Collins Cobuild English Grammar

2 Giving information about people

and things: adjectives, numbers,

and other modifiers

Introduction

2.1 In the previous chapter the use of nouns, pronouns, and determiners to name and identify people and things was explained. This chapter explains ways of giving more information about the people and things that have already been named or identified.

One way of giving more information within a noun phrase about people or things is by the use of an adjective, such as small, political, or blue. Adjectives can be used as modifiers of a noun or after linking verbs. They are explained in paragraphs 2.2 to 2.168.

Sometimes, nouns, rather than adjectives, are used to modify the noun. This is explained in paragraphs 2.169 to 2.174.

There are other groups of words that are used before a noun phrase to give more information about people and things. They are linked to the noun phrase by of. These include certain indefinite determiners such as many of and some of (explained in paragraphs 2.176 to 2.193), and other expressions that are used for describing a part or amount of something, such as a piece of and a bottle of (explained in paragraphs 2.194 to 2.207).

Numbers and fractions are also used to indicate the amount of people or things you are talking about. Numbers are explained in paragraphs 2.208 to 2.239 and fractions are explained in paragraphs 2.240 to 2.249.

The other way of giving more information within a noun phrase about people or things is by using a qualifier, that is, giving extra information in the form of a phrase or a clause after the noun to expand its meaning. This is explained in paragraphs 2.272 to 2.302.

Describing people and things: adjectives

2.2 When you want to give more information about something than you can give by using a noun alone, you can use an adjective to identify it or describe it in more detail.

…a new idea.

…new ideas.

…new creative ideas.

Ideas are important.

…to suggest that new ideas are useful.

main points about adjectives

2.3 The most important things to notice about an adjective in English are

what structure it is in (e.g. before a noun or after a linking verb)

what type of adjective it is (e.g. describing a quality or placing the noun in a particular class).

BE CAREFUL

2.4 The form of an adjective does not change: you use the same form for singular and plural and for subject and object.

We were looking for a good place to camp.

The next good place was forty-five miles further on.

Good places to fish were hard to find.

We found hardly any good places.

structure

2.5 Adjectives are nearly always used in connection with a noun or pronoun to give information about the person, thing, or group that is being referred to. When this information is not the main purpose of a statement, adjectives are placed in front of a noun, as in hot coffee.

The use of adjectives in a noun phrase is explained in paragraph 2.19.

2.6 Sometimes, however, the main purpose of a statement is to give the information expressed by an adjective. When this happens, adjectives are placed after a linking verb such as be or become, as in I am cold and He became ill. The use of adjectives after a linking verb is explained in paragraphs 3.122 to 3.137.

types of adjective

2.7 There is a large group of adjectives that identify qualities that someone or something has. This group includes words such as happy and intelligent. These are called qualitative adjectives.

Qualitative adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.22 to 2.25.

2.8 There is another large group of adjectives that identify someone or something as a member of a class. This group includes words such as financial and intellectual. These are called classifying adjectives.

Classifying adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.26 to 2.28.

Some adjectives are both qualitative and classifying. These are explained in paragraph 2.29.

2.9 There is a small group of adjectives that identify the colour of something. This group includes words like blue and green. They are called colour adjectives.

Colour adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.30 to 2.35.

2.10 Another small group of adjectives are used to emphasize your feelings about the person or thing you are talking about. These adjectives are called emphasizing adjectives, and they include adjectives such as complete, absolute, and utter.

Emphasizing adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.36 to 2.39.

2.11 There is a small group of adjectives that are used in a very similar way to determiners (see paragraphs 1.162 to 1.251) to make the reference more precise.

These are called postdeterminers because their place in a noun phrase is immediately after the determiner, if there is one, and before any other adjectives.

Postdeterminers are explained in paragraph 2.40.

structural restrictions

2.12 Most adjectives can be used either before the noun or after a linking verb. However, there are some that can be used only in one position or the other. This is explained in paragraphs 2.41 to 2.53.

2.13 There are a few adjectives that can be used immediately after the noun. They are explained in paragraphs 2.58 to 2.62.

order of adjectives

2.14 When two or more adjectives are used in a structure, they usually occur in a particular order. This is explained in paragraphs 2.54 to 2.57.

-ing and -ed adjectives

2.15 There are a large number of English adjectives ending in -ing, many of which are related to the -ing participle of a verb. In this grammar they are called -ing adjectives.

There are also a large number of English adjectives ending in -ed, many of which are related to the -ed participle of a verb. In this grammar they are called -ed adjectives.

-ing adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.63 to 2.76. -ed adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.77 to 2.93.

compound adjectives

2.16 Compound adjectives are made up of two or more words, usually written with hyphens between them.

Compound adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.94 to 2.102.

comparing things

2.17 When you want to compare the amount of a quality that two or more people or things have, you can use comparative and superlative adjectives. There are also some other ways of comparing things.

Comparatives are explained in paragraphs 2.103 to 2.111, and superlatives are explained in paragraphs 2.112 to 2.122. Other ways of comparing things are explained in paragraphs 2.123 to 2.139.

talking about the amount of a quality

2.18 You can also talk about the amount of a quality that something or someone has by using an adverb like totally or mildly with an adjective.

This is explained in paragraphs 2.141 to 2.168.

Adjective structures

2.19 Adjectives are used in two main structures. One of them involves adjectives coming before the noun phrase. If you say Julia was carrying an old suitcase, your main purpose is to say that Julia was carrying a suitcase. The adjective old gives more information about what kind of suitcase it was.

He was wearing a white t-shirt.

…a technical term.

…a pretty little star-shaped flower bed.

Most adjectives can be used in this way.

2.20 The other main structure involves adjectives being used after linking verbs such as be and become. Putting an adjective after a linking verb has the effect of focusing attention on the adjective. If you say The suitcase she was carrying was old, your main purpose is to describe the suitcase, so the focus is on the adjective old.

The roads are busy.

The house was quiet.

He became angry.

I feel cold.

Nobody seemed amused.

The use of adjectives after linking verbs is explained in paragraphs 3.132 to 3.137.

Most adjectives can be used in this way.

2.21 In the following examples, the first example in each pair shows an adjective being used before the noun, while the second example shows it being used with a linking verb.

There was no clear evidence.

‘That’s very clear,’ I said.

It had been a pleasant evening.

It’s not a big stream, but it’s very pleasant.

She bought a loaf of white bread.

The walls were white.

Identifying qualities: a sad story, a pretty girl

2.22 There are two main types of adjective, qualitative and classifying. Adjectives that describe a quality that someone or something has, such as sad, pretty, small, happy, healthy, wealthy, and wise, are called qualitative adjectives.

…a sad story.

…a pretty girl.

…a small child.

…a happy mother with a healthy baby.

…wealthy bankers.

I think it would be wise to give up.

gradability: very sad, rather funny

2.23 Adjectives that describe qualities are gradable, which means that the person or thing referred to can have more or less of the quality mentioned.

2.24 The usual way in which you show the amount of a quality that something or someone has is by using adverbs like very and rather in front of qualitative adjectives. This is explained in paragraphs 2.140 to 2.156.

2.25 The other way in which you can talk about the amount of a quality that something or someone has is by using a comparative, such as bigger and more interesting, or a superlative, such as the biggest and the most interesting. Comparatives and superlatives are explained in paragraphs 2.103 to 2.122.

Here is a list of qualitative adjectives:

active

angry

anxious

appropriate

attractive

bad

beautiful

big

brief

bright

broad

busy

calm

careful

cheap

clean

clear

close

cold

comfortable

common

complex

cool

curious

dangerous

dark

dear

deep

determined

different

difficult

dirty

dry

easy

effective

efficient

expensive

fair

familiar

famous

fast

fat

fine

firm

flat

frank

free

fresh

friendly

frightened

funny

good

great

happy

hard

heavy

high

hot

important

interesting

kind

large

late

light

likely

long

loose

loud

lovely

low

lucky

narrow

nervous

new

nice

obvious

odd

old

pale

patient

plain

pleasant

poor

popular

powerful

pretty

proud

quick

quiet

rare

reasonable

rich

rough

sad

safe

sensible

serious

sharp

shocked

short

sick

significant

silly

simple

slow

small

soft

special

steady

strange

strong

stupid

successful

suitable

sure

surprised

sweet

tall

terrible

thick

thin

tight

tiny

tired

typical

understanding

useful

violent

warm

weak

wet

wide

wild

worried

young

Identifying type: financial help, abdominal pains

2.26 The other main type of adjective consists of adjectives that you use to identify the type or class that something belongs to. For example, if you say financial help, you are using the adjective financial to describe what type of help you are talking about (that is, to classify help). Adjectives that are used in this way are called classifying adjectives.

…financial help.

…abdominal pains.

…a medieval manuscript.

…my daily shower.

…an equal partnership.

…a sufficient amount of milk.

Note that noun modifiers (see paragraphs 2.169 to 2.174) are used in a similar way to classifying adjectives. For example, financial matters and money matters are similar in both structure and meaning.

Here is a list of classifying adjectives:

absolute

active

actual

agricultural

alternative

annual

apparent

available

basic

central

chemical

civil

commercial

communist

conservative

cultural

daily

democratic

direct

domestic

double

due

east

eastern

economic

educational

electric

empty

external

female

financial

foreign

free

full

general

golden

historical

human

ideal

independent

industrial

inevitable

intellectual

internal

international

legal

local

magic

male

medical

mental

military

modern

moral

national

natural

negative

north

northern

nuclear

official

open

original

personal

physical

political

positive

possible

potential

private

professional

proper

psychological

public

raw

ready

real

religious

revolutionary

right

royal

rural

scientific

separate

sexual

single

social

solid

south

southern

standard

straight

sufficient

theoretical

traditional

urban

west

western

wooden

wrong

2.27 Adjectives such as British, American, and Australian, that indicate nationality or origin, are also classifying adjectives. They start with a capital letter because they are related to names of countries.

