Collins Cobuild English Grammar

The grammar of academic English

Introduction

When you write or speak in academic contexts, it is important to:

be clear about what you want to say

connect and sequence your message

establish your relationship with the reader appropriately.

The language you choose is related to the purpose of your text. This will vary according to (i) the form in which your message will be presented and (ii) your audience.

A lecture or seminar presents information and points out areas of disagreement. A lecture is often certain in tone, but it raises questions that can be explored. A seminar is an occasion where views are presented and discussed. The speaker often uses you and we.

An essay or assignment brings together and discusses information. A dissertation or a journal article investigates a topic. These texts are formal, and the tone is generally impersonal.

A textbook presents information for teaching and reference: it tells the reader what is known, and its tone suggests certainty.

Being clear about what you want to say: noun and verb phrases

The aim of academic speech and writing is to communicate a message precisely, and without using too many words. In order to achieve this, speakers and writers concentrate information mainly in noun and verb phrases.

Research involves investigating or analysing a subject. This means that nouns and verbs used in academic texts often relate to processes and concepts.

Nominalization

Verbs are often nominalized (= made into nouns) in order to focus the reader on a concept or idea instead of the action. For example:

verb noun demonstrate demonstration discover discovery measure measurement assess assessment assist assistance maintain maintenance

The demonstration of brain mechanisms at work is not proof that rehabilitation has been achieved.

In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie announced their discovery of a new element.

After an initial measurement of the patient’s blood glucose, they are given 50g of soluble lactose to drink.

They base their assessment of risk on available scientific evidence.

The maintenance of blood pressure is achieved less rapidly as we age.

Laboratory technicians can provide assistance when required.

The noun phrase (1): Premodifying noun phrases

Premodification allows you to concentrate a lot of information in the noun phrase. You can build the noun phrase in the following ways:

noun + noun (+ noun)

…a food preservation process.

adverb + -ed participle + noun + noun (+ noun)

…a recently developed food preservation process.

…strongly motivated history students.

…a well-organized advertising campaign.

-ed adjectives

Some -ed adjectives (see 2.77 to 2.93) carry the meaning of something that has already been completed.

…finalized plans. (= plans that have been agreed)

…a previously exhibited work of art. (= a work of art that has been shown previously)

…a closed case. (= a case belonging to the group of cases that have been solved)

…a recently completed project. (= a project that has recently been finished)

adverb + -ed participle + adjective + noun + noun (+ noun)

…a recently developed cost effective food preservation process.

…a newly discovered major oil field.

-ing adjectives

-ing adjectives (see 2.63) are used for describing an effect or a process, or a state that continues over a period of time.

Further changes may well bring diminishing returns.

…measures to control the rising cost of living.

Using more than four premodifiers makes the noun phrase difficult to understand, especially when this consists only of nouns. For example:

…the school team game playing area.

In this case, it would be better to use a prepositional phrase (see prepositional phrases below).

…playing areas for school team games.

The noun phrase (2): Postmodifying noun phrases

When you need to be more precise about the noun phrase, or to give the reader more information, you can use a relative clause, a participle or infinitive clause, or a prepositional phrase.

To identify a subject clearly, you use a defining relative clause introduced by a relative pronoun (see 1.146 to 1.150). The most common relative pronoun in academic English is which:

A magnet is a device which strongly attracts certain metals.

reducing the relative clause

The relative clause is often reduced in academic writing. You can reduce the relative clause in the following ways.

leaving out the relative pronoun (when the defining relative clause refers to the object of the sentence).

The hard drive was erased because of the confidential information (which) it contained.

using a participle clause

Participle clauses reduce the relative clause to either an -ing participle or an -ed participle.

…one of the hundreds of Internet entrepreneurs (who are) launching startups in Palo Alto.

They recommend four to twelve doses (which are) given a few days apart.

Other common verbs that are used to reduce the relative clause are use, base, cause, make and concern.

using an infinitive clause

Infinitive clauses are less frequent than participle clauses. An infinitive clause often suggests that it is important to do something.

A problem to watch for is loosening of the joints at the top of the legs.

(…instead of A problem which you should watch for is…)

There are some basic psychological principles to bear in mind.

(…instead of There are some basic psychological principles which you should bear in mind.)

replacing the relative clause with a prepositional phrase.

When a relative clause contains have, you can reduce it to a prepositional phrase using with:

Parliament is a national governing body with the highest level of legislative power.

