Collins Cobuild English Grammar

with place names

2.180 Some of these quantity expressions can also be used with place names.

Much of America will be shocked by what happened.

…involving most of Africa and a lot of South America.

Here is a list of quantity expressions used with place names:

all of

less of

more of

most of

much of

none of

part of

some of

~

a bit of

a little bit of

a good deal of

a great deal of

a lot of

~

the rest of

the whole of

verb agreement

2.181 When you use a quantity expression as the subject of a verb, the verb is singular or plural depending on whether the quantity expression refers to one thing or to more than one thing.

Some of the information has already been analysed.

Some of my best friends are policemen.

with plural nouns

2.182 Many quantity expressions can only be used in front of plural noun phrases.

I am sure both of you agree with me.

Start by looking through their papers for either of the two documents mentioned below.

Few of these organizations survive for long.

Several of his best books are about space flight.

I would like to ask you a couple of questions.

The report contained large numbers of inaccuracies.

Here is a list of quantity expressions that are only used with plural noun phrases:

another of

both of

certain of

each of

either of

few of

fewer of

many of

neither of

numbers of

one of

several of

various of

~

a couple of

a few of

a good many of

a great many of

a number of

For more information about each of see paragraphs 2.186 to 2.187, about fewer of see paragraph 2.189, and about a number of see paragraphs 2.191 to 2.192.

Note that neither of is used in a similar way to either of when you are talking about two things in negative clauses. This is explained in paragraph 5.79.

with uncountable nouns and singular nouns

2.183 A few quantity expressions are only used with uncountable nouns and singular noun phrases.

Much of the day was taken up with classes.

This is a bit of a change.

There was a good deal of smoke.

If you use rich milk, pour off a little of the cream.

I spent the whole of last year working there.

Here is a list of quantity expressions only used with uncountable nouns and singular noun phrases:

less of

little of

much of

part of

~

a bit of

a little bit of

a good deal of

a great deal of

a little of

~

the whole of

For more information about less of see paragraph 2.189.

with plural nouns and uncountable nouns

2.184 A very few quantity expressions are used only with plural noun phrases and uncountable nouns.

…the seizure of vast quantities of illegal weapons.

Very large quantities of aid were needed.

They had loads of things to say about each other.

We had loads of room.

…plenty of the men.

Make sure you give plenty of notice.

Here is a list of quantity expressions that are only used with plural noun phrases and uncountable nouns:

plenty of

quantities of

~

gobs of (American)

heaps of

loads of

masses of

tons of

Note that when the second group in this list are used with an uncountable noun as the subject of a verb, the verb is singular, even though the quantity expression looks plural.

Masses and masses of food was left over.

with all types of noun

2.185 Some quantity expressions can be used with plural nouns, with singular nouns, or with uncountable nouns.

…some of the most distinguished men of our time.

We did some of the journey by night.

Some of the gossip was surprisingly accurate.

Here is a list of quantity expressions that are used with plural nouns, singular nouns, or uncountable nouns:

all of

any of

enough of

lots of

more of

most of

none of

some of

~

an amount of

a lot of

a quantity of

~

the remainder of

the rest of

Note that an amount of is nearly always used with an adjective such as small: a small amount of. This is explained in paragraph 2.191.

Note also that when lots of is used with an uncountable noun as the subject of a verb, the verb is singular, even though the quantity expression looks plural.

He thought that lots of lovely money was the source of happiness.

Any of is explained more fully in paragraph 2.188.

USAGE NOTE

2.186 When you want to refer to each member of a particular group, you can use each of and a plural noun phrase.

Each of the drawings is slightly different.

We feel quite differently about each of our children.

Work out how much you can afford to pay each of them.

Note that each one and every one can be used before of instead of each, for emphasis.

This view of poverty influences each one of us.

Every one of them is given a financial target.

BE CAREFUL

2.187 When the quantity expression each of is used with a plural noun phrase, the verb after the noun phrase is always singular.

USAGE NOTE

2.188 Any of can refer to one or several people or things, or to part of something. Note that if it is the subject of a verb, when it refers to several things, the verb is plural, and when it refers to a part of something, the verb is singular.

She has those coats. She might have been wearing any of them.

Hardly any of these find their way into consumer products.

Has any of this been helpful?

It was more expensive than any of the other magazines we were normally able to afford.

2.189 There are three comparative quantity expressions that can be used before noun phrases. Less of is usually used with singular nouns and uncountable nouns, fewer of is usually used with plural nouns, and more of is used with all three types of noun.

I enjoy cooking far more now, because I do less of it.

Fewer of these children will become bored.

He was far more of an existentialist.

Note that more of is sometimes used in front of a noun phrase to intensify it.

He could hardly have felt more of a fool than he did at that moment.

She was more of a flirt than ever.

America is much more of a classless society.

Note also that less of is sometimes used instead of fewer of, but many people think that this is not correct.

omitting of

2.190 When the context makes it clear, or when you think that the person you are talking to will understand what you mean, you can sometimes reduce the structure to the quantity word only. For example, if you are talking about applications for a job and there were twenty candidates, you can say Some were very good rather than Some of them were very good.

A few crossed over the bridge.

Some parts can be separated from the whole.

I have four bins. I keep one in the kitchen and the rest in the dustbin area.

Most of the books had been packed into an enormous trunk and the remainder piled on top of it.

USAGE NOTE

2.191 You can add adjectives to a number of and a quantity of to say how large or small an amount or number of things is.

The city attracts a large number of tourists.

We had a limited number of people to choose from.

The novel provides an enormous quantity of information.

…a tiny quantity of acid.

An amount of is always used with adjectives, and is usually used with uncountable nouns.

Pour a small amount of the sauce over the chicken.

He has a large amount of responsibility.

It only involves a small amount of time.

There has to be a certain amount of sacrifice.

They have done a vast amount of hard work.

The plural forms of quantity, number, and amount are used, especially when referring to separate amounts.

…groups that employ large numbers of low-paid workers.

Enormous amounts of money are spent on advertising.

modifying quantity expressions

2.192 When a quantity expression contains an adjective, you can put very in front of the adjective.

…a very great deal of work.

…a very large amount of money.

2.193 Some quantity expressions can be modified using quite.

I’ve wasted quite enough of my life here.

Quite a few of the employees are beginning to realise the truth.

Most of them have had quite a lot of experience.

…quite a large amount of industry.

Here is a list of quantity expressions that can be modified by quite:

enough

a few

a lot of

a large amount of

a small amount of

a number of

a large number of

Talking about particular amounts of things: a piece of paper, a drop of water

2.194 When you want to talk about a particular quantity of something, you can use a partitive structure that consists of a particular partitive (e.g. piece) linked by of to another noun. Partitives are always countable nouns.

