Collins Cobuild English Grammar

BE CAREFUL

1.135 You do not usually add ’s to indefinite pronouns referring to things. So, for example, you would be more likely to say the value of something than something’s value.

adding information

1.136 When you want to give more information about the person or thing referred to by an indefinite pronoun, you can use a phrase or a clause after it.

Anyone over the age of 18 can apply.

He would prefer to have somebody who had a background in the humanities.

1.137 You can also use adjectives to add information. Note that adjectives are placed after the indefinite pronoun rather than in front of it, and that you do not use a determiner. You do not say an important someone, you say someone important.

What was needed was someone practical.

They are doing everything possible to take care of you.

There is nothing wrong with being popular.

used with else

1.138 If you have already mentioned a person or thing, and you want to refer to a different person or thing, or an additional one, you use else after an indefinite pronoun.

Somebody else will have to go out there.

She couldn’t think of anything else.

Everyone knows what everyone else is doing.

He got that job because nobody else wanted it.

Note that if you want to show association or possession with an indefinite pronoun and else, you add the ’s to else.

Problems always became someone else’s fault.

No one has control over anyone else’s career.

structures used with some- and every-

1.139 Just like nouns, indefinite pronouns are used as the subject, object, or indirect object of clauses. They can also be used as the objects of prepositions. The indefinite pronouns beginning with some- and every- are most often used in affirmative clauses.

Everything went according to plan.

I remember somebody putting a pillow under my head.

‘Now you’ll see something,’ he said.

I gave everyone a generous helping.

I want to introduce you to someone who is helping me.

Is everything all right?

They are sometimes used as the subject of a negative clause.

He could tell that something wasn’t right.

Note that the indefinite pronouns beginning with some- cannot be used as the object of a negative clause, unless they are followed by a phrase or a clause.

He wasn’t someone I admired as a writer.

structures used with any-

1.140 Indefinite pronouns beginning with any- can be used as the object or indirect object of a question or a negative clause.

Don’t worry – I won’t tell anyone.

You still haven’t told me anything.

Take a good look and tell me if you see anything different.

I haven’t given anyone their presents yet.

They are often used as the subject of both negative and affirmative questions. Note that they are not used as the subject of a negative statement. You do not say, for example, Anybody can’t come in.

Does anybody agree with me?

Won’t anyone help me?

If anything unusual happens, could you call me on this number?

Note that when you are making an affirmative statement, anyone and anybody are used to refer to people in general and not to only one person.

Anybody who wants to can come in and buy a car from me.

structures used with no-

1.141 Indefinite pronouns beginning with no- are always used with the affirmative form of a verb, and they make the clause negative. For more information on negative statements, see paragraphs 5.47 to 5.91.

Nobody said a word.

There was nothing you could do, nothing at all.

She was to see no one, to speak to nobody, not even her own children.

Note that they are sometimes used in questions. When this is the case, the answer to the question is usually expected to be no.

‘Is there nothing I can do?’–‘Not a thing’.

‘Is there nobody else?’–‘Not that I know of’.

Showing that people do the same thing: each other and one another

1.142 Each other and one another are called reciprocal pronouns. They are used to say that people do the same thing, feel the same way, or have the same relationship.

For example, if your brother hates your sister and your sister hates your brother, you can say My brother and sister hate each other or They hate one another.

Reciprocal pronouns are not used as the subject of a clause. You use them as the object or indirect object of a verb.

We help each other a lot.

You and I understand each other.

We support one another through good times and bad.

They sent each other gifts from time to time.

You also use them as the object of a preposition.

Terry and Mark were jealous of each other.

The two lights were moving towards one another.

They didn’t dare to look at one another.

Some verbs are very commonly used with reciprocal pronouns. For more information about these, see paragraphs 3.68 to 3.72.

1.143 Note that there is very little difference between each other and one another. They are both used to talk about two or more people or things, although some people prefer the use of each other when there are only two people or things, and one another when there are more than two.

each as subject

1.144 In formal written English, you can also use each as the subject of a clause and the other as the object of a clause or preposition. So, a more formal way of saying They looked at each other is Each looked at the other. Note that each is always followed by a singular verb.

Each accuses the other of lying.

Each is unwilling to learn from the experience of the others.

Each is also a determiner. For more information about this, see paragraph 1.243.