…American citizens.

Some classifying adjectives are formed from people’s names, for example Victorian and Shakespearean. They also start with a capital letter.

…Victorian houses.

2.28 Because they put something in a class, classifying adjectives are not gradable in the way that qualitative adjectives are. For example, if you do not have to pay for something, you cannot say that it is very free, or rather free. Things are either in a particular class or not in it. Therefore, classifying adjectives do not have comparatives and superlatives and are not normally used with adverbs like very and rather.

However, when you want to show that you feel strongly about what you are saying, you can use an intensifying adverb such as absolutely with a classifying adjective. This is explained in paragraphs 2.147 to 2.148.

adjectives that are of both types

2.29 Some adjectives can be either qualitative or classifying depending on the meaning. For example, in an emotional person, emotional is a qualitative adjective meaning feeling or expressing strong emotions; it has a comparative and superlative and it can be used with words like very and rather. Thus, a person can be very emotional, rather emotional, or more emotional than someone else. However, in the emotional needs of children, emotional is a classifying adjective meaning relating to a person’s emotions, and so it cannot be used with words like very or rather, and it does not have a comparative and superlative.

Here is a list of adjectives that are often used both as qualitative adjectives and as classifying adjectives:

academic

conscious

dry

educational

effective

emotional

extreme

late

modern

moral

objective

ordinary

regular

religious

revolutionary

rural

scientific

secret

similar

social

Identifying colours: colour adjectives

2.30 When you want to say what colour something is, you use a colour adjective.

…her blue eyes.

…a red ribbon.

Here is a list of the main colour adjectives:

black

blue

brown

cream

green

grey

orange

pink

purple

red

scarlet

violet

white

yellow

adding extra information to colour adjectives

2.31 If you want to specify a colour more precisely, you use a word such as light, pale, dark, deep, or bright, in front of a colour adjective.

…light brown hair.

…a pale green suit.

…a dark blue dress.

…deep red dye.

…her bright blue eyes.

These combinations sometimes have hyphens.

…a light-blue suit.

…the plant’s tiny pale-pink flowers.

Note that these words cannot be used with the colours black or white, because you cannot have different shades of black and white.

approximate colours

2.32 If you want to talk about a colour that does not have a definite name you can:

use a colour adjective with -ish added to the end

…greenish glass.

…yellowish hair.

combine two colour adjectives, often with -ish or -y on the end of the first one

…greenish-white flowers.

…a greeny blue line.

…the blue-green waves.

BE CREATIVE

2.33 You can mix colours in these ways to produce whatever new colour you are trying to describe.

comparison of colour adjectives

2.34 Colour adjectives such as blue and green occasionally have comparatives and superlatives ending in -er and -est.

His face was redder than usual.

…the bluest sky I have ever seen.

Comparatives and superlatives are explained in paragraphs 2.103 to 2.122.

colour nouns

2.35 Colours can also be nouns, and the main colours can also be plural nouns.

The snow shadows had turned to a deep blue.

They blended in so well with the khaki and reds of the landscape.

…brilliantly coloured in reds, yellows, blacks, and purples.

Showing strong feelings: complete, absolute, etc.

2.36 You can emphasize your feelings about something that you mention by putting an adjective such as complete, absolute, or utter in front of a noun.

He made me feel like a complete idiot.

Some of it was absolute rubbish.

…utter despair.

…pure bliss.

You generally use an adjective of this kind only when the noun shows your opinion about something.

Because they are used to show strong feelings, these adjectives are called emphasizing adjectives.

Here is a list of emphasizing adjectives:

absolute

complete

entire

outright

perfect

positive

pure

real

total

true

utter

adjectives for showing disapproval

2.37 A small group of adjectives ending in -ing are used in very informal spoken English for emphasis, usually to show disapproval or contempt.

Everybody in the whole stinking town was loaded with money.

Shut that blinking door!

Here is a list of adjectives used informally for emphasis:

blinking

blithering

blooming

blundering

crashing

flaming

freezing

piddling

raving

scalding

stinking

thumping

thundering

whopping

BE CAREFUL

2.38 Many of these adjectives are usually used with one particular noun or adjective after them: blithering idiot, blundering idiot, crashing bore, raving lunatic, thundering nuisance, freezing cold, scalding hot, piddling little …, thumping great …, whopping great ….

He’s driving that car like a raving lunatic!

I’ve got a stinking cold.

…a piddling little car.

very as an emphasizing adjective

2.39 The word very is sometimes used to emphasize a noun, in expressions like the very top and the very end.

…at the very end of the shop.

…the very bottom of the hill.

These molecules were formed at the very beginning of history.

Making the reference more precise: postdeterminers

2.40 There is a small group of adjectives that are used in a very similar way to determiners (see paragraphs 1.162 to 1.251) to make the reference more precise. These are called postdeterminers, because their place in a noun phrase is immediately after the determiner, if there is one, and before any other adjectives.

…the following brief description.

…certain basic human qualities.

…improvements in the last few years.

…further technological advance. He wore his usual old white coat….

…the only sensible thing to do.

You often need to make it clear precisely what you are referring to. For example, if you say Turn left at the tall building someone might ask which tall building you mean. If you say Turn left at the next tall building, there can be no doubt which one you mean. The postdeterminer next picks it out precisely.

Here is a list of adjectives that are postdeterminers:

additional

certain

chief

entire

existing

first

following

further

last

main

next

only

opposite

other

particular

past

present

previous

principal

remaining

same

special

specific

usual

Some of these adjectives are also ordinary classifying adjectives.

He had children from a previous marriage.

There are two main reasons for this.

Here is a list of postdeterminers that are also classifying adjectives:

additional

chief

existing

further

main

other

particular

past

previous

principal

remaining

specific

Adjectives that are used to show the position of something are also used for precise reference.

…the middle button of her black leather coat.

…the top 100 German companies.

Here is a list of adjectives sometimes used to talk about the position of something as well as for precise reference:

left

right

upper

lower

top

bottom

middle

end

front

back

Postdeterminers can also be used with numbers. This is explained in paragraph 2.219.

Special classes of adjectives

2.41 Most adjectives can be used both before the noun and after a linking verb, but there are some that are only used in one position or the other.

There are a few adjectives that are always or almost always used in front of a noun and are never or rarely used after a linking verb. These adjectives are called attributive adjectives.

Examples are atomic and outdoor. You can talk about an atomic explosion, but you do not say The explosion was atomic. You can talk about outdoor pursuits, but you do not say Their pursuits are outdoor.

adjectives that are only used in front of a noun

2.42 A few qualitative adjectives (see paragraphs 2.22 to 2.25) are only used in front of a noun. Here is a list of qualitative adjectives always used in this way:

adoring

belated

chequered

choked

commanding

fateful

flagrant

fleeting

knotty

paltry

punishing

ramshackle

scant

searing

thankless

unenviable

Most adjectives that are only used in front of a noun are classifying adjectives (see paragraphs 2.26 to 2.28). Here is a list of classifying adjectives used attributively:

atomic

bridal

cardiac

countless

cubic

digital

east

eastern

eventual

existing

federal

forensic

indoor

institutional

introductory

investigative

judicial

lone

maximum

nationwide

neighbouring

north

northern

occasional

orchestral

outdoor

phonetic

preconceived

remedial

reproductive

smokeless

south

southern

subterranean

supplementary

underlying

west

western

woollen

2.43 There are no colour adjectives (see paragraphs 2.30 to 2.35) that are restricted to this position.

Emphasizing adjectives (see paragraphs 2.36 to 2.39) are usually used in front of a noun.

adjectives that always follow a linking verb

2.44 Some adjectives are normally used only after a linking verb and not in front of a noun. These adjectives are called predicative adjectives.

For example, you can say She felt glad, but you do not normally talk about a glad woman.

Here is a list of adjectives usually used in this way:

afraid

alive

alone

apart

asleep

awake

aware

content

due

glad

ill

likely

ready

safe

sorry

sure

unable

unlikely

well

Note that they do not have to be followed by a prepositional phrase.

2.45 Some adjectives are usually followed by a prepositional phrase because their meaning would otherwise be unclear or incomplete. For example, you cannot simply say that someone is accustomed. You have to say that they are accustomed to something.

The following usage note explains which prepositions you use after a particular adjective.

USAGE NOTE

2.46 There are a few adjectives that are followed by the preposition to when they are used after a linking verb.

She’s allergic to cats.

Older people are particularly susceptible to heart problems.

Here is a list of adjectives that are usually or always used after a linking verb and are followed by to:

accustomed

adjacent

allergic

attributable

attuned

averse

close

conducive

devoted

impervious

injurious

integral

prone

proportional

proportionate

reconciled

related

resigned

resistant

similar

subject

subservient

susceptible

unaccustomed

2.47 There are a few adjectives that are followed by the preposition of when they are used after a linking verb.

He was aware of the danger that faced him.

They seemed capable of winning their first game of the season.

He was devoid of any talent whatsoever.

His mind seemed to have become incapable of any thought.

Here is a list of adjectives that are usually or always used after a linking verb and are followed by of:

aware

bereft

capable

characteristic

desirous

devoid

fond

full

heedless

illustrative

incapable

indicative

mindful

reminiscent

representative

2.48 There are a few adjectives that are followed by the preposition with when they are used after a linking verb.

His surprise became tinged with disbelief.

