Collins Cobuild English Grammar

Note that verbs such as re-equip and unclog, which consist of a prefix and one of the above verbs, also have their final consonant letter doubled.

R69 Here is a list of verbs whose final consonant letter is doubled before ing and ed in British English but not always in American English:

bedevil

cancel

channel

chisel

dial

duel

enamel

enrol

enthral

equal

fuel

funnel

gambol

grovel

hiccup

initial

kidnap

label

level

libel

marshal

marvel

model

panel

pedal

pencil

program

pummel

quarrel

refuel

revel

rival

shovel

shrivel

snivel

spiral

stencil

swivel

total

travel

tunnel

unravel

worship

yodel

R70 With verbs ending in c, king and ked are usually added instead of ing and ed.

mimic mimicking mimicked panic panicking panicked

R71 A large number of verbs have irregular forms, which are not formed by adding ed to the base form.

With regular verbs, the -ed participle is the same as the past form. However, with some irregular verbs, the two forms are different.

R72 The table opposite gives a list of irregular verbs and their forms.

Note that the past form and -ed participle of read appear the same as the base form but are pronounced differently. The base form is pronounced /rid/ and the past form and -ed participle /red/. See a Cobuild dictionary for the pronunciation of irregular forms of verbs.

R73 Some verbs have more than one past form or -ed participle form. For example, the past form and -ed participle of spell can be either spelled or spelt, and the -ed participle of prove can be either proved or proven.

He burned several letters.

He burnt all his papers.

His foot had swelled to three times normal size.

His wrist had swollen up and become huge.

R74 Some verbs have two forms that can be used as the past form and the -ed participle. Here is a list of these verbs. The regular form is given first, although it may not be the more common one.

All of the irregular forms ending in t are far more common in British English than in American English, which generally uses the regular form for these verbs.

burn burned, burnt bust busted, bust dream dreamed, dreamt dwell dwelled, dwelt fit fitted, fit hang hanged, hung kneel kneeled, knelt lean leaned, leant leap leaped, leapt light lighted, lit smell smelled, smelt speed speeded, sped spell spelled, spelt spill spilled, spilt spoil spoiled, spoilt wet wetted, wet

R75 Here is a list of verbs with two past forms:

bid bid, bade wake waked, woke weave weaved, wove

Here is a list of verbs with two -ed participle forms:

bid bid, bidden mow mowed, mown prove proved, proven swell swelled, swollen wake waked, woken weave weaved, woven

In American English, gotten is usually used instead of got as the -ed participle of get. However, American English always uses got rather than gotten in two common constructions: have got (meaning own or possess), and have got to meaning must).

Have you got change for the parking meter?

You have got to start paying more attention to deadlines.

The past forms of these constructions in American English are never had got. Instead, they use the past form of have.

Did you have change for the parking meter?

She said I had to start paying more attention to deadlines.

Note that some verbs appear in both the above lists as they have a different past form and -ed participle form, each of which has more than one form.

