independence outside the Commonwealth. Britain's last major overseas colony, Hong Kong, was returned to Chinese sovereignty in 1997, but while Britain retains only a handful of dependent territories, such as Bermuda and Montserrat, the scope of the Commonwealth remains vast, with 30 percent of the world's population.

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.

Britisk Money

One of the most dramatic changes to the system of British money came in 1971. In the system previously in place, the pound consisted of 20 shillings, each containing 12 pence, making 240 pence to the pound. Since 1971, British money has been calculated on the decimal system, with 100 pence to the pound. Britons' experience of paper money did not change very drastically: as before, 5- and 10-pound notes constitute the majority of bills passing through their hands (in addition, 20- and 50pound notes have been added). But the shift necessitated a whole new way of thinking about and exchanging coins and marked the demise of the shilling, one of the fundamental units of British monetary history. Many other coins, still frequently encountered in literature, had already passed. These include the groat, worth 4 pence (the word "groat" is often used to signify a trifling sum); the angel (which depicted the archangel Michael triumphing over a dragon), valued at 10 shillings; the mark, worth in its day two-thirds of a pound or 13 shillings 4 pence; and the sovereign, a gold coin initially worth 22 shillings 6 pence, later valued at 1 pound, last circulated in 1932. One prominent older coin, the guinea, was worth a pound and a shilling; though it has not been minted since 1813, a very few quality items or prestige awards (like the purse in a horse race) may still be quoted in guineas. (The table below includes some other well-known, obsolete coins.) Colloquially, a pound was (and is) called a quid; a shilling a bob; sixpence, a tanner; a copper could refer to a penny, a half-penny, or a farthing ('A penny).

Old Currency New Currency

1 pound note 1 pound coin (or note in Scotland) 10 shilling (half-pound note) 50 pence 5 shilling (crown) 2V4 shilling (half crown) 20 pence 2 shilling (florin) 10 pence 1 shilling 5 pence 6 pence 2Vi pence 1 penny 2 pence

1 penny Vi penny 'A penny (farthing)

In recent years, the British government and people have been contemplating and debating a change even greater than the shift to the decimal system. Britain, a mem ber of the European Union, may adopt the EU's common currency, the Euro, and eventually see the pound itself become obsolete. More than many other EU-member countries, Britain has resisted this change: many people strongly identify their country with its rich commercial history and tend to view their currency patriotically as a national symbol.

Even more challenging than sorting out the values of obsolete coins is calculating for any given period the purchasing power of money, which fluctuates over time by

A99

.

A10 0 / BRITISH MONEY

its very nature. At the beginning of the twentieth century, 1 pound was worth about 5 American dollars, though those bought three to four times what they now do. Now, the pound buys anywhere from $1.50 to $1.90. As difficult as it is to generalize, it is clear that money used to be worth much more than it is currently. In Anglo-Saxon times, the most valuable circulating coin was the silver penny: four would buy a sheep. Beyond long-term inflationary trends, prices varied from times of plenty to those marked by poor harvests; from peacetime to wartime; from the country to the metropolis (life in London has always been very expensive); and wages varied according to the availability of labor (wages rose sharply, for instance, during the devastating Black Death in the fourteenth century). The chart below provides a glimpse of some actual prices of given periods and their changes across time, though all the variables mentioned above prevent them from being definitive. Even from one year to the next, an added tax on gin or tea could drastically raise prices, and a lottery ticket could cost much more the night before the drawing than just a month earlier. Still, the prices quoted below do indicate important trends, such as the disparity of incomes in British society and the costs of basic commodities. In the chart below, the symbol . is used for pound, s. for shilling, d. for a penny (from Latin denarius)-, a sum would normally be written .2.19.3, i.e., 2 pounds, 19 shillings, 3 pence. (This is Leopold Bloom's budget for the day depicted in Joyce's novel Ulysses [1922]; in the new currency, it would be about .2.96.)

.

circa

food and drink

entertainment

reading

1390

gallon (8 pints)

of ale, 1,5d.

gallon (8 pints) of wine, 3 to 4d.

pound of cinna

mon, 1 to 3s.

no cost to watch a cycle play

contributory admission to professional troupe theater

maintenance for royal hounds at Windsor, .75d. a day

cheap romance, Is.

1590

tankard of beer,

,5d.

pound of beef, 2s. 5d.

pound of cinna

mon, 10s. 6d.

admission to public theater, 1 to 3d.

cheap seat in private theater, 6d.

"to see a dead Indian" (qtd. in

The Tempest),

1.25d. (ten "doits")

play quarto, 6d.

1650

coffee, Id. a dish

chicken, Is. 4d.

pound of tea, .3

10s.

falcon, .1 1 5s.

billiard table, .2 5

three-quarterlength portrait painting, .3 1

pamphlet, 1 to 6d.

.

1750 1815 1875 1950 "drunk for a ounce of laudapint of beer, pint of Guinpenny, dead drunk num, 3d. 3d. ness stout, for twopence" (gin lid . shop sign in Hogarth print) dinner at a steak-ha m and potato dinner in a pound of beef, house, Is. dinner for two, 7s. good hotel, 5s. 2s. 2d. pound of tea, 16s. Prince Regent's pound of tea, dinner on rail- dinner party for 2s. way car, 7s. 2000, .12.000 6d. theater tickets, 1 admission to Covtheater tickets, admission to to 5s. ent Garden thea6d. to 7s. Old Vic theater, 1 to 7s. ter, Is. 6d. to 10s. 6d. admission to Vauxannual subscripadmission to admission to hall Gardens, Is. tion to Almack's Mada m Tus-Odeon cin( exclusive club), 10 saud's ema, Man - guineas waxworks, Is. chester, Is. 3d. lottery ticket, .2 0 Jane Austen's annual fees at tropical fish (shares were sold) piano, 30 guineas a gentleman's tank, .4 4s. club, 7-1 0 guineas issue of The Genissue of Edinburgh copy of The copy of The tleman's Magazine, Review, 6s. Times, 3d. Times, 3d. 6d.

.

circa 1390 1590 1650 a Latin Bible, 2 Shakespeare's First student Bible, 6s. to .4 Foiio (1623), .1 payment for Foxe's Acts and Hobbes's Leviailluminating a Monuments, 24s. than, 8s. liturgical book, .2 2 9s. transportation night's supply of wherry (whole day's journey, hay for horse, boat) across coach, 10s. 2d. Thames, Id. coach, .8 hiring a horse for coach horse, .3 0 a day, 12d. quality horse, hiring a coach for fancy carriage, .1 0 ' a day, 10s. .17 0 clothes clothing allow-shoes with buckfootman's frieze ance for peas-Ies, 8d. coat, 15s. ant, 3s. a year

.

1750

cheap edition of

Milton, 2s.

Johnson's Dictionary, folio, 2 vols., .4 10s.

boat across

Thames, 4d.

coach fare, London to Edinburgh, .4 10s.

transport to America, .5

worldng woman's gown, 6s. 6d.

1815 1875 1950 membership in cirillustrated ediissue of Eagle culating library tion of comics, 4.5d. (3rd class), .1 4s. Through the a year Looking-glass, 6s. 1st edition of Aus1st edition of Orwell's Nine- ten's Pride and Trollope's The teen Eighty Prejudice, 18s. Way We Live Four, paper- Now, 2 vols., back, 3s. 6d. . 1 Is. coach ride, out15- minute London tube side, 2 to 3d. a journey in a fare, about 2d. mile; inside, 4 to London cab, a mile 5d. a mile Is. 6d. palanquin trans-railway, 3rd petrol, 3s. a port in Madras, 5s. class, London gallon a day to Plymouth, 18s. 8d. (about Id. a mile) passage, Liverpool passage to midsize Austin to Ne w York, .1 0 India, 1st class, sedan, .449 .5 0 plus .18 8 4s. 2d. tax checked muslin, flannel for a woman s sun 7s. per yard cheap pettifrock, .3 13s. coat, Is. 3d. a lOd. yard

.

circa 1390 1590 1650 1750 1815 1875 1950 shoes for gentry wearer, 4d. woman's. 1 5s. gloves, falconer's10s. hat, gentleman's.8 suit, hiring a dressmaker for a pelisse, 8s. overcoat for an Eton schoolboy, .1 Is. tweedjacket, 6d. sports .3 16s. hat forwearer, gentry lOd. fine cloak, .1 6 black cloth for mourning household of an earl, .10 0 very fine wig, .3 0 ladies silkings, 12s. stock-set ofteeth, false .2 10s. "Teddy boy" drape suit, .2 0 labor/incomes hiring a skilled building worker, 4d 4d4d . .. a aa da dada y yy actor's daily wage during playing season, Is. agricultural laborer, 6s. week 5d. a price.3 2 of boy slave, lowest-paid sailor on Royal Navy ship, 10s. 9d. a month seasonalcultural laborer, week agri14s. a minimu m wage, agricultural laborer, . 4 14s. per 47hour week wage for professional scribe, .2 3s. 4d. a year + cloak household servant 2 to .5 a year + food, clothing tutor to noble- man's children, .3 0 a year housemaid's wage, .6 to .8 a year contributor to Quarterly Review, 10 guineas per sheet housemaid's wage, .1 0 to .2 5 a year shorthand typist, .36 7 a year minimu m income to be called gentleman, .1 0 a year; for knighthood, 40 to .40 0 minimu m income for eligibility for knighthood, .3 0 a year Milton's salary as Secretary of Foreign Tongues, .28 8 a year Boswell's allowance, .20 0 a year minimu m income for a "genteel" family, .10 0 a year income of the "comfortable" classes, .800 and up a year middle manager's salary, .1,48 0 a year income from land of richest magnates, .3,500 a year income from land of average earl, .4000 a year Earl of Bedford's income, .8,000 a year Duke of Newcastle's income, .40,000 a year Mr. Darcy's income, Pride and Prejudice, .10,000 Trollope's income, .4,000 a year barrister's salary, .2,032 a year

.

The British B aronage

The English monarchy is in principle hereditary, though at times during the Middle Ages the rules were subject to dispute. In general, authority passes from father to eldest surviving son, from daughters in order of seniority if there is no son, to a brother if there are no children, and in default of direct descendants to collateral lines (cousins, nephews, nieces) in order of closeness. There have been breaks in the order of succession (1066, 1399, 1688), but so far as possible the usurpers have always sought to paper over the break with a legitimate, i.e., hereditary, claim. Whe n a queen succeeds to the throne and takes a husband, he does not become king unless he is in the line of blood succession; rather, he is named prince consort, as Albert was to Victoria. He may father kings, but is not one himself.

