Vanilla

Vanilla planifolia cuttings were introduced to Bogor (West Java) in 1819 by Marchal. The plants grew well, produced flowers but bore no fruit. It soon became obvious that self-pollination of the flowers was not possible in the absence of the natural pollinating bees in Java. In 1836, Morren succeeded in pollinating the flowers manually at the botanical garden at Luik (Belgium) and a few years later, the technique was improved for routine farm use by Edmond Albius on Réunion Island. In 1850, Theysman succeeded in producing vanilla beans in Java (Deinum, 1949), and since then plantations of vanilla spread all over Indonesia.

Prior to 1967, vanilla production in Indonesia had been centered in Java, such as Malang (East Java), Temanggung (Central Java), and Garut (West Java). Owing to the heavy damages caused by disease outbreaks and long periods of drought, vanilla production was developed outside Java, for example, Bali, Lampung, and North Sumatera in the 1970s, and since 1980 further expanded to include North Sulawesi, West Sumatera, Aceh, and East Nusa Tenggara (Anonymous, 1993).

Vanilla Production

Farmers in Indonesia are not specialized vanilla producers; they also grow miscellaneous crops, which function as the main source of income. Such crops include durian, mango, papaya, corn, cassava, sweet potato, peanut, and others planted as secondary crops in the dry season. As a smallholder commodity, vanilla is farmed in small areas scattered in regions with limited agronomic inputs. A common practice is the maintenance of farms only when the price of vanilla is high, and new farms are often initiated without much consideration given to understanding the technical requirements for vanilla cultivation.

Soil and climatic conditions in the production areas are often not optimal, in particular, sandy soil and prolonged dry season, while the plant material or genetic source of vanilla is mostly of inferior types. There are many types of V. planifolia grown in Indonesia, such as the Anggrek, Gisting, Cilawu, Malang, Ungaran Daun Tipis, Ungaran Daun Tebal, Bacan, Bandialit, and Bali. Although derived from the same species, these types of vanilla have varying production potentials (Asnawi and Nuryani, 1995). Production output therefore differs greatly from one farm to another, especially when multiple factors are involved.

Most vanilla farms use gamal (Gliricidia maculata) or lamtoro (Leucaena glauca) as supporting trees with planting spacing of about 1.0 m × 1.5 m and 1.5 m × 2.0 m, respectively. Cultural practices, such as weed control, pruning of support trees to control shade, fertilizer use, and pest and disease control are limited. Applications of fertilizers, insecticides, and fungicides are commonly ignored due to the high cost of input and the high risk of production loss due to diseases. Only during periods when the price of vanilla is relatively high are fertilizers applied. This further contributes to the inconsistency in production levels. The suggested dosage of fertilizer use is 50–100 g NPK (1:2:2)/plant/year for plants of less than two years old, and 100–200 g NPK (1:2:3)/plant/year for plants more than two years old, applied 50% at the beginning and 50% at the end of the rainy season. The high dosage of potash compared to nitrogen is supposed to increase stem rot tolerance (Zaubin et al., 1994). Where necessary, vanilla also needs foliar spray of nutrients every 1–2 weeks, with a concentration of 5–8 g NPK (1:1:1)/L of water. The nutrient solution is applied in the morning between 6 and 7 a.m. or late afternoon between 5 and 6 p.m. when the relative humidity is high (Ernawati, 1993). Gusmaini and Tarigan (1999) suggested the use of 0.4% of Gandasil D (NPKMg 14:12:14:15 plus trace elements) every four days. Vanilla farmers, however, prefer to use compost or manure, the application rates of which unfortunately are too low (3–5 kg/plant/year).

Vanilla is grown from sea level to the highlands (up to 1200 m asl). Although vanilla can grow in a wide range of temperatures, from 9°C to 38°C, Chalot (in Deinum, 1949) mentioned that the optimum temperature for vanilla is about 25°C, which occurs at elevations between 200 and 400 m asl. Temperatures lower than 18.6°C are considered very low and will affect the activity of enzymes responsible for the aroma and the development of vanilla beans (Zaubin and Wahid, 1995).

During the dry season, the lack of precipitation, low atmospheric humidity, and high temperature lead to water stress that weakens the plants, rendering them more vulnerable to pests and diseases. The most destructive disease is stem rot, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vanillae (Tombe et al., 1997), and is discussed in detail in Chapter 8.