base form past form -ed participle base form past form -ed participle arise arose arisen catch caught caught awake awoke awoken choose chose chosen bear bore borne cling clung clung beat beat beaten come came come become became become cost cost cost begin began begun creep crept crept bend bent bent cut cut cut bet bet bet deal dealt dealt bind bound bound dig dug dug bite bit bitten dive dove (Am) dived bleed bled bled draw drew drawn blow blew blown drink drank drunk break broke broken drive drove driven breed bred bred eat ate eaten bring brought brought fall fell fallen build built built feed fed fed burst burst burst feel felt felt buy bought bought fight fought fought cast cast cast find found found fit fit (Am) fit (Am) ride rode ridden flee fled fled ring rang rung fling flung flung rise rose risen fly flew flown run ran run forbear forbore forborne saw sawed sawn forbid forbade forbidden say said said forget forgot forgotten see saw seen forgive forgave forgiven seek sought sought forsake forsook forsaken sell sold sold forswear forswore forsworn send sent sent freeze froze frozen set set set get got got sew sewed sewn give gave given shake shook shaken go went gone shed shed shed grind ground ground shine shone shone grow grew grown shoe shod shod hear heard heard shoot shot shot hide hid hidden show showed shown hit hit hit shrink shrank shrunk hold held held shut shut shut hurt hurt hurt sing sang sung keep kept kept sink sank sunk know knew known sit sat sat lay laid laid slay slew slain lead led led sleep slept slept leave left left slide slid slid lend lent lent sling slung slung let let let slink slunk slunk lose lost lost sow sowed sown make made made speak spoke spoken mean meant meant spend spent spent meet met met spin spun spun pay paid paid spread spread spread put put put spring sprang sprung quit quit quit stand stood stood read read read steal stole stolen rend rent rent stick stuck stuck sting stung stung tear tore torn stink stank stunk tell told told strew strewed strewn think thought thought stride strode stridden throw threw thrown strike struck struck thrust thrust thrust string strung strung tread trod trodden strive strove striven understand understood understood swear swore sworn wear wore worn sweep swept swept weep wept wept swim swam swum win won won swing swung swung wind wound wound take took taken wring wrung wrung teach taught taught write wrote written

R76 In some cases, different past forms or -ed participle forms relate to different meanings or uses of the verb. For example, the past form and the -ed participle of the verb hang is normally hung. However, hanged can also be used but with a different meaning. Check the different meanings in a Cobuild dictionary.

An Iron Cross hung from a ribbon around the man’s neck.

He had been found guilty of murder hanged.

They had bid down the chemical company’s stock.

He had bidden her to buy the best.

R77 Some verbs consist of more than one word, for example browbeat and typeset, and some consist of a prefix plus a verb, for example undo and disconnect.

His teachers underestimate his ability.

We are always trying to outdo our competitors.

The figures show that the government has mismanaged the economy.

R78 Verbs that consist of more than one word or of a prefix plus a verb usually inflect in the same way as the verbs that form their final part. For example, the past form of foresee is foresaw and the -ed participle is foreseen, and the past form and past -ed of misunderstand is misunderstood.

I underestimated him.

He had outdone himself.

I had misunderstood and mismanaged everything.

She had disappeared into the kitchen and reappeared with a flashlight.

R79 With many verbs of this type, the fact that they consist of two parts does not make any difference to their forms. They follow the normal spelling rules.

Here is a list of verbs whose second part is an irregular verb:

browbeat

broadcast

forecast

miscast

recast

typecast

overcome

undercut

outdo

overdo

undo

withdraw

overeat

befall

forego

undergo

outgrow

overheat

mishear

behold

uphold

withhold

mislay

waylay

mislead

remake

repay

misread

override

outrun

overrun

re-run

foresee

oversee

outsell

resell

beset

reset

typeset

outshine

overshoot

oversleep

misspell

withstand

hamstring

mistake

overtake

retake

undertake

foretell

retell

rethink

overthrow

misunderstand

rewind

unwind

rewrite

underwrite

Note the past forms and -ed participle of the verbs shown below, whose second part is a verb with alternative past forms and -ed participle.

refit refitted refitted overhang overhung overhung floodlight floodlit floodlit

Here is a list of compound verbs whose second part is an irregular verb:

bottle-feed

breast-feed

force-feed

spoon-feed

baby-sit

lip-read

proof-read

sight-read

ghost-write

R80 The different forms of the auxiliaries be, have, and do are summarized in the table below.

R81 The present forms of be can usually be contracted and added to the end of the subject of the verb, whether it is a noun or a pronoun. This is often done in spoken English or in informal written English.

I’m interested in the role of women all over the world. You’re late.

We’re making some progress. It’s a delightful country.

My car’s just across the street.

The contracted forms of be are shown in the table above.

R82 Contracted forms of be are not used at the end of affirmative statements. The full form must be used instead. For example, you say Richard’s not very happy but Andrew is. You cannot say Richard’s not very happy but Andrew’s.