The original Saxon nobles were the king's thanes, ealdormen, or earls, who provided the king with military service and counsel in return for booty, gifts, or landed estates. William the Conqueror, arriving from France, where feudalism was fully developed, considerably expanded this group. In addition, as the king distributed the lands of his new kingdom, he also distributed dignities to men who became known collectively as "the baronage." "Baron" in its root meaning signifies simply "man," and barons were the king's men. As the title was common, a distinction was early made between greater and lesser barons, the former gradually assuming loftier and more impressive titles. The first English "duke" was created in 1337; the title of "marquess," or "marquis" (pronounced "markwis"), followed in 1385, and "viscount" ("vyekount") in 1440. Though "earl" is the oldest title of all, an earl now comes between a marquess and a viscount in order of dignity and precedence, and the old term "baron" now designates a rank just below viscount."Baronets" were created in 1611 as a means of raising revenue for the crown (the title could be purchased for about .1000); they are marginal nobility and have never sat in the House of Lords.

Kings and queens are addressed as "Your Majesty," princes and princesses as "Your Highness," the other hereditary nobility as "My Lord" or "Your Lordship." Peers receive their titles either by inheritance (like Lord Byron, the sixth baron of that line) or from the monarch (like Alfred Lord Tennyson, created first Baron Tennyson by Victoria). The children, even of a duke, are commoners unless they are specifically granted some other title or inherit their father's title from him. A peerage can be forfeited by act of attainder, as for example when a lord is convicted of treason; and, when forfeited, or lapsed for lack of a successor, can be bestowed on another family. Thus in 1605 Robert Cecil was made first earl of Salisbury in the third creation, the first creation dating from 1149, the second from 1337, the title having been in abeyance since 1539. Titles descend by right of succession and do not depend on tenure of land; thus, a title does not always indicate where a lord dwells or holds power. Indeed, noble titles do not always refer to a real place at all. At Prince Edward's marriage in 1999, the queen created him earl of Wessex, although the old kingdom of Wessex has had no political existence since the Anglo-Saxon period, and the name was all but forgotten until it was resurrected by Thomas Hardy as the setting of his novels. (This is perhaps but one of many ways in which the world of the aristocracy increasingly resembles the realm of literature.)

A104

.

THE BRITISH BARONAGE / A10 5

The king and queen (These are all of the royal line.) Prince and princess Duke and duchess (These may or may not be of the royal line, but are Marquess and marchioness ordinarily remote from the succession.) Earl and countess Viscount and viscountess Baron and baroness Baronet and lady

Scottish peers sat in the parliament of Scotland, as English peers did in the parliament of England, till at the Act of Union (1707) Scottish peers were granted sixteen seats in the English House of Lords, to be filled by election. (In 1963, all Scottish lords were allowed to sit.) Similarly, Irish peers, when the Irish parliament was abolished in 1801, were granted the right to elect twenty-eight of their number to the House of Lords in Westminster. (Now that the Republic of Ireland is a separate nation, this no longer applies.) Wome n members (peeresses) were first allowed to sit in the House as nonhereditary Life Peers in 1958 (when that status was created for members of both genders); women first sat by their own hereditary right in 1963. Today the House of Lords still retains some power to influence or delay legislation, but its future is uncertain. In 1999, the hereditary peers (then amounting to 750) were reduced to 92 temporary members elected by their fellow peers. Holders of Life Peerages remain, as do senior bishops of the Church of England and high-court judges (the "Law Lords").

Below the peerage the chief title of honor is "knight." Knighthood, which is not hereditary, is generally a reward for services rendered. A knight (Sir John Black) is addressed, using his first name, as "Sir John"; his wife, using the last name, is "Lady Black"�unless she is the daughter of an earl or nobleman of higher rank, in which case she will be "Lady Arabella." The female equivalent of a knight bears the title of "Dame." Though the word itself comes from the Anglo-Saxon cniht, there is some doubt as to whether knighthood amounted to much before the arrival of the Normans. The feudal system required military service as a condition of land tenure, and a man who came to serve his king at the head of an army of tenants required a title of authority and badges of identity�hence the title of knighthood and the coat of arms. During the Crusades, when men were far removed from their land (or even sold it in order to go on crusade), more elaborate forms of fealty sprang up that soon expanded into orders of knighthood. The Templars, Hospitallers, Knights of the Teutonic Order, Knights of Malta, and Knights of the Golden Fleece were but a few of these companionships; not all of them were available at all times in England.

Gradually, with the rise of centralized government and the decline of feudal tenures, military knighthood became obsolete, and the rank largely honorific; sometimes, as under James I, it degenerated into a scheme of the royal government for making money. For hundreds of years after its establishment in the fourteenth century, the Order of the Garter was the only English order of knighthood, an exclusive courtly companionship. Then, during the late seventeenth, the eighteenth, and the nineteenth centuries, a number of additional orders were created, with names such as the Thistle, Saint Patrick, the Bath, Saint Michael and Saint George, plus a number of special Victorian and Indian orders. They retain the terminology, ceremony, and dignity of knighthood, but the military implications are vestigial.

Although the British Empire now belongs to history, appointments to the Order of the British Empire continue to be conferred for services to that empire at home or abroad. Such honors (commonly referred to as "gongs") are granted by the monarch

.

A10 6 / THE BRITISH BARONAGE

in her New Year's and Birthday lists, but the decisions are now made by the government in power. In recent years there have been efforts to popularize and democratize the dispensation of honors, with recipients including rock stars and actors. But this does not prevent large sectors of British society from regarding both knighthood and the peerage as largely irrelevant to modern life.

The Royal Lines of England and Great Britain

England

SAXONS AND DANES

Egbert, king of Wessex 802-839 Ethelwulf, son of Egbert 839-85 8 Ethelbald, second son of Ethelwulf 858-860 Ethelbert, third son of Ethelwulf 860-866 Ethelred I, fourth son of Ethelwulf 866-87 1 Alfred the Great, fifth son of Ethelwulf 871-89 9 Edward the Elder, son of Alfred 899-924 Athelstan the Glorious, son of Edward 924-94 0 Edmun d I, third son of Edward 940-946 Edred, fourth son of Edward 946-95 5 Edwy the Fair, son of Edmun d 955-95 9 Edgar the Peaceful, second son of Edmun d 959-97 5 Edward the Martyr, son of Edgar 975-97 8 (murdered) Ethelred II, the Unready, second son of Edgar 978-101 6 Edmun d II, Ironside, son of Ethelred II 1016-101 6 Canute the Dane 1016-103 5 Harold I, Harefoot, natural son of Canute 1035-104 0 Hardecanute, son of Canute 1040-104 2 Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred II 1042-106 6 Harold II, brother-in-law of Edward 1066-106 6 (died in battle)

HOUSE OF NORMANDY

William I the Conqueror 1066-1087 William II, Rufus, third son of William I 1087-1100 (shot from ambush) Henry I, Beauclerc, youngest son of

William I 1100-1135

HOUSE OF BLOIS

Stephen, son of Adela, daughter of William I 1135-1154

.

THE BRITISH BARONAGE / A1

HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET

Henry II, son of Geoffrey Plantagenet by

Matilda, daughter of Henry I 1154-1189 Richard I, Coeur de Lion, son of Henry II 1189-1199 John Lackland, son of Henry II 1199-1216 Henry III, son of John 1216-1272 Edward I, Longshanks, son of Henry III 1272�1307 Edward II, son of Edward I 1307�1327 (deposed) Edward III of Windsor, son of Edward II 1327-1377 Richard II, grandson of Edward III 1377�1399 (deposed)

HOUSE OF LANCASTER

Henry IV, son of John of Gaunt, son of

Edward III 1399-1413 Henry V, Prince Hal, son of Henry IV 1413-1422 Henry VI, son of Henry V 1422-1461 (deposed),

1470-1471 (deposed)

HOUSE OF YORK

Edward IV, great-great-grandson of Edward III 1461-1470 (deposed),

1471-1483 Edward V, son of Edward IV 1483-1483 (murdered) Richard III, Crookback 1483-1485 (died in battle)

HOUSE OF TUDOR

Henry VII, married daughter of

Edward IV 1485-1509 Henry VIII, son of Henry VII 1509-1547 Edward VI, son of Henry VIII 1547-1553 Mary I, "Bloody," daughter of Henry VIII 1553-1558 Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII 1558-1603

HOUSE OF STUART

James I (James VI of Scotland) 1603-1625 Charles I, son of James I 1625�1649 (executed)

COMMONWEALTH & PROTECTORATE

Council of State 1649-1653 Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector 1653�1658 Bichard Cromwell, son of Oliver 1658�1660 (resigned)

HOUSE OF STUART (RESTORED)

Charles II, son of Charles I 1660-1685 James II, second son of Charles I 1685�1688

.

A10 8 / THE BRITISH BARONAGE

(INTERREGNUM, 11 DECEMBER 1688 TO 13 FEBRUARY 1689)

William III of Orange, by Mary,

daughter of Charles I 1689-1701

and Mary II, daughter of James II �1694 Anne, second daughter of James II 1702�1714

Great Britain

HOUSE OF HANOVER

George I, son of Elector of Hanover and

Sophia, granddaughter of James I 1714�1727 George II, son of George I 1727�1760 George III, grandson of George II 1760�1820 George IV, son of George III 1820-1830 William IV, third son of George III 1830-1837 Victoria, daughter of Edward, fourth son

of George III 1837-1901

HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA

Edward VII, son of Victoria 1901-1910

HOUSE OF WINDSOR (NAME ADOPTED 17 JULY 1917)

George V, second son of Edward VII 1910-1936 Edward VIII, eldest son of George V 1936-1936 (abdicated) George VI, second son of George V 1936�1952 Elizabeth II, daughter of George VI 1952

.