Production begins in the second or third year of planting. Farmers usually retain 8–15 beans/inflorescence, while the number of inflorescences/plant varies. Harvesting is conducted gradually by picking only the ripe beans, as indicated by a slight fading of the green color and yellowing of the tips. This condition occurs at 8–9 months after pollination. The average production is 0.2 kg mature beans/plant, although the production potential is about 1.0 kg/plant (Hadipoentyanti et al., 2006).

Vanilla Curing

Farmers commonly sell the harvested beans at local markets, while exporters proceed with postharvest processes before exporting. Postharvest activities include preparation, withering, aging, and drying (in sunlight and shade) as well as conditioning (Figure 19.2). During preparation, freshly harvested beans are washed with water, followed by selection according to length, thickness, amount of damage, and physical blemishes or defects (Risfaheri and Rusli, 1995). Selected beans are subsequently withered by placing the beans in a wire or bamboo basket and immersed in hot water (between 63°C and 65°C) for 2–2.5 min. The purpose of withering is to terminate vegetative growth and trigger enzymatic activities, which induce the formation of vanillin.

FIGURE 19.2 Schematic representation of the processing of vanilla pods.

After draining, the beans are placed in a double-walled box for 24 h for the purpose of aging. Coconut fiber or sawmill is inserted between the wall layers as insulation, maintaining the temperature between 38°C and 40°C. The inner wall layer is covered with a relatively thick cloth to absorb moisture from the vanilla beans. The beans eventually become brownish in color with a greasy appearance.

The beans are dried on a black cloth on a drying bamboo tray for 2–2.5 h in the morning with occasional turning over. The beans are then covered with a black cloth and dried in the sun until afternoon when they are placed in a drying room. This process is repeated daily until the water content of the beans reduces to 55–60% and the aroma of vanillin is produced. From this point on the beans are dried away from direct sunlight in order to lower the water content gradually and increase the vanillin aroma. The vanilla beans are arranged in an orderly fashion on trays in a clean and cool ventilated room for 30–45 days, and regularly monitored for incidence of rot or mold. When the water content drops to about 30–35%, the beans are conditioned, using an oven maintained at a temperature of 50°C for 3 h. Conditioning is aimed at improving the vanillin aroma. Bundles of 50–100 beans are tied and wrapped in wax or paraffin paper, placed in a box coated with wax paper and stored in a cool dry room for 2–3 months. The beans are again regularly monitored for rot or mold, and if necessary, cleaned with alcohol. Beans with a weak aroma are further dried and returned to the conditioning process. After conditioning, the beans are graded and packed, ready for export.

Commercialization of Vanilla

The vanilla trade in Indonesia lacks structure and organization. In areas where the production is relatively high, exporters commonly have local agents to buy vanilla green beans direct from farmers in order to shorten the marketing chain. But in low production areas, the marketing chain is longer. Vanilla is sold from farmers to village traders, then from village traders to district traders, where it is sold to regency traders before reaching the exporters (Board of National Export Development, 1995).

The price of vanilla is strongly determined by the quality of the beans. Each country determines its own prerequisites. The common and specific sets of prerequisites, determined by the National Standard Board of Indonesia (SNI), are shown in Tables 19.1a and b. The United States prefer vanilla with low water content (20– 30%) for its use in the extraction industry. In Europe, vanilla is commonly used in households, therefore, the beans must be whole, with high vanillin content, sharp aroma, and 30–35% water content (Ruhnayat, 2005). The International Standard Organization (ISO) has determined prerequisites for the international market (ISO standard 5565-1:1999).

The price of Indonesian vanilla is generally low due to the low quality of beans, partly a result of early harvesting and suboptimal processing conditions as well as the weak bargaining position of farmers. In the international market, the price of vanilla from Indonesia is in the range of US$15–$48/kg, relatively far below that of Madagascan vanilla, which ranged from US$55–$76/kg.

The annual total production and value of vanilla in Indonesia fluctuate signifi-cantly. In 2000, the production was recorded as 350 tons valued at US$8.5 M, 663 tons in 2003 at US$18.4 M (highest in record), and 499 tons in 2006 at US$5.9 M (Ditjenbun, 2006). In 2006, the main importing countries were the United States, accounting for 67% of total export, Germany (20%), and Malaysia (5%). The quality of vanilla exported from Indonesia is relatively low: 27% of grade I, 45% of grade II, and 28% of grade III (Rosman, 2005).

There are three important factors that should be addressed in overcoming the constraints in vanilla production: environmental conditions (climate and soil), genetic source (varieties or types of vanilla), and stem rot disease. Research activities are focused on these factors and a summary of the outcomes are as follows.