However, you can use a contracted form of be at the end of a negative statement if it is followed by not. For example, Mary’s quite happy, but her mother’s not’

R83 When be is used in negative clauses, either the verb or not can be contracted. For more information on contractions in negative clauses, see paragraphs 5.59 to 5.60.

R84 The present and past forms of have can also be contracted. This is usually only done when have is being used as an auxiliary.

I’ve changed my mind.

This is the first party we’ve been to in months.

She’s become a very interesting young woman.

I do wish you’d met Guy.

She’s managed to keep it quiet. We’d done a good job.

The contracted forms of have are shown in the table at paragraph R80.

R85 ’s can be short for either is or has. You can tell what ’s represents by looking at the next word. If ’s represents is, it is followed by an -ing participle, complement, or adverbial. If it represents has, it is usually followed by an -ed participle.

She’s going to be all right. She’s a lovely person.

She’s gone to see some social work people.

R86 A noun ending in ’s could also be a possessive. It is followed by another noun when this is the case. For more information on possessives see paragraphs 1.211 to 1.221.

R87 Is and has are written in full after nouns ending in x, ch, sh, s, or z, although in speech has is sometimes pronounced as /ǝz/ after these nouns.

R88 ’d can be short for either had or would. You can tell what ’d represents by looking at the next word. If ’d represents would, it is followed by the base form of a verb. If it represents had, it is usually followed by an -ed participle.

We’d have to try to escape. ’It’d be cheaper to go by train,’ Alan said.

At least we’d had the courage to admit it. She’d bought new sunglasses with tinted lenses.

The formation of tenses

R89 A finite verb phrase is the type of verb phrase that goes with a subject. It contains a form of the main verb (the one that you are using to convey your meaning), and often one or more auxiliaries.

A finite verb phrase has the following structure:

(modal)(have)(be)(be) main verb.

You choose the elements in brackets according to, for example, whether you are talking about the past or the present, or whether you are concentrating on the performer of an action or the thing affected by it. They are called auxiliaries.

If you want to indicate possibility, or to show your attitude to your hearer or to what you are saying, you use a type of auxiliary called a modal. Modals must be followed by a base form (an infinitive without to). The use of modals is explained in Chapter 5 (5.92 to 5.256).

She might see us.

She could have seen us.

If you want to use a perfect form, you use a form of have. This must be followed by an -ed participle.

She has seen us.

She had been watching us for some time.

If you want to use a progressive form, you use a form of be. This must be followed by an -ing participle.

She was watching us.

We were being watched.

If you want to use the passive, you use a form of be. This must be followed by an -ed participle.

We were seen.

We were being watched.

If there is an auxiliary in front of the main verb, you use an appropriate form of the main verb, as mentioned above. If there is no auxiliary, you use an appropriate simple form.

The verb do is also used as an auxiliary, with simple forms, but only in questions, negative statements, and negative imperative clauses, or when you want to be very emphatic. It is followed by the base form of the main verb. Detailed information on the uses of do is given in Chapter 5.

Do you want me to do something about it?

I do not remember her.

I do enjoy being with you.

R90 A finite verb phrase always has a tense, unless it begins with a modal. Tense is the relationship between the form of a verb and the time to which it refers.

This section deals with the ways in which main verbs and auxiliaries can be used to construct different forms. The way in which particular forms are used to indicate particular times in relation to the time of speaking or to the time of an event is covered in paragraphs 4.7 to 4.69.

R91 When a verb is being used in a simple form, that is, the present simple or the past simple, it consists of just one word, a form of the main verb.

I feel tired.

Mary lived there for five years.

For progressive and perfect forms, one or more auxiliaries are used in combination with the main verb.

I am feeling reckless tonight.

I have lived here all my life.

R92 The first word of a finite verb phrase must agree with the subject of the clause. This affects the present simple, and all forms that begin with the present or past tense of be or the present tense of have.

For example, if the form is the present perfect and the subject is John, then the form of the auxiliary have must be has.

John has seemed worried lately.

She likes me.

Your lunch is getting cold.

R93 In this section the examples given are declarative clauses. The order of words in questions is different from the order in declarative clauses. See paragraphs 5.10 to 5.34 for information about this.