Who owns this bit of land?

… portions of mashed potato.

If the partitive is singular, then the verb used with it is usually singular. If it is plural, the verb is also plural.

A piece of paper is lifeless.

Two pieces of metal were being rubbed together.

Note that all partitives consist of two or more words, because of is needed in every case. Of is printed in the lists below as a reminder.

partitives with uncountable nouns

2.195 When the noun after the partitive is an uncountable noun, you use countable nouns such as bit, drop, lump, or piece as the partitive.

Here’s a bit of paper.

…a drop of blood.

Drops of sweat dripped from his forehead.

…a tiny piece of material.

…a pinch of salt.

…specks of dust.

These partitives can be used without of when it is obvious what you are talking about.

He sat down in the kitchen before a plate of cold ham, but he had only eaten one piece when the phone rang.

2.196 Here is a list of partitives used with uncountable nouns:

amount of

bit of

blob of

chunk of

clump of

dash of

drop of

grain of

heap of

knob of

lump of

mass of

morsel of

mountain of

piece of

pile of

pinch of

pool of

portion of

scrap of

sheet of

shred of

slice of

speck of

spot of

touch of

trace of

Some of these partitives are also used with plural nouns referring to things that together form a mass.

…a huge heap of stones.

…a pile of newspapers.

Here is a list of partitives used with both uncountable and plural nouns:

amount of

clump of

heap of

mass of

mountain of

pile of

portion of

BE CREATIVE

2.197 Many nouns that refer to the shape of an amount of something can also be partitives with uncountable or plural nouns.

…a ball of wool.

…columns of smoke.

…a ring of excited faces.

Here is a list of partitives used for talking about the shape of an amount of something:

ball of

column of

ring of

shaft of

square of

stick of

strip of

thread of

tuft of

wall of

Many nouns that refer to both shape and movement can also be used as partitives.

It blew a jet of water into the air.

…a constant stream of children passing through the door.

Here is a list of partitives used for talking about both shape and movement:

dribble of

gush of

gust of

jet of

shower of

spurt of

stream of

torrent of

BE CREATIVE

You can use any noun to describe shape in this way. For example you can talk about a triangle of snooker balls.

2.198 There are many nouns that refer to groups that can be used as partitives. They are linked by of to plural nouns that indicate what the group consists of.

It was evaluated by an independent team of inspectors.

A group of journalists gathered at the airport to watch us take off.

…a bunch of flowers.

Here is a list of partitives referring to groups:

audience of

bunch of

clump of

company of

family of

flock of

gang of

group of

herd of

team of

troupe of

BE CREATIVE

You can use any noun referring to a group of people or things in this way. For example, you can talk about an army of volunteers.

measurement nouns

2.199 Nouns referring to measurements are often used in partitive structures to talk about an amount of something that is a particular length, area, volume, or weight. Uncountable nouns are used after of in structures referring to length, and both uncountable and plural nouns are used in structures referring to weight.

…ten yards of velvet.

Thousands of square miles of land have been contaminated.

I drink a pint of milk a day.

…three pounds of strawberries.

…10 ounces of cheese.

Nouns referring to measurements are explained in paragraphs 2.250 to 2.257.

referring to contents and containers

2.200 You use partitives when you want to talk about the contents of a container as well as to the container itself. For example, you can refer to a carton filled with milk as a carton of milk.

I went to buy a bag of chips.

The waiter appeared with a bottle of red wine.

…a packet of cigarettes.

…a pot of honey.

…tubes of glue.

You can also use partitives to refer to the contents only.

They drank another bottle of champagne.

She ate a whole box of chocolates.

Here is a list of partitives referring to containers:

bag of

barrel of

basin of

basket of

bottle of

bowl of

box of

bucket of

can of

carton of

case of

cask of

crate of

cup of

glass of

jar of

jug of

mug of

pack of

packet of

plate of

pot of

sack of

spoon of

tablespoon of

tank of

teaspoon of

tin of

tub of

tube of

tumbler of

ending in -ful

2.201 You can add -ful to these partitives referring to containers.

He brought me a bagful of sweets.

Pour a bucketful of cold water on the ash.

…a cupful of boiled water.

…a tankful of petrol.

Here is a list of partitives referring to containers that are very commonly used with -ful:

bag

basket

box

bucket

cup

plate

spoon

tablespoon

tank

teaspoon

When people want to make a noun ending in -ful plural, they usually add an -s to the end of the word, as in bucketfuls. However some people put the -s in front of -ful, as in bucketsful.

She ladled three spoonfuls of sugar into my tea.

They were collecting basketfuls of apples.

…two teaspoonfuls of powder.

…2 teaspoonsful of milk.

BE CREATIVE

2.202 You can also add -ful to other partitives.

Eleanor was holding an armful of red roses.

I went outside to throw a handful of bread to the birds.

He took another mouthful of whisky.

…a houseful of children.

USAGE NOTE

2.203 You sometimes use a mass noun instead of a partitive structure. For example, two teas means the same as two cups of tea, and two sugars means two spoonfuls of sugar.

We drank a couple of beers.

I asked for two coffees with milk.

Mass nouns are explained in paragraphs 1.28 to 1.31.

referring to parts and fractions

2.204 You use a partitive when you want to talk about a part or a fraction of a particular thing.

I spent a large part of my life in broadcasting.

The system is breaking down in many parts of Africa.

A large portion of the university budget goes into the Community Services area.

…a mass movement involving all segments of society.

Here is a list of partitives referring to a part of something:

part of

portion of

section of

segment of

referring to individual items

2.205 You use a partitive with an uncountable noun referring to things of a certain type when you want to refer to one particular thing of that type.

…an article of clothing.

I bought a few bits of furniture.

Any item of information can be accessed.

Here is a list of partitives referring to one thing of a particular type:

article of

bit of

item of

piece of

Here is a list of uncountable nouns referring to things of a certain type that are often used with the partitives listed above:

advice

apparatus

baggage

clothing

equipment

furniture

homework

information

knowledge

luggage

machinery

news

research

pair of

2.206 Some plural nouns refer to things that are normally thought to consist of two parts, such as trousers or scissors. Some others refer to things that are made in twos, such as shoes or socks. When you want to talk about one of these two-part items, or two-item sets, you use the partitive pair linked to these plural nouns by of.

…a pair of jeans.

…a pair of tights.

…a dozen pairs of sunglasses.

I bought a pair of tennis shoes.

I smashed three pairs of skis.

These plural nouns are explained in paragraphs 1.41 to 1.46.