Reli gions in England

In the sixth century C.E., missionaries from Ireland and the Continent introduced Christianity to the Anglo-Saxons�actually, reintroduced it, since it had briefly flourished in the southern parts of the British Isles during the Roman occupation, and even after the Roman withdrawal had persisted in the Celtic regions of Scotland and Wales. By the time the earliest poems included in the Norton Anthology were composed, therefore, the English people had been Christians for hundreds of years; such Anglo-Saxon poems as "The Dream of the Rood" bear witness to their faith. Our knowledge of the religion of pre-Christian Britain is sketchy, but it is likely that vestiges of paganism assimilated into, or coexisted with, the practice of Christianity: fertility rites were incorporated into the celebration of Easter resurrection, rituals commemorating the dead into All-Hallows Eve and All Saints Day, and elements of winter solstice festivals into the celebration of Christmas. In English literature such "folkloric" elements often elicit romantic nostalgia. Geoffrey Chaucer's Wife of Bath looks back to a magical time before the arrival of Christianity in which the land was "fulfilled of fairye." Hundreds of years later, the seventeenth-century writer Bobert Herrick honors the amalgamation of Christian and pagan elements in agrarian British culture in such poems as "Corinna's Gone A-Maying" and "The Hock Cart."

Medieval Christianity was fairly uniform across Western Europe�hence called "catholic," or universally shared�and its rituals and expectations, common to the whole community, permeated everyday life. The Catholic Church was also an international power structure. In its hierarchy of pope, cardinals, archbishops, and bishops, it resembled the feudal state, but the church power structure coexisted alongside a separate hierarchy of lay authorities with a theoretically different sphere of social responsibilities. The sharing out of lay and ecclesiastical authority in medieval England was sometimes a source of conflict. Chaucer's pilgrims are on their way to visit the memorial shrine to one victim of such struggle: Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, who opposed the policies of King Henry III, was assassinated on the king's orders in 1120 and later made a saint. As an international organization, the church conducted its business in the universal language of Latin, and thus although statistically in the period the largest segment of literate persons were monks and priests, the clerical contribution to great writing in English was relatively modest. Yet the lay writers of the period reflect the importance of the church as an institution and the pervasiveness of religion in everyday life.

Beginning in 1517 the German monk Martin Luther, in Wittenberg, Germany, openly challenged many aspects of Catholic practice and by 1520 had completely repudiated the authority of the Pope, setting in train the Protestant Reformation. Luther argued that the Roman Catholic Church had strayed far from the pattern of Christianity laid out in scripture. He rejected Catholic doctrines for which no biblical authority was to be found, such as the belief in Purgatory, and translated the Bible into German, on the grounds that the importance of scripture for all Christians made its translation into the vernacular tongue essential. Luther was not the first to advance such views�followers of the Englishman John Wycliffe had translated the Bible in the fourteenth century. But Luther, protected by powerful German rulers, was able to speak out with impunity and convert others to his views, rather than suffer the persecution usually meted out to heretics. Soon other reformers were following in Luther's footsteps: of these, the Swiss Ulrich Zwingli and the French Jean Calvin would be especially influential for English religious thought.

A109

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A11 0 / RELIGIONS IN ENGLAND

At first England remained staunchly Catholic. Its lung, Henry VIII, was so severe to heretics that the Pope awarded him the title "Defender of the Faith," which British monarchs have retained to this day. In 1534, however, Henry rejected the authority of the Pope to prevent his divorce from his queen, Catherine of Aragon, and his marriage to his mistress, Ann Boleyn. In doing so, Henry appropriated to himself ecclesiastical as well as secular authority. Thomas More, author of Utopia, was executed for refusing to endorse Henry's right to govern the English church. Over the following six years, Henry consolidated his grip on the ecclesiastical establishment by dissolving the powerful, populous Catholic monasteries and redistributing their massive landholdings to his own lay followers. Yet Henry's church largely retained Catholic doctrine and liturgy. Whe n Henry died and his young son, Edward, came to the throne in 1547, the English church embarked on a more Protestant path, a direction abruptly reversed when Edward died and his older sister Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, took the throne in 1553 and attempted to reintroduce Roman Catholicism. Mary's reign was also short, however, and her successor, Elizabeth I, the daughter of An n Boleyn, was a Protestant. Elizabeth attempted to establish a "middle way" Christianity, compromising between Roman Catholic practices and beliefs and reformed ones.

The Church of England, though it laid claim to a national rather than pan- European authority, aspired like its predecessor to be the universal church of all English subjects. It retained the Catholic structure of parishes and dioceses and the Catholic hierarchy of bishops, though the ecclesiastical authority was now the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Church's "Supreme Governor" was the monarch. Yet disagreement and controversy persisted. Some members of the Church of England wanted to retain many of the ritual and liturgical elements of Catholicism. Others, the Puritans, advocated a more thoroughgoing reformation. Most Puritans remained within the Church of England, but a minority, the "Separatists" or "Congregationalists," split from the established church altogether. These dissenters no longer thought of the ideal church as an organization to which everybody belonged; instead, they conceived it as a more exclusive group of likeminded people, one not necessarily attached to a larger body of believers.

In the seventeenth century, the succession of the Scottish king James to the English

throne produced another problem. England and Scotland were separate nations, and

in the sixteenth century Scotland had developed its own national Presbyterian church,

or "kirk," under the leadership of the reformer John Knox. The kirk retained fewer

Catholic liturgical elements than did the Churc h of England, and its authorities, or

"presbyters," were elected by assemblies of their fellow clerics, rather than appointed

by the king. James I and his son Charles I, especially the latter, wanted to bring the

Scottish kirk into conformity with Church of England practices. The Scots violently

resisted these efforts, with the collaboration of many English Puritans, in a conflict

that eventually developed into the English Civil Wa r in the mid-seventeenth century.

The effect of these disputes is visible in the poetry of such writers as John Milton,

Robert Herrick, Henry Vaughan, and Thomas Traherne, and in the prose of Thomas

Browne, Lucy Hutchinson, and Dorothy Waugh. Just as in the mid-sixteenth century,

when a succession of monarchs with different religious commitments destabilized the

church, so the seventeenth century endured spiritual whiplash. King Charles I's

highly ritualistic Church of England was violently overturned by the Puritan victors

in the Civil War�until 1660, after the death of the Puritan leader, Oliver Cromwell,

when the Church of England was restored along with the monarchy.

The religious and political upheavals of the seventeenth century produced Christian sects that de-emphasized the ceremony of the established church and rejected as well its top-down authority structure. Some of these groups were ephemeral, but the Baptists (founded in 1608 in Amsterdam by the English expatriate John Smyth) and Quakers, or Society of Friends (founded by George Fox in the 1640s), flourished

.

RELIGIONS IN ENGLAND / ALLL

outside the established church, sometimes despite cruel persecution. John Bunyan, a Baptist, wrote the Christian allegory Pilgrim's Progress while in prison. Some dissenters, like the Baptists, shared the reformed reverence for the absolute authority of scripture but interpreted the scriptural texts differently from their fellow Protestants. Others, like the Quakers, favored, even over the authority of the Bible, the "inner light" or voice of individual conscience, which they took to be the working of the Holy Spirit in the lives of individuals.

The Protestant dissenters were not England's only religious minorities. Despite crushing fines and the threat of imprisonment, a minority of Catholics under Elizabeth and James openly refused to give their allegiance to the new church, and others remained secret adherents to the old ways. John Donne was brought up in an ardently Catholic family, and several other writers converted to Catholicism as adults�Ben Jonson for a considerable part of his career, Elizabeth Carey and Richard Crashaw permanently, and at profound personal cost. In the eighteenth century, Catholics remained objects of suspicion as possible agents of sedition, especially after the "Glorious Revolution" in 1688 deposed the Catholic James II in favor of the Protestant William and Mary. Anti-Catholic prejudice affected John Dryden, a Catholic convert, as well as the lifelong Catholic Alexander Pope. By contrast, the English colony of

Ireland remained overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, the fervor of its religious com

mitment at least partly inspired by resistance to English occupation. Starting in the

reign of Elizabeth, England shored up its own authority in Ireland by encouraging

Protestant immigrants from Scotland to settle in northern Ireland, producing a vir

ulent religious divide the effects of which are still playing out today.

A small community of Jews had moved from France to London after 1066, when the Norman William the Conqueror came to the English throne. Although despised and persecuted by many Christians, they were allowed to remain as moneylenders to the Crown, until the thirteenth century, when the king developed alternative sources of credit. At this point, in 1290, the Jews were expelled from England. In 1655 Oliver Cromwell permitted a few to return, and in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries the Jewish population slowly increased, mainly by immigration from Germany. In the mid-eighteenth century some prominent Jews had their children brought up as Christians so as to facilitate their full integration into English society: thus the nineteenth-century writer and politician Benjamin Disraeli, although he and his father were members of the Church of England, was widely considered a Jew insofar as his ancestry was Jewish.

In the late seventeenth century, as the Church of England reasserted itself, Catholics, Jews, and dissenting Protestants found themselves subject to significant legal restrictions. The Corporation Act, passed in 1661, and the Test Act, passed in 1673, excluded all who refused to take communion in the Church of England from voting, attending university, or working in government or in the professions. Members of religious minorities, as well as Church of England communicants, paid mandatory taxes in support of Church of England ministers and buildings. In 1689 the dissenters gained the right to worship in public, but Jews and Catholics were not permitted to do so.

During the eighteenth century, political, intellectual, and religious history remained closely intertwined. The Church of England came to accommodate a good deal of variety. "Low church" services resembled those of the dissenting Protestant churches, minimizing ritual and emphasizing the sermon; the "high church" retained more elaborate ritual elements, yet its prestige was under attack on several fronts. Many Enlightenment thinkers subjected the Bible to rational critique and found it wanting: the philosopher David Hume, for instance, argued that the "miracles" described therein were more probably lies or errors than real breaches of the laws of nature. Within the Church of England, the "broad church" Latitudinarians welcomed this rationalism, advocating theological openness and an emphasis on ethics rather

.

A1 1 2 / RELIGIONS IN ENGLAND

than dogma. More radically, the Unitarian movement rejected the divinity of Christ while professing to accept his ethical teachings. Taking a different tack, the preacher John Wesley, founder of Methodism, responded to the rationalists' challenge with a newly fervent call to evangelism and personal discipline; his movement was particularly successful in Wales. Revolutions in America and France at the end of the century generated considerable millenarian excitement and fostered more new religious ideas, often in conjunction with a radical social agenda. Man y important writers of the Romantic period were indebted to traditions of protestant dissent: Unitarian and rationalist protestant ideas influenced William Hazlitt, Anna Barbauld, Mary Wollstonecraft, and the young Samuel Taylor Coleridge. William Blake created a highly idiosyncratic poetic mythology loosely indebted to radical strains of Christian mysticism. Others were even more heterodox: Lord Byron and Robert Burns, brought up as Scots Presbyterians, rebelled fiercely, and Percy Shelley's writing of an atheistic pamphlet resulted in his expulsion from Oxford.