(…instead of …a national governing body which has the highest level…)

When a relative clause contains is + preposition, you can reduce it to a simple prepositional phrase:

A second central concept (which is) at the core of much developmental research is…

adding an identifying noun phrase

You can give further information about a person or thing by using a noun phrase that describes or identifies them or it (see 2.302).

The Marianas Trench, 11,034 m at its deepest point, is deeper than the height of Mount Everest.

A quicker alternative, a simple search program, makes it easier to search the corpus.

This is common when you are introducing or defining acronyms, abbreviations or technical terms.

The Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) has issued a draft report.

non-defining relative clauses

A non-defining relative clause is not needed to identify the person, thing or group you are talking about; instead, it gives the reader more information about the subject, or it evaluates or comments on the subject (see 8.85).

Dark matter, which may be invisible for many reasons, has become increasingly important.

The verb phrase

In general, academic English is less concerned with events, and more concerned with what has been learnt from the event. Therefore, the focus of the sentence moves away from the verb phrase to the noun phrase. Verbs are often nominalized (= made into nouns) – see Nominalization.

The range of tenses used in academic English is more restricted than in everyday English: simple forms of verbs are used more frequently; progressive forms, the past perfect, and the future perfect are used less often.

The tense you use shows your attitude and other people’s attitude to the subject. For example, it shows whether a piece of research or an idea is still generally accepted or not.

the present simple

The present simple is commonly used in the following ways.

to refer to something that you believe is still valid

The two theories are known as ‘ridge push’ versus ‘slab pull’ respectively.

to state continuing objectives

The aim is to direct the energy of the radiation to kill the cancerous cells.

to describe general principles or laws

When water freezes, it expands.

to explain or discuss data or results.

The results show that only a portion of world trade is affected.

to make reference to or relate events in literary works, films, etc.

Shakespeare, in King Lear, emphasizes the social causes of madness.

the present perfect

The present perfect is commonly used in the following ways.

to review research

There is a vast literature looking at development issues, the main elements of which have been reviewed here.

to make a general statement about the state of research activity in a given area

Little research has been done on microscopic plastics.

to summarize a text

In light of the evidence that has been reviewed thus far in this book…

the past simple

The past simple is commonly used in the following ways:

to indicate that something happened or was true at a particular time in the past, and that it may be less valid today

The almost universal view was that the liver was the main organ in the blood system.

to describe samples and procedures

A full study was conducted with a sample of managers from the UK head office.

to report findings

Their research showed that over half of all cancer cases could be prevented.

will

Will is used to state your intention.

This study will examine the effects of depression.

Will often occurs with an adverb such as often or probably, because academic writers must avoid suggesting that their personal ideas and theories are facts.

The desert regions will probably become more extensive.

Changes in practice will often be the result of a long political process.

linking verbs

Linking verbs are used for describing a situation or a quality, and so they occur frequently in academic English. Linking verbs that are commonly used in academic English are be, become, look, remain, seem, appear, prove, and represent (see 3.126 to 3.181).

At first glance, the system seems overwhelmingly complex.

Scientists fear that some viruses may prove challenging to deal with.

The source of the information must remain anonymous.

Common complements include:

nouns

The results of this experiment remain a secret.

Their decision represents a turnaround.

adjectives

The patients appeared to be immune to the HIV virus.

Predictions for next year look increasingly uncertain.

object complements

You can put a noun or adjective complement after the object of some transitive verbs. This complement describes the object, and is called an object complement.

They cannot keep the options of both politics and terrorism open.

Television scored significantly higher amongst those who found politics interesting.

Some analysts do not consider it a virus.

Ordering and connecting your message

There are several ways of using language to hold your whole message together and to give it meaning. The first step is to arrange content into a recognizable pattern. When you are planning a piece of work or a talk, you can use the following pattern to sequence your ideas:

describe a situation outline any problems suggest a solution provide an evaluation.

The following sections describe techniques for ensuring that your writing or speech holds together well, and that both your intention and your message are clear:

using grammatical structures and vocabulary to signpost your intention

referring back and referring forward

providing connectors to hold sections together.

Using grammatical structures and vocabulary to ‘signpost’ your intention

There are several ways in which you can use grammatical structures and vocabulary within a section of text to express the following ideas:

the arrangement of events in time

procedure (= how something is done)

cause and effect

comparisons and contrast

advantages and disadvantages.

arrangement of events in time

If you want to show that one thing happened soon after the other, you can use a finite verb in the main clause, and an -ing participle in the subordinate clause:

They headed rapidly for the Channel ports, showing their passports at the barriers.

You can also indicate the order in which things happened using ordinals and adverbs such as first, then, later, etc.