BE CREATIVE

2.207 Whenever you want to (i) talk about a limited amount of something, (ii) indicate the area that something occupies, or (iii) specify a particular feature that something has, you can use a noun that indicates the amount or the nature of the thing (e.g. a bottle), linked by of to a noun that indicates what the thing is (e.g. water).

For example, if you say a forest of pines, you are talking about a large area of trees. Similarly, you can talk about a border of roses.

This structure can be extended very widely, so that you can talk about a city of dreaming spires, for example.

Referring to an exact number of things: numbers

cardinal numbers

2.208 When you want to refer to an exact number of things, you use numbers such as two, thirty, and 777, which are called cardinal numbers, or sometimes cardinals.

I’m going to ask you thirty questions.

…two hundred and sixty copies of the record.

The cardinal numbers are listed in the Reference Section and their use is explained in paragraphs 2.213 to 2.231.

ordinal numbers

2.209 When you want to identify or describe something by showing where it comes in a series or sequence, you use an ordinal number, or an ordinal, such as first, second, fourteenth, or twenty-seventh.

She received a video camera for her fourteenth birthday.

I repeated my story for the third time that day.

The ordinal numbers are listed in the Reference Section and their use is explained in paragraphs 2.232 to 2.239.

fractions

2.210 When you want to show how large a part of something is compared to the whole of it, you use a fraction such as a third or three-quarters.

A third of the American forces were involved.

The bottle was about three-quarters full when he started.

Fractions are explained in paragraphs 2.240 to 2.249.

measuring things

2.211 When you want to talk about a size, distance, area, volume, weight, speed, or temperature, you can do so by using a number or quantity expression in front of a measurement noun such as feet and miles.

He was about six feet tall.

It’s four miles to the city centre from here.

Measurement nouns are explained in paragraphs 2.250 to 2.257.

If you do not know the exact number, size, or quantity of something, you can give an approximate amount or measurement using one of a group of special words and expressions. These are explained in paragraphs 2.264 to 2.271.

age

2.212 When you want to say how old someone or something is, you have a choice of ways in which to do it. These are explained in paragraphs 2.258 to 2.263.

Talking about the number of things: cardinal numbers

2.213 If you want to talk about some or all of the things in a group, you can show how many things you are talking about by using a cardinal number.

The cardinal numbers are listed in the Reference Section.

By Christmas, we had ten cows.

When you use a determiner and a number in front of a noun, you put the determiner in front of the number.

…the three young men.

…my two daughters.

Watch the eyes of any two people engrossed in conversation.

All three candidates are coming to Blackpool later this week.

When you put a number and an adjective in front of a noun, you usually put the number in front of the adjective.

…two small children.

…fifteen hundred local residents.

…three beautiful young girls.

one

2.214 One is used as a number in front of a noun to emphasize that there is only one thing, to show that you are being precise, or to contrast one thing with another. One is followed by a singular noun.

That is the one big reservation I’ve got.

He balanced himself on one foot.

There was only one gate into the palace.

This treaty was signed one year after the Suez Crisis.

It was negative in one respect but positive in another.

One is also used, like other numbers, as a quantity expression.

One of my students sold me her ticket.

…one of the few great novels of the century.

It’s one of the best films I’ve ever seen.

One also has special uses as a determiner and a pronoun. These are explained in paragraph 1.249 and paragraphs 1.158 to 1.161.

2.215 When a large number begins with the figure 1, the 1 can be said or written as a or one. One is more formal.

…a million dollars.

…a hundred and fifty miles.

Over one million pounds has been raised.

talking about negative amounts

2.216 The number 0 is not used in ordinary English to say that the number of things you are talking about is zero. Instead the negative determiner no or the negative pronoun none is used, or any is used with a negative. These are explained in paragraphs 5.49 and 5.69 to 5.71.

numbers and agreement

2.217 When you use any number except one in front of a noun, you use a plural noun.

There were ten people there, all men.

…a hundred years.

…a hundred and one things.

2.218 When you use a number and a plural noun to talk about two or more things, you usually use a plural verb. You use a singular verb with one.

Seven guerrillas were wounded.

There is one clue.

However, when you are talking about an amount of money or time, or a distance, speed, or weight, you usually use a number, a plural noun, and a singular verb.

Three hundred pounds is a lot of money.

Ten years is a long time.

Twenty six miles is a long way to run.

90 miles an hour is much too fast.

Ninety pounds is all she weighs.

Ways of measuring things are explained in paragraphs 2.250 to 2.257.

numbers with ordinals and postdeterminers

2.219 You can use cardinal numbers with both ordinals (see paragraphs 2.232 to 2.239) and postdeterminers (see paragraph 2.40). When you use a cardinal number with a determiner followed by an ordinal number or a postdeterminer, the cardinal number usually comes after the determiner and the ordinal or postdeterminer.

The first two years have been very successful.

…throughout the first four months of this year.

…the last two volumes of the encyclopedia.

…in the previous three years of his reign.

Note that some postdeterminers can be used like ordinary classifying adjectives (see paragraph 2.40). When they are used like this, the cardinal number comes before them.

He has written two previous novels.

…two further examples.

numbers as pronouns

2.220 When either the context makes it clear, or you think that your listener already knows something, you can use the cardinal number without a noun.

These two are quite different.

When cardinal numbers are used like this, you can put ordinal numbers, postdeterminers, or superlative adjectives in between the determiner and the cardinal number.

I want to tell you about the programmes. The first four are devoted to universities.

The other six are masterpieces.

The best thirty have the potential to be successful journalists.

expressing large numbers

2.221 When you use dozen, hundred, thousand, million, or billion to indicate exact numbers, you put a or another number in front of them.

…a hundred dollars.

…six hundred and ten miles.

…a thousand billion pounds.

…two dozen diapers.

BE CAREFUL

2.222 When you use dozen, hundred, thousand, million, or billion they remain singular even when the number in front of them is greater than one.

BE CAREFUL

2.223 You can use dozen, hundred, thousand, million, or billion without of in a less precise way by putting several, a few, and a couple of in front of them.

…several hundred people.

A few thousand cars have gone.

…life a couple of hundred years ago.

approximate quantities

2.224 When you want to emphasize how large a number is without stating it precisely, you can use dozens, hundreds, thousands, millions, and billions in the same way as cardinals followed by of.

That’s going to take hundreds of years.

…hundreds of dollars.

We travelled thousands of miles across Europe.

…languages spoken by millions of people.

We have dozens of friends in the community.

You can put many in front of these plural forms.

I have travelled many hundreds of miles with them.

USAGE NOTE

2.225 People often use the plural forms when they are exaggerating.

I was meeting thousands of people.