Great Britain never erected an American-style "wall of separation" between church and state, but in practice religion and secular affairs grew more and more distinct during the nineteenth century. In consequence, members of religious minorities no longer seemed to pose a threat to the commonweal. A movement to repeal the Test Act failed in the 1790s, but a renewed effort resulted in the extension of the franchise to dissenting Protestants in 1828 and to Catholics in 1829. The numbers of Roman Catholics in England were swelled by immigration from Ireland, but there were also some prominent English adherents. Among writers, the converts John Newman and Gerard Manley Hopkins are especially important. The political participation and social integration of Jews presented a thornier challenge. Lionel de Rothschild, repeatedly elected to represent London in Parliament during the 1840s and 1850s, was not permitted to take his seat there because he refused to take his oath of office "on the true faith of a Christian"; finally, in 1858, the Jewish Disabilities Act allowed him to omit these words. Only in 1871, however, were Oxford and Cambridge opened to non-Anglicans.

Meanwhile geological discoveries and Charles Darwin's evolutionary theories increasingly cast doubt on the literal truth of the Creation story, and close philological analysis of the biblical text suggested that its origins were human rather than divine. By the end of the nineteenth century, many writers were bearing witness to a world in which Christianity no longer seemed fundamentally plausible. In his poetry and prose, Thoma s Hardy depicts a world devoid of benevolent providence. Matthew Arnold's poem "Dover Beach" is in part an elegy to lost spiritual assurance, as the "Sea of Faith" goes out like the tide: "But now I only hear / Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar / Retreating." For Arnold, literature must replace religion as a source of spiritual truth, and intimacy between individuals substitute for the lost communal solidarity of the universal church.

The work of many twentieth-century writers shows the influence of a religious upbringing or a religious conversion in adulthood. T. S. Eliot and W. S. Auden embrace Anglicanism, William Butler Yeats spiritualism. James Joyce repudiates Irish Catholicism but remains obsessed with it. Yet religion, or lack of it, is a matter of individual choice and conscience, not social or legal mandate. In the past fifty years, church attendance has plummeted in Great Britain. Although 71 percent of the population still identified itself as "Christian" on the 2000 census, only about 7 percent of these regularly attend religious services of any denomination. Meanwhile, immigration from former British colonies has swelled the ranks of religions once alien to the British Isles�Muslim, Sikh, Hindu, Buddhist�though the numbers of adherents remain small relative to the total population.

.

Index

1. The Eternal Female groand! it was heard all over the Earth, 121 'A cold coming we had of it, 2312 A flower was offerd to me, 93 A girl, 1639 A little black thing among the snow, 90 A map of every country known, 28

A simple Child, 248 A slumber did my spirit seal, 276 A snake came to my water-trough, 2278 A Sonnet is a moment's monument�, 1457 A square, squat room (a cellar on promo

tion), 1642 A sudden blow: the great wings beating still,

2039 A suspicion, a doubt, a jealousy, 2875 A thing of beauty is a joy for ever, 884 A touch of cold in the Autumn night�,

2008

A wind is ruffling the tawny pelt, 2587 About suffering they were never wrong,

2428 Abt Vogler, 1303 Achebe, Chinua, 2622, 2616 Adatn's Curse, 2028 Address to a Steamvessel, 223 Adlestrop, 1956 Adonais, 822 After Death, 1461 Afton Water, 138 Agard, John, 2542 Agnosticism and Christianity, 1436 Ah, Are You Digging on My Grave?, 1879 Ah! changed and cold, how changed and

very cold!, 1462 Ah Sun-flawer, 93 Ah! why, because the dazzling sun, 1314 Aikin, Anna Letitia, 582 Aikin, John, 582 Alastor; or, The Spirit of Solitude, 745 Alexander Pope, 572 Alfoxden Journal, The, 390 All 1 know is a door into the dark, 2825 All Religions Are One, 79 Alton Locke, 1572 Am I alone, 1535 Ambulances, 2569 Among School Children, 2041 An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying

King, 771 And did those feet, 123 And has the remnant of my life, 404

�and not simply by the fact that this shad

ing of, 2849 Andrea del Sarto, 1280 Angel in the House, The, 1586 Anonymous ("Poverty Knock"), 1574 Anonymous (["Proclamation of an Irish

Republic"]), 1618 Anonymous ("Terrorist Novel Writing"),

600

Anonymous ("The Great Social Evil"), 1592

Another Epitaph on an Army of Mercenaries,

2468 Anthem for Doomed Youth, 1971 Apeneck Sweeney spreads his knees, 2293 Apologia Pro Poemate Meo, 1972 Apology for the Revival of Christian Archi

tecture in England, An, 2728 Apple-Gathering, An, 1464 April is the cruellest month, breeding,

2294 Araby, 2168 Arcadia, 2753 Aristocrats, 2458 Armistice Day, 2460 Arnold, Matthew, 1350, 1619 As from their ancestral oak, 771 As he knelt by the grave of his mother and

father, 2871 As I Walked Out One Evening, 2427 As if he had been poured, 2825 As Kingfishers Catch Fire, 1517 As the Team's Head Brass, 1959 At Francis Allen's on the Christmas eve�,

1127 At the British War Cemetery, Bayeux, 2459 Aubade, 2573 Auden, W. H., 2421 Auld Lang Syne, 137 Aurora Leigh, 1092 Austen, Jane, 514 Autobiographical Fragments (Clare), 861 Autobiography (Martineau), 1589 Autobiography (Mill), 1070 Autumn, 2008 Autumn resumes the land, ruffles the

woods, 2728 Ave atque Vale, 1500 'Ave you eard o' the Widow at Windsor,

1819 AWAKE! for Morning in the Bowl of Night, 1213 Ay, gaze upon her rose-wreathed hair, 976

A1 19

.

A120 / INDEX

Bagpipe Music, 2443

Baillie, Joanna, 212 Baked the day she suddenly dropped dead, 2532 Barbauld, Anna Letitia, 26

Bavarian Gentians, 2278

Beachy Head, 47 Beckett, Samuel, 2393 Beckford, William, 587 Behold her, single in the field, 314 Beneath an old wall, that went round an old castle, 71 Bennett, Louise, 2469 Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, 1974 Besant, Annie, 1577 Besant, Walter, 1605 Between my finger and my thumb, 2824 Binsey Poplars, 1519 Biographta Literaria, 474, 606 Birthday, A, 1463 Bishop Orders His Tomb at Saint Praxed's Church, The, 1259 Black Jackets, 2583 Blake, William, 76 Blake's Notebook, 122 "Blame not thyself too much," I said, "nor blame, 1136 Blast, 2009 Blast 6, 2012 Blessed Damozel, The, 1443 Boland, Eavan, 2848 Book Ends, 2532 Book ofThel, The, 97 Bottomless pits. There's one in Castleton, 2531 Bradley, Katharine, 1637 Brathwaite, Kamau, 2523 Break, Break, Break, 1126 Break of Day in the Trenches, 1967 Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art, 898 Broken Appointment, A, 1870 Bronte, Emily, 1311 Brooke, Rupert, 1955 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 1077 Browning, Robert, 1248 Buried Life, The, 1356 Burke, Edmund, 152 Burning, 2599 Burns, Robert, 129 But do not let us quarrel any more, 1280 But, knowing now that they would have her speak, 1483 By this he knew she wept with waking eyes, 1440 Byron, Lord (George Gordon), 607 Byzantium, 2044

Caird, Mona, 1601 Caliban upon Setebos, 1296 Calypso, 2527 Camp, The, 70

Cannan, May Wedderburn, 1981 Cardinal Newman, 1480 Carlyle, Thomas, 1002

[Carrion Comfort], 1521

Carroll, Lewis, 1529 Carson, Anne, 2863

Casablanca, 868 Cassandra, 1598 Castle of Otranto, The, 579 Casualty, 2828 Causley, Charles, 2459 Cease, Wilberforce, to urge thy generous

aim!, 32 Chamberlain, Joseph, 1630 Channel Firing, 1877 Charge of the Light Brigade, The, 1188 Cheer, boys! cheer! no more of idle sorrow,

1616 Cherry Trees, The, 1958 Chestnut Casts His Flambeaux, The, 1952 Chew, Ada Nield, 1579 Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, 617 "Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came,"

1266 Children's Employment Commission, The, 1562 Chimney Sweeper, The [Songs of Experience], 90 Chimney Sweeper, The [Sorcgs of Inno

cence], 85 Chorus from Hellas, 821 Christabel, 449 Christ's Hospital Five-and-Thirty Years Ago,

496 Church Going, 2566 Circus Animals' Desertion, The, 2051 Clare, John, 850 Clearances, 2833 Clock a Clay, 859 Clod & the Pebble, The, 89 Closed like confessionals, they thread, 2569 Cloud, The, 815 Cloud-puffball, torn tufts, tossed pillows |

flaunt forth, then chevy on an air-, 1523 Coat, A, 2029 Cobwebs, 1462 Coetzee, J. M., 2838 Cold in the earth, and the deep snow piled

above thee!, 1313 Coleridge, Mary Elizabeth, 1790 Coleridge received the Person from Porlock,

2375 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 424, 602 Colonization in Reverse, 2472 Come, balmy Sleep! tired nature's soft

resort!, 40 Coming of Arthur, The, 1190 Composed as I am, like others, 2579

Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802, 317 Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet 'tis early morn, 1129 Confessions of an English Opium-Eater, 556

.