’s

1.145 You add ’s (apostrophe s) to each other, one another, and the other to form possessives.

I hope that you all enjoy each other’s company.

Apes spend a great deal of time grooming one another’s fur.

The males fight fiercely, each trying to seize the other’s long neck in its beak.

Joining clauses together: relative pronouns

1.146 When a sentence consists of a main clause followed by a relative clause introduced by who, whom, which, or that, these words are called relative pronouns.

Relative pronouns do two things at the same time. Like other pronouns, they refer to someone or something that has already been mentioned. At the same time they join clauses together.

For more information about relative clauses, see paragraphs 8.83 to 8.116.

who and whom

1.147 Who and whom always refer to people.

Who can be the subject of a relative clause.

…mathematicians who are concerned with very difficult problems.

In the past, whom was normally used as the object of a relative clause. Nowadays, who is more often used, although some careful speakers of English think that it is more correct to use whom.

…a man who I met recently.

He’s the man who I saw last night.

…two girls whom I met in Edinburgh.

Who is sometimes used as the object of a preposition when the object is separated from the preposition. Some careful speakers think that it is more correct to use whom.

That’s the man who I gave it to.

…those whom we cannot talk to.

Whom is almost always used when the object comes immediately after the preposition.

…Lord Scarman, a man for whom I have immense respect.

which

1.148 Which always refers to things. It can be used as the subject or object of a relative clause, or as the object of a preposition. Which is often used in British English to introduce relative clauses that refer to things.

…a region which was threatened by growing poverty.

…two horses which he owned.

…the house in which I was born.

Note that which cannot be used as the indirect object of a clause.

that

1.149 That refers to either people or things. It is used as the subject or the object of a relative clause or the object of a preposition. That is generally preferred in American English to introduce relative clauses that refer to things or to combinations of people and things.

…the games that politicians play.

He’s the boy that sang the solo last night.

It was the first bed that she had ever slept in.

That cannot be used as the indirect object of a clause.

whose

1.150 Whose shows who or what something belongs to or is connected with. Note that it cannot be used by itself, but must come in front of a noun.

…the thousands whose lives have been damaged.

There was a chap there whose name I’ve forgotten.

…predictions whose accuracy will have to be confirmed.

…sharks, whose brains are minute.

Note that whose is not restricted to people.

Asking questions: interrogative pronouns

1.151 One way of asking questions is by using an interrogative pronoun.

The interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, what, and which. They are used as the subject or object of a clause, or as the object of a preposition. Whose and which are also determiners. Other words, such as where, when, why, and how, are also used to ask questions.

Interrogative pronouns are not used as the indirect object of a clause.

Who was at the door?

‘There’s a car outside.’

‘Whose is it?’

Whom do you support?

What are you doing?

Which is best, gas or electric?

For more information about structures in which interrogative pronouns are used, see paragraphs 5.10 to 5.34.

1.152 Interrogative pronouns refer to the information you are asking for.

Who, whose, and whom are used when you think that the answer to the question will be a person.

‘He lost his wife.’ – ‘Who? Terry?’

He looked at the cat. Whose is it? Have you ever seen it before?

‘To whom, if I may ask, are you engaged to be married?’ – ‘To Daniel Orton.’

Which and what are used when you think that the answer to the question will be something other than a person.

Is there really a difference? Which do you prefer?

‘What did he want?’ – ‘Maurice’s address.’

reported questions

1.153 Interrogative pronouns are also used to introduce reported questions.

I asked her who she had been talking to.

He wondered what Daintry would do now.

For more information about reported questions, see paragraphs 7.32 to 7.38.

Other pronouns

1.154 Many other words can be pronouns, provided that it is clear what is being talked about, because it is then unnecessary to repeat the noun.

For example, most indefinite determiners can also be pronouns. For more information about indefinite determiners, see paragraphs 1.223 to 1.250.

Here is a list of indefinite determiners that are also pronouns:

all

another

any

both

each

either

enough

few

fewer

less

little

many

more

most

much

neither

several

some

Like all noun phrases, they can be used as the subject, direct object, or indirect object of a clause, or the object of a preposition.

Both were offered jobs immediately.

Children? I don’t think she has any.

I saw one girl whispering to another.

1.155 Although a, an, every, and no are indefinite determiners, they cannot stand alone as pronouns.

To refer back to a noun phrase that includes the determiner a or an, you can use the pronoun one. Similarly, you use each to refer back to a noun phrase that includes every, and none to refer back to a noun phrase that includes no.