Later, in December 1985, the committee decided …

procedure

You can use the same structure – a finite verb in the main clause, and an -ing participle in the subordinate clause – to show how something is done.

Researchers determined the size of each machine, taking into account the properties of the material.

cause/effect

The same structure can be used to show that one thing happened as a result of another.

Many of the men returned home, causing local unemployment.

Note that you can also indicate cause and effect in a main clause using a verb such as cause, lead to, or result in, or a noun such as effect, result, or outcome.

The consumption of an excessive number of sweets can cause obesity.

The effect of the famine in 1921–22 was devastating.

comparison and contrast

You can compare and contrast information in the following ways.

using a sentence connector

Conversely, the effect of intravenous administration of the drug is immediate.

By contrast, the more recent publication is more straightforward.

using a comparative adverb

Owner-controlled companies performed better than those subject to management control.

using a verb

The aim of this report is to compare and contrast these two business structures.

We will compare our own findings with those of Mortimore et al. (1988).

These findings contrast strongly with those from other tests.

for and against

You can provide an evaluation leading to a conclusion in the following ways.

using an adjective

This method of production is preferable.

using a verb

Consumers prefer our products for their quality and finish.

using a noun

This type of surgery has the advantage that no abdominal incision is needed.

using an adverbial clause of reason or purpose

This type of organization should be much smaller, since it will not need personnel concerned with line management.

You must take as much care as possible, in order to avoid accidents.

Referring back and referring forward

The most common way of making a text hold together is to refer back to something that you have mentioned earlier, by using pronouns, demonstratives, determiners, and adjectives (see 10.2 to 10.39). It is also common to refer forward, particularly in longer texts (see 10.40 to 10.47).

referring back

This and those are common in academic contexts:

…they had commissioned a specific piece of research. This came somewhat late.

There were, however, wide differences of opinion about party chances. Some of those differences…

Note that the demonstrative is often linked with a noun referring to:

spoken events

That’s a good question.

ideas

This view is also held by Rey and Stiglitz (1988).

actions and events

During this process, cracks appeared in the limestone.

This situation continued for almost two decades.

pieces of writing

As this research has shown, customer brand loyalty is very hard to achieve.

You use such as a determiner and predeterminer to refer back (9.29 and 9.30).

They generally agree on which aspects of police work they like and dislike. Such a consensus was originally explained as…

The report highlights the high level of overcrowding in some prisons. In such circumstances…

Other words and expressions used for referring back are previous, above, and the former … the latter.

The previous arguments have pointed to two ways in which the system might be improved.

What is said above gives the background to what follows.

The French have two words for citizenship: ‘citoyenté’ and ‘civisme’, the former describing the status, the latter, attitude and behaviour.

referring forward

To refer forward to sections of the text, you can use:

following as an adjective, or the following, to refer to texts, ideas, and pieces of writing (see 10.43)

Symptoms of the condition may include any of the following: chest pains, headache, difficulty breathing, and joint pain.

The following passage summarizes Schmidt’s views:…

the adverb below, normally after nouns referring to texts and pieces of writing (see 10.45)

The trade blockade with India, described below, resulted in severe energy shortages.

sentence connectors

Sentence connectors show the relationship between two sentences, clauses, or sections of text. The following are particularly common in academic speech and writing:

function sentence connectors indicating a further argument additionally, in addition, also, furthermore, moreover indicating a similar situation again, equally, likewise, similarly indicating contrast alternatively, in contrast, conversely, even so, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, although indicating cause accordingly, as a result, as a consequence, consequently, hence, thereby, therefore, thus indicating purpose in order to, so that, lest

The style of your message

Once you have decided on your message, you need to formulate it so that you can achieve the effect you are aiming for. Common ways of presenting information are described below.

Distancing

Present your text using an impersonal voice. This allows you to focus on the issues rather than on the people involved. The structures below are especially useful for avoiding I.

impersonal it

You can remove focus from people by using impersonal it (see 9.31 to 9.45).

It is almost an occupational hazard accepted by virologists.

Use impersonal it and a passive form of a reporting verb if your message is an opinion held by an unspecified group of people (see 7.69 to 7.73).

It is widely believed that this substance is harmful.

It is acknowledged that resources are unevenly distributed.

Note that you can also use a reporting verb in the passive, followed by a to-infinitive (see 7.69).

This substance is believed to be harmful.

UVB and UVA are both reported to cause skin cancer.

there is, there are

When you want to say that something exists, or you want to introduce something new, use there as a subject (see 9.46 to 9.55).