Conrad, Joseph, 1885

Convergence of the Twain, The, 1878

Cook, Eliza, 1615 Cooper, Edith, 1637

Corinne at the Capitol, 871 Corniche, 2822 "Courage!" he said, and pointed toward the

land, 1119 Crazy Jane Talks with the Bishop, 2045 Critic as Artist, The, 1689 Crossing the Bar, 1211 Crow's Last Stand, 2599 Cruelty has a Human Heart, 97 Cry of the Children, The, 1079 Culture and Anarchy, 1398 Cynara, 1824 Cypresses, 2280

Daffodils, 2599 Danny Deever, 1818 Darkling Thrush, The, 1871 Darkness, 614

Darwin, Charles, 1539, 1545

Daughter of th' Italian heaven!, 871 Daughters of the Late Colonel, The, 2333 Day They Burned the Books, The, 2357

Darwin, Charles, 1539, 1545

De Profundis, 1740

De Quincey, Thomas, 554

Dead, The, 2172 Dead before Death, 1462 Dead Fox Hunter, The, 1987 Dead Man's Dump, 1969 DEAD! One of them shot by the sea in the

east, 1106 Decolonising the Mind, 2535 Defence of Guenevere, The, 1482 Defence of Poetry, A, 837 Dejection: An Ode, 466 Descent of Man, The, 1546 Detached Thoughts on Books and Reading,

505 Dialogue of Self and Soul, A, 2042

Dickens, Charles, 1236, 1573

Digging, 2824 Disabled, 1977 Discourse on the Love of Our Country, A,

149 Divine Image, A, 97 Divine Image, The, 85 Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night,

2450 Do ye hear the children weeping, O my

brothers, 1079 Does the Eagle know what is in the pit?, 98 Does the road wind up-hill all the way?,

1465 Dolls Museum in Dublin, The, 2850 Don Juan, 669

Douglas, Keith, 2456

Dover Beach, 1368 Down by the Salley Gardens, 2024

INDEX / A121

Down the road someone is practising scales, 2442 Downhill 1 came, hungry, and yet not starved, 1957

Dowson, Ernest, 1823

Drummer Hodge, 1870 Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle, A, 2466 Dry-Foot Bwoy, 2470

Duffy, Carol Ann, 2873

Dulce Et Decorum Est, 1974 Dumb Waiter, The, 2601 Duns Scotus's Oxford, 1520 During Wind and Rain, 1883

Early morning over Rouen, hopeful, high, courageous morning, 1981 Earth has not any thing to show more fair,

317 Earth, ocean, air, beloved brotherhood!, 747 Earth rais'd up her head, 88

Earth's Answer, 88 Easter, 1916, 2031 Ecchoing Green, The, 82

Edgeworth, Maria, 226

Elegiac Sonnets, 40 Elegiac Stanzas, 315 Elements of Composition, 2579

Eliot, George, 1334 Eliot, T. S., 2286 Ellis, Sarah Stickney, 1583

Emigrants, The (Mackay), 1616 Emigrants, The (Smith), 42 Endgame, 2394 Endymion: A Poetic Romance, 883

Engels, Friedrich, 1564

England in 1819,771 England's Dead, 865 English in the West Indies, The, 1621 [English Is an Indian Literary Language],

2540

Englishman, The, 1615

Entrance and exit wounds are silvered

clean, 1988 Eolian Harp, The, 426 Epic, The [Morte d'Arthur], 1127 Epistle Containing the Strange Medical

Experience of Karshish, the Arab Physician, An, 1289

Epistle to William Wilberforce, Esq. on the Rejection of the Bill for Abolishing the Slave Trade, 32

Epitaph, 473 Epitaph on an Army of Mercenaries, 1953 Epitaph: Zion, 2868 Ere on my bed my limbs I lay, 469 Eros, 1641 Eve of St. Agnes, The, 888

Evening morning over Rouen, hopeful,

high, courageous morning, 2074 Everyone Sang, 1962 Everyone suddenly burst out singing, 1962 Explosion, The, 2572 Expostulation and Reply, 250

.

A122 / INDEX

Extempore Effusion upon the Death of James Hogg, 321

Fall of Hyperion: A Dream, A, 926 Fanatics have their dreams, wherewith they weave, 928 Far Cry from Africa, A, 2587 Fareweel to a' our Scotish fame, 144 Fascination of What's Difficult, The, 2029 Father and Son, 1553 Felix Randal, 1520 Feminist Manifesto, 2016 Fern Hill, 2448 Feiv Don'ts by an Imagiste, An, 2004

Field, Michael, 1637

Finnegans Wake, 2239 First Report of the Commissioners, Mines,

1563

FitzGerald, Edward, 1212

Five years have past; five summers, with the length, 258

Flint, F. S., 2003

Flow gently, sweet Afton, among thy green braes, 138

Fly, The, 91 Fond Memory, 2848 For whom the possessed sea littered, on both shores, 2726

Force That Through the Green Fuse Drives the Flower, The, 2445 Forge, The, 2825 Forster, E. M., 2058 Forty-two years ago (to me if to no one else, 2444 Foundlings in the Yukon, 2581 Four Quartets, 2313 Fra Lippo Lippi, 1271 Freighted with passengers of every sort, 223

Friel, Brian, 2475

Friend of the wise! and teacher of the good!, 471 From low to high doth dissolution climb, 320 From the Wave, 2584 From Wynyard's Gap the livelong day, 1872 Frost at Midnight, 464 Froudacity, 1624

Froude, James Anthony, 1621

Function of Criticism at the Present Time, The, 1384 Futility, 1976

Gallantry, 2456 Garden of Love, The, 94 Garden Party, The, 2346

Gaskell, Elizabeth, 1221

Gathering Mushrooms, 2870 General, The, 1961

Germ of new life, whose powers expanding slow, 36

Gilbert, W. S., 1534

[Girl, A], 1639 Glass Essay, The, 2864

Glory be to God for dappled things�, 1518 Glory of Women, 1962 Go, for they call you, shepherd, from the hill, 1362 Goblin Market, 1466 God of our fathers, known of old�, 1820 God's Grandeur, 1516 Goethe in Weimar sleeps, and Greece, 1358 Goodbye to All That, 1985 'Good-morning: good-morning!' the General said, 1961

Gordimer, Nadine, 2574 Gosse, Sir Edmund, 1553

Grammarian's Funeral, A, 1286 Grand Conversation, The, 2872 Grasmere�A Fragment, 402 Grasmere Journals, The, 392 Grauballe Man, The, 2825 Graves, Robert, 1984 Great Social Evil, The, 1592 Great Towns, The, 1565 Green grow the rashes, 131 Grey Ghosts and Voices, 1983 Groping along the tunnel, step by step, 1961 Groping back to bed after a piss, 2571 Grow old along with me!, 1305 Gr-r-r�there go, my heart's abhorrence!, 1253

Gunn, Thom, 2582 Gurney, Ivor, 1965

Ha! whare ye gaun, ye crowlan ferlie!, 136 Hail to thee, blithe Spirit!, 817 Half a league, half a league, 1188 Hap, 1868 Hard Times, 1573

Hardy, Thomas, 1851

Harlot's House, The, 1688

Harrison, Tony, 2530

Haunted Beach, The, 72

Hazlitt, William, 537

H. D., 2007

He disappeared in the dead of winter, 2429 He loved the brook's soft sound, 859 He Never Expected Much, 1884 He sat in a wheeled chair, waiting for dark, 1977 He's gone, and all our plans, 1965 He stood among a crowd at Drumahair, 2026 He was found by the Bureau of Statistics to be, 2431 He would drink by himself, 2828

Heaney, Seamus, 2822

Hear the voice of the Bard!, 87 Heart of Darkness, 1890

Hemans, Felicia Dorothea, 864 Henley, William Ernest, 1641

Heredity, 2531 Hermaphroditus, 1499 High Windows, 2570

Hill, Geoffrey, 2725

.

INDEX / A123

Hobson, J. A., 1632 Hollow Men, The, 2309 Holy Thursday [Songs of Experience], 90 Holy Thursday [Songs of Innocence], 86 Holy Willie's Prayer, 132 Homage to a Government, 2571 Homes of England, The, 870

Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 1513

Horse Dealer's Daughter, The, 2258 House of Life, The, 1457 Housman, A. E., 1948 Hoiv Beastly the Bourgeois Is, 2282 How I Became a Socialist, 1491 How They Brought the Good News from

Ghent to Aix, 1257 How you became a poet's a mystery!, 2531

Hughes, Ted, 2594 Hulme, T. E., 1998, 2007

Human Abstract, The, 95 [Humpty Dumpty's Explication of "Jabber

wocky"], 1530 Hunchback in the Park, The, 2446 Hurrahing in Harvest, 1519

Huxley, Leonard, 1549 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 1427

Hymn to Proserpine, 1496 Hymn to Intellectual Beauty, 766

I Am, 857 I am poor brother Lippo, by your leave!, 1271 I am�yet what I am, none cares or knows,

857 I ask'd a thief, 123 I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flow

ers, 815 I can feel the tug, 2826 I can tell by the way my mother chews her

toast, 2864 I caught this morning morning's minion, king-, 1518 I fled Him, down the nights and down the

days, 1857 I found a ball of grass among the hay, 856 I found this jawbone at the sea's edge, 2595 I had a dream, which was not all a dream,

614 I had grieved. I had wept for a night and a day, 2876 I have heard that hysterical women say, 2046 I have lived long enough, having seen one

thing, that love hath an end, 1496 I have met them at close of day, 2031 "I have no name, 87 I have two daughters, 2851 I have walked a great while over the snow,

1792 I heard a thousand blended notes, 250 I hid my love when young while I, 860 I leant upon a coppice gate, 1871 I'll tell thee everything I can, 1532 I Look into My Glass, 1869

I lost the love of heaven above, 856

I love thee, mournful, sober-suited Night!, 40 I loved Theotormon, 103 I met a traveller from an antique land, 768

I'm Happiest When Most Away, 1311

I made my song a coat, 2029 I met the Bishop on the road, 2045 I never said I loved you, John, 1478 I peeled bits o'straw and I got switches too,

860

I plucked pink blossoms from mine apple tree, 1464

I resemble everyone, 2579

I sat before my glass one day, 1791

I shall not soon forget, 2585

I sit in one of the dives, 2432 I sought a theme and sought for it in vain, 2051 I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris, and he, 1257 I stood with three comrades in Parliament Square, 2460 I stand on the mark beside the shore, 1085 I tell my secret? No, indeed, not I, 1464 I thought he was dumb, 2275 I thought it made me look more "working class," 2534 I, too, saw God through mud,�, 1972 I travelled among unknown men, 111 I've a longin' in me dept's of heart dat I can conquer not, 2463 I wake and feel the fell of dark, not day, 1522 I walk through the long schoolroom questioning, 2041 1 walked where in their talking graves, 2459 I wander thro' each charter'd street, 94 I wandered lonely as a cloud, 305 1 was angry with my friend, 96 I was thy neighbour once, thou rugged Pile!, 315 1 weep for Adonais�he is dead!, 823 I went to the Garden of Love, 94 I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree, 2025 I work all day, and get half-drunk at night, 2573 I work all day and hardly drink at all, 2822 I would to Heaven that I were so much Clay, 670 Idea of a University, The, 1035 Idylls of the King, 1189 If�, 1822 If but some vengeful god would call to me,

1868

If from the public way you turn your steps,

292 If I should die, think only this of me, 1955 If in the month of dark December, 611 If it form the one landscape that we the inconstant ones, 2435

If We Must Die, 2464

.