Do you have to fill in hundreds of forms before you go?

You can also emphasize or exaggerate a large number by using these words in phrases beginning with by.

…a book which sells by the million.

…people who give injections by the dozen.

Videos of the royal wedding sold by the hundred thousand.

numbers as labels

2.226 Cardinal numbers are used to label or identify things.

Room 777 of the Stanley Hotel.

Number 11 Downing Street.

numbers as quantity expressions

2.227 You can also use cardinal numbers as quantity expressions linked by of to a noun phrase referring to a group. You do this when you want to emphasize that you are talking about a part or all of a group.

I saw four of these programmes.

Three of the questions today have been about democracy.

I use plastic kitchen bins. I have four of them.

All eight of my great-grandparents lived in the city.

All four of us wanted to get away from the Earl’s Court area.

The clerk looked at the six of them and said, All of you?

I find it less worrying than the two of you are suggesting.

Quantity expressions are explained in paragraphs 2.176 to 2.193.

number quantity expressions as pronouns

2.228 Cardinal numbers are used to quantify something without the of and the noun phrase, when it is clear what you are referring to.

…a group of painters, nine or ten in all.

Of the other wives, two are dancers and one is a singer.

…the taller student of the two.

…breakfast for two.

numbers after subject pronouns

2.229 Cardinal numbers are also used after subject pronouns.

In the fall we two are going to England.

You four, come with me.

numbers in compound adjectives

2.230 Cardinal numbers can be used as part of a compound adjective (see paragraphs 2.94 to 2.102). The cardinal number is used in front of a noun to form a compound adjective that is usually hyphenated

He took out a five-dollar bill.

I wrote a five-page summary of the situation.

Note that the noun remains singular even when the number is two or more, and that compound adjectives that are formed like this cannot be used after a linking verb. For example, you cannot say My essay is five-hundred-word. Instead you would probably say My essay is five hundred words long.

numbers with time expressions

2.231 Cardinal numbers are sometimes used with general time words such as month and week. You do this when you want to describe something by saying how long it lasts. If the thing is referred to with an uncountable noun, you use the possessive form (see paragraphs 1.211 to 1.222) of the general time word.

She’s already had at least nine months’ experience.

On Friday she had been given two weeks’ notice.

Sometimes the apostrophe is omitted.

They wanted three weeks holiday and three weeks pay.

The determiner a is usually used when you are talking about a single period of time, although one can be used instead when you want to be more formal.

She’s on a year’s leave from Hunter College.

He was only given one week’s notice.

Cardinal numbers are also used with general time words as modifiers of adjectives.

She was four months pregnant.

The rains are two months late.

His rent was three weeks overdue.

Referring to things in a sequence: ordinal numbers

2.232 If you want to identify or describe something by saying where it comes in a series or sequence, you use an ordinal number.

Quietly they took their seats in the first three rows.

Flora’s flat is on the fourth floor of this five-storey block.

They stopped at the first of the trees.

Note that you can also use following, last, next, preceding, previous, and subsequent like ordinal numbers to say where something comes in a series or sequence.

The following morning he checked out of the hotel.

…the last rungs of the fire-escape.

…at the next general election.

The preceding text has been professionally transcribed.

I mentioned this in a previous programme.

…the subsequent career patterns of those taking degrees.

Following, subsequent, previous, and preceding are only used to indicate the position of something in a sequence in time or in a piece of writing. Next and last are used more generally, for example to refer to things in rows or lists.

The ordinal numbers are listed in the Reference Section.

as modifiers

2.233 Ordinals are often used in front of nouns. They are not usually used after linking verbs like be. They are usually preceded by a determiner.

…the first day of autumn.

He took the lift to the sixteenth floor.

…on her twenty-first birthday.

…his father’s second marriage.

In some idiomatic phrases ordinals are used without determiners.

The picture seems at first glance chaotic.

I might.

On second thoughts, no.

First children usually get a lot of attention.

written forms

2.234 Ordinals can be written in abbreviated form, for example in dates or headings or in very informal writing. You write the last two letters of the ordinal after the number expressed in figures. For example, first can be written as 1st, twenty-second as 22nd, hundred and third as 103rd, and fourteenth as 14th.

…on August 2nd.

…the 1st Division of the Sovereign’s Escort.

…the 11th Cavalry.

ordinals with of

2.235 You can specify which group the thing referred to by an ordinal belongs to by using the preposition of after the ordinal.

It is the third of a series of eight programmes.

Tony was the second of four sons.

When ordinals are used like this, they usually refer to one person or thing. However, when they are used with a to-infinitive, or another phrase or clause after them, they can refer to one person or thing or to more than one. First is used like this more than the other ordinals.

I was the first to recover.

They had to be the first to go.

The proposals – the first for 22 years – amount to a new charter for the mentally ill.

The withdrawals were the first that the army agreed to.

as pronouns

2.236 You can use an ordinal to refer to a member of a group that you have already mentioned or to something of the kind already mentioned, and you can omit the noun that identifies the thing.

In August 1932 two of the group’s members were expelled from the party and a third was suspended.

The third child tries to outdo the first and second.

A second pheasant flew up. Then a third and a fourth.

2.237 The adjectives next and last can be used, like ordinals, by themselves when the context makes the meaning clear.

You missed one meal.

The next is on the table in half an hour.

Smithy removed the last of the screws.

ordinals used as adverbs

2.238 The ordinal first is also used as an adverb to show that something is done before other things. Other ordinals are also sometimes used to show the order in which things are done, especially in informal English. People also use ordinals as adverbs when they are giving a list of points, reasons, or items. This is explained fully in paragraph 10.54.

other uses of ordinals

2.239 The use of ordinals in expressing fractions is explained in paragraphs 2.241 and 2.243. The use of ordinals to express dates, as in the seventeenth of June, is explained in paragraph 4.88.

Ordinal numbers can be used in front of cardinal numbers. This is explained in paragraphs 2.219 to 2.220.

Talking about an exact part of something: fractions

2.240 When you want to show how small or large a part of something is compared to the whole of it, you use a fraction, such as a third, followed by of and a noun referring to the whole thing. Fractions can also be written in figures (see paragraph 2.248).

singular fractions

2.241 When you express a fraction in words, the way you do so depends on whether the fraction is singular or plural. If it is singular, you write or say an ordinal number or the special fraction terms half or quarter, with either the number one or a determiner such as a in front of them. The fraction is linked to a noun by of.

This state produces a third of the nation’s oil.

…a quarter of an inch.

You can take a fifth of your money out on demand.

A tenth of our budget goes on fuel.