There are several claims to be considered in relation to this perspective.

There are no fewer than thirteen different species of otter.

research or text in subject position

In a conclusion or an example, do not write I have discovered…. Instead, put a word such as findings or results in subject position.

These findings suggest that there are two different processing methods.

The results show that this problem is widespread.

the passive

You can use the passive without by to describe procedures when the performer of the action does not need to be specified.

The tissue sample was removed, analysed and stored.

The engine was re-tested after the malfunction.

Note that it is important not to over-use the passive, as it can make your writing difficult to read.

verbs that indicate a change of state

Use verbs such as continue, decrease, and increase to describe events that involve a change of state (see 3.59 to 3.67).

The situation continues to be a cause for concern.

The rate of change slowed in the second half of the year.

The result of a change of state can be shown in a subordinate clause beginning with an -ing form (see 8.141).

Prices rose, leading to a fall in demand.

Appetite is lessened, resulting in weight loss and dietary problems.

Reporting

An important aspect of academic speaking and writing involves reporting (or citing) the work of other academics.

Citations can be used to explain the basis of your work, to support and illustrate your arguments, or to contrast your ideas with other writers’ theories.

Citations sometimes take the form of direct quotes; however, the reported information is usually summarized in your own words.

The following reporting verbs are commonly used in academic English to introduce cited material (see 7.5 to 7.11).

Theses verbs indicate the type of activity reported:

If the activity is: research-related mental verbal use measure think state calculate believe write estimate consider define find focus on challenge obtain

Nuttall and Gipps (1982) estimate that the direct cost of the APU was £800,000 per year.

Collins and Ellis (2001) also challenge the traditional concept of the individual.

Note that the verbs that you use will depend on your academic discipline. Research-related verbs are more common in technical and scientific writing; mental and verbal activity verbs are more common in the humanities and social sciences.

These verbs indicate your attitude to the reported material:

If you think it is: valid not valid neutral use: show fail to discuss establish overlook respond demonstrate ignore comment suggest

Wenger’s data show that 43 percent of elderly people named as a confidant someone they had known for at least 50 years.

This evidence fails to acknowledge the importance of the children’s diet.

These verbs indicate the cited author’s attitude to the material:

If the author is: positive negative neutral tentative use: argue refute state suggest maintain object write believe see challenge discuss imply hold comment allude to

Both Smith and Goodman (2000) maintain that skilled adult reading is far from error-free.

Bly argues that the process of initiation into adulthood is easier for women than for men.

Note that verbs that indicate attitude are more commonly used in the humanities and the social sciences.

Expressing degrees of certainty

When you are formulating your message, you need to consider how strongly you want to make your claim. Different structures express different degrees of certainty, and allow you to establish a position that you can defend if you are criticized.

For example, it is possible to defend the following statement:

Certain researchers have attempted to show that some underprivileged children cannot engage in play.

The following would be less easy to defend:

Researchers have shown that underprivileged children cannot engage in play.

not being precise

You can use the following adverbs when the available information is not precise.

quantity frequency degree limitation roughly often rather predominantly approximately frequently quite mostly around occasionally somewhat partly seldom rarely partially

Increased risk of infection is predominantly linked to poor sanitation.

cautious language

You can use more cautious language when you think that other people may disagree with your statement, or when you want to express uncertainty about whether or not a proposition is true. This may be because you really are uncertain, or because you want to create opportunities for readers to decide for themselves.

The following lists show distancing structures that are commonly used for making stements sound more cautious.

modal verbs semi-auxiliary verbs adverbs prepositional phrases adjectives could seem possibly in some respects uncertain might appear seemingly in a sense possible may arguably in most cases can likely in general apparently in principle evidently generally normally typically

There is, arguably, a common thread in all these positions.

As will be seen later, current models are inadequate in some respects.

Note that if you express too much uncertainty, or if you repeatedly show that you are not sure if something is true, your message will have less worth, and it will be difficult to interpret.

Emphasizing

In general English, you can use strong words to emphasize a point. In academic English, you often show emphasis by changing the normal word order of a statement.

subordinate clause in first position

Subordinate clauses normally occur in first position in academic texts. The main clause carries the new or most important information.

You can use the following structures to show that something important is going to be announced at the end of the sentence.

nominal relative clauses (see 8.112 to 8.116)

What is now required is a systematic investigation of the data.

prefacing structures (see 9.73 to 9.78)

The question we now need to consider is whether the dosage should be reduced.

split sentences (see 9.25 to 9.30)

It was this declaration which triggered the events that followed.