A124 / INDEX

If you can keep your head when all about you, 1822

If You're Anxious for to Shine in the High Aesthetic Line, 1535 Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness, An, 2709 Imagisme, 2004 Imperialism: A Study, 1632 Importance of Being Earnest, The, 1698 Impression du Matin, 1687 In a solitude of the sea, 1878 In a Station of the Metro, 2008 In an apothecary's chest of drawers, 2836 In an Artist's Studio, 1463 In Hospital, 1642 In idle August, while the sea soft, 2588 In Memoriam A. H. H., 1138 In Memoriam James Joyce, 2467 In Memory of Jane Eraser, 2725 In Memory of Major Robert Gregory, 2034 In Memory ofW. B. Yeats, 2429 In Parenthesis, 1990 In Praise of Limestone, 2435 In Progress, 1479 In summer's mellow midnight, 1312 In the cowslip's peeps I lie, 859 In the dungeon crypts idly did I stray, 1315 In the silence that prolongs the span, 2583 In the sweet shire of Cardigan, 245 In the Yukon the other day, 2581 In this lone, open glade I lie, 1360 In Time of'The Breaking of Nations,' 1884 Infant Joy, 87 Infant Sorrow, 95 Introduction [A General Introduction for My Work] (Yeats), 2053 Introduction [Songs of Experience], 87 Introduction [Songs of Innocence], 81 Inventory of the Furniture in Dr. Priestley's Study, An, 28 Invictus, 1642 Invite to Eternity, An, 858 Irish Incognito, The, 228 Is there a solitary wretch who hies, 41 Is there, for honest Poverty, 146 Is this a holy thing to see, 90 Isolation. To Marguerite, 1354 It is a beauteous evening, 317

It is a God-damned lie to say that these, 2468 It is a land with neither night nor day, 1462 It is an ancient Mariner, 430 It little profits that an idle king, 1123 It mounts at sea, a concave wall, 2584 It seemed that out of battle I escaped, 1975 It seems a day, 279 It seems I have no tears left. They should have fallen�, 1957 It's no go the merrygoround, it's no go the rickshaw, 2443 It was a school where all the children wore darned worsted, 2848

[It was deep April, and the morn], 1639 It was my thirtieth year to heaven, 2447

Jabberwocky, 1530 Jamaica Language, 2469 Jamaica Oman, 2473 January, 1795, 68 January 22nd. Missolonghi, 735 Jenny, 1449 Jones, David, 1989 Journal (Hopkins), 1524 Journey of the Magi, 2312 Joyce, James, 2163 Jumblies, The, 1528 Just for a handful of silver he left us, 1256

Karshish, the picker-up of learning's crumbs, 1289 Keats, John, 878 Kingsley, Charles, 1572 Kipling, Rudyard, 1793 Kubla Khan, 446

La Belle Dame sans Merci: A Ballad, 899 Lady of Shalott, The, 1114 Lady, we would behold thee moving bright, 1640 Lake Isle of Innisfree, The, 2025 Lamb, The, 83 Lamb, Charles, 491 Lamia, 909 Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers in New England, 867 Landon, Letitia Elizabeth, 970 Lapis Lazxdi, 2046 Larkin, Philip, 2565 Last Man, The, 958 Last night, ah, yesternight, betwixt her lips and mine, 1824 Later Life, 1480 Lawrence, D. H., 2243 Lay of the Last Minstrel, The, 407 Lay your sleeping head, my love, 2423 Lazy laughing languid Jenny, 1449 Lear, Edward, 1527 Lectures on Shakespeare, 485 Leda and the Swan, 2039 Leodogran, the King of Cameliard, 1190 Lessing, Doris, 2543 Lessons of the War, 2455 Let Them Call It Jazz, 2361 Let us begin and carry up this corpse, 1286 Let us go then, you and I, 2290 Letters (George Gordon, Lord Byron), 736 to Douglas Kinnaird, 738 to Percy Bysshe Shelley, 740 to Thomas Moore, 736 Letters (Keats), 940 to Benjamin Bailey, 940 to Charles Brown, 954 to Fanny Brawne, 952 to George and Georgiana Keats, 948

.

INDEX / A125

to George and Thomas Keats, 942 to John Hamilton Reynolds, 943, 945 to John Taylor, 944 to Percy Bysshe Shelley, 953 to Richard Woodhouse, 947

Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark (Wollstonecraft), 195

Lewis, Matthew Gregory, 595

Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley, The, 1550 Life's Parallels, A, 1480 Lift up thy lips, turn round, look back for love, 1499 Light flows our war of mocking words, and yet, 1356 Like a convalescent, I took the hand, 2831 Like summer silk its denier, 2821 Limerick, 1528 Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey, 258 Lines Written in Early Spring, 250 Lines Written in Kensington Gardens, 1360 Listen Mr Oxford don, 2542 Literature and Science, 1415 Little Black Boy, The, 84 Little Fly, 91 Little Gidding, 2313 Little Lamb, who made thee?, 83 Little Shroud, The, 977 Living Wage for Factory Girls at Crewe, 5 May 1984, A, 1579 Locksle)'Hall, 1129 London, 94 London, 1802, 319 London Labour and the London Poor, 1576 London's Summer Morning, 69 Long Distance, 2533 Long Live the Vortex!, 2010 Look at the stars! look, look up at the skies!, 1516 Look, stranger, on this island now, 2422 Lost Land, The, 2851 Lost Leader, The, 1256 Lotos-Eaters, The, 1119 Louse Hunting, 1967 Love among the Ruins, 1264 Love and Friendship, 515 Love on the Farm, 2273 Love's Last Lesson, 973 "Love seeketh not Itself to please, 89 Love Song of ]. Alfred Prufrock, The, 2289 Loveliest of Trees, 1948

Loy, Mina, 2015

Lucy Gray, 277 Lullaby, 2423 Lyrical Ballads, 245

Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 1557,

1610

MacDiarmid, Hugh, 2464 Mackay, Charles, 1616 MacNeice, Louis, 2441

[Maids, not to you my mind doth change],

1638

"Mais qui fa qui rivait-'ous, Philoctete?",

2591 Man and the Echo, 2050 Man. In a cleft that's christened Alt, 2050 Man Who Dreamed of Faeryland, The, 2026 Man Who Would Be King, The, 1794 Manfred, 635

Mansfield, Katherine, 2332

Margaret, are you grieving, 1521

Margaret Fuller and Mary Wollstonecraft,

1337

Mariana, 1112 Mark on the Wall, The, 2082 Marked with D., 2534 Marriage, 1602 Marriage of Heaven and Hell, The, 110

Martineau, Harriet, 1589 Mayhew, Henry, 1576 McKay, Claude, 2463

MCMXIV, 2568 Me not no Oxford don, 2542 Medusa, 2875 Meeting the British, 2869 Memoirs of an Infantry Officer, 1963 Memorial Verses, 1358 Men of England, wherefore plough, 770 Mercian Hymns, 2727

Meredith, George, 1440

Metaphysical Poets, The, 2325 Midwinter spring is its own season, 2313 Milkiveed and Monarch, 2871

Mill, John Stuart, 1043

Miners, 1973 Minute on Indian Education, 1610 Missing, The, 2585 Modern Fiction, 2087 Modern Love, 1440 Modern Painters, 1320 Moment before the Gun Went Off , The,

2575 Monk, The, 596 Mont Blanc, 762 Morning and evening, 1466

Morris, William, 1481

Morse, 2821 Mortal Immortal, The, 961 Mother and Poet, 1106 Mother to Her Waking Infant, A, 220 Motions and Means, on land and sea at war, 320 [Mouse's Nest], 856 Mouse's Petition, The, 21

Move him into the sun�, 1976 Mrs Lazarus, 2876 Mrs Warren's Profession, 1746 Much have I travell'd in the realms of gold,

880

Mukharji, T. N., 1627 Muldoon, Paul, 2868 Mulock, Dinah Maria, 1596

.

A126 / INDEX

Munro, Alice, 2714

Murderous little world once our objects had gazes. Our lives, 2868

Murray, Les, 2820

Musee des Beaux Arts, 2428 Music, when soft voices die, 820 Mutability (Shelley), 744 Mutability (Wordsworth), 320 My aspens dear, whose airy cages quelled, 1519 My Diary in India, In the Year 1858-9, 1612 My father sat in his chair recovering, 2597 My First Acquaintance with Poets, 541 My first thought was, he lied in every word, 1266 My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains, 903 My heart is like a singing bird, 1463 My heart leaps up, 306 My Last Duchess, 1255 My lost William, thou in whom, 772 My mother bore me in the southern wild, 84 My mother groand! my father wept, 95 My pensive Sara! thy soft cheek reclined, 426 My Pretty Rose Tree, 93 My Sad Captains, 2583 My Sister's Sleep, 1447 My Soul. I summon to the winding ancient stair, 2042 My spirit is too weak�mortality, 883 Mysteries of Udolpho, The, 594

Naipaul, V. S., 2729

[Nation Language], 2523 National Trust, 2531 Nests in Elms, 1640 Neutral Tones, 1869 Never on this side of the grave again, 1480 Never pain to tell thy love, 122 Newman, John Henry Cardinal, 1033 Next to my own skin, her pearls. My mistress, 2874 Next year we are to bring the soldiers home, 2571

Ngugi wa Thiong'o, 2535 Nightingale, Florence, 1598

Nightingale's Nest, The, 851 Night-Wind, The, 1312 No coward soul is mine, 1317

No, no, go not to Lethe, neither twist, 907

No Second Troy, 2029 "No, Thank You, John," 1478 No, the serpent did not, 2598 No worst, there is none, 1522 Nobody heard him, the dead man, 2374 Not every man has gentians in his house, 2278 Not, I'll not, carrion comfort, Despair, not feast on thee, 1521 Not paving but Drowning, 2374 Nothing is so beautiful as Spring�, 1517

Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs, 2448 Now as I watch the progress of the plague, 2585 Now in thy dazzled half-oped eye, 220 Now it is autumn and the falling fruit, 2283 Naif Sleeps the Crimson Petal, 1136 Now that we're almost settled in our house, 2034 Nudes�stark and glistening, 1967 Nurse's Song [Songs of Experience], 90 Nurse's Song [Songs of Innocence], 86 Nutting, 279

O Eros of the mountains, of the earth, 1641 O for ten years, that 1 may overwhelm, 881 O Goddess! hear these tuneless numbers, wrung, 901 O golden-tongued Romance, with serene lute!, 887 "O Melia, my dear, this does everything crown!, 1872 O my Luve's like a red, red rose, 145 O Rose, thou art sick, 91 O soft embalmer of the still midnight, 900 O there is a blessing in this gentle breeze, 324 O weary Champion of the Cross, lie still, 1480 O what can ail thee, knight at arms, 899 O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being, 772 O World, O Life, O Time, 820 Ode: Intimations of Immortality, 306 Ode on a Grecian Urn, 905 Ode on Indolence, 908 Ode on Melancholy, 906 Ode to a Nightingale, 903 Ode to Duty, 312 Ode to Psyche, 901 Ode to the West Wind, 772 Odour of Chrysanthemums, 2245 Of Queens'Gardens, 1587 Oft I had heard of Lucy Gray, 277 Oh, Galuppi, Baldassaro, this is very sad to find!, 1262 Oh hear a pensive prisoner's prayer, 27 Oh, talk not to me of a name great in story�, 734 Oh, thou! in Hellas deem'd of heav'nly birth, 617 Oh, what could the ladye's beauty match, 971 Old China, 510 Old England, 2463 Old Nurse's Story, The, 1222 Omeros, 2591 On Being Cautioned against Walking on an Headland Overlooking the Sea, Because It Was Frequented by a Lunatic, 41 On either side of the river lie, 1114

On First Looking into Chapman's Homer,

880

.