Forests cover one third of the country.

…one thousandth of a degree.

…one quarter of the total population.

An adjective can also be placed after the determiner and before the fraction.

…the first half of the twentieth century.

I read the first half of the book.

…the southern half of England.

…in the first quarter of 2004.

USAGE NOTE

2.242 If you are using half in front of a pronoun, you still use of after the half.

Nearly half of it comes from the Middle East.

More than half of them have gone home.

Half of us have lost our jobs.

Note that when the fraction a half is used with of, you usually write or say it as half without a determiner. A half and one half are rarely used.

They lost half of their pay.

Half of the people went to private schools.

I had crossed more than half of America.

plural fractions

2.243 If the fraction is plural, you put a cardinal number in front of a plural form of the ordinal number or special fraction word quarter.

…the poorer two thirds of the world.

The journey is going to take three quarters of an hour.

…four fifths of the money.

Nine tenths of them live on the land.

…3 millionths of a centimetre.

When half is used with whole numbers or amounts, it is used with the determiner a.

…one and a half acres of land.

…four and a half centuries.

agreement with verb

2.244 When you talk about fractions of a single thing, you use a singular form of a verb afterwards.

Half of our work is to design programmes.

Two thirds of the planet’s surface is covered with water.

Two fifths of the forest was removed.

However, when you talk about fractions of a number of things, you use a plural form of a verb afterwards.

Two thirds of Chad’s exports were cotton.

A quarter of the students were seen individually.

More than half of these photographs are of her.

fractions as pronouns

2.245 When it is clear to your listener or reader who or what you are referring to, either because of the context or because you and your listener or reader know what is meant, you can use fractions as pronouns without the of and noun after them.

Of the people who work here, half are French and half are English.

Two thirds were sterilized.

One sixth are disappointed with the service.

numbers followed by fractions

2.246 Besides their use as quantity expressions linked by of to a noun phrase, fractions can also be used after a whole number or amount plus and, with a noun placed after the fraction. The noun must be plural even if the number is one.

You’ve got to sit there for one and a half hours.

…five and a quarter days.

…more than four and a half centuries ago

If you are using a instead of one, the and and the fraction come after the noun.

…a mile and a half below the surface.

…a mile and a quarter of motorway.

half as predeterminer

2.247 Besides being used with of as a quantity expression, half is also used as a predeterminer (see paragraph 1.251), directly in front of a determiner.

I met half the girls at the conference.

The farmers sold off half their land.

…half a pound of coffee.

…half a bottle of milk.

Note that half is always used with of before a pronoun (see paragraph 2.242).

fractions expressed in figures

2.248 You can write a fraction in figures, for example 1/2, 1/4, 3/4, and 2/3. These correspond to a half, a quarter, three quarters and two thirds respectively.

expressing percentages

2.249 Fractions are often given in a special form as a number of hundredths. This type of fraction is called a percentage. For example, three hundredths, expressed as a percentage, is three per cent. It can also be written as three percent or 3%. A half can be expressed as fifty per cent, fifty percent, or 50%.

90 percent of most food is water.

About 20 per cent of student accountants are women.

Before 1960 45% of British trade was with the Commonwealth.

You use percentages on their own as noun phrases when it is clear what they refer to.

Ninety per cent were self employed.

…interest at 10% per annum.

Talking about measurements

2.250 You can refer to a size, distance, area, volume, weight, speed, or temperature by using a number or quantity expression in front of a measurement noun. Measurement nouns are countable.

They grow to twenty feet.

…blocks of stone weighing up to a hundred tons.

Reduce the temperature by a few degrees.

Average annual temperatures exceed 20° centigrade.

Other ways of expressing distance are explained in paragraphs 6.91 to 6.92. Measurement nouns referring to size, area, volume, and weight are often used in partitive structures (see paragraphs 2.194 to 2.207) such as a pint of milk and a pound of onions. They are also used in phrases beginning with of (see paragraph 2.283).

imperial and metric measurements

2.251 There are two systems of measurement used in Britain – the imperial system and the metric system. Each system has its own measurement nouns.

Here is a list of the imperial units of measurement indicating size, distance, area, volume, and weight:

inch

foot

yard

mile

~

acre

~

pint

quart

gallon

~

ounce

pound

stone

hundredweight

ton

Note that the plural of foot is feet, but foot can also be used with numbers. Similarly stone is usually used instead of stones.

Here is a list of the metric units of measurement indicating size, distance, area, volume, and weight:

millimetre

centimetre

metre

kilometre

~

hectare

~

millilitre

centilitre

litre

~

milligram

gram

kilogram

tonne

after linking verbs

2.252 Measurement nouns are often used after linking verbs such as be, measure and weigh.

The fish was about eight feet long.

It measures approximately 26 inches wide x 25 inches long.

…a square area measuring 900 metres on each side.

It weighs fifty or more kilos.

The use of adjectives after linking verbs is explained in paragraphs 3.132 to 3.137.

adjectives after measurements

2.253 When measurement nouns that give the size of something are used after a linking verb, they are often followed by an adjective that makes it clear exactly what the measurement refers to

He was about six feet tall.

The spears were about six foot long.

…a room 2 metres wide.

The water was fifteen feet deep.

…a layer of stone four metres thick.

Here is a list of the adjectives that follow measurement nouns indicating size:

broad

deep

high

long

tall

thick

wide

Note that you do not say two pounds heavy but two pounds in weight instead.

phrases beginning with in after measurements

2.254 Similarly, some measurement nouns can be followed by prepositional phrases beginning with in.

…a block of ice one cubic foot in size.

I put on nearly a stone in weight.

They are thirty centimetres in length.

…deposits measuring up to a kilometre in thickness.

It was close to ten feet in height.

Here is a list of phrases beginning with in used after measurements:

in area

in breadth

in depth

in distance

in height

in length

in size

in thickness

in volume

in weight

in width

measurement nouns used as modifiers

2.255 Measurement nouns can also be used as modifiers in front of a noun when you want to describe things in terms of their measurements.

…a 5 foot 9 inch bed.

…70 foot high mounds of dust.

…12 x 12 inch tiles.

…a five-pound bag of lentils.

Note that the measurement noun is singular.

USAGE NOTE

2.256 If you want to describe fully the size of an object or area, you can give its dimensions; that is, you give measurements of its length and width, or length, width, and depth. When you give the dimensions of an object, you separate the figures using and, by, or the multiplication sign x.

…planks of wood about three inches thick and two feet wide.

The island measures about 25 miles by 12 miles.

Lake Nyasa is 450 miles long by about 50 miles wide.

The box measures approximately 26 inches wide x 25 inches deep x 16 inches high.