Note that another and others are pronouns, but other cannot be a pronoun.

all, both, and each for emphasis

1.156 All, both, and each can be used in addition to nouns or personal pronouns for emphasis, in a similar way to the use of reflexive pronouns described in paragraphs 1.116 to 1.118.

The brothers all agreed that something more was needed.

He loved them both.

Ford and Duncan each had their chances.

They come after an auxiliary verb, a modal, or be.

They were both still working at their universities.

The letters have all been signed.

The older children can all do the same things together.

Each can also come at the end of the clause.

Three others were fined £200 each.

numbers

1.157 Numbers can also be pronouns. For example, the answer to the question How many children do you have? is usually Three rather than Three children.

‘How many people are there?’ – ‘Forty-five.’

Of the other women, two are dancers.

They bought eight companies and sold off five.

For more information on numbers, see paragraphs 2.213 to 2.231.

other pronouns

1.158 The number one is a special case. Like other numbers, it is sometimes used to refer to one of a group of things.

One is also used to refer back to a noun phrase with the determiner a.

Could I have a bigger one, please?

It can also be used for emphasis after another determiner.

There are systems of communication right through the animal world; each one is distinctive.

One can be used as a personal pronoun. This use is explained in paragraph 1.121.

1.159 Note that the one and the ones can be used to refer to a noun alone, rather than to the whole of the noun phrase. They are nearly always used with a modifier such as an adjective, or some form of information after the noun, such as a prepositional phrase.

‘Which poem? – ‘The one they were talking about yesterday.’

There are three bedrooms. Mine is the one at the back.

He gave the best seats to the ones who arrived first.

1.160 You use the other, the others, others, or another to refer to different members of a group of things or people.

Some writers are greater than others.

One runner was way ahead of all the others.

1.161 If you want to say something about a member of a group of people or things you can use one. You can then refer to the rest of the group as the others.

The bells are carefully installed so that disconnecting one will have no effect on the others.

They had three little daughters, one a baby, the others twins of twelve.

You use the one and the other to refer to each of a pair of things.

The same factors push wages and prices up together, the one reinforcing the other.

If you do not wish to specify exactly which of a group you are talking about, you refer to one or other of them.

It may be that one or other of them had fears for their health.

Definite and indefinite determiners

1.162 In English, there are two main ways in which you can use a noun phrase. You can use it to refer to someone or something, knowing that the person you are speaking to understands which person or thing you are talking about.

The man began to run towards the boy.

Young people don’t like these operas.

Thank you very much for your comments.

…a visit to the Houses of Parliament.

Alternatively, you can use a noun phrase to refer to someone or something of a particular type, without saying which person or thing you mean.

There was a man in the lift.

I wish I’d bought an umbrella.

Any doctor would say she didn’t know what she was doing.

In order to distinguish between these two ways of using a noun phrase, you use a special class of words called determiners. There are two types of determiner, definite determiners and indefinite determiners. You put them at the beginning of a noun phrase.

Using the definite determiner the

1.163 The is the most common definite determiner; it is sometimes called the definite article.

This, that, these, and those are often called demonstratives or demonstrative adjectives. For more information on these, see paragraphs 1.184 to 1.193.

My, your, his, her, its, our and their are possessive determiners. They are also sometimes called possessive adjectives or just possessives. For more information about these, see paragraphs 1.194 to 1.210.

Here is the list of definite determiners:

the

~

this

that

these

those

~

my

your

his

her

its

our

their

Note that in English you cannot use more than one definite determiner before a noun.

1.164 Because the is the most common definite determiner, you can put the in front of any common noun.

She dropped the can into the grass.

The girls were not in the house.

In these examples, the use of the can means that a can has already been mentioned; the grass is definite because it has already been stated that she is outside, and the presence of grass may also have been stated or is presumed; the girls, like the can, must have been mentioned before; and the house means the one where the girls were staying at the time.

pronouncing the

1.165 The always has the same spelling, but it has three different pronunciations:

/ðǝ/ when the following word begins with a consonant sound

…the dictionary…the first act…the big box.

/ði/ when the following word begins with a vowel sound

…the exhibition… the effect… the impression.

/ði/ when it is emphasized

You don’t mean the Ernest Hemingway?

