Russia under the Old regime

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the process of building royal power in Russia and on the character of Russian absolutism. Vassalage represented the personal side of western feudalism (as conditional land tenure represented the material). It was a contractual relationship by virtue of which the lord pledged sustenance and protection, and the vassal reciprocated with promises of loyalty and service. This mutual obligation, formalized in the ceremony of commendation, was taken very seriously by the parties concerned and society at large. Violation of its terms by either party nullified the contract. From the vantage point of the development of western institutions, four aspects of vassalage require emphasis. First, it was a personal contract between two individuals, valid only in the course of their lifetime; on the death of either it lapsed. Implied in it was personal consent; one did not inherit the obligations of a vassal. Hereditary vassalage appeared only towards the end of the feudal era and it is considered to have been a powerful factor in feudalism's decline. Secondly, although originally an arrangement between two individuals, through the practice of subinfeudation vassalage produced a whole network of human dependencies. Its by-product was a strong social bond linking society with government. Thirdly, the obligations of vassalage were as binding on the stronger party, the lord, as on the weaker, the vassal. 'The originality [of western feudalism]', writes Marc Bloch, 'consisted in the emphasis it placed on the idea of an agreement capable of binding the rulers; and in this way, oppressive as it may have been to the poor, it has in truth bequeathed to our western civilization something with which we still desire to live.'9 That something, of course, was law-an idea which in due time led to the establishment of courts, first as a means of adjudicating disputes between the parties involved in the lord-vassal relationship, and eventually as a regular feature of public life. Constitutions which are at bottom only generalized forms of feudal contract, descend from the institution of vassalage. Fourthly, the feudal contract, beside its legal aspect had also a moral side: in addition to their specific obligations, the lord and vassal pledged one another good faith. This good faith, imponderable as it may be, is an important source of the western notion of citizenship. Countries which had no vassalage or where vassalage entailed only a one-sided commitment of the weak towards the strong, have experienced great difficulties inculcating in their officials and citizens that sense of common interest from which western states have always drawn much inner strength.