The plastic has to be compatible with the body tissues that make contact with it.

This way of life is fraught with danger.

Here is a list of adjectives that are usually or always used after a linking verb and are followed by with:

compatible

consonant

conversant

filled

fraught

riddled

tinged

2.49 Some adjectives are followed by other prepositions when they are used after a linking verb.

These ideas are rooted in self-deception.

Didn’t you say the raid was contingent on the weather?

Darwin concluded that people were descended from apes.

Here is a list of adjectives that are usually or always used after a linking verb and are followed by the preposition indicated:

contingent on

descended from

inherent in

lacking in

rooted in

steeped in

swathed in

unhampered by

In some cases, there is a choice between two prepositions.

Many of their courses are connected with industry.

Such names were arbitrarily given and were not connected to any particular event.

Here is a list of adjectives that are usually or always used after a linking verb and that are followed by the prepositions shown:

answerable for

answerable to

burdened by

burdened with

connected to

connected with

dependent on

dependent upon

immune from

immune to

inclined to

inclined towards

incumbent on

incumbent upon

insensible of

insensible to

intent on

intent upon

parallel to

parallel with

reliant on

reliant upon

stricken by

stricken with

2.50 Different is most commonly followed by from. It is also sometimes followed by to in British English or than in American English.

Students today are different from the students ten years ago.

adjectives followed by to-infinitive clauses

2.51 To complete the meaning of some adjectives that are used predicatively, you need to follow with a clause beginning with a to-infinitive. For example, you cannot just say He is unable. You have to add a clause beginning with to-infinitive such as to do: He is unable to do it. To-infinitive clauses are explained in the Reference Section.

They were unable to help her.

I am willing to try.

She is bound to notice there’s something wrong.

I’m inclined to agree with the minister.

Here is a list of adjectives that are always or nearly always followed by a to-infinitive clause:

able

bound

destined

doomed

due

fated

fit

inclined

liable

likely

loath

prepared

unable

unwilling

willing

2.52 You can also use a clause beginning with a to-infinitive after many other adjectives to give more information about something.

I was afraid to go home.

I was happy to see them again.

He was powerless to prevent it.

I was almost ashamed to tell her.

The path was easy to follow.

Note that the subject of the main clause is also the subject of the to-infinitive clause.

adjectives followed by that-clauses

2.53 When adjectives that refer to someone’s beliefs or feelings are used after a linking verb, they are often followed by a that-clause (see paragraphs 8.119 to 8.121). The subject of the that-clause is not always the same as the subject of the main clause, so you need to specify it.

She was sure that he meant it.

He was frightened that something terrible might be said.

I’m aware that I reached a rather large audience through the book.

Note that the word that is not always used in a that-clause.

They were sure she had been born in the city.

Here is a list of common adjectives often followed by a that-clause:

afraid

angry

anxious

aware

certain

confident

frightened

glad

happy

pleased

proud

sad

sorry

sure

surprised

unaware

upset

worried

Note that all of these adjectives except angry, aware, unaware, upset, and worried can also be followed by a to-infinitive.

I was afraid that she might not be able to bear the strain.

Don’t be afraid to ask questions.

She was surprised that I knew about it.

The twins were very surprised to see Ralph.

Position of adjectives in noun phrases

2.54 When you use more than one adjective in a noun phrase, the usual order for the adjectives is: qualitative adjectives, followed by colour adjectives, followed by classifying adjectives.

…a little white wooden house.

…pretty black lacy dresses.

…a large circular pool of water.

…a beautiful pink suit.

…rapid technological advance.

…a nice red apple.

…the black triangular fin.

This order is nearly always followed in English. Occasionally however, when you want to focus on a particular characteristic of the person or thing you are describing, you can vary this order, especially when one of the adjectives refers to colour or size.

…a square black hole.

Note that you sometimes put a comma or and between adjectives. This is explained in paragraphs 8.180 to 8.186 and paragraph 8.201.

…the long, low caravan.

It was a long and tedious business.

2.55 Comparatives (see paragraphs 2.103 to 2.111) and superlatives (see paragraphs 2.112 to 2.122) normally come in front of all other adjectives in a noun phrase.

…better parental control.

…the highest monthly figures on record.

position of noun modifiers and adjectives

2.56 When a noun phrase contains both an adjective and a noun modifier (see paragraphs 2.169 to 2.174) the adjective is placed in front of the noun modifier.

…the booming European car industry.

…the world’s biggest and most prestigious book fair.

two or more adjectives after a linking verb

2.57 When you use two adjectives after a linking verb, you use a conjunction, usually and, to link them. If you use more than two adjectives, you usually put a conjunction such as and between the last two adjectives and commas between the others. This is fully explained in paragraphs 8.180 to 8.186 and paragraph 8.201.

The room was large and square.

We felt hot, tired, and thirsty.

Note that you put the adjectives in the order that you think is the most important.

adjectives after nouns

2.58 There are a few adjectives that are usually or always used after a noun. Here is a list showing the different groups of adjectives used after a noun:

designate

elect

galore

incarnate

manqué

~

broad

deep

high

long

old

tall

thick

wide

~

concerned

involved

present

proper

responsible

~

affected

available

required

suggested

USAGE NOTE

2.59 The adjectives designate, elect, galore, incarnate, and manqué are only used immediately after a noun.

She was now president elect.

There are empty houses galore.

2.60 The adjectives broad, deep, high, long, old, tall, thick, and wide are used immediately after measurement nouns when giving the size, duration, or age of a thing or person. This use is fully explained in paragraph 2.253.

…six feet tall.

…three metres wide.

…twenty five years old.

2.61 The adjectives concerned, involved, present, responsible, and proper have different meanings depending on whether you put them in front of a noun or immediately after one. For example, the concerned mother describes a mother who is anxious, but the mother concerned simply refers to a mother who has just been mentioned.

…the approval of interested and concerned parents.

The idea needs to come from the individuals concerned.

All this became a very involved process.

He knew all of the people involved.

…the present international situation.

Of the 18 people present, I know only one.

…parents trying to act in a responsible manner.

…the person responsible for his death.

…a proper training in how to teach.

…the first round proper of the FA Cup.

2.62 The adjectives affected, available, required, and suggested can be used in front of a noun or after a noun without any change in meaning.

Newspapers were the only available source of information.

…the number of teachers available.

…the required changes.

You’re way below the standard required.

…the cost of the suggested improvements.

The proposals suggested are derived from successful experiments.

Aside from the affected child, the doctor checks every other member of the household.

…the proportion of the population affected.

Special forms: -ing adjectives

2.63 There are many adjectives ending in -ing. Most of them are related in form to the -ing participles of verbs. In this grammar they are called -ing adjectives.

He was an amiable, amusing fellow.

He had been up all night attending a dying man.

The -ing form is explained in the Reference Section.

describing an effect

2.64 One group of -ing adjectives describe the effect that something has on your feelings and ideas, or on the feelings and ideas of people in general.

…an alarming increase in burglaries.

A surprising number of men do not marry.

…a charming house on the outskirts of the town.

…a warm welcoming smile.

2.65 These adjectives are normally qualitative adjectives. This means that they can be used with a submodifying adverb (a word like very or rather), and have comparatives and superlatives.

…a very convincing example.

There is nothing very surprising in this.

…a very exciting idea.

…a really pleasing evening at the theatre.

When Bernard moans he’s much more convincing.

…one of the most boring books I’ve ever read.

2.66 They can be used in front of a noun or after a linking verb.

They can still show amazing loyalty to their parents.

It’s amazing what they can do.

…the most terrifying tale ever written.

The present situation is terrifying.

2.67 These -ing adjectives have a related transitive verb that you use to describe the way someone is affected by something. For example, if you speak of an alarming increase, you mean that the increase alarms you. If you speak of a surprising number, you mean that the number surprises you.

Here is a list of -ing adjectives that describe an effect and that have a similar meaning to the usual meaning of the related verb:

alarming

amazing

amusing

annoying

appalling

astonishing

astounding

bewildering

boring

challenging

charming

compelling

confusing

convincing

demeaning

depressing

devastating

disappointing

disgusting

distracting

distressing

disturbing

embarrassing

enchanting

encouraging

entertaining

exciting

frightening

harassing

humiliating

infuriating

inspiring

interesting

intimidating

intriguing

menacing

misleading

mocking

overwhelming

pleasing

refreshing

relaxing

rewarding

satisfying

shocking

sickening

startling

surprising

tempting

terrifying

threatening

thrilling

tiring

welcoming

worrying

Transitive verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.14 to 3.25.

describing a process or state

2.68 The other main group of -ing adjectives are used to describe a process or state that continues over a period of time.

…her growing band of supporters.

Oil and gas drillers are doing a booming business.

…a life of increasing labour and decreasing leisure.

2.69 These adjectives are classifying adjectives, so they are not used with words like very and rather. However, adjectives used to identify a process are often modified by adverbs that describe the speed with which the process happens.

…a fast diminishing degree of personal freedom.

…rapidly rising productivity.

2.70 These -ing adjectives have related intransitive verbs.

Here is a list of -ing adjectives that describe a continuing process or state and that have a similar meaning to the usual meaning of the related verb:

ageing

ailing

bleeding

booming

bursting

decreasing

diminishing

dwindling

dying

existing

increasing

living

prevailing

recurring

reigning

remaining

resounding

rising

ruling

Intransitive verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.8 to 3.13.

2.71 These -ing adjectives are only used in front of a noun, so when -ing forms of intransitive verbs appear after the verb be they are actually part of a progressive form.