See paragraph 1.181 for more information about emphatic uses of the.

the with a noun

1.166 You can use a noun phrase consisting just of the and a noun when you know that the person you are talking or writing to will understand which person, thing, or group you are referring to.

The expedition sailed out into the Pacific.

…the most obnoxious boy in the school.

He stopped the car in front of the bakery.

nouns referring to one thing only

1.167 Some nouns are used with the because they refer to only one person, thing, or group. Some of these are specific names or proper nouns, for example titles such as the Pope, unique things such as the Eiffel Tower, and place names such as the Atlantic.

…a concert attended by the Queen.

We went on camel rides to the Pyramids.

See paragraphs 1.52 to 1.58 for more information about proper nouns.

Some are singular nouns, that is they refer to something of which there is only one in the world, such as the ground, or the moon.

The sun began to turn red.

In April and May the wind blows steadily.

See paragraphs 1.34 to 1.40 for more information about singular nouns.

specific places and organizations

1.168 Other nouns are used to talk about just one person, thing, or group in a particular place or organization, so that if you are talking about that place or organization or talking to someone in it, you can use just the and the noun.

For example, if there is only one station in a town, the people who live in the town will talk about the station. Similarly, people living in Britain talk to each other about the economy, meaning the British economy, and people working for the same organization might talk about the boss, the union, or the canteen without needing to specify the organization.

The church has been broken into.

There’s a wind coming off the river.

We had to get rid of the director.

The mayor is a forty-eight-year-old former labourer.

What is the President doing about all this?

generalizing about people and things

1.169 Normally, if you want to talk generally about all people or things of a particular type, you use the plural form of a noun without a determiner.

However, there are some countable nouns that are used in the singular with the to refer to something more general.

For example, you can use the theatre or the stage to talk about all entertainment performed in theatres. Similarly, the screen refers to films in general, and the law refers to the system of laws in a country.

For him, the stage was just a way of earning a living.

He was as handsome in real life as he was on the screen.

They do not hesitate to break the law.

Some nouns that normally refer to an individual thing or person can be used in the singular with the to refer generally to a system or service in a particular place. For example, you can use the bus to talk about a bus service and the phone to talk about a telephone system.

How long does it take on the train?

We rang for the ambulance.

Nouns referring to musical instruments can be used in the singular with the when you are talking about someone playing, or being able to play, a particular kind of instrument.

You play the oboe, I see, said Simon.

I was playing the piano when he phoned.

using adjectives as nouns

1.170 When you want to talk generally about groups of people who share the same characteristic or quality, you often choose an adjective preceded by the.

This project is all about giving employment to the unemployed.

See paragraphs 1.66 to 1.72 for more information about using adjectives as nouns.

formal generalizations

1.171 Nouns referring to plants and animals can be used in the singular with the when you are making a statement about every member of a species. For example, if you say The swift has long, narrow wings, you mean that all swifts have long, narrow wings.

The primrose can grow abundantly on chalk banks.

Australia is the home of the kangaroo.

Similarly, a noun referring to a part of the human body can be used with the to refer to that part of anyone’s body.

These arteries supply the heart with blood.

…the arteries supplying the kidneys.

The is sometimes used with other nouns in the singular to make a statement about all the members of a group.

The article focuses on how to protect the therapist rather than on how to cure the patient.

These uses are fairly formal. They are not common in ordinary speech. Usually, if you want to make a statement about all the things of a particular kind, you use the plural form of a noun without a determiner. See paragraph 1.227 for more information about this.

USAGE NOTE

1.172 Many common time expressions consist of just the and a noun.

We wasted a lot of money in the past.

The train leaves Cardiff at four in the afternoon.

…the changes which are taking place at the moment.

See Chapter 4 for more information about time expressions.

referring back

1.173 In each of the paragraphs above showing uses of the and a noun, it is possible to understand who or what is being referred to because the noun phrase is commonly accepted as referring to one particular person, thing, or group.

However, you can use the with any noun, if it is obvious who or what you are referring to from what has already been said or written.

The usual way of referring back to a noun is to use a pronoun, but if the second reference does not come immediately after the first one, or if it is not immediately obvious which noun is being referred to, you should use the, and the noun again. For example, if you have already mentioned that you were in a train, and then continued to tell a story, you can say afterwards The train suddenly stopped.

1.174 You can also use the and a noun when you are referring to someone or something closely connected with something you have just mentioned.