If you are talking about a square object or area, you give the length of each side followed by the word square.

Each family has only one room eight or ten feet square.

The site measures roughly 35 feet square.

Square is used in front of units of length when expressing area. Cubic is used in front of units of length when expressing volume.

…a farm covering 300 square miles.

The brain of the first ape-men was about the same size as that of a gorilla, around 500 cubic centimetres.

You express temperature in degrees, using either degrees centigrade, or degrees Fahrenheit. Note that in everyday language the metric term centigrade is used to indicate temperature, whereas in scientific language the term Celsius is used which refers to exactly the same scale of measurement.

2.257 You talk about the speed of something by saying how far it can travel in a particular unit of time. To do this, you use a noun such as mile or kilometre, followed by per, a, or an, and a time noun.

The car could do only forty-five miles per hour.

Wind speeds at the airport were 160 kilometres per hour.

Warships move at about 500 miles per day.

Talking about age

2.258 When you want to say how old someone is, you have a choice of ways in which to do it. You can be exact or approximate. Similarly, when you want to say how old something is, you can use different ways, some exact, and some approximate.

talking about exact age

2.259 When you want to talk about a person’s exact age, you can do so by using

be followed by a number, and sometimes years old after the number

I was nineteen, and he was twenty-one.

I’m only 63.

She is twenty-five years old.

I am forty years old.

of (or less commonly aged) and a number after a noun

…a child of six.

…two little boys aged about nine and eleven.

a compound adjective, usually hyphenated, consisting of a number, followed by a singular noun referring to a period of time, followed by old

…a twenty-two-year-old student.

…a five-month-old baby.

…a pretty 350-year-old cottage.

…a violation of a six-year-old agreement.

a compound noun consisting of a number followed by -year-old

The servant was a pale little fourteen-year-old who looked hardly more than ten.

All the six-year-olds are taught by one teacher.

…Melvin Kalkhoven, a tall, thin thirty-five-year-old.

talking about approximate age

2.260 When you want to talk about a person’s age in an approximate way, you can do so by using

in, followed by a possessive determiner, followed by a plural noun referring to a particular range of years such as twenties and teens

He was in his sixties.

I didn’t mature till I was in my forties.

…the groups who are now in their thirties.

…when I was in my teens.

Note that you can use early, mid-, middle, or late to indicate approximately where someone’s age comes in a particular range of years.

He was then in his late seventies.

She was in her mid-twenties.

Jane is only in her early forties.

over or under followed by a number

She was well over fifty.

She was only a little over forty years old.

There weren’t enough people who were under 25.

Note that you can also use above or below followed by the age of and a number.

55 per cent of them were below the age of twenty-one.

a compound noun referring to a group of people whose age is more or less than a particular number, which consists of over or under followed by the plural form of the particular number.

The over-sixties do not want to be turned out of their homes.

Schooling for under-fives should be expanded.

This construction is not common in American English.

2.261 You can put several of the above structures after a noun to talk about the age of a person or thing.

…a woman in her early thirties.

…help for elderly ladies over 65.

She had four children under the age of five.

2.262 If you want to say that someone’s age is similar to someone else’s age, you use structures such as of his age and of her parents’ age after a noun. The of is often dropped.

A lot of girls of Helen’s age are interested in clothes.

It’s easy to make friends because you’re with people of your own age.

She will have a tough time when she plays with children her own age.

talking about the age of a thing

2.263 If you want to say what the age of a thing is, you can use

be followed by a number followed by years old

It’s at least a thousand million years old.

The house was about thirty years old.

Note that you can also use this pattern after a noun.

…rocks 200 million years old.

a compound adjective indicating the century when something existed or was made, which consists of an ordinal number and century

…a sixth-century church.

…life in fifth-century Athens.

a compound adjective, usually hyphenated, consisting of a number, followed by a singular noun referring to a period of time, followed by old

…a 1,000-year-old temple.

Approximate amounts and measurements

2.264 If you do not know the exact number, size, or quantity of something, you can give an approximate amount or measurement using one of a group of special words and expressions. Some of these words and expressions are put in front of a quantity and some are put after it.

Here is a list of some of the words and expressions used to give approximate amounts and measurements:

about

almost

a maximum of

a minimum of

approximately

around

at least

at most

at the maximum

at the most

less than

maximum

minimum

more than

nearly

no more than

odd

or less

or more

or so

or thereabouts

or under

over

roughly

some

something like

under

up to

expressing minimum amounts

2.265 Some of these expressions indicate that a number is a minimum figure and that the actual figure is or may be larger.

Here is a list of expressions that indicate a minimum number:

a minimum of

at least

minimum

more than

or more

over

plus

USAGE NOTE

2.266 You put a minimum of, more than, and over in front of a number.

He needed a minimum of 26 Democratic votes.

…a school with more than 1300 pupils.

The British have been on the island for over a thousand years.

You put or more and plus after a number or amount, and minimum after an amount.

…a choice of three or more possibilities.

This is the worst disaster I can remember in my 25 years plus as a police officer.

He does an hour’s homework per night minimum.

You put at least in front of a number or after a number or amount.

She had at least a dozen brandies.

I must have slept twelve hours at least!

expressing maximum amounts

2.267 Some of these expressions are used to indicate that a number is a maximum figure and that the actual figure is or may be smaller.

Here is a list of expressions that indicate a maximum number:

almost

a maximum of

at most

at the maximum

at the most

less than

maximum

nearly

no more than

or less

or under

under

up to

USAGE NOTE

2.268 You put almost, a maximum of, less than, nearly, no more than, under, and up to in front of a number.

The company now supplies almost 100 of the city’s restaurants.

These loans must be repaid over a maximum of three years.

…a puppy less than seven weeks old.

She had nearly fifty dollars.

We managed to finish the entire job in under three months.

Their bodies might be up to a metre wide.

You put at the maximum, at most, at the most, maximum, or less, and or under after a number.

Classes are of eight at the maximum.

The images take thirty-six hours maximum.

The area would yield only 200 pounds of rice or less.

…12 hours a week or under.

expressing approximate amounts

2.269 Some of these expressions are used to show that a number is approximate and that the actual figure could be larger or smaller.

Here is a list of the expressions showing that a number is approximate:

about

approximately

around

odd

or so

or thereabouts

roughly

some

something like

USAGE NOTE

2.270 You put about, approximately, around, roughly, some, and something like in front of a number.

About 85 students were there.

Every year we have approximately 40 pupils who take mathematics.

It would cost around 35 million pounds.

A loft conversion costs roughly £12,000.

They have to pay America some $683,000 this year.