R94 Progressive forms are constructed using an appropriate tense of the auxiliary be and the -ing participle. Detailed information on how to construct these forms is included below. The uses of progressive forms are explained in detail in paragraphs 4.7 to 4.69.

R95 The formation of active sentences is explained below. The formation of the passive is explained in paragraphs R109 to R118.

R96 The present simple form of a verb is the same as the base form with all subjects except the third person singular.

I want a breath of air.

We advise everyone to call half an hour before they arrive.

They give you a certificate and then tell you to get a job.

The third person singular form is the s form.

Flora puts her head back, and laughs again. Money decides everything, she thought.

Mr Paterson plays Phil Hoskins in the TV drama.

R97 The present progressive is formed by using the present tense of be and the -ing participle of the main verb.

People who have no faith in art are running the art schools.

The garden industry is booming.

Things are changing.

R98 The past simple form of a regular verb is formed by adding ed to the base form of regular verbs.

The moment he entered the classroom all eyes turned on him.

He walked out of the kitchen and climbed the stairs.

It was dark by the time I reached East London.

R99 The past progressive is formed by using the past tense of be and the -ing participle of the main verb.

Their questions were beginning to drive me crazy.

We believed we were fighting for a good cause.

At the time, I was dreading the exam.

R100 The present perfect is formed by using the present tense of have and the -ed participle of the main verb.

Advances have continued, but productivity has fallen.

Football has become international.

I have seen this before.

R101 The present perfect progressive is formed by using the present perfect of be and the -ing participle of the main verb.

Howard has been working hard over the recess.

What we have been describing is very simple.

Their shares have been going up.

R102 The past perfect is formed by using had and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The Indian summer had returned for a day.

Everyone had liked her.

Murray had resented the changes I had made.

R103 The past perfect progressive is formed by using had been and the -ing participle of the main verb.

She did not know how long she had been lying there.

For ten years of her life, teachers had been making up her mind for her.

I had been showing a woman around with her little boy.

R104 There are several ways of referring to the future in English. The simple future involves using the modal will or shall and the base form of the verb.

It is exactly the sort of scheme he will like.

My receptionist will help you choose the frames.

Don’t drop crumbs or we shall have mice.

In spoken English, the contracted form ’ll is usually used instead of will or shall, unless you want to be emphatic.

Send him into the Army; he’ll learn a bit of discipline there.

As soon as we get the tickets they’ll be sent out to you.

Next week we’ll be looking at the history of dance.

R105 If the full forms are used, will is generally used if the subject of the verb is not I or we. Shall is sometimes used if the subject is I or we, otherwise will is used.

Inflation is rising and will continue to rise.

I shall be away tomorrow.

R106 The future progressive is formed by using will or shall, followed by be and the -ing participle of the main verb.

Indeed, we will be opposing that policy.

Ford manual workers will be claiming a ten per cent pay rise.

I shall be leaving soon.

R107 The future perfect is formed by using will or shall, followed by have and the -ed participle of the main verb.

Long before you return, they will have forgotten you.

By next week will have reached the end of the book.

By that time, I shall have retired.

R108 The future perfect progressive is formed by using will or shall, followed by have been and the -ing participle of the main verb.

By March, I will have been doing this job for six years.

Saturday week, I will have been going out with Susan for three months.

R109 Passive forms are constructed using an appropriate tense of be and the -ed participle of the main verb. Detailed information on forming the passive is given below.

R110 The present simple passive is formed by using the present simple of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The earth is baked by the sun into a hard, brittle layer.

If you are on a full-time course you are treated as your parents’ dependent.

Specific subjects are discussed.

R111 The present progressive passive is formed by using the present progressive of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The buffet counter is being arranged by the attendant.

It is something quite irrelevant to what is being discussed.

Jobs are still being lost.

R112 The past simple passive is formed by using the past simple of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

No date was announced for the talks.

The walls were covered with pictures of actors.

Several new cottages were built on the land.

R113 The past progressive passive is formed by using the past progressive of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The stage was being set for future profits.

