Vanilla

Juan Hernández Hernández and Pesach Lubinsky

Introduction

The principal vanilla species of commerce (“Mexican vanilla” or “Bourbon vanilla” [Vanilla planifolia G. Jackson]) is a rare orchid native to Mexico and Central America (Cameron and Soto Arenas, 2003; Lubinsky et al., 2008; Portères, 1954). The naturally fragrant and cured fruits of V. planifolia were used in pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica by various cultures, most prominently by the Totonac of northern Veracruz (the Papantla region), the Aztec of Central Mexico, and the Maya of the tropical lowlands of southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize (Bruman, 1948; Lubinsky, 2007; Rain, 2004). These cultures employed vanilla as a medicinal (stomachic) and flavoring agent, usually in the form of an ingredient to spice cacao beverages.

From roughly the mid-1700s to the mid-1800s, Papantla had a global monopoly on vanilla production (Bruman, 1948; Kourí, 2004), earning it the reputation as “The city that perfumes the world” (Rain, 2004). Papantla retains its status as the principal producer of vanilla in Mexico today, although the country itself is a minor supplier globally.

Growers in the Papantla region refer to cultivated V. planifolia as “vainilla mansa” (i.e., “domesticated vanilla”) to distinguish it from other varieties and species that can still be found growing wild in the forests and which occasionally may be grown by particular farmers (= “vainilla silvestre” or “vainilla del monte”). This genetic wealth emphasizes Mexico’s importance as a center of domestication and diversity for vanilla.

Vanilla production in Mexico is situated in the coastal and foothill region of the Gulf of Mexico, from sea level to an altitude of 700 m. The prevailing climate is tropical hot and humid with average temperatures around 24°C, relative humidity of 80%, and rainfall from 1200 to 3000 mm annually. The dry season lasts from March until June. The winter months (November–February) are characterized by cool, humid winds of low intensity called “nortes,” which sweep down unimpeded from the Arctic Circle. These low temperatures are critical for stimulating flowering vanilla in the spring.

The major producers of vanilla in Mexico are Veracruz (70%), and Oaxaca and Puebla, the latter two of which are responsible for most of the remaining 30%. Minor vanilla-producing states include San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, Chiapas, and Quintana Roo.

At the national level, an estimated 4000 families produce vanilla, mostly among indigenous communities. In 2005, approximately 1106.75 ha were used for vanilla production, yielding 189 tons of “green vanilla” and 30 tons of cured beans (SAGARPA, 2005; SIACON, 2005). This supply is managed between six private companies and four farmer cooperatives that produce vanilla, oversee its curing, and arrange its sale for national and international markets (Table 22.1).

VANILLA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN MEXICO

TRADITIONAL OR “ACAHUAL”

Vanilla is cultivated in managed secondary forests (“acahual”) (Figure 22.1) alone or in combination with coffee (Coffea) and/or palms (Chamaedorea). The size of these plots is typically less than 1 ha, and are employed by more than 80% of growers. The density of plants in these plots is relatively low as well as the allotment of time the grower uses to manage the growth (e.g., looping and rooting) and care (e.g., fertilizing) of the plants. Consequently, yields are low, averaging 200 kg of green vanilla/ha.

FIGURE 22.1 Vanilla cultivation system, in “acahual.”

DIVERSIFIED CITRUS GROVES

The extensive amount of Citrus cultivation in coastal Veracruz has allowed farmers to use these plantings as support trees (Figure 22.2). Most groves consist of Valencia oranges, which have excellent characteristics as vanilla support trees, for example, strong branches that grow laterally and that can permit a large quantity of vanilla vines. The Citrus trees also provide semifiltered sunlight throughout the year, which encourages vigorous growth and flowering usually in the second year after planting. Ventilation is considered good, resulting in less problems with pathogens and more vegetative growth than is typical of “acahual” systems. Compared to more intensive systems of vanilla cultivation, vanilla grown in Citrus groves entails a reduced cost of production since there is no investment required for support trees.

FIGURE 22.2 Vanilla cultivation system in Citrus groves.

Each proprietor owns between 1 and 5 ha, which obtain yields that fluctuate from 0.5 to 3.0 tons of green vanilla/ha.

INTENSIVE (MONOCULTURE)

This system is characterized by the use of nitrogen-fixing legumes (Erythrina sp. and Gliricidia sp.) as support trees and planting densities of between 1000 and 5000 support trees/ha. This density allows for some of the highest yields of any system, although generally such a success is obtained in only one year (the fourth or fifth year following planting). After a bumper season, yields in this system often decline drastically because of overcrowding leading to problems with poor light and ventilation leading to pathogen outbreaks. Each grower manages an average of between 0.5 and 2 ha from which 1–2 tons of green vanilla/ha are obtained in rain-fed plantings, or between 2 and 4 tons of green vanilla/ha in irrigated plantings.