Harrington has cheated us out of something like thirty thousand quid over the past two years.

You put odd and or so after a number or amount, and or thereabouts after an amount.

…a hundred odd acres.

For half a minute or so, neither of them spoke.

Get the temperature to 30°C or thereabouts.

2.271 You show a range of numbers using between and and, or from and to, or just to.

Most of the farms around here are between four and five hundred years old.

My hospital groups contain from ten to twenty patients.

…peasants owning two to five acres of land.

Note the use of anything before between and from, to emphasize how great the range is.

An average rate of anything between 25 and 60 per cent is usual.

It is a job that takes anything from two to five weeks.

Expanding the noun phrase

2.272 This section deals with structures that are used to add further information about the person or thing referred to. These are called qualifiers. The word that is qualified is usually a noun but can be an indefinite pronoun or those.

possible structures

2.273 The structures that are dealt with in this section are

prepositional phrases

…a girl with red hair.

…the man in the dark glasses.

The use of prepositional phrases to expand the noun phrase is explained in paragraphs 2.275 to 2.290.

adjectives followed by phrases or clauses

…machinery capable of clearing rubble off the main roads.

…the type of comments likely to provoke criticism.

…a concept inconceivable a hundred years earlier.

The use of adjectives followed by phrases or clauses to expand the noun phrase is explained in paragraphs 2.291 to 2.292.

non-finite clauses

…a simple device to test lung function.

…two of the problems mentioned above.

He gestured towards the three cards lying on the table.

The use of non-finite clauses to expand the noun phrase is explained in paragraphs 2.293 to 2.301.

noun phrases giving further information about other noun phrases. This is explained in paragraph 2.302.

2.274 Some other structures are also used. These are explained fully in other sections. They include

single words such as galore and concerned, which are explained in paragraphs 2.58 to 2.62.

relative clauses

Shortly after the shooting, the man who had done it was arrested.

Where’s that cake your mother made?

Relative clauses are explained in paragraphs 8.83 to 8.116.

place adverbs and time adverbials

…down in the dungeon beneath.

…a reflection of life today in England.

Time adverbials are explained in Chapter 4 and adverbs of place are explained in paragraphs 6.53 to 6.72.

Nouns with prepositional phrases

2.275 In general, any prepositional phrase that describes or classifies something can be used directly after a noun or pronoun.

…the man in charge.

…a film about four men on holiday.

She reached into the room behind her.

2.276 In particular, there are several kinds of prepositional phrase that are usually only used in this way. Of these, prepositional phrases beginning with of are the most numerous. Others include certain uses of with, in and by.

of

2.277 Many nouns referring to things and actions can be expanded by using prepositional phrases beginning with of after them. This allows the noun to be expanded with a wide range of meanings. You can use of with nouns referring to feelings such as love and fear to show what the feeling relates to; for example, fear of flying and love of animals. Further meanings are described in the following paragraphs.

BE CAREFUL

2.278 Personal pronouns are not usually placed after of. For example, you cannot say Joyce was the daughter of him or the pages of it. Possessive determiners are used instead to show possession. These are explained in paragraphs 1.194 to 1.210.

2.279 Prepositional phrases beginning with of can be used to show what something consists of.

…a letter of confirmation.

…strong feelings of jealousy.

They can also be used to show what the subject matter of something is.

…a picture of a house.

…Gretchen’s account of her interview with Nichols.

…the idea of death.

2.280 Prepositional phrases beginning with of can be used to say that something belongs to or is associated with someone or something.

Cental is a trademark of Monotore Ltd.

No.28 was the town house of Sir Winston Churchill.

James is the son of a Methodist minister.

The acting ability of the pupils is admirable.

…the beauty of the Welsh landscape.

Four boys sat on the floor of the living room.

Ellen aimlessly turned the pages of her magazine.

Note that apostrophe s (’s) structures are much more frequently used to say that something belongs to someone or something. Apostrophe s (’s) is explained in paragraphs 1.211 to 1.222.

2.281 Prepositional phrases beginning with of can be used to say that someone or something has a particular quality.

…a woman of energy and ambition.

…problems of varying complexity.

…a flower of monstrous proportions.

A household of this size inevitably has problems.

Of can also be used in front of a number to indicate someone’s age.

…a woman of twenty-two.

…a child of six.

Other ways of talking about age are explained in paragraphs 2.258 to 2.263.

2.282 Prepositional phrases beginning with of can be used with nouns referring to an action to show who or what is performing the action.

…the arrival of the police.

…the growth of modern industry.

They are also used to show who or what someone does something to. For example, if you are talking about people who support a scheme, you can call them the supporters of the scheme.

…supporters of the hunger strike.

…critics of the Trade Union Movement.

…the creator of the universe.

…a student of English.

…the cause of the tragedy.

Of structures are also used to indicate the thing affected by an action.

…the destruction of their city.

…the dismissal of hundreds of workers.

2.283 Prepositional phrases beginning with of and containing measurement are used to show how great an area, speed, distance, or temperature is.

There were fires burning over a total area of about 600 square miles.

It can barely maintain a speed of 25 kilometres an hour.

…an average annual temperature of 20°.

Ways of measuring things are explained in paragraphs 2.250 to 2.257.

with

2.284 Prepositional phrases beginning with with can be used to say that someone or something has a particular characteristic, feature, or possession.

…a girl with red hair.

…a girl with a foreign accent.

…a big car with reclining seats.

…a man with a violent temper.

…the man with the gun.

…those with large families.

They are also used to indicate what something has on or in it.

…a sheet of paper with writing on it.

…a round box with some buttons in it.

…a white, plain envelope with her name printed on it.

…fragments of wrapping paper with bits of sticky tape still adhering to them.

in

2.285 Prepositional phrases beginning with in can be used to say what someone is wearing.

…a grey-haired man in a raincoat.

…the man in the dark glasses.

…little groups of people in black.

by

2.286 Prepositional phrases beginning with by can be used after a noun referring to an action to say who or what is performing it.

…his appointment by the King.

…the compression of air by the piston.

with prepositional phrases

2.287 Some nouns, especially abstract nouns, need to be followed by a prepositional phrase to show what they relate to. There is often little or no choice about which preposition to use after a particular noun.

He has an allergy to peanuts.

…his authority over them.

…the solution to our energy problem.

…the bond between mother and child.