Before long, machines were being used to create codes.

Strenuous efforts were being made last night to end the dispute.

R114 The present perfect passive is formed by using the present perfect of be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

The guest-room window has been mended.

I think real progress has been made.

The dirty plates have been stacked in a pile on the table.

R115 The past perfect passive is formed by using had been and the -ed participle of the main verb.

They had been taught to be critical.

They had been driven home in the station wagon.

R116 The future passive is formed by using will or shall, followed by be and the -ed participle of the main verb.

His own authority will be undermined.

Congress will be asked to approve an increase of 47.5 per cent.

R117 The future perfect passive is formed by using will or shall, followed by have been and the -ed participle of the main verb.

Another goal will have been achieved.

The figures will have been distorted by the effects of the strike.

R118 The future progressive passive and the perfect progressive passive are rarely used.

R119 The table below gives a summary of the active and passive forms. The passive forms marked with a star are very rarely used.

active passive present simple

present progressive

present perfect He eats it.

He is eating it.

He has eaten it. It is eaten.

It is being eaten.

It has been eaten. present perfect progressive He has been eating it. It has been being eaten.* past simple

past progressive

past perfect He ate it.

He was eating it.

He had eaten it. It was eaten.

It was being eaten.

It had been eaten. past perfect progressive He had been eating it. It had been being eaten.* future

future progressive

future perfect He will eat it.

He will be eating it.

He will have eaten it. It will be eaten.

It will be being eaten.*

It will have been eaten. future perfect progressive He will have been eating it. It will have been being eaten.*

R120 There are some verbs that are not usually used in the progressive, and some that are not used in the progressive in one or more of their main meanings.

Here is a list of verbs that are not usually used in the progressive:

astonish

be

believe

belong

concern

consist

contain

deserve

envy

exist

have

know

last

matter

owe

own

possess

resemble

satisfy

seem

suppose

suspect

understand

Verbs of this type are sometimes called stative verbs. Verbs that can be used in the progressive are sometimes called dynamic verbs. For more information about stative verbs, see paragraph 4.69.

There are other verbs that are traditionally described as stative, but that are sometimes used in the progressive, particularly in less formal texts. For more information about these verbs, see 4.69.

R121 Be is not generally used as a main verb in the progressive with adjectives that indicate permanent characteristics, or with attributes that do not relate to behaviour. However, be is used in the progressive to indicate someone’s behaviour at a particular time.

He is extremely nice.

He was an American.

You ‘re being very silly.

Have is not used as a main verb in the progressive when it indicates possession, but it is sometimes used in the progressive when it indicates that someone is doing something.

I have two dinghies.

We were just having a philosophical discussion.

R122 Some verbs have very specific senses in which they are not used in the progressive. For example, smell is often used in the progressive when it means to smell something, but rarely when it means to smell of something. Compare the sentences I was just smelling your flowers, and Your flowers smell lovely.

Here is a list of verbs that are not usually used in the progressive when they have the meanings indicated:

appear (seem)

depend (be related to)

feel (have an opinion)

fit (be suitable/be the right size)

hear (be aware of a sound)

mean (have a particular meaning)

measure (have length)

recognize (identify a person)

smell (of something)

taste (of something)

weigh (have weight)

R123 The imperative form of a verb is regarded as finite, because it can stand as the verb of a main clause. However, it does not show tense in the same way as other finite verb phrases. It is always in the base form. See paragraphs 5.35 to 5.39 for the uses of the imperative.

Stop being silly. Come here.

Infinitives and participles

R124 Infinitives and -ing participles are used after certain verbs such as stop, like, and want (see paragraphs 3.182 to 3.212) and -ing and -ed participles also used in certain subordinate clauses (see the section on subordinate clauses in Chapter 8). Infinitives and -ing participles are also used in some structures with impersonal it (see paragraphs 9.31 to 9.45).

To-infinitives are also used after some nouns and adjectives (see paragraphs 2.293 to 2.302, and 2.51 to 2.62). You can also use -ing participles as the objects of prepositions.