BE CREATIVE

2.72 In English, you can make most verbs into adjectives by adding -ing to the verb and putting it in front of the noun, to say what someone or something is doing.

…a walking figure.

…FIFA, world football’s ruling body.

…bands performing in front of screaming crowds.

…two years of falling employment.

…a tremendous noise of smashing glass.

form and meaning

2.73 Most of the -ing adjectives talked about so far are related to verbs. Sometimes however, -ing adjectives are not related to verbs at all. For example, there is no verb to neighbour.

Whole families came from neighbouring villages.

Here is a list of -ing adjectives that are not related to verbs:

appetizing

balding

cunning

enterprising

excruciating

impending

neighbouring

scathing

unwitting

2.74 Sometimes, an -ing adjective is related to an uncommon use of a verb, or appears to be related to a verb but is not related exactly to any current use. For example, the verb haunt is most commonly used in connection with ghosts, but the adjective haunting is more often used to talk about such things as songs and memories. A haunting tune is a tune you cannot forget.

Here is a list of qualitative -ing adjectives that are not related to a common transitive use of a verb:

becoming

bracing

cutting

dashing

disarming

engaging

fetching

halting

haunting

moving

penetrating

piercing

pressing

promising

rambling

ravishing

retiring

revolting

searching

taxing

trying

Here is a list of classifying -ing adjectives that are not related to a common intransitive use of a verb:

acting

driving

floating

gathering

going

leading

missing

running

2.75 Some adjectives are derived from a verb and a prefix. For example, outgoing is derived from the verb go and the prefix out-. There is no verb to outgo.

Wouldn’t that cause a delay in outgoing mail?

Here is a list of -ing adjectives derived from a verb and a prefix:

forthcoming

incoming

oncoming

ongoing

outgoing

outstanding

overarching

overbearing

uplifting

upstanding

2.76 A small group of -ing adjectives are used in informal spoken English for emphasis, usually to express disapproval. This use is explained in paragraphs 2.41 to 2.42.

Some compound adjectives (see paragraphs 2.94 to 2.102) end in -ing.

Special forms: -ed adjectives

2.77 A large number of English adjectives end in -ed. Many of them have the same form as the -ed participle of a verb. Others are formed by adding -ed to a noun. Others are not closely related to any other words.

…a disappointed man.

…a bearded man.

…sophisticated electronic devices.

2.78 Adjectives with the same form as irregular -ed participles (see the Reference Section) that do not end in -ed are also included here as -ed adjectives.

Was it a broken bone, a torn ligament, or what?

The -ed participles of some phrasal verbs (see paragraphs 3.83 to 3.116) can also be used as adjectives. When they are used in front of a noun, the two parts of the phrasal verb are usually written with a hyphen between them.

…the built-up urban mass of the city.

2.79 Most -ed adjectives are related to a transitive verb and have a passive meaning. They show that something has happened or is happening to the thing being described. For example, a frightened person is a person who has been frightened by something. A known criminal is a criminal who is known by the police.

We have a long list of satisfied customers.

We cannot refuse to teach children the required subjects.

qualitative -ed adjectives

2.80 -ed adjectives that refer to a person’s mental or emotional reaction to something are generally qualitative.

He was a worried old man.

…a bored old woman.

…an interested student.

These adjectives can be modified by words such as very and extremely, just like other qualitative adjectives (see paragraphs 2.140 to 2.156).

form and meaning

2.81 Like other adjectives used for talking about feelings, these adjectives are often used to describe the expression, voice, or manner of the person affected, instead of referring directly to that person.

…her big blue frightened eyes.

She could hear his agitated voice.

Barry gave him a worried look.

2.82 Here is a list of qualitative -ed adjectives that have a similar meaning to the most common meaning of the related verb:

agitated

alarmed

amused

appalled

astonished

bored

confused

contented

delighted

depressed

deprived

disappointed

disgusted

disillusioned

distressed

embarrassed

excited

frightened

inhibited

interested

pleased

preoccupied

puzzled

satisfied

shocked

surprised

tired

troubled

worried

Here is a list of qualitative -ed adjectives that do not have a similar meaning to the usual meaning of the related verb:

animated

attached

concerned

determined

disposed

disturbed

guarded

hurt

inclined

mixed

strained

classifying -ed adjectives

2.83 Many other -ed adjectives are used for classifying, and so cannot be used with words like very and rather. For example, a furnished apartment is one type of apartment, contrasting with an apartment without furniture.

…a furnished apartment.

…a painted wooden bowl.

…the closed bedroom door.

Most adjectives that refer to physical distinctions are classifying adjectives.

2.84 Here is a list of classifying -ed adjectives that have a similar meaning to the most common meaning of the related verb:

abandoned

armed

blocked

boiled

broken

canned

classified

closed

concentrated

condemned

cooked

divided

drawn

dried

established

fixed

furnished

haunted

hidden

improved

infected

integrated

known

licensed

loaded

paid

painted

processed

reduced

required

torn

trained

united

wasted

Here is list of -ed classifying adjectives that have a different meaning from the most common meaning of the related verb:

advanced

marked

noted

pointed

spotted

veiled

modifying -ed adjectives

2.85 Classifying -ed adjectives cannot normally be modified with words like quite and very. However, an adverb of manner, (see paragraphs 6.36 to 6.44) or an adverb of degree, (see paragraphs 6.45 to 6.52) is often used before an -ed adjective.

For example, a pleasantly furnished room is a room that has been furnished with pleasant furniture.

…pleasantly furnished rooms.

…a well-known novelist.

2.86 Some -ed adjectives are not often used on their own, and an adverb is necessary to complete the sense. You do not usually talk about dressed people, but you can say that they are well dressed or smartly dressed for example. The -ed adjectives in the following examples nearly always have an adverb in front of them.

…a cautiously worded statement.

…impeccably dressed men.

It was a richly deserved honour.

…superbly cut clothes.

…the existence of a highly developed national press.

…a well organized campaign.

…a tall, powerfully built man.

She gazed down at his perfectly formed little face.

Note that combinations like this are sometimes hyphenated, making them compound adjectives.

…a well-equipped army.

-ed adjectives with an active meaning

2.87 A few -ed adjectives are related to the -ed participle of intransitive verbs and have an active meaning, not a passive meaning. For example, a fallen tree is a tree that has fallen.

…a capsized ship.

She is the daughter of a retired army officer.

…an escaped prisoner.

Here is a list of -ed adjectives with an active meaning:

accumulated

dated

escaped

faded

fallen

retired

swollen

wilted

-ed adjectives after linking verbs

2.88 Most -ed adjectives can be used both in front of a noun and after a linking verb.

The worried authorities decided to play safe. My husband was worried.

A small number of -ed adjectives are normally only used after a linking verb. Often, they are followed by a preposition, a to-infinitive, or a that-clause.

I was thrilled by the exhibition.

The Brazilians are pleased with the results.

…food destined for areas of south Sudan.

He was always prepared to account for his actions.

Here is a list of -ed adjectives often used after a linking verb, with or without a phrase or clause after them:

convinced

delighted

interested

intimidated

intrigued

involved

pleased

prepared

scared

thrilled

tired

touched

Here is a list of -ed adjectives normally used after a linking verb with a phrase or clause after them:

agreed

destined

dressed

finished

lost

prepared

shut

stuck

BE CREATIVE

2.89 The -ed participle of almost any transitive verb can be used as an adjective, though some are more commonly used than others.

…she said, with a forced smile.

There was one paid tutor and three volunteer tutors.

The recovered animals will be released.

…the final corrected version.

BE CREATIVE

2.90 Some -ed adjectives are formed from nouns. For example, if a living thing has wings, you can describe it as winged. If someone has skills, you can describe them as skilled.

…winged angels.

…a skilled engineer.

She was dressed in black and carried a black beaded purse.

…armoured cars.

…the education of gifted children.

-ed adjectives formed from nouns

2.91 Here is a list of -ed adjectives formed from nouns:

armoured

barbed

beaded

bearded

detailed

flowered

freckled

gifted

gloved

hooded

mannered

pointed

principled

salaried

skilled

spotted

striped

turbaned

walled

winged

-ed adjectives formed from nouns are commonly used as the second part of compound adjectives (see paragraph 2.94 to 2.102) such as grey-haired and open-minded.

-ed adjectives unrelated to verbs or nouns

2.92 There are also some -ed adjectives in regular use that are not related to verbs or nouns in the ways described above. For example, there are no words parch or belove. There is a noun concert, but the adjective concerted does not mean having a concert.

He climbed up the dry parched grass to the terrace steps.

…a complex and antiquated system of taxation.

…attempts to mount a concerted campaign.

…the purchase of expensive sophisticated equipment.

2.93 Here is a list of -ed adjectives that are not related to verbs or nouns:

antiquated

ashamed

assorted

beloved

bloated

concerted

crazed

deceased

doomed

indebted

parched

rugged

sophisticated

tinned

Compound adjectives

2.94 Compound adjectives are made up of two or more words, usually written with hyphens between them. They may be qualitative, classifying, or colour adjectives.

I was in a light-hearted mood.

She was dressed in a bottle-green party dress.

…the built-up urban mass of the city.

…an air-conditioned restaurant.

…a good-looking girl.

…one-way traffic.

…a part-time job.

formation patterns

2.95 These are the most common and least restricted patterns for forming compound adjectives:

adjective or number plus noun plus -ed, e.g. grey-haired and one-sided

adjective or adverb plus -ed participle, e.g. low-paid and well-behaved

adjective, adverb, or noun plus -ing participle, e.g. good-looking, long-lasting and man-eating.

