Russia under the Old regime

28

along the trade routes connecting the Baltic with the Caspian and Black seas. In their sagas, the Normans called Russia 'Gardariki', 'the country of strongholds'.

Since only a part of the tribute levied on the native population was required for support of the garrisons, and its most valuable portion was intended for export to distant markets reached by a route full of hazards, the Norman fortress-cities had to organize. This process, begun around 8oocEwhen the first Norse settlements were formed around lake Ladoga, was completed around 882 when Prince Helgi (Oleg) united under his authority the two terminal points of the 'Greek Route', Holmgard (Novgorod) and Kiev. Kiev became the headquarters of the central trade organization. The choice of Kiev was dictated by the fact that the Normans experienced no difficulty shipping the goods collected as tribute all over Russia and destined for Constantinople as far south as that city, being in full control of western Russia to that point. It was the next leg of the journey, from Kiev to the Black Sea, that presented the greatest problems, because here the merchandise had to traverse a steppe infested with nomad freebooters. Every spring, as soon as the ice on the rivers had broken, the tribute was floated from its scattered collection points to Kiev. May was devoted to the task of outfitting the great annual flotilla. In June, the ships laden with slaves and produce sailed under heavy guard from Kiev down the Dnieper. The most dangerous segment of the journey was a stretch of granite rapids twenty-five to sixty-five miles south of Kiev. As Emperor Constantine vn Porphy-rogenitus describes it, the Normans learned how to navigate the first three of the cataracts, but upon reaching the fourth they had to unload the merchandise and proceed on foot. The boats were partly dragged, partly carried. Some of the Normans helped bear the merchandise, others guarded the slaves, others yet were on the look-out for the enemy and, if attacked, beat him off. The flotilla was reasonably safe only after it had passed the last cataract, and the personnel with the goods could be reloaded on the boats. The importance of Kiev and the reason why it was chosen as the capital of the Norman trade organization in Russia thus becomes apparent. Kiev functioned in a double capacity: as the main depot of the tribute collected in all parts of Russia, and as the port from where it was transhipped under guard to its ultimate destination.

It is in this manner, almost as a by-product of international trade between two alien peoples, Normans and Greeks, that the first East Slav state came into being. Sovereign power over the fortress-cities and the territories adjoining them was assumed by a dynasty claiming descent from the semi-legendary Norse prince Hroerekr or Roderick (the Riurik of Russian chronicles). The head of the dynasty, the Great Prince, officiated in Kiev, while his sons, relatives, and leading retainers man-