Shade Houses

This is the newest and most intensive system of vanilla production in Mexico. The main feature of this system consists of substituting or complementing natural light with plastic shade nets of 50% luminosity. These nets are placed over the support trees, usually at a height of 3–5 m, as well as along the four sides of the plantings. These “shade houses” are generally small (1000 m² or 25 × 40 m) because of the high costs entailed in their construction. Supports for vanilla vines are either artifi-cial or living trees, but in either case densities are high (1500–2000 individual vanilla cuttings are planted per shade house, equating roughly to 15–25,000 cuttings/ha).

The first yields from this system were reported in 2007. They ranged from 50–514 kg green vanilla/shade house (1000 m²). The main factor producing this variation was most likely fruit drop of immature beans caused by adverse weather conditions (i.e., high temperatures and drought) in combination with management practices. The maximum yield of 514 kg suggests that 5140 kg green vanilla/ha can potentially be obtained, a value similar to shade house systems in other producing countries. However, it is still unclear if this can be accomplished in Mexico, especially considering the large financial investment that is needed.

Main Impacts on Vanilla Production in Mexico

Pests

The insect Tenthecoris confusus Hsiao & Sailer (Hemiptera: Miridae) (“chinche roja”) is the principal pest on Mexican vanilla (Figure 22.3). It sucks xylem from leaves, stems, and fruits, and can cause the total defoliation of plants. An unidentified species of caterpillar (“trozadores”) also consumes flower buds, but the damage is generally minor.

FIGURE 22.3 Adult of T. confusus Hsiao & Sailer (Hemiptera: Miridae) and the damages it causes in vanilla.

Flowering, Pollination, and Harvest

The first flowering in vanilla occurs in 2–3 years following planting of new cuttings. The flowering season is during March to May. Similar to other countries, pollination in Mexico is achieved manually. Some flowers are still naturally pollinated, and although the natural pollinator has not been documented, it is most likely to be the orchid bee Euglossa viridissima (Lubinsky et al., 2006; Schluter et al., 2007). The method of harvesting in Mexico consists of cutting of entire racemes with the rachis still intact, using shears or knives. The official opening of the harvest in Veracruz is on December 10, and continues through January and February of the following year.

Vanilla Curing in Mexico

Curing begins immediately following the harvest. Most curing is done by individual curers rather than by growers. Curing lasts for 3–5 months, generally from January to May.

Vanilla curing in Mexico is distinct from all other vanilla-producing countries, a fact that has helped secure a demand for Mexican vanilla in the world market. This curing process consists of the following steps:

1. Fruit/raceme separation (“Despezonado”)

This step entails the manual separation of each fruit from the rachis (“pezón”). This step begins with the classification process of the fruits by size and type (e.g., whole, split, small, etc.).

2. Oven killing

This step terminates photosynthesis and cellular activity in green fruits and prevents mature fruits from dehiscing during ripening. Fruits are packaged in small wooden boxes or straw mats (“petates”) and then placed in ovens for a period of 1–2 days at 60°C. Afterward, vanilla fruits are removed from the oven and placed in larger boxes for sweating. The fruits are covered with cotton, sheets, and mats for another 1–2-day period during this first instance of “sweating.” In recent years, some curers in Mexico have switched from using ovens for the “killing” stage to using hot water, as is the process in Madagascar.

3. Sun curing and successive sweats

The vanilla beans are taken out of the sweat boxes and placed in a sunny patio on mats for 3–4 h. Immediately afterward, the beans are returned to the sweat boxes and are covered with more clothes and straw mats to continue the sweating. This process is repeated until the vanilla beans have a moisture content of around 30%, which is usually accomplished after 11–24 cycles of sun curing/sweating, respectively, for smaller and larger fruits.

4. Conditioning

Vanilla beans that have acquired the desirable moisture content are placed in boxes or wooden racks called “camillas” for observation for 30–45 days.

5. Grading

Vanilla beans that do not manifest any problems during conditioning are sorted by size and quality according to the Mexican grading system.

Commercialization of Mexican Vanilla

Most growers in Mexico sell their uncured, green vanilla beans to middlemen or directly to curers/exporters. Despite this customary practice, many growers in Mexico are actively trying to learn to cure their own beans, and to make contracts directly with international buyers, or with Mexican curers/exporters looking to fulfill orders.