Note that compound adjectives describe simple concepts: a good-looking person looks good, and a man-eating beast eats humans. More complex descriptions in English need to be given using a following phrase or clause.

2.96 These are less common and more restricted patterns for forming compound adjectives:

noun plus -ed participle, e.g. tongue-tied and wind-swept

noun plus adjective, e.g. accident-prone, trouble-free

adjective plus noun, e.g. deep-sea, present-day

-ed participle plus adverb, e.g. run-down, cast-off

number plus singular countable noun, e.g. five-page, four-door

Note that compound adjectives formed according to the last of these patterns are always used in front of a noun.

compound qualitative adjectives

2.97 Here is a list of compound qualitative adjectives:

able-bodied

absent-minded

accident-prone

big-headed

clear-cut

close-fitting

cold-blooded

easy-going

far-fetched

far-reaching

good-looking

good-tempered

hard-up

hard-wearing

ill-advised

kind-hearted

labour saving

laid-back

light-hearted

long-lasting

long-standing

long-suffering

low-cut

low-paid

low-slung

mind-blowing

mouth-watering

muddle-headed

narrow-minded

nice-looking

off-colour

off-hand

off-putting

old-fashioned

one-sided

open-minded

run-down

second-class

second-rate

shop-soiled

short-handed

short-lived

short-sighted

short-tempered

slow-witted

smooth-talking

soft-hearted

starry-eyed

strong-minded

stuck-up

sun-tanned

swollen-headed

tender-hearted

thick-skinned

tongue-tied

top-heavy

trouble-free

two-edged

two-faced

warm-hearted

well-balanced

well-behaved

well-dressed

well-known

well-off

wind-blown

worldly-wise

wrong-headed

compound classifying adjectives

2.98 Here is a list of compound classifying adjectives:

air-conditioned

all-out

all-powerful

audio-visual

blue-blooded

bow-legged

brand-new

breast-fed

broken-down

broken-hearted

built-up

bullet-proof

burnt-out

cast-off

clean-shaven

cross-Channel

cross-country

cut-price

deep-sea

deep-seated

double-barrelled

double-breasted

drip-dry

drive-in

duty-bound

duty-free

empty-handed

face-saving

far-flung

first-class

free-range

free-standing

freeze-dried

front-page

full-blown

full-face

full-grown

full-length

full-scale

gilt-edged

grey-haired

half-price

half-yearly

hand-picked

high-heeled

home-made

ice-cold

interest-free

knee-deep

last-minute

late-night

lead-free

left-handed

life-size

long-distance

long-lost

long-range

loose-leaf

made-up

man-eating

mass-produced

middle-aged

never-ending

north-east

north-west

nuclear-free

odds-on

off-guard

off-peak

one-way

open-ended

open-mouthed

panic-stricken

part-time

present-day

purpose-built

ready-made

record-breaking

red-brick

remote-controlled

right-angled

right-handed

second-class

second-hand

see-through

silver-plated

single-handed

so-called

so-so

south-east

south-west

strong-arm

tax-free

tone-deaf

top-secret

unheard-of

wide-awake

world-famous

worn-out

year-long

compound colour adjectives

2.99 Here is a list of compound colour adjectives:

blood-red

blue-black

bottle-green

dove-grey

electric-blue

flesh-coloured

ice-blue

iron-grey

jet-black

lime-green

navy-blue

nut-brown

off-white

pea-green

pearl-grey

royal-blue

shocking-pink

sky-blue

snow-white

long compound adjectives

2.100 A few compound adjectives are made up of more than two words. Compounds of three or more words are often written with hyphens when they are used in front of nouns, and without hyphens when they are used after a linking verb.

…the day-to-day chores of life.

…a down-to-earth approach.

…a free-and-easy relationship.

…life-and-death decisions.

…a trip to an out-of-the-way resort.

Their act is out of date.

2.101 Some compound adjectives seem rather odd because they contain words that are never used as single words on their own, for example namby-pamby, higgledy-piggledy, and topsy-turvy. Words like these are usually informal.

…all that artsy-craftsy spiritualism.

…his la-di-da family.

foreign compound adjectives

2.102 Some compound adjectives are borrowed from foreign languages, especially from French and Latin.

…the arguments once used to defend laissez-faire economics.

…their present per capita fuel consumption.

In the commercial theatre, almost every production is ad hoc.

Here is a list of compound adjectives borrowed from other languages:

à la mode

a posteriori

a priori

ad hoc

ad lib

au fait

avant-garde

bona fide

compos mentis

cordon bleu

de facto

de jure

de luxe

de rigueur

de trop

ex gratia

hors de combat

infra dig

laissez-faire

non compos mentis

per capita

prima facie

pro rata

sub judice

Comparing things: comparatives

2.103 You can describe something by saying that it has more of a quality than something else. You do this by using comparative adjectives. Only qualitative adjectives usually have comparatives, but a few colour adjectives also have them. Comparatives normally consist of the usual form of the adjective with either -er added to the end, as in harder and smaller, or more placed in front, as in more interesting and more flexible.

Note that good and bad have the irregular comparative forms better and worse.

The patterns for forming regular and irregular comparatives are explained in the Reference Section.

in front of a noun

2.104 Comparatives can be used as modifiers in front of a noun.

The family moved to a smaller home.

He dreams of a better, more exciting life.

A harder mattress often helps with back injuries.

Note that comparatives can also be used as modifiers in front of one.

An understanding of this reality provokes a better one.

after a linking verb

2.105 Comparatives can also be used after a linking verb.

The ball soaked up water and became heavier.

His breath became quieter.

We need to be more flexible.

The use of adjectives after linking verbs is explained in paragraphs 3.132 to 3.137.

structures used after comparatives

2.106 Comparatives are often followed by than when you want to specify what the other thing involved in the comparison is. You say exactly what you are comparing by using one of a number of structures after than.

These structures can be

noun phrases

Charlie was more honest than his predecessor.

…an area bigger than Mexico.

Note that when than is followed by a pronoun on its own, the pronoun must be an object pronoun such as me, him, or her.

My brother is younger than me.

Lamin was shorter than her.

phrases that start with a preposition

The changes will be even more striking in the case of teaching than in medicine.

The odds of surviving childhood in New York City are worse than in some Third World countries.

clauses

I would have done a better job than he did.

I was a better writer than he was.

He’s taller than I am.

Note that when a comparative is not followed by a than phrase, the other thing in the comparison should be obvious. For example, if someone says Could I have a bigger one, please? they are likely to be holding the item that they think is too small.

A mattress would be better.

position of comparatives

2.107 If you choose a phrase or clause beginning with than when you are using a comparative in front of a noun, you usually put the phrase or clause after the whole noun phrase, not directly after the comparative.

The world is a more dangerous place than it was.

Willy owned a larger collection of books than anyone else I have ever met.

A comparative can also come immediately after a noun, but only when it is followed by than and a noun phrase.

We’ve got a rat bigger than a cat living in our roof.

…packs of cards larger than he was used to.

more and more than

2.108 More is sometimes used in front of a whole noun phrase to show that something has more of the qualities of one thing than another, or is one thing rather than being another.

Music is more a way of life than an interest.

This is more a war movie than a western.

Note that more than is used before adjectives for emphasis.

Their life may be horribly dull, but they are more than satisfied.

You would be more than welcome.

comparatives used as nouns

2.109 Comparative adjectives are sometimes used as noun-type words in fairly formal English. In such phrases, you put the in front of it, and follow it with of and a noun phrase that refers to the two things being compared.

…the shorter of the two lines.

Dorothea was the more beautiful of the two.

There are two windmills, the larger of which stands a hundred feet high.

If it is clear what you are talking about, you can omit of and the following noun phrase.

Notice to quit must cover the rental period or four weeks, whichever is the longer.

less

2.110 The form that is used to say that something does not have as much of a quality as something else is less followed by an adjective.

The answer had been less truthful than his own.

You can also use less and an adjective to say that something does not have as much of a quality as it had before.

As the days went by, Sita became less anxious.

Note that less than is used before adjectives to express a negative idea.

It would have been less than fair.

contrasted comparatives

2.111 You show that one amount of a quality or thing is linked to another amount by using two contrasted comparatives preceded by the.

The smaller it is, the cheaper it is to post.

The more militant we became, the less confident she became.

The larger the organization, the less scope there is for decision.

Comparing things: superlatives

2.112 Another way of describing something is to say that it has more of a quality than anything else of its kind. You do this by using a superlative adjective. Only qualitative adjectives usually have superlatives, but a few colour adjectives also have them. Superlatives normally consist of either -est added to the end of an adjective and the placed in front of it, as in the hardest and the smallest, or of the most placed in front of the adjective, as in the most interesting and the most flexible.

Note that good and bad have the irregular superlative forms the best and the worst.

The patterns for forming regular and irregular superlatives of adjectives are explained in the Reference Section.

Note that superlative adjectives are nearly always preceded by the, because you are talking about something definite. Occasionally, when superlatives are used after a linking verb, the is omitted (see paragraph 2.117).

BE CAREFUL

2.113 Adjectives with most in front of them are not always superlatives. Most can also mean very.

This book was most interesting.

My grandfather was a most extraordinary man.

Words like very and rather are called submodifying adverbs. These are explained in paragraphs 2.140 to 2.156.

used in front of a noun

2.114 Superlatives can be used as modifiers in front of a noun.

He was the cleverest man I ever knew.

It was the most exciting summer of their lives.

She came out of the thickest part of the crowd.

Now we come to the most important thing.

…the oldest rock paintings in North America.

…the most eminent scientists in Britain.

Note that superlatives are also used as modifiers in front of one.