INDEX / A127

On Gusto, 538 On Liberty, 1051 On Passing the New Menin Gate, 1963 On Removing Spiderweb, 2821 On Seeing the Elgin Marbles, 883 On Sitting Down to Read King Lear Once Again, 887 On the day of the explosion, 2572 On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth, 569

On the Pleasure Derived from Objects of Terror; with Sir Bertrand, a Fragment,

582

On the Study of Celtic Literature, 1619 On the Tragedies of Shakespeare, Considered with Reference to Their Fitness for State Representation, 493 On the Western Circuit, 1852 On This Island, 2422 On thy stupendous summit, rock sublime!, 47 Once I am sure there's nothing going on, 2566 Once more the storm is howling, and half hid, 2037 One by one they appear in, 2583 One face looks out from all his canvases, 1463 One morn before me were three figures seen, 908 One Out of Many, 2730 One We Knew, 1875 Only a man harrowing clods, 1884

Opening of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition b)' the Queen, 1626 Oread, 2009 Origin of Species, The, 1539 Orwell, George, 2378 Other Boat, The, 2059 Other Side of a Mirror, The, 1791 Our Bog Is Dood, 2374 Out, 2597 Out of the night that covers me, 1642

Owen, Wilfred, 1971

Owen's Letters to His Mother, 1979 Owl, The, 1957 Ozymandias, 768

Paine, Thomas, 163 Pains of Sleep, The, 469 Passing of Arthur, The, 1201 Past and Present, 1024 Pastoral Poesy, 853 Pater, Walter, 1505

Patting goodbye, doubtless they told the lad, 1976

Patmore, Coventry, 1585

Pavement slipp'ry, people sneezing, 68 Peaceful our valley, fair and green, 402 Peasant Poet, The, 859 Petition, 2422 Piano, 227 5 Pied Beauty, 1518

Pike, 2595 Pike, three inches long, perfect, 2595

Pinter, Harold, 2601

Piping down the valleys wild, 81 Pity would be no more, 95

Plan of a Novel, According to Hints from Various Quarters, 535 Poem in October, 2447 Poet of Nature, thou hast wept to know, 744 [Poetry as Memorable Speech], 2438 Poison Tree, A, 96 Politics and the English Language, 2384 Poor Singing Dame, The, 71 Porphyria's Lover, 1252 Pound, Ezra, 2003, 2007 Poverty Knock, 1574 Prayer for My Daughter, A, 2037 Preface (Owen), 1980 Preface to Lyrical Ballads (Wordsworth),

262

Preface to Poems (Arnold), 1374 Preface to The Nigger of the "Narcissus" (Conrad), 1887 Preface to The Picture of Dorian Gray (Wilde), 1697 Prelude, The, 322 Press'd by the Moon, mute arbitress of tides, 41 Pretty, 2377

Price, Richard, 149

Princess, The, 1135 Prisoner: A Fragment, The, 1315 Professions for Women, 2152 Prometheus Unbound, 775 Promise me no promises, 1479 Promises Like Pie-Crust, 1479 Prophet's Hair, The, 2854 Proud Ladye, The, 971 Proud Maisie, 410 Punishment, 2826

Queen's Reign, The, 1605

Rabbi Ben Ezra, 1305 Radcliffe, Ann, 592 Rain, 1958 Rain, midnight rain, nothing but the wild rain, 1958 Ramanujan, A. K., 2578 Rapt in the visionary theme!, 74

Rear-Guard, The, 1961 Recalling War, 1988 Recessional, 1820 Red, Red Rose, A, 145 Redgauntlet, 411

Reed, Henry, 2454

Reflections on the Revolution in France, 152 Relic, 2595 Remember how we picked the daffodils?, 2599 Remembrance, 1313 Renaissance, The, 1638

.

A128 / INDEX

Requiem for the Plantagenet Kings, 2726 Resolution and Independence, 302 Returning, We Hear the Larks, 1968 Revenge, 976 Review of Southey's Colloquies, A, 1557 Review of The Monk by Matthew Lewis, 602

Rhys, Jean, 2356

Rights of Man, 163 Rights of Woman, The, 3 5 Rime of the Ancient Mariner, The, 430 Rintrah roars & shakes his fires in the bur

dend air, 111 Robert Bruce's March to Bannockburn, 145

Robinson, Mary, 66

Romance of the Forest, The, 592 Romanticism and Classicism, 1998 Room of One's Own, A, 2092 Rose, harsh rose, 2009 Rose of the World, The, 2024

Rosenberg, Isaac, 1966 Rossetti, Christina, 1459 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 1442

Rouen, 1981

Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, The, 1213 Ruined Cottage, The, 280 Ruined Maid, The, 1872

Runaway Slave at Pilgrim's Point, The, 1085

Rushdie, Salman, 2539, 2852 Ruskin, John, 1317, 1587 Russell, William Howard, 1612

Sad Steps, 2571 Sailing to Byzantium, 2040 Sartor Resartus, 1005

Sassoon, Siegfried, 1960

Say over again, and yet once over again,

1084 Scholar Gypsy, The, 1361 Schooner Flight, The, 2588 Science and Culture, 1429 Scots, wha hae wi' Wallace bled, 145

Scott, Sir Walter, 406

Sea Rose, 2009 Sea View, The, 42 Season of Phantasmal Peace, 2590 Seasons of mists and mellow fruitfulness,

925 Second Coming, The, 2036 'See, here's the workbox, little wife, 1882 Self-Portrait, 2579 September 1, 1939, 2432 September 1st, 1802, 318 September 1913, 2030 September Song, 2726 Shall I strew on thee rose or rue or laurel,

1500 Sharping Stone, The, 2836

Shaw, Bernard, 1743

She dwelt among the untrodden ways, 275 She fell asleep on Christmas Eve, 1447 She Hears the Storm, 1876 She looked over his shoulder, 2437 She. My people came from Korelitz, 2872 She put him on a snow-white shroud, 977

She sat and sang alway, 1460

She taught me what her uncle once taught her, 2833 She told how they used to form for the

country dances�, 1875 She walks in beauty, 612 Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, 955 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 741 Shield of Achilles, The, 2437 Ship of Death, The, 2283 Shooting an Elephant, 2379 Should auld acquaintance be forgot, 137

Sick Rose, The, 91 Silent One, The, 1966 Silly Novels by Lady Novelists, 1342 Simon Lee, 245

Sir, no man's enemy, forgiving all, 2422

Sitwell, Edith, 2452

S.I.W., 1976 Sketch of the Past, A, 2155 Skunk, The, 2830 Sleep and Poetry, 881 Sleeping at Last, 1481

Slow in the Wintry Morn, the struggling light, 42

Slumber did my spirit seal, A, 276 Smith, Charlotte, 39 Smith, Stevie, 2372

Snake, 2278 So, we'll go no more a roving, 616 Softly, in the dusk, a woman is singing to

me, 2275 Soldier, The, 1955 Soliloquy of the Spanish Cloister, 1253 Solitary Reaper, The, 314

Sombre the night is, 1968 Something this foggy day, a something

which, 1480 Son of the ocean isle!, 865 Song: For a that and a' that, 146 Song [1 hid my love when young while Z],

860

Song [1 peeled bits o' straws and I got

switches too], 860 Song: "Men of England," A, 770 Song of Liberty, A, 121 Song ("She sat and sang alway"), 1460 Song ("When I am dead, my dearest"), 1461 Song: Woo d and married and a', 222 Songs of Experience, 87 Songs of Innocence, 81 Sonnet to Sleep, 900 Sonnets (Wordsworth), 317 Sonnets from the Portuguese, 1084 Sorrow of Love, The, 2025 Southey, Robert, 1467 Soyinka, Wole, 2529

Spain, 2424 Spirit's Return, A, 872 [Splendid Variety of Languages and Dialects,

The], 2465 Spring, 1517 Spring and Fall, 1521

St. Agnes' Eve�Ah, bitter chill it was!, 888

.