Climatic and Soil Conditions

Suitable climate is one of the most important conditions for vanilla cultivation. The optimal annual rainfall for vanilla is in the range of 1000–2000 mm/year, and distributed in 8–9 months of wet season, followed by a dry period (rainfall lower than 90 mm/month) of 3–4 months. A distinct dry period, simultaneously with other factors such as looping the stem and removal of the stem apex during the dry period, is required to induce flowering. The formation of flowers is, to a certain extent, affected by stress levels experienced by the vanilla plant (Zaubin, 1994). A rainy season of 150–180 days/year, with temperatures ranging from 20°C to 39°C and relative humidity between 65% and 75%, is preferred.

Vanilla requires only 30–50% of full sunlight (Deinum, 1949). Although vanilla grows and develops well in areas between 0 and 1200 m asl, for practical commercial purposes, vanilla cultivation is recommended at altitudes up to 600 m asl. Vanilla can be grown on a variety of soils, such as andosol, latosol, regosol, as long as the physical properties are good. Soils with a deep solum and rich in organic matter are ideal for vanilla. The soil acidity (pH) should range from 5.5 to 7.0. Although the ideal situation may not always be available, these conditions are used as guidelines for vanilla production and are a useful indication of the amount of cultural input required, given a particular set of existing conditions.

Genetic Source

Recently, the Research Institute for Spices and Medicinal Crops (RISMC) has collected 32 types of vanilla from all over Indonesia. They differ in size and color of leaves and flowers and in the form of leaves, number of stomata, leaf area index, and tolerance to stem rot. Among them only four types seem to have promising prospects (Asnawi and Nuryani, 1995). The four prospective clones have been identified with favorable characteristics, including a relatively high production potential, high vanillin content and relative tolerance to water stress and stem rot (Hadipoentyanti et al., 2007). The characteristics of these clones are shown in Table 19.2. These superior types or varieties of vanilla have not been released until now.

Vanilla Diseases

The occurrence of diseases is one of the main constraints in vanilla cultivation. The important diseases are stem rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vanillae), shoot rot (Phytophthora capsici), Sclerotium rot (Sclerotium rolfsii), and anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides); stem rot being the most devastating disease. Since a significant degree of host resistance to stem rot is not available at present, crop losses are severe under poor management. Although F. oxysporum f. sp. vanillae is a soilborne pathogen, it is also transmitted via water splash. Two types of dispersal propagules are produced; the macroconidia and the microconidia, which can easily adhere to plant parts, insects, and farming implements (Tombe et al., 1992). The disease is highly infectious and has the ability to spread rapidly and devastate extensive production areas. The disease may attack every vegetative part of the vanilla plant, although it is mostly found on the stem. Under adverse environmental conditions, the fungus produces chlamydospores for long-term survival in the soil and host debris. The pathogen can also survive within the stem without showing any symptoms.

Owing to the general poor performance of the plants and the adverse conditions, which may predispose a variety of diseases, farmers commonly abandon their farms after 5–7 years. For as long as disease-tolerant varieties or other effective control measures are unavailable, the development and production of vanilla in Indonesia remain stymied to a great extent.

Recent research indicates that successful management of stem rot can be achieved by applying the Bio-FOB approach (Tombe, 2008). This approach involves three components, which are detailed in Chapter 8. In brief, the technique consists of:

1. Planting disease-free cuttings tolerant to stem rot such as Bio-FOB vanilla cuttings (produced using nonpathogenic strains of Fusarium oxysporum).

2. Using selected bio-control agent and organic matter: Bacillus pantothenticus and Trichoderma lactae have been shown to be antagonistic to F. oxysporum f. sp. vanillae. These microbes decompose organic matter as well as have growth-promoting effects on the plant (Tombe, 2008). These two microbes are formulated under the name Bio-TRIBA. Bio-TRIBA can be mixed with compost or manure at a dosage of 2–3 L Bio-TRIBA/ton compost or manure and incubated for 1–2 weeks before application. Bio-TRIBA can also be applied by drenching onto the roots of vanilla at a dosage of 5–10 mL Bio-TRIBA/L water, preferably after the application of organic fertilizers.

3. Applying the botanical fungicide Mitol 20 EC at a concentration of 3–5 mL/L water. The formula contains active ingredients of eugenol extracted from cloves (Tombe et al., 1993; Sukamto et al., 1996) and demonstrated to be antagonistic to several plant pathogens, including F. oxysporum f. sp. vanillae.

Taking into account the proper climatic and soil conditions, using the best genetic source available, and implementing root and stem rot disease control strategies, the production and quality of vanilla in Indonesia are expected to increase.