No one ever used the smallest one.

used after a linking verb

2.115 Superlatives are also used after a linking verb.

He was the youngest.

The sergeant was the tallest.

The use of adjectives after linking verbs is explained in paragraphs 3.132 to 3.137.

structures used after superlatives

2.116 You can use a superlative on its own if it is clear what is being compared. For example, if you say Paul was the tallest, you are referring to a group of people that has already been identified.

If you need to refer to the point of the comparison, you use a phrase or clause that consists of

phrases that start with a preposition, usually in or of

Henry was the biggest of them.

The third requirement is the most important of all.

These cakes are probably the best in the world.

Note that if the superlative is placed in front of a noun, the preposition comes after the noun.

…the best hotel for families.

I’m in the worst business in the world.

a relative clause

It’s the best I’m likely to get.

The waiting room was the worst I had seen.

Note that if the superlative is placed in front of a noun, the relative clause comes after the noun.

That’s the most convincing answer that you’ve given me.

USAGE NOTE

2.117 You usually put the in front of the superlative, but you can occasionally omit it, especially in informal speech or writing.

Wool and cotton blankets are generally cheapest.

It can be used by whoever is closest.

However, you cannot omit the when the superlative is followed by of or another structure showing what group of things you are comparing. So, for example, you can say Amanda was the youngest of our group or Amanda was the youngest or Amanda was youngest, but you cannot say Amanda was youngest of our group.

You can sometimes use the possessive form of a noun or a possessive determiner instead of the in front of a superlative. Often the possessive form of a noun is used instead of a phrase beginning with a preposition. For example, you can say Britain’s oldest man instead of the oldest man in Britain.

…the world’s most popular cheese.

…my newest assistant.

The possessive form of nouns is explained in paragraphs 1.211 to 1.222, and possessive determiners are explained in paragraphs 1.194 to 1.210.

used with other adjectives

2.118 A superlative is sometimes accompanied by another adjective ending in -able or -ible. This second adjective can be placed either between the superlative and the noun or after the noun.

…the narrowest imaginable range of interests.

…the most beautiful scenery imaginable.

…the longest possible gap.

I say that in the nicest way possible.

superlatives used as nouns

2.119 Superlative adjectives are sometimes used like nouns in fairly formal English. When you use a superlative adjective in this way, you put the in front of it, and follow it with of and a noun or pronoun that refers to the things being compared. When superlative adjectives are used in this way they can refer to one thing or to more than one.

They are often too poor to buy or rent even the cheapest of houses.

He made several important discoveries.

The most interesting of these came from an examination of an old manuscript.

If it is clear what you are talking about, you can omit of and the following noun phrase.

There are three types of ant-eater.

The smallest lives entirely in trees.

USAGE NOTE

2.120 In informal speech, people often use a superlative rather than a comparative when they are talking about two things. For example, someone might say The train is quickest rather than The train is quicker when comparing a train service with a bus service. However, some people think that it is better to use superlatives only when comparing more than two things.

used with ordinal numbers: the second biggest city

2.121 Ordinal numbers are used with superlatives to show that something has more of a quality than nearly all other things of their kind. For example, if you say that a mountain is the second highest mountain, you mean that it is higher than any other mountain except the highest one.

Cancer is the second biggest cause of death in Britain.

…the second most important man in her life, her hairdresser.

It is Japan’s third largest city.

Ordinal numbers are explained in paragraphs 2.232 to 2.239.

the least

2.122 When you want to show that something has less of a quality than anything else, you use the least followed by an adjective.

This is the least popular branch of medicine.

Similarly, when you are talking about a group of things that have less of a quality than other things of their kind, you use the least.

…the least savage men in the country.

Other ways of comparing things: saying that things are similar

2.123 Another way of describing things is by saying that something is similar in some way to something else.

talking about things with the same quality

2.124 If you want to say that a thing or person has as much of a quality as something or someone else, you can use a structure based on the word as in front of a qualitative adjective. Usually this adjective is followed by a phrase or clause that also begins with as.

This can be

a phrase beginning with the preposition as

You’re just as bad as your sister.

…huge ponds as big as tennis courts.

Takings were as high as ever.

a clause introduced by as

Conversation was not as slow as I feared it would be.

The village gardens aren’t as good as they used to be.

2.125 When this comparative structure is followed by a phrase consisting of as and a pronoun on its own, the pronoun must be an object pronoun such as me, him, or her.

Jane was not as clever as him.

However, when the comparative structure is followed by a clause consisting of as and a pronoun that is the subject of a clause, then that pronoun must be a subject pronoun such as I, he or she.

They aren’t as clever as they appear to be.

2.126 If it is clear what you are comparing something or someone to, you can omit the phrase or clause.

Frozen peas are just as good.

2.127 You can also use the as…as… structure to say that something has much more or less of a quality than something else. You do this by putting an expression such as twice, three times, ten times, or half in front of the first as. For example, if one building is ten metres high and another building is twenty metres high, you can say that the second building is twice as high as the first building or that the first building is half as high as the second one.

The grass was twice as tall as in the rest of the field.

Water is eight hundred times as dense as air.

This structure is often used in the same way to refer to qualities that cannot be measured. For example, if you want to say that something is much more useful than something else, you can say that the first thing is a hundred times as useful as the second one.

Without this help, rearing our children would be ten times as hard as it is.

USAGE NOTE

2.128 When the as…as… structure is preceded by not, it has the same meaning as less…than. For example, I am not as tall as George means the same as I am less tall than George. Some people use not so…as… instead of not as…as….

The film is not as good as the book.

The young otter is not so handsome as the old.

2.129 Words like just, quite, nearly and almost can be used in front of this comparative structure, modifying the comparison with their usual meanings.

Sunburn can be just as severe as a heat burn.

The use of these words in comparison is explained in paragraphs 2.157 to 2.168.

2.130 When you are using the as…as… structure you sometimes put a noun after the adjective and before the following phrase or clause. This noun must begin with a or an. For example, instead of saying This knife is as good as that one, you can say This is as good a knife as that one.

I’m as good a cook as she is.

This was not as bad a result as they expected.

Sometimes, instead of using not before this structure, you use not such followed by a or an, an adjective, a noun, and as.

Water is not such a good conductor as metal.

2.131 Instead of using this as…as… structure you can use expressions such as the height of and the size of to show that something is as big as something else, or bigger or smaller.

The tumour was the size of a golf ball.

It is roughly the length of a man’s arm.

like

2.132 If something has similar qualities or features to something else, instead of using the as…as… comparative structure you can say that the first thing is like the second one. You do this by using phrases beginning with like after linking verbs.

He looked like an actor.

That sounds like an exaggeration.

The whole thing is like a bad dream.

Here is a list of the linking verbs used with like:

be

feel

look

seem

smell

sound

taste

When you want to say that one thing resembles another, you can use a phrase beginning with like after these linking verbs.

It was like a dream.

Sometimes I feel like a prisoner here.

He looked like a nice man.

The houses seemed like mansions.

You smell like a tramp!

It sounded like a fine idea.

2.133 Like has the comparative more like and less like, and the superlative most like and least like.

It made her seem less like a child.

Of all his children, she was the one most like me.

USAGE NOTE

2.134 You can use words like exactly and just in front of like.

He looks just like a baby.

She looked like a queen, just exactly like a queen

This is explained in paragraph 2.165.

same as

2.135 If you want to say that one thing is exactly like something else, you can say that it is the same as the other thing.

The rich are the same as the rest of us.

The same as can be followed by a noun phrase, a pronoun, or a clause.

24 Spring Terrace was the same as all its neighbours.

Her colouring was the same as mine.

The furnishings are not exactly the same as they were when we lived there.

If two or more things are exactly like each other, you can say that they are the same.

Come and look! They’re exactly the same.

They both taste the same.

You use the same when you are comparing people or things with other people or things that you have just mentioned.

It looks like a calculator and weighs about the same.

The message was the same.

The end result is the same.

Note that you use the opposite and the reverse in a similar way.

The kind of religious thoughts I had were just the opposite.

Some people think that a healthy diet is expensive, but in fact the reverse is true.

USAGE NOTE

2.136 You can use words like nearly and exactly in front of the same as and the same.

They are virtually the same as other single cells.

You two look exactly the same.

Here is a list of words used in the same way with the same as and the same:

almost

exactly

just

more or less

much

nearly

virtually

These words are explained in paragraphs 2.140 to 2.168.

2.137 You can put a noun such as size, length, or colour after the same. For example, if you want to say that one street is as long as another one, you can say that the first street is the same length as the second one, or that the two streets are the same length.

Its brain was about the same size as that of a gorilla.

They were almost the same height.

adjectives meaning the same

2.138 The adjectives alike, comparable, equivalent, identical, and similar are also used to say that two or more things are like each other. You can put the preposition to after all of them except alike in order to mention the second of the things being compared.

They all looked alike.

The houses were all identical.

Flemish is similar to Afrikaans.

modifying adjectives used in comparisons

2.139 When you want to suggest that you are comparing different amounts of a quality, you can use words like comparatively, relatively, and equally.

Psychology’s a comparatively new subject.

The costs remained relatively low.

Her technique was less dramatic than Ann’s, but equally effective.

He was extra polite to his superiors.

Talking about different amounts of a quality

2.140 When you want to say something more about the quality that an adjective describes, you can use a submodifying adverb such as very or rather with it. You do this in order to indicate the amount of the quality, or to intensify it.

submodifying adverbs: extremely narrow, slightly different

2.141 Because qualitative adjectives are gradable, allowing you to say how much or how little of the quality is relevant, you are more likely to use submodifying adverbs (words like extremely or slightly) with them than with other types of adjective.