For example, you do not usually say We tried to get into the room, but the door of the room was locked. You say We tried to get into the room, but the door was locked, because it is obvious which door you are referring to.

She stopped and lit a match. The wind almost blew out the flame.

the with longer noun phrases

1.175 Although there are many situations where you use just the and a noun, there are other occasions when you need to add something else to the noun in order to make it clear which person, thing, or group you are referring to.

adding adjectives

1.176 Sometimes you can show who or what you are referring to by putting an adjective between the and the noun.

This is the main bedroom.

Somebody ought to have done it long ago, remarked the fat man.

Sometimes you need to use more than one adjective.

After the crossroads look out for the large white building.

For more information about adjectives, see paragraphs 2.2 to 2.168.

adjectives: expanding

1.177 When you use an adjective between the and a noun, you do not always do it in order to make clear who or what is being referred to.

For example, you might want to add further information about someone or something that you have already mentioned. So, if you first refer to someone as a woman in a sentence such as A woman came into the room, you might later want to refer to her as the unfortunate woman or the smiling woman.

This is a very common use in written English, especially in stories, but it is not often used in conversation.

The astonished waiter was now watching from the other end of the room.

The poor woman had witnessed terrible violence.

The loss of pressure caused the speeding car to go into a skid.

adding clauses or phrases

1.178 Another way of showing who or what you are referring to is by adding extra information after the and a noun, for example a prepositional phrase, a relative clause, a to-infinitive, an adverb of place or time, or a phrase introduced by a participle.

So you might refer to particular people at a party by using noun phrases such as the girl in the yellow dress, the woman who spilled her drink, or the man smoking a cigar.

The cars in the driveways were all Ferraris and Porsches.

The book that I recommend now costs over twenty pounds.

The thing to aim for is an office of your own.

Who made the bed in the room upstairs?

It depends on the person being interviewed.

For more information about this type of extra information that is added to a noun, see paragraphs 2.272 to 2.302.

the with uncountable nouns

1.179 You do not normally use the with uncountable nouns because they refer to something in a general way. However, the is necessary if the uncountable noun is followed by extra information such as a clause or a phrase that relates it to a particular person, thing, or group.

For example, you cannot say I am interested in education of young children. You have to say I am interested in the education of young children.

Babies need the comfort of their mother’s arms.

Even the honesty of Inspector Butler was in doubt.

I’ve no idea about the geography of Scotland.

For more information about uncountable nouns, see paragraphs 1.23 to 1.33.

superlatives

1.180 The is also used with superlative adjectives.

I’m not the best cook in the world.

They went to the most expensive restaurant in town.

See paragraphs 2.112 to 2.122 for more information about superlative adjectives.

emphasizing the

1.181 The is often used in front of a noun to indicate that someone or something is the best of its kind.

New Zealand is now the place to visit.

You can also use the in front of a person’s name to show that you are referring to the most famous person with that name.

You actually met the George Harrison?

When you use the in either of these ways, you emphasize it and pronounce it /ðI/.

the with indefinite determiners

1.182 The can be used in front of some indefinite determiners, usually to give an indication of amount or quantity.

These indefinite determiners are:

few

little

many

other

…pleasures known only to the few.

…a coup under the leadership of the select few.

He was one of the few who knew where to find me.

We have done the little that is in our power.

You use the with other to refer to the second of two things, when you have just mentioned one of them.

The men sat at one end of the table and the women at the other.

For more information about indefinite determiners, see paragraphs 1.223 to 1.250.

the with numbers

1.183 The is used with one and ones.

I’m going to have the green one.

The shop was different from the ones I remembered.

…a pair of those old glasses, the ones with those funny square lenses.

The is also used with other numbers.

It is a mistake to confuse the two.

Why is she so different from the other two?

See paragraphs 2.208 to 2.239 for more information about numbers.

Definite determiners: using this, that, these, and those

1.184 You use the definite determiners this, that, these, and those to talk about people or things in a definite way.

You use this and these to talk about people and things that are close to you in place or time. When you talk about people or things that are more distant in place or time, you use that and those.

You put this and that in front of singular nouns, uncountable nouns, and the singular pronoun one. You put these and those in front of plural nouns and the plural pronoun ones.