The centers of commercialization of Mexican vanilla are the cities of Papantla and Gutiérrez Zamora, both in the state of Veracruz. These cities receive green vanilla from growers and middle men from Veracruz, Puebla, Hidalgo, and San Luis Potosi. Curers/exporters are also found in Puebla and in Oaxaca.

International Trade/Export

Mexican vanilla is imported to other countries via multinational companies. The principal brokers of Mexican vanilla are Aust Hatchman, McCormick Co., Eurovanille, Vanipro, and International Flavor and Fragrance. These companies are headquartered in the United States, Germany, France, and Canada.

There also exists a small internal market for vanilla in Mexico. This market mostly entails purchase by extract manufacturers who supply both domestic and foreign consumers.

Export Volumes

Almost all of the vanilla produced in Mexico is destined for foreign markets. However, in the last three years, most Mexican vanilla has been stored in warehouses while exporters wait until prices rise above $50 USD/kilo.

In general, Mexico exports 20–30 metric tons of cured vanilla annually. This equates to about 1% of total vanilla production worldwide. The major consumer countries of Mexican vanilla are the United States, Germany, France, Japan, and Canada. A small percent (5%) of the supply of vanilla in Mexico is used nationally to make extracts and handicrafts.

The main demand of buyers of Mexican vanilla is for high-quality beans (“extra” or “gourmet”). Lower-quality beans (“picadura”) are also purchased to make extracts.

Prices for Uncured, “Green” Vanilla

The lowest prices for Mexican “green” vanilla were recorded between the years 1984 and 1997, when curers paid less than $2.50 USD/kilo. The highest price paid for green vanilla in Mexico was in 2003, when green vanilla was sold for an average of $45 USD/kilo. Despite the high prices of 2003, green vanilla dropped dramatically in price over the following years. In 2005, green vanilla in Mexico was sold for $12 USD/kilo, and has declined further to $4 USD/kilo during the 2006 and 2007 harvests (Figure 22.4). One exception in 2007 was purchases of green vanilla beans longer than 20 cm for $12 USD/kilo by a private company new to the vanilla trade. The national vanilla growers organization (Consejo Nacional de Productores de Vainilla) also paid growers $6 USD/kilo for green vanilla in 2007.

Prices for Cured Vanilla

Prices for cured Mexican vanilla are set by the international market, and in particular reflect prices offered in Madagascar. The highest prices paid for Mexican vanilla occurred between the years 2001 and 2004, peaking in 2004 at an average of $420 USD/kilo, and a maximum of $600 USD/kilo. In 2005, the price had declined over 60% to $120 USD/kilo. Since 2005, small quantities of high-grade vanilla (“extra” or “gourmet”) were sold for a maximum of $60 USD/kilo (Figure 22.4).

FIGURE 22.4 History of average prices of green and cured vanilla in Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico.

Grading System for Mexican Vanilla

Cured vanilla in Mexico is first classified into three categories: whole (“enteras”), open/split (“rajada”), and chopped/inferior (“picadura”). The “picadura” beans correspond to parts of beans that may have come from immature fruits, or that were damaged or poorly cured. The prices for cured vanilla in Mexico are customarily organized into these three categories.

For whole and split beans, a grading system of five subcategories has been established:

“EXTRA”: Beans are thick, flexible, lustrous, dark brown/chocolate color (“achocolatado”), sweet/delicate aroma, and with a vanillin content >2.5%. “SUPERIOR”: Similar to “extra,” but are less thick and lustrous, with a vanil-lin content of 2.25–2.29%.

“BUENA”: Beans that are more or less lustrous and flexible, odorous, dark brown with red coloring in longitudinal grooves, and with a vanillin content of 2–2.24%.

“MEDIANA”: Beans with little flexibility/sheen, weak aroma, mixed dark/ light brown, with a vanillin content of 1.75–1.99%.

“ORDINARIA”: Beans are hard/brittle, not shiny, weak aroma, color mostly light brown with darkened edges, and with a vanillin content of 1.5–1.74%.

In practice, Mexican vanilla may be sold according to other grading systems set by the buyer, usually “gourmet,” “splits,” and so on.

Packaging of Mexican Vanilla

Mexican vanilla was traditionally packaged and distributed in bulk in wax paper and cardboard boxes. Occasionally, high-quality beans (“extra/gourmet”) were sold in rolls called “mazos” and distributed in tins. In recent years, due to buyer demand, cured vanilla is now distributed in vacuum packaging in 1 kilo plastic bags.