2.288 Here is a list of nouns that usually or often have to after them:

access

addiction

adherence

affront

allegiance

allergy

allusion

alternative

answer

antidote

approach

attachment

aversion

contribution

damage

devotion

disloyalty

exception

fidelity

incitement

introduction

preface

prelude

recourse

reference

relevance

reply

resistance

return

sequel

solution

susceptibility

testimony

threat

vulnerability

witness

Here is a list of nouns that usually or often have for after them:

admiration

appetite

aptitude

bid

craving

credit

cure

demand

desire

disdain

dislike

disregard

disrespect

hunger

love

need

provision

quest

recipe

regard

remedy

respect

responsibility

room

search

substitute

sympathy

synonym

taste

thirst

Here is a list of nouns that usually or often have on after them:

assault

attack

ban

claim

comment

concentration

constraint

crackdown

curb

dependence

effect

embargo

hold

insistence

reflection

reliance

restriction

stance

tax

Here is a list of nouns that usually or often have with after them:

affinity

collision

collusion

connection

contrast

correspondence

date

dealings

dissatisfaction

encounter

familiarity

identification

intersection

intimacy

involvement

link

parity

quarrel

relationship

sympathy

Here is a list of nouns that are usually followed by one of two prepositions. The list indicates the choice of prepositions available:

agreement about

agreement on

argument against

argument for

battle against

battle for

case against

case for

debate about

debate on

decision about

decision on

transition from

transition to

Here is a list of other nouns that are usually followed by a preposition.

complex about

crime against

grudge against

insurance against

reaction against

safeguard against

anger at

bond between

departure from

escape from

excerpt from

freedom from

quotation from

foray into

relapse into

awareness of

authority over

control over

As you can see from the lists and examples given above, it is often the case that words with a similar meaning are typically followed by the same preposition. For example, appetite, craving, desire, hunger, and thirst are all followed by for.

USAGE NOTE

2.289 Some nouns are related to verbs that are always or often followed by a particular preposition. These nouns are followed by the same preposition as their related verbs, and they are used to indicate the thing that is affected by the action. For example, to is used after both the verb refer and the related noun reference.

We have already referred to this phenomenon.

…reverent references to the importance of home.

They swim about busily searching for food.

…the search for food.

I want to escape from here.

…an escape from reality.

2.290 Some nouns referring to a feeling or state are related to an adjective that is usually followed by a preposition. These nouns are followed by the same preposition as their related adjectives. For example, of is used after the adjective aware and the related noun awareness.

She was quite aware of her current situation.

…the public’s increasing awareness of the problems.

He was angry at Sally Gardner for accusing him.

…her anger at the kids.

Nouns with adjectives

2.291 When adjectives are used in clauses after nouns or pronouns to expand their meaning they can be followed by

prepositional phrases

…a warning to people eager for a quick cure.

those responsible for the project.

a to-infinitive

…remarks likely to cause offence.

It has been directed against those least able to retaliate.

expressions of time or place

…a concept inconceivable a hundred years earlier.

For the facilities available here, I must ask for a fee.

Note that you can use adjectives as qualifiers when they are preceded by time or measurement expressions.

…those still alive.

…a small hill about 400 feet high.

Note also that a few adjectives, such as present and responsible, can be used on their own after a noun or pronoun. The use of these adjectives is explained in paragraphs 2.58 to 2.62.

other structures

2.292 There are some other structures, especially those that indicate comparison, degree, or result, that often involve a qualifying structure. In particular, some words that modify adjectives, such as more, too, or so, often have a qualifying structure to complete their meaning.

Peter came in, more excited than anyone had seen him before.

Ralph was too angry to think clearly.

…steel cylinders strong enough to survive a nuclear catastrophe.

…a grand piano as big as two coffins.

She was so ill that she couldn’st eat.

Technology has made such spectacular advances that it is difficult to keep up.

The use of comparative adjectives plus than after noun phrases is explained in paragraphs 2.106 to 2.108. Other ways of comparing things are explained in paragraphs 2.123 to 2.139. The use of so…that and such…that is explained in paragraphs 8.58 to 8.63.

Nouns followed by to-infinitive, -ed participle, or -ing participle: something to eat, a girl called Patricia, a basket containing eggs

2.293 The following non-finite clauses (= clauses containing a verb that has no tense) can be used to expand the meaning of a noun: to-infinitive clauses (see paragraphs 2.294 to 2.299), -ed participle clauses (see paragraph 2.300), and -ing participle clauses (see paragraph 2.301).

nouns followed by to-infinitive clauses

2.294 A to-infinitive clause is often placed after nouns in order to show what the thing referred to is intended to do.

The government of Mexico set up a programme to develop new varieties of wheat.

They need people to work in the factories.

2.295 You can refer to something or someone that should or can have something done to them by using a clause containing a to-infinitive after a noun or indefinite pronoun.

I make notes in the back of my diary of things to be mended or replaced.

…when I’ve had something to eat.

You can also use a clause consisting of a to-infinitive followed by a preposition.

There wasn’t even a chair to sit on.

He had nothing to write with.

2.296 You can also use a to-infinitive clause when you want to say that you are talking about, for example, the first, oldest, or only person who did something.

…the first woman to be elected to the council.

2.297 A clause containing a to-infinitive is used after some abstract nouns to show what action they relate to.

…people who didn’t have the opportunity to go to university.

USAGE NOTE

2.298 Many of these nouns are related to verbs or adjectives that are also often followed by to-infinitive clauses. For example, a to-infinitive clause is used after both the verb need and the noun need, and after both the adjective able and the related noun ability.

I need to borrow five thousand dollars.

…the need to preserve secrecy about their intentions.

It failed to grow.

2.299 Here is a list of nouns that usually or often have a to-infinitive clause after them:

ability

attempt

bid

chance

compulsion

desire

disinclination

failure

inability

inclination

need

opportunity

readiness

reason

refusal

unwillingness

urge

way

willingness

nouns followed by -ed participle clauses

2.300 A clause containing an -ed participle can be used directly after a noun to show that something has been produced or affected by an action.

…a girl called Patricia.

…dresses made of paper.

…two of the problems mentioned above.

…a story written by a nine-year-old girl.

nouns followed by -ing participle clauses

2.301 A clause containing an -ing participle can be used directly after a noun to show that someone or something is doing something.

He gestured towards the three cards lying on the table.

…a wicker shopping-basket containing groceries.

with an identifying noun phrase

2.302 You can give further information about someone or something by using a noun phrase that describes them or identifies them.

If you put this noun phrase after the main noun phrase, a comma is almost always put after the main noun phrase because the second noun phrase is separate from it, not part of it.

…the bald eagle, the symbol of America.

…David Beckham, a first-class football player.

Her mother, a Canadian, died when she was six.

If you put this noun phrase before the main noun phrase, you can sometimes choose whether to use a comma to separate the two noun phrases or not.

…Joan’s husband, Jim Inglis.

…my husband George.