Russia under the Old regime

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the police of Russia and its dependencies, as well as countries which have emulated its system of government, perfectly lawfully to stifle all manifestations of political dissent. Since 1845, with but one interlude between October 1905 and October 1917, it has been a crime in Russia not only to seek changes in the existing system of government or administration, but even to raise questions about such issues. Politics has been declared by law a monopoly of those in power; the patrimonial spirit, for centuries a nebulous feeling, has here at long last been given flesh in neatly composed chapters, articles and paragraphs. Particularly innovative in these provisions is the failure to distinguish deed from intent - a blurring of degrees of guilt characteristic of modern police states. While the 'raising of doubts' about the existing political system was recognized as a lesser offence than efforts actually to change it, it was still treated as a very serious crime and penalized by hard labour, beating, and branding. Since 1845, Russian Criminal Codes have each contained a political 'omnibus' clause worded with such imprecision that under its terms the organs of state security have been able to incarcerate citizens guilty of crimes no more specific than intent to 'weaken', 'undermine' or 'arouse doubts' or 'disrespect' for existing authority. A juxtaposition of such clauses from three consecutive Criminal Codes - 1845, 1927 and i960 gives an instructive demonstration of the continuity of the police mentality in Russia irrespective of the nature of the regime: Code of 1845, Articles 267 and 274:

Persons guilty of writing and spreading written or printed works or representations intended to arouse disrespect for Sovereign Authority, or for the personal qualities of the Sovereign, or for his government are on conviction sentenced, as offenders of Majesty, to the deprivation of all rights of property and exile for hard labour in fortified places from ten to twelve years... Those who participate in the preparation of such works or representations or their distribution with criminal intent are subject to the same punishment. Those guilty of preparing works or images of such nature but not of their distribution with criminal intent are sentenced for this act, as one of criminal intent, to incarceration in a fortress from two to four years... For the preparation and distribution of written or printed works or for public pronouncements in which, without there being direct and clear incitement to rebellion against Sovereign Authority, there is an effort to dispute or raise doubts about the inviolability of its rights or impudently to censure the system of administration established by state laws... the guilty persons are sentenced to loss of all rights of property and exile for hard labour in factories from four to six years...10 Soviet (RSFSR) Code of 1927, Article 58, (1) and (10):

As counter-revolutionary are defined all actions directed at the overthrow, undermining or weakening [of the government]... or the undermining or