Standing aloof in giant ignorance, 888 Stanzas for Music, 614 Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse, 1369 Stanzas Written in Dejection�December

1818, near Naples, 769 Stanzas Written on the Road between Flor

ence and Pisa, 734 Star-Gazer, 2444 Starlight Night, The, 1516 Stars, 1314 Statesman's Manual, The, 488 Station Island, 2831 Steamboats, Viaducts, and Railways, 320 Stern Daughter of the Voice of God!, 312

Stevenson, Robert Louis, 1643

Still Falls the Rain, 2453 Still Life, 2585 Stolen Child, The, 2022 Stones of Venice, The, 1324 Stop, Christian Passer-by!�Stop, child of

God, 473 Stoppard, Tom, 2752

Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde,

The, 1645 Strange fits of passion have I knoivn, 274 Strange Meeting, 1975

Strong Son of God, immortal Love, 1138

Studies in the History of the Renaissance,

1507 Study of Poetry, The, 1404 Subjection of Women, The, 1060 Such a parcel of rogues in a nation, 144 Summer ends now; now, barbarous in

beauty, the stooks rise, 1519 Simmer Evening's Meditation, A, 29 Sunday Morning, 2442 Sunlight on the Garden, The, 2442 Sunset and evening star, 1211 Sunt Leones, 2373 Surprised by joy, 320 Swear by what the Sages spoke, 2047 Sweeney among the Nightingales, 2293 Swiftly walk o'er the western wave, 819 Swinburne, Algernon Charles, 1494

Tables Turned, The, 251 Take up the White Man's burden�, 1821 Talking in Bed, 2569 Tain o' Shanter: A Tale, 139 "Teach it me, if you can,�forgetfulness!,

973 Tears, 1957 Tears, Idle Tears, 1135 Telephone Conversation, 2529 Ten years ago it seemed impossible, 1479

Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, 1109, 1625

Tents, marquees, and baggage waggons,

Terence, This Is Stupid Stuff, 1950 Terrorist Novel Writing, 601 That is no country for old men. The young,

2040

That Nature Is a Heraclitean Fire and of the Comfort of the Resurrection, 1523

INDEX / A129

That night your great guns, unawares, 1877 That story which the bold Sir Bedivere,

1201

That the Science of Cartography Is Limited,

2849 That's my last Duchess painted on the wall, 1255 The apparition of these faces in the crowd,

2008

The awful shadow of some unseen Power, 766 The Bishop tells us: "When the boys come back, 1960

The blessed damozel leaned out, 1443

The boy stood on the burning deck, 868

The brawling of a sparrow in the eaves, 2025 The breaking waves dash'd high, 867 The bride she is winsome and bonny, 222 The cherry trees bend over and are shed

ding, 1958 The chestnut casts his flambeaux, and the flowers, 1952 The cock, warm roosting 'mid his feather'd mates, 213

The Colonel in a casual voice, 2456

The curtains were half drawn, the floor was swept, 1461 The darkness crumbles away, 1967 The daughters of Mne Seraphim led round their sunny flocks, 98

The everlasting universe of things, 762

The fascination of what's difficult, 2029 The force that through the green fuse drives the flower, 2445 The frost performs its secret ministry, 464 The garlands fade that Spring so lately wove, 40 The hunchback in the park, 2446 The keen stars were twinkling, 836 The lions who ate the Christians on the sands of the arena, 2373 The love that breeds, 1639 The Muses are turned gossips; they have lost, 37 The noble horse with courage in his eye, 2458 The plunging limbers over the shattered track, 1969 The price seemed reasonable, location, 2529 The princes of Mercia were badger and raven. Thrall, 2727 The rain comes flapping through the yard, 2870 The rain set early in tonight, 1252 The rooks are cawing up and down the trees!, 1640 The sea is calm tonight, 1368 The stately Homes of England, 870 The stone had skidded arc'd and bloomed into islands, 2527 The Sun does arise, 82 The Sun is warm, the sky is clear, 769

.

A130 / INDEX

The sunlight on the garden, 2442 The Thames nocturne of blue and gold,

1687 The time you won your town the race, 1949 The trees are in their autumn beauty, 2033 The unpurged images of day recede, 2044 The upland shepherd, as reclined he lies, 42 The wan leafs shak, atour us like the snaw,

2466 The way was long, the wind was cold, 407 The woods decay, the woods decay and fall,

1125 The world is charged with the grandeur of God, 1516 The world is too much with us; late and

soon, 319 The world's great age begins anew, 821 The wounds are terrible. The paint is old,

2850 Then all the nations of birds lifted together, 2590 Then, land!�then, England! oh, the frosty

cliffs, 1092 Theology, 2598 There be none of Beauty's daughters, 614 "There is a Thorn�it looks so old, 252 There Is No Natural Religion, 80 There's a land that bears a world-known

name, 1615 There was a roaring in the wind all night,

302 There was a time in former years�, 1876 There was a time when meadow, grove, and

stream, 308 There was a whispering in my hearth, 1973 There was an Old Man who supposed, 1528 These, in the day when heaven was falling,

1953 'They,' 1960 They Are Not Long, 1825 They fuck you up, your mum and dad, 2572

They say that Hope is happiness, 613

They sing their dearest songs�, 1883 They throw in Drummer Hodge, to rest,

1870 They went to sea in a sieve, they did, 1528 Things Fall Apart, 2624 Thiong'o, Ngugi wa, 2535 This Be The Verse, 2572 This house has been far out at sea all night,

2594 This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison, 428 This living hand, now warm and capable,

939

Thomas, Dylan, 2444 Thomas, Edward, 1956 Thomas, John Jacob, 1624

Thorn, The, 252 Those long uneven lines, 2568 Thou art indeed just, Lord, 1524 Thou large-brained woman and large-

hearted man, 1083 Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness, 905

Thoughts About the Person from Porlock,

2375 Thoughts on My Sick-Bed, 404 Three sang of love together: one with lips,

1462 Three weeks gone and the combatants gone,

2457 Three years she grew, 275 Through Alpine meadows soft-suffused,

1369 Thy voice prevails�dear friend, my gentle

friend!, 872 Tis past! The sultry tyrant of the south, 29 Tis the middle of the night by the castle

clock, 449 Tis time this heart should be unmoved, 735

Tithonus, 1125 To [Music, when soft voices die], 820 To a Little Invisible Being Who Is Expected

Soon to Become Visible, 36 To a Louse, 136 To a Mouse, 135 To a Sky-Lark, 817 To an Athlete Dying Young, 1949 To Autumn, 925 To Christina Rossetti, 1640 To George Sand, 1083 To His Love, 1965 To Homer, 888 To fane fThe keen stars were twinkling), 836 To Marguerite�Continued, 1355 To Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love, 85 To Night (Shelley), 819 To Night (Smith), 40 To Room Nineteen, 2544 To Sidmouth and Castlereagh, 771 To Sleep, 40 To the Poet Coleridge, 74 To Tirzah, 96 To Toussaint I'Ouverture, 318 To William Shelley, 111 To William Wordsworth, 471 To Wordsworth, 744 Toccata of Galuppi's, A, 1262 Today we have naming of parts. Yesterday,

2455 Tortoise Shout, 2275 Toussaint, the most unhappy Man of Men!,

318 Towery city and branchy between towers, 1520 Tradition and the Individual Talent, 2319

Trampwoman's Tragedy, A, 1872 Translations, 2477 Triad, A, 1462 True Conception of Empire, The, 1630

True genius, but true woman! dost deny, 1083

True poesy is not in words, 853

Tuckett. Bill Tuckett. Telegraph operator, Hall's Creek, 2821 Turning and turning in the widening gyre, 2036

.

INDEX / A131

Turns, 2534 Tuscan cypresses, 2280 Twas brillig, and the slithy toves, 1530 Twas on a Holy Thursday, their innocent faces clean, 86 Twas summer and the sun was mounted high, 280 Two Letters on Sight and Vision, 126 Tyger, The, 92

Tyger! Tyger! burning bright, 92

Ulysses (Joyce), 2200 Ulysses (Tennyson), 1123 Unbosoming, 1639 Under Ben Bulben, 2047 Under the Waterfall, 1880 Undesirable you may have been, untouchable, 2726 Unknown Citizen, The, 2431 Up, black, striped and damasked like the chasuble, 2830 Up! quit thy bower, 221 Up this green woodland ride let's softly rove, 851 Up! up! my Friend, and quit your books, 251 Up-Hill, 1465 Upon a lonely desart Beach, 72 Upon a time, before the faery broods, 910

Vanity, saith the preacher, vanity, 1259 Vathek, 587 Vergissmeinnicht, 2457 Vindication of the Rights of Men, A, 159 Vindication of the Rights of Woman, The,

170 Vision, A, 856 Vision of the Last Judgment, A, 124 Visions of the Daughters of Albion, 102 Visit to Europe, A, 1627 Visit to Newgate, A, 1239 Voice, The, 1882

Waiting for the Barbarians, 2839 Wake! For the Sun, who scattered into flight, 1213

Walcott, Derek, 2586

Walk, The, 1881 Walker Brothers Cowboy, 2715

Walpole, Horace, 579

Wandering Willie's Tale, 410 Warming Her Pearls, 2874 Washing-Day, 37 Waste Land, The, 2294 We are as clouds that veil the midnight moon, 744 We Are Seven, 248 We are the hollow men, 2309 We caught the tread of dancing feet, 1688 We were apart; yet, day by day, 1354 We found the little captain at the head, 1987 We had a fellow-Passenger who came, 318

We met the British in the dead of winter, 2869 We must look at the harebell as if, 2467 We sat together at one summer's end, 2028 We stood by a pond that winter day, 1869 Wee, sleeket, cowran, tim'rous beastie, 135 Welcome, welcome with one voice!, 1626 Well! If the Bard was weather-wise, who made, 466 Well, they are gone, and here must I remain, 428 Well, World, you have kept faith with me, 1884 Wha wrong wid Mary dry-foot bwoy?, 2470 What a joyful news, Miss Mattie, 2472 "What are the bugles blowin' for?" said Files- on-Parade, 1818 What Is Poetry?, 1044 What large, dark hands are those at the window, 2273 What need you, being come to sense, 2030 What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?, 1971 Whate'er is Born of Mortal Birth, 96 When chapman billies leave the street, 139 When first, descending from the moorlands, 321 When I am dead, my dearest, 1461 When I behold the skies aloft, 1586

When I, Good Friends, Was Called to the Bar, 1534 When I have fears that I may cease to be,

888

When I see a couple of kids, 2570 When I Was One-and-Twenty, 1949 When my mother died I was very young, 85 When snow like sheep lay in the fold, 2717 When the chilled dough of his flesh went in an oven, 2534 When the lamp is shattered, 836 When the voices of children are heard on the green [Songs of Experience], 90 When the voices of children are heard on the green [Songs of Innocence], 86 When we two parted, 613 When You Are Old, 2026 'Whenever I plunge my arm, like this, 1880 Where dips the rocky highland, 2022 Where the quiet-colored end of evening smiles, 1264 Whirl up, sea�, 2009 White Knight's Song, The, 1532 White Man's Burden, The, 1821

"White Slavery" of London Match Workers, The, 1577 Who died on the wires, and hung there, one of two�, 1966 Who dreamed that beauty passes like a dream?, 2024 Who Goes with Fergus?, 2026 Who has not wak'd to list the busy sounds, 69 Who will go drive with Fergus now, 2026

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A132 / INDEX

Who will remember, passing through this Gate, 1963