Flavor Profile of Mexican Vanilla

The aroma of Mexican vanilla is described as intense, sweet, lightly spicy, and similar to tobacco. The content of the major aromatic compound of vanilla, vanillin, is generally around 2% in Mexican vanilla, but has been found to be as high as 7% (Black, 2005).

Although vanillin content is of principal importance to manufacturers looking to ensure uniform flavor for a mass market, the authentic aroma of vanilla is due to the presence of hundreds of other compounds found in small quantities that develop in cured beans. In Mexican vanilla, 65 volatile compounds have been identified, with acids and phenols figuring prominently (Pérez Silva et al. 2006). Eleven compounds have been found to be unique to Mexican vanilla: hexanoic acid, vanillyl methyl ketone, methyl eicosanoate, 4-butoxy-3-methyl-2-butanone, methoxymethyl acetate, 4-hexen-1-ol acetate, 3-ethyl-3-methylpentane, 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptanol, 4-methylene-2- oxethanone, 2-methyl-3-ethylpentane, and 2-ethyl-1,3-dioxolane (Hartman, 2003).

The niche market that persists for Mexican vanilla may in large part be due to the unique aroma/compounds that develop during the curing process that is utilized solely in Mexico.

Perspective on Mexican Vanilla

The interest and motivation to produce vanilla in Mexico depends strongly on price. When the international market is favorable, growers in Mexico respond accordingly and organize their labor, and improve the care/maintenance of their plantings, as in the years 2000–2004. When prices fall, growers quickly lose interest and abandon their efforts as is the case currently. This price variable and the international demand for vanilla will continue to be the prime determinants for what visage vanilla production in Mexico will assume.

References

Black, J.M. 2005. Vanilla bean volatile analysis, origin and species. Paper presented at the International Symposium on the Vanilla Business. Veracruz, Mexico, November 15–16, 2005.

Bruman, H. 1948. The culture history of Mexican Vanilla. The Hispanic American Historical Review 283:360–376.

Cameron, K. and M.A. Soto Arenas. 2003. Vanilloideae. In: A.M. Pridgeon, Phillip J. Cribb, Mark W. Chase, and F. Rasmusen, eds. Genera Orchidacearum. Vol. 3: Orchidoideae (Part 2), Vanilloideae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 281–334.

Hartman, T.G. 2003. Composition of vanilla beans from different geographical regions. Paper presented at the First International Congress, Princeton, NY, November 11–12, 2003.

Hernández Hernández, J. 2005. Vanilla cultivation in Mexico. Paper presented at the International Symposium on the Vanilla Business. Veracruz, Mexico, November 15–16, 2005.

Kourí, E. 2004. A Pueblo Divided: Business, Property, and Community in Papantla, México. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.

Lubinsky, P. 2007. Historical and Evolutionary Origins of Cultivated Vanilla. PhD. thesis, Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California Riverside, CA.

Lubinsky, P., S. Bory, J. Hernández Hernández, S.-K. Chul, and A. Gómez Pompa. 2008. Origins and dispersal of cultivated vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Jacks. (Orchidaceae). Economic Botany 62 (2):127–138.

Lubinsky, P., M. Van Dam, and A. Van Dam. 2006. Pollination of Vanilla and evolution in Orchidaceae. Lindleyana 75:926–929.

Pérez Silva, A., E. Odoux, P. Brat, F. Ribeyre, G. Rodriguez-Jimenez, V. Robles-Olvera, M.A. Garcia-Alvarado, and Z. Gunata. 2006. GC–MS and GC–olfactometry analysis of aroma compounds in a representative organic aroma extract from cured vanilla (Vanilla plani-folia G. Jackson) beans. Food Chemistry 99:728–735.

Portères, R. 1954. Le genere Vanilla et ses espèces. In: G. Bouriquet, ed. Le vanillier et la Vanille dans le Monde. Èditions Paul Lechevalier, Paris, 94–290.

Rain, P. 2004. Vanilla: The Cultural History of the World’s Most Popular Flavor and Fragrance. Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin, New York.

Schluter, P.M., M.A. Soto, and S.A. Harris. 2007. Genetic variation in Vanilla planifolia (Orchidaceae). Economic Botany 61(4):328–336.

SAGARPA (Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería y Desarrollo Agropecuario). 2005. Base de datos. Delegación Estatal Veracruz, México.

SIACON (Sistema de Información Agropecuaria de Consulta). 2005. Base de datos, México, D.F.