…an extremely narrow road.

…a highly successful company.

…in a slightly different way.

I was extraordinarily happy.

…helping them in a strongly supportive way.

…a very pretty girl.

She seems very pleasant.

…a rather clumsy person.

His hair was rather long.

2.142 You can use words like very and extremely with some classifying adjectives (see paragraphs 2.146 to 2.148) and with colour adjectives (see paragraph 2.35). Note that most -ed adjectives can be modified by words such as very and extremely, just like other qualitative adjectives.

…a very frightened little girl.

…an extremely disappointed young man.

intensifying qualitative adjectives

2.143 You can use many submodifying adverbs like very or extremely with qualitative adjectives in order to intensify their meaning.

…extremely high temperatures.

Geoffrey was a deeply religious man.

France is heavily dependent on foreign trade.

Here is a list of words used to intensify the meaning of adjectives:

amazingly

awfully

bitterly

critically

dangerously

deeply

delightfully

disturbingly

dreadfully

eminently

especially

exceedingly

extraordinarily

extremely

fantastically

greatly

heavily

highly

hopelessly

horribly

hugely

impossibly

incredibly

infinitely

notably

particularly

radically

really

remarkably

seriously

strikingly

supremely

surprisingly

suspiciously

terribly

unbelievably

very

violently

vitally

wildly

wonderfully

Note that very can be used in front of superlative adjectives when you want to be very emphatic. This is explained in paragraphs 2.167 to 2.168.

2.144 Many of these submodifying adverbs not only intensify the meaning of the adjective but also allow you to express your opinion about what you are saying. For example, if you say that something is surprisingly large, you are expressing surprise at how large it is as well as intensifying the meaning of large.

He has amazingly long eyelashes.

…a delightfully refreshing taste.

…a shockingly brutal scene.

…a horribly uncomfortable chair.

…incredibly boring documents.

However, you use a few of these submodifying adverbs with no other purpose than to intensify the meaning of the adjective.

They’re awfully brave.

The other girls were dreadfully dull companions.

Here is a list of words only used to intensify adjectives:

awfully

dreadfully

especially

extremely

greatly

highly

really

so

terribly

very

Note that awfully, dreadfully, and terribly are used in informal language and highly is used in very formal language.

Note also that so is normally only used after a linking verb.

I am so sorry.

reducing qualitative adjectives

2.145 Some submodifying adverbs are used to reduce the effect of qualitative adjectives.

The story was mildly amusing.

It’s a fairly common feeling.

…moderately rich people.

…his rather large stomach.

My last question is somewhat personal.

Here is a list of words used to reduce the effect of an adjective:

faintly

fairly

mildly

moderately

pretty

quite

rather

reasonably

slightly

somewhat

Note also that quite is normally only used with adjectives that are used after a linking verb.

She was quite tall.

talking about extent

2.146 Some modiifying adverbs are used to talk about the extent of the quality that you are describing.

Here is a list of words used to talk about the extent of a quality:

almost

exclusively

fully

largely

mainly

mostly

nearly

partly

predominantly

primarily

roughly

~

absolutely

altogether

completely

entirely

perfectly

purely

quite

simply

totally

utterly

USAGE NOTE

2.147 The first group in the list above are used almost always just to talk about the extent of a quality. They are most commonly used with classifying adjectives.

It was an almost automatic reflex.

…a shop with an exclusively female clientele.

…the largely rural south east.

The wolf is now nearly extinct.

The reasons for this were partly economic and practical, and partly political and social.

Almost and nearly are also used with qualitative adjectives.

The club was almost empty.

It was nearly dark.

Note that roughly can be used when you want to say that something is nearly or approximately like something else.

West Germany, Japan and Sweden are at roughly similar levels of economic development.

Note also that half is sometimes used in this way. For example, you can describe someone as half American if just one of their parents was American.

2.148 The second group in the list above are used not only to talk about the extent of a quality but also to emphasize the adjective. They are used with classifying adjectives as well as qualitative adjectives.

You’re absolutely right.

This policy has been completely unsuccessful.

Everyone appeared to be completely unaware of the fact.

The discussion was purely theoretical.

It really is quite astonishing.

…a totally new situation.

We lived totally separate lives.

…utterly trivial matters.

Note that absolutely is frequently used with qualitative adjectives that express enthusiasm or lack of enthusiasm. When you use absolutely in this way you are emphasizing how strongly you feel about what you are saying.

…an absolutely absurd idea.

I think it’s absolutely wonderful.

The enquiry is absolutely crucial.

Here is a list of qualitative adjectives often emphasized by absolutely:

absurd

awful

brilliant

certain

crucial

enormous

essential

excellent

furious

hilarious

huge

impossible

massive

perfect

ridiculous

splendid

terrible

vital

wonderful

Note also that completely and utterly can also be used in this way.

It is completely impossible to imagine such a world.

He began to feel utterly miserable.

saying that there is enough of something

2.149 You can use submodifying adverbs such as adequately, sufficiently, and acceptably when you want to say that someone or something has enough of the quality you are describing.

The roof is adequately insulated.

We found a bank of snow sufficiently deep to dig a cave.

USAGE NOTE

2.150 You can also show that you think something is sufficient by using enough. Enough always comes after the adjective, and never before it.

I was not a good enough rider.

It seemed that Henry had not been careful enough.

Enough can be followed by the preposition for to indicate a person involved, or by a to-infinitive to indicate a related action.

A girl from the factory wasn’t good enough for him.

If you find that the white wine is not cold enough for you, ask for some ice to be put in it.

The children are old enough to travel to school on their own.

None of the fruit was ripe enough to eat.

Note that when enough is used after an adjective, you can use just in front of the adjective to show that someone or something has enough of the quality described by the adjective, but no more than that.

Some of these creatures are just large enough to see with the naked eye.

2.151 Enough is also a determiner (see paragraphs 1.223 to 1.247).

He hasn’t had enough exercise.

When enough is a determiner, it can have a word like just or almost in front of it.

There was just enough space for a bed.

I have almost enough tokens for one book.

saying that there is not enough of something

2.152 If you want to show that you think something you are describing is insufficient, you can use submodifying adverbs such as inadequately, insufficiently, and unacceptably.

…people growing up in insufficiently supportive families.

Their publications were inadequately researched.

saying that there is too much of something

2.153 If you want to say that you think someone or something has too much of a quality, you normally use too in front of a qualitative adjective that is used after a linking verb.

My feet are too big.

It was too hot.

Dad thought I was too idealistic.

You can emphasize too by putting far in front of it. In informal English you can also use way.

The journey was far too long.

It was far too hot to work in the garden.

The price was way too high.

Too can be followed by the preposition for to indicate a person involved or by a to-infinitive to indicate a related action.

The shoes were too big for him.

He was too old for that sort of thing.

She was too weak to lift me.

He was too proud to apologize.

Note that you do not usually use too with an adjective in front of a noun, although you do use too in front of the determiners many, much, and few.

There is too much chance of error.

Too few people nowadays are interested in literature.

You ask too many questions, Sam.

BE CAREFUL

2.154 Too cannot be used instead of very. Rather than saying I am too happy to meet you, you must say I am very happy to meet you.

2.155 Other words that indicate too much of a quality are excessively, overly, and the prefix over-. These can be used, like too, with adjectives that come after a linking verb, but they can also be used with adjectives in front of a noun.

…excessively high accident rates.

…an intellectual but over-cautious man.

They were overly eager.

BE CREATIVE

2.156 As well as adverbs of degree like excessively and insufficiently, you can use some other types of adverb in front of adjectives to modify their meaning.

…the once elegant palace.

…a permanently muddy road.

…internationally famous golfers.

…naturally blonde hair.

…coolly elegant furniture.

…purposely expensive gadgets.

Adverbs are explained in Chapter 6.

Saying things are different

2.157 When you are using comparative adjectives, you may want to say that something has much more or much less of a quality than something else. You do this by adding words like much or a little.

It is a much better school than yours.

These creatures are much less mobile.

There are far worse dangers.

Some children are a lot more difficult than others.

You also use these words to say that something has much more or much less of a quality than it had before.

He had become much more mature.

That’s much less important than it was.

2.158 Some modifying words and phrases are only used when comparative adjectives are being used after linking verbs.

You look a lot better.

It would be a good deal easier if you came to my place.

The journey back was a great deal more unpleasant than the outward one had been.

Here is a list of modifying words and phrases used in front of comparative adjectives after a linking verb:

a good deal

a great deal

a lot

heaps

lots

Note that lots and heaps are only used in informal spoken English.

2.159 However, other submodifying adverbs can be used with comparative adjectives that are being used either in front of a noun or after a linking verb.

They are faced with a much harder problem than the rest of us.

The risk from smoking is much greater if you have a weak heart.

Computers can be applied to a far wider range of tasks.

The delay was far longer than they claimed.

Here is a list of submodifying adverbs used with adjectives that are used both in front of a noun and after a linking verb:

considerably

far

infinitely

much

vastly

very much

USAGE NOTE

2.160 If you want to say that something has more of a quality than something else that already has a lot of it, you use even or still before a comparative adjective, or still after it.

She’s even lazier than me!

She was even more possessive than Rosamund.

I had a still more recent report.

The text is actually worse still.

Similarly, you use even or still to say that something has less of a quality than something else that has little of this quality.

This did not happen before the war, and is now even less likely.

You also use even or still when comparing the amount of a quality that something has at one time with the amount that it has at another.

The flight was even faster coming back.

They will become richer still.

In formal or literary English, yet is sometimes used in the same way as still.

He would have been yet more alarmed had she withdrawn.

The planes grow mightier yet.