Participles and infinitives can have objects, complements, or adverbials after them, just like verbs that have a tense. A clause beginning with a to-infinitive is called a to-infinitive clause, a clause beginning with an -ing participle is called an -ing participle clause, and a clause beginning with an -ed participle is called an -ed participle clause.

R125 The order of auxiliaries is the same as for verbs that have a tense (see paragraph R89).

R126 The active to-infinitive consists of to and the base form of the verb. This is sometimes simply called the infinitive.

I want to escape from here.

I asked David to go with me.

R127 The active infinitive without to consists of the base form of the verb. It is sometimes called the bare infinitive.

They helped me get settled here.

R128 Other active infinitive forms are occasionally used.

The present progressive infinitive consists of to be or be, followed by the -ing participle.

It is much better for young children to be living at home.

The perfect or past infinitive consists of to have or have, followed by the -ed participle.

Only two are known to have defected.

She must have drowned.

The perfect or past progressive infinitive consists of to have been or have been, followed by the -ing participle.

I seem to have been eating all evening.

R129 There are also passive infinitives. The ordinary passive infinitive consists of to be or be, followed by the -ed participle.

I didn’t want to be caught off guard.

He let it be known that he would be home all evening.

The perfect or past passive infinitive consists of to have been or have been, followed by the -ed participle.

He seems to have been completely forgotten.

R130 The table below gives a summary of infinitives. The passive infinitives marked with a star are very rarely used.

active passive present progressive

perfect

perfect progressive (to) eat

(to) be eating

(to) have eaten

(to) have been eating (to) be eaten

(to) be being eaten*

(to) have been eaten

(to) have been being eaten*

R131 The -ing participle is used as a verb phrase, usually with an active meaning.

You could play me a tune, said Simon, sitting down.

He could keep in touch with me by writing letters.

R132 Combinations beginning with having are occasionally used.

The perfect or past-ing form consists of having and the -ed participle.

Ash, having forgotten his fear, had become bored and restless.

R133 There are also combinations beginning with being and having, which have a passive meaning.

The ordinary passive -ing form consists of being and the -ed participle.

…fears that patients would resent being interviewed by a computer.

The perfect or past -ing form consists of having been and the -ed participle.

Having been declared insane, he was confined in a prison hospital.

They were taken to hospital after having been wounded by gunshot.

R134 The table below gives a summary of -ing forms. The -ing form marked with a star is very rarely used.

active passive perfect

perfect progressive eating

having eaten

having been eating being eaten

having been eaten

having been being eating*

R135 The -ed participle is also used as a verb phrase, with a passive meaning.

Stunned by the attack, the enemy were overwhelmed.

When challenged, she seemed quite surprised.

Forming adverbs

R136 The uses of adverbs are explained in Chapters 2, 4, 6, and 10.

R137 Most adverbs are related to adjectives in form, and often in meaning. They are formed by adding ly to the adjective. For information on which adjectives you can add ly to, see paragraphs 6.17 to 6.27.

sad sadly cheerful cheerfully private privately accidental accidentally surprising surprisingly

R138 Sometimes the formation is slightly different.

With adjectives ending in le, you replace the le with ly.

suitable suitably terrible terribly gentle gently

Note that whole has the related adverb wholly.

R139 With adjectives ending in y, you replace the y with ily.

easy easily satisfactory satisfactorily

Note that one-syllable adjectives ending in y usually have ly added, in the normal way.

wry wryly shy shyly

Note that the adverb related to dry can be spelled drily or dryly.

R140 With adjectives ending in ic, you add ally.

automatic automatically tragic tragically

Note that public has the related adverb publicly.

