Russia under the Old regime

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satirical publications. Most of the material in these journals was light-hearted nonsense meant to amuse, but on occasion satire assumed more earnest forms, turning into an instrument of social criticism. In Catherine's reign there appeared also various informative publications, including specialized periodicals for landowners and children. In the first decade after her accession, the number of book titles published in Russia increased fivefold. Towards the end of her reign, Catherine grew somewhat ambivalent towards the forces she had unleashed, and in the 1790s, frightened by the French Revolution, she tried to repress independent thinking. But this late reversal must not be allowed to obscure her lasting contribution. To Catherine belongs the credit for launching what Russians describe with the untranslatable obshchestvennoe dvizhenie (literally, 'social movement'), a broad current combining expressions of opinion with public activity, through which Russian society at long last asserted its right to an independent existence. The omnipotent Russian state brought into being even its own counterforce.

From its inception, public opinion in Russia flowed in two distinct channels from which in time branched out many forks. Both were critical of Russia as it then was, but for different reasons entirely. One can be described as conservative-nationalist, the other as liberal-radical.

The founder of the conservative-nationalist movement in Russia -and, incidentally, Russia's first clearly identifiable intelligent - was Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov. In his youth, he had served in the Guard regiment which put Catherine on the throne, a stroke of good fortune which assured him of the Empress's protection and favour. He participated in the Legislative Commission working with the 'middle estate', a fact which acquires special significance in view of his pronouncedly 'bourgeois' outlook. In 1769, responding to Catherine's journalistic challenge, he issued the first of three satirical journals, Truten' (The Drone), which he then followed with some serious didactic publications.

In the very first issue of The Drone, Novikov posed a question destined to be the central preoccupation of the whole intelligentsia movement in Russia. Confessing that he had no desire to serve in the army, civil service or at the court, he asked 'What can I do for society?', adding, by way of explanation, that 'to five on this earth without being of use is only to burden it'." His solution was to turn to publicistic and philanthropic work. Novikov's outlook falls wholly within the cultural tradition of the western European bourgeoisie, which is the more surprising since he had never been to the west and, according to his own admission, knew no foreign languages. In all his writings the principal target of attack was 'vice' which he identified with 'aristocratic' qualities of idleness, ostentatiousness, indifference to the sufferings of the poor, immorality, careerism, flattery, ignorance and contempt for knowledge.