2.161 You can show that something has an increasing or decreasing amount of a quality by repeating comparative adjectives. For example, you can say that something is getting bigger and bigger, more and more difficult, or less and less common.

He’s getting taller and taller.

…defences that were proving more and more effective.

Increasingly can be used instead of more and more and decreasingly instead of less and less.

I was becoming increasingly depressed.

It was the first of a number of increasingly frank talks.

2.162 If you want to say that something has a little more or a little less of a quality than something else, you use rather, slightly, a bit, a little bit, or a little with comparative adjectives.

It’s a rather more complicated story than that.

She’s only a little bit taller than her sister.

You also use these forms to say that something has a little more or a little less of a quality than it had before.

We must be rather more visible to people in the community.

…the little things that made life slightly less intolerable.

2.163 If you want to say emphatically that something has no more of a quality than something else or than it had before, you can use no in front of comparative adjectives.

Some species of dinosaur were no bigger than a chicken.

Any is used for emphasis in front of comparatives in negative clauses, questions, and conditional clauses. For example, He wasn’t any taller than Jane means the same as He was no taller than Jane.

I was ten and didn’t look any older.

If it will make you any happier, I’ll shave off my beard.

Is that any clearer?

Note that you only use no and any like this when comparatives are being used after a linking verb. You cannot use no and any with comparatives when they are being used in front of a noun phrase. For example, you cannot say It was a no better meal or Is that an any faster train?

2.164 When you use the comparative structure as … as … (see paragraphs 2.124 to 2.130), submodifying words such as just, quite, nearly, and almost can be used in front of it, modifying the comparison with their usual meanings.

Mary was just as pale as he was.

There is nothing quite as lonely as illness.

…a huge bird which was nearly as big as a man.

The land seemed almost as dark as the water.

Nearly is also used when the as … as … structure is preceded by not with the meaning less……than. You put it after the not. For example, I am not nearly as tall as George means the same as I am much less tall than George.

This is not nearly as complicated as it sounds.

2.165 When you use like to describe someone or something by comparing them with someone or something else (see paragraphs 2.132 to 2.134), you can use a submodifying adverb in front of it.

…animals that looked a little like donkeys.

It’s a plane exactly like his.

Here is a list of modifying words and phrases used with like:

a bit

a little

exactly

just

quite

rather

somewhat

very

2.166 When you use the same as and the same to describe someone or something by saying they are identical to someone or something else, you can use a number of submodifying adverbs in front of them, including just, exactly, much, nearly, virtually, and more or less.

I’m just the same as everyone else.

The situation was much the same in Germany.

The moral code would seem to be more or less the same throughout the world.

2.167 When you are using superlative adjectives, you may wish to say that something has much more or much less of a quality than anything else of its kind.

The submodifying adverbs much, quite, easily, by far, and very can be used with the superlative adjectives.

Much, quite, and easily are placed in front of the and the superlative.

Music may have been much the most respectable of his tastes. …the most frightening time of my life, and quite the most dishonest.

This is easily the best film of the year.

By far can be placed either in front of the and the superlative or after the superlative.

They are by far the most dangerous creatures on the island. The Union was the largest by far.

2.168 Very is only used with superlatives formed by adding -est or with irregular superlatives such as the best and the worst. Very is placed between the and the superlative.

…the very earliest computers.

It was of the very highest quality.

Very is also used to modify superlative adjectives when you want to be very emphatic. It is placed after a determiner such as the or that and in front of a superlative adjective or one such as first or last.

…in the very smallest countries.

…one of the very finest breeds of dogs.

…on the very first day of the war.

He had come at the very last moment.

That very next afternoon he was working in his room.

He spent weeks in that very same basement.

Modifying using nouns: noun modifiers

2.169 Nouns can be used as modifiers in front of other nouns when you want to give more specific information about someone or something.

Sometimes, when nouns are used like this they become fixed expressions called compound nouns (see paragraphs 1.83 to 1.92).

When the nouns used in front of other nouns are not in fixed expressions, they are called noun modifiers.

…the car door.

…tennis lessons.

…a football player.

…cat food.

…the music industry.

…a surprise announcement.

singular and plural forms

2.170 You normally use the singular form of a countable noun (see paragraphs 1.15 to 1.22) as a noun modifier, even when you are referring to more than one thing. For example, you refer to a shop that sells books as a book shop, not a books shop, even though it sells a large number of books, not just one.

Many plural nouns lose their -s endings when used in front of other nouns.

…my trouser pocket.

…pyjama trousers.

…paratroop attacks.

Here is a list of common plural nouns that lose their -s and -es endings when they are used as modifiers:

knickers

paratroops

pyjamas

scissors

spectacles

troops

trousers

However, some plural nouns keep the same form when used in front of other nouns.

…arms control.

…clothes pegs.

Here is a list of common plural nouns that remain the same when they are used as modifiers:

arms

binoculars

clothes

glasses

jeans

sunglasses

Plural nouns are explained in paragraphs 1.41 to 1.46.

using more than one noun modifier

2.171 If you want to be even more specific, you can use more than one noun modifier. For example, a car insurance certificate is a certificate that shows that a car has been insured, and a state pension scheme is a scheme that is run by the state and concerns workers’ pensions.

…a Careers Information Officer.

…car body repair kits.

…a family dinner party.

…a school medical officer.

used with adjectives

2.172 If you want to give more information about a noun that has a noun modifier in front of it, you can put adjectives in front of the noun modifier.

…a long car journey.

…a new scarlet silk handkerchief.

…complex business deals.

…this beautiful morning sunlight.

…the French film industry.

When an adjective comes in front of two nouns, it is usually obvious whether it is modifying the two nouns combined or only the noun modifier.

For example, in an electric can opener, the adjective electric is modifying the combination can opener; whereas in electric shock treatment, electric is modifying the noun shock and then both the adjective and the noun modifier are modifying the noun treatment.

Adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.2 to 2.102.

use of proper nouns

2.173 Proper nouns can also be used as noun modifiers. For example, if you want to show that something is connected with a place, organization, or institution, you put the name of the place, organization, or institution in front of all other noun modifiers. You also put them in front of classifying adjectives.

…Brighton Technical College.

…the Cambridge House Literacy Scheme.

Proper nouns are explained in paragraphs 1.52 to 1.58.

BE CREATIVE

2.174 The use of noun modifiers in English is very common indeed. In fact, when the context makes it clear what you mean, you can use almost any noun to modify any other noun. You can use noun modifiers to talk about a wide range of relationships between the two nouns.

For example, you can say what something is made of, as in cotton socks. You can also say what is made in a particular place, as in a glass factory. You can say what someone does, as in a football player, or you can say where something is, as in my bedroom curtains.

You can say when something happens, as in the morning mist and her wartime activities. You can also describe the nature or size of something, as in a surprise attack and a pocket chess-set.

Talking about quantities and amounts

2.175 This section deals with ways of talking about quantities and amounts of things. You often refer to quantities by using a number, but sometimes in everyday situations you can do this by using a word or a phrase such as several or a lot and link it with of to the following noun. Quantity expressions like these are explained in paragraphs 2.176 to 2.193. When phrases such as a bottle are used like this, they are called partitives. Partitives are explained in paragraphs 2.194 to 2.207.

When you want to be very precise about the quantity or amount of something, you can use numbers (see paragraphs 2.208 to 2.239) or fractions (see paragraphs 2.240 to 2.249).

Numbers, fractions, and quantity expressions are also used in expressions of measurement to indicate the size, weight, length, and so on, of something. Ways of talking about measurements are explained in paragraphs 2.250 to 2.257. Approximate measurements are explained in paragraphs 2.264 to 2.271. Numbers are also used to say how old someone or something is. This is explained in paragraphs 2.258 to 2.263.

Talking about amounts of things: a lot of ideas, plenty of shops

2.176 When you want to talk about a quantity of things or an amount of something, you can use the pronoun form of some indefinite determiners (such as all or both) followed by of and a noun phrase.

I am sure both of you agree with me.

Most of the population have fled.

All of her children live abroad.

2.177 Here is the list of indefinite determiners that can be used in this way. Of is given after each as a reminder.

all of

another of

any of

both of

each of

either of

enough of

(a) few of

fewer of

less of

(a) little of

lots of

many of

more of

most of

much of

neither of

none of

one of

several of

some of

You can also use a phrase such as a lot of or a number of to talk about quantity in the same way.

…a house with lots of windows.

I make a lot of mistakes.

In Tunis there are a number of art galleries.

I never found the rest of my relatives.

2.178 Here is a list of phrases that can be used to talk about quantity.

an amount of

a bit of

a little bit of

a couple of

a good deal of

a great deal of

a lot of

a good many of

a great many of

a number of

plenty of

a quantity of

~

a majority of

the majority of

a minority of

~

part of

the remainder of

the rest of

the whole of

~

gobs of (American)

heaps of

loads of

masses of

tons of

Note that the words in the last group in this list are used in informal speech only.

only with definite determiners

2.179 Some of these quantity expressions are linked by of only to noun phrases that begin with a definite determiner such as the, these, or my. A pronoun such as us, them, or these can also be used after of.

Nearly all of the increase has been caused by inflation.

Part of the farm lay close to the river bank.

Only a few of them were armed.

Here is a list of quantity expressions with of that are usually or always followed by noun phrases beginning with definite determiners:

all of

another of

any of

both of

certain of

each of

either of

enough of

few of

fewer of

less of

little of

many of

more of

most of

much of

neither of

none of

one of

part of

several of

some of

various of

~

a few of

a little of

a good many of

a great many of

~

the remainder of

the rest of

the whole of