R141 With a few adjectives ending in e (not le), you replace the e with ly.

due duly true truly undue unduly eerie eerily

R142 With full and dull, you just add y.

full fully dull dully

R143 Note that ly is not generally added to adjectives ending in ed to form adverbs. However, here is a list of adverbs that are formed in this way:

absent-mindedly

admittedly

allegedly

assuredly

belatedly

blessedly

contentedly

crookedly

decidedly

dejectedly

delightedly

deservedly

determinedly

distractedly

doggedly

exaggeratedly

excitedly

fixedly

frenziedly

guardedly

half-heartedly

heatedly

hurriedly

light-heartedly

markedly

pointedly

repeatedly

reportedly

reputedly

resignedly

single-handedly

supposedly

undoubtedly

unexpectedly

unhurriedly

wholeheartedly

wickedly

R144 A few adverbs that end in ly are related to nouns.

These include some time adverbs.

day daily fortnight fortnightly hour hourly month monthly quarter quarterly week weekly year yearly

Note the spelling of daily. These words are also themselves used as adjectives. Other adverbs related to nouns are shown below.

name namely part partly purpose purposely body bodily

R145 A few adverbs ending in ly are not related to any adjective or noun.

accordingly

exceedingly

jokingly

longingly

manfully

presumably

R146 Here is a list of adverbs that have the same form as adjectives:

alike

all right

alone

clean

deep

direct

even

extra

far

fast

fine

first

free

freelance

full

full-time

further

hard

high

just

kindly

last

late

little

long

loud

low

next

non-stop

off-hand

only

outright

overall

part-time

past

pretty

quick

right

slow

solo

still

straight

tight

well

wide

wrong

Note that the adverb is sometimes not related in meaning to the adjective whose form it shares. Check the meanings in a Cobuild dictionary.

With some of these words, there are also related forms ending in ly.

cleanly

directly

deeply

evenly

finely

firstly

freely

fully

hardly

highly

justly

lastly

lately

loudly

quickly

rightly

slowly

tightly

widely

wrongly

Note that these ly forms sometimes have the same meaning as the other adverb form, and sometimes not.

The time adverbials ending in ly, which are mentioned in paragraph R144, also have the same form as adjectives.

R147 Note that ordinal numbers are used both as modifiers and as adverbs. They also have related adverbs ending in ly.

R148 Here is a list of adverbs that are not related to any adjective:

afresh

alas

alike

almost

aloud

also

altogether

anyhow

anyway

apart

besides

doubtless

either

enough

forthwith

furthermore

half

hence

hereby

however

indeed

instead

likewise

maybe

meanwhile

more

moreover

much

nevertheless

nonetheless

otherwise

perhaps

quite

rather

regardless

so

somehow

somewhat

therefore

thereupon

though

thus

together

too

very

whatsoever

R149 Time adverbials and many adverbs of place are also not related to adjectives. See Chapters 4 and 6 for lists of these adverbs.

Forming comparative and superlative adverbs

R150 Information on how to use comparatives and superlatives of adverbs, and which adverbs have them, is given in Chapter 6 (6.30 to 6.35).

R151 The comparative of an adverb usually consists of the normal form of the adverb preceded by more.

freely more freely appropriately more appropriately

R152 The superlative of an adverb usually consists of the normal form of the adverb preceded by most.

commonly most commonly eagerly most eagerly

R153 A few very common adverbs have comparatives and superlatives that are single words and not formed using more and most.

Well has the comparative better and the superlative best.

She would ask him later, when she knew him better.

I have to find out what I can do best.

Badly has the comparative worse and the superlative worst.

She was treated far worse than any animal.

The manufacturing industries were hit worst.

Adverbs that have the same form as adjectives have the same comparatives and superlatives as the adjectives. For example, the comparative and superlative of the adverb fast are faster and fastest, and the comparative and superlative of the adverb hard are harder and hardest.

Prices have been rising faster than incomes.

You probably learn quicker by having lessons.

The older people work the hardest.

The ones with the shortest legs run the slowest.

R154 Here is a list of time adverbials and adverbs of place that have comparative and superlative forms. See Chapter 4 (4.70, 4.114, and 4.123) and Chapter 6 (6.60). Note that a few have irregular comparatives and superlatives.

early earlier earliest late later (no superlative) soon sooner (no superlative) long longer longest deep deeper deepest far farther, further farthest, furthest near nearer nearest close closer closest