This, that, these, and those are often called demonstratives or demonstrative adjectives.

this and these

1.185 This and these are used to talk about people or things that are very obvious in the situation that you are in. For example, if you are inside a house, you can refer to it as this house. If you are holding some keys in your hand, you can refer to them as these keys. If you are at a party, you can refer to it as this party.

I have lived in this house my entire life.

I am going to walk up these steps towards you.

I’ll come as soon as these men have finished their work.

I like this university.

Good evening. In this programme we are going to look at the way in which British music has developed in recent years.

When it is clear who or what you are referring to, you can use this and these as pronouns. This use is explained in paragraphs 1.124 to 1.127.

1.186 This and these are also used in many expressions that refer to current periods of time, for example this month, this week, and these days. This use is explained in Chapter 4.

that and those

1.187 You use that and those when you are talking about things or people that you can see but that are not close to you.

How much is it for that big box?

Can I have one of those brochures?

Can you move those books off there?

1.188 When it is clear who or what you are talking about, you can use that and those as pronouns. This use is explained in paragraphs 1.124 to 1.127.

Could you just hold that?

Please don’t take those.

USAGE NOTE

1.189 You can show that you are referring to the same person or thing you have just mentioned by using this, that, these, or those in front of a noun. For example, if you have just mentioned a girl, you can refer to her as this girl or that girl the second time you mention her. Normally, you use a pronoun to refer to someone or something you have just mentioned, but sometimes you cannot do this because it might not be clear who or what the pronoun refers to.

Students and staff suggest books for the library, and normally we’re quite happy to get those books.

Their house is in a valley. The people in that valley speak about the people in the next valley as foreigners.

They had a lot of diamonds, and they asked her if she could possibly get these diamonds to Britain.

The use of this, that, those, etc. to refer again to something that has already been mentioned is fully explained in paragraphs 10.7 to 10.10.

1.190 In informal English, you can also use that and those in front of a noun to talk about people or things that are already known to the person you are speaking or writing to.

That idiot Antonio has gone and locked our cabin door.

Have they found those missing children yet?

Do you remember that funny little apartment?

1.191 You can use that in front of a noun when you are talking about something that has just happened.

I knew that meeting would be difficult.

That is used as a pronoun to talk about something that has just happened. This use is explained in paragraphs 1.124 to 1.127.

using those instead of the

1.192 In more formal English, those can be used instead of the in front of a plural noun when the plural noun is followed by a relative clause. In this use, the relative clause specifies exactly which group of people or things are being referred to.

…those workers who are employed in large enterprises.

The parents are not afraid to be firm about those matters that seem important to them.

informal use of this and these

1.193 In informal spoken English, people sometimes use this and these in front of nouns even when they are mentioning someone or something for the first time.

And then this woman came up to me and she said, I believe you have a goddaughter called Celia Ravenscroft.

At school we had to wear these awful white cotton hats.

Possessive determiners: my, your, their, etc.

1.194 You often want to show that a thing belongs to someone or that it is connected in some way with someone.

One way of doing this is to use a word like my, your, and their, which tells you who something belongs to. These words are called possessive determiners.

Are your children bilingual?

I remember his name now.

They would be welcome to use our library.

I’d been waiting a long time to park my car.

table of possessive determiners

1.195 There are seven possessive determiners in English, and each one is associated with a particular personal pronoun:

singular plural 1st person my our 2nd person your 3rd person his

her

its their

Personal pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.95 to 1.106.

BE CAREFUL

1.196 You do not spell the possessive its with an apostrophe. It’s is short for it is.

position

1.197 Possessive determiners, like other determiners, come after any words like all or some of (called predeterminers), and before any numbers or adjectives.

…all his letters. …their next message. …my little finger. …our two lifeboats.

See paragraph 1.251 for more information about predeterminers.

BE CAREFUL

1.198 In English, you do not use more than one definite determiner before a noun. Therefore, possessive determiners must be used on their own. You cannot say I took off the my shoes. You have to choose whether to say I took off my shoes, or I took off the shoes.

agreement with noun

1.199 You choose which possessive determiner to use according to the identity of the person or thing that owns something. For example, if you want to identify something as belonging to or relating to a particular woman, you always use her. The following noun does not affect the choice.

I took off my shoes.

Her husband remained standing. He had his hands in his pockets.

She had to give up her job.

The group held its first meeting last week.

The creature lifted its head.

…the two dark men, glasses in their hands, waiting silently.

…the car companies and their workers.

use of own

1.200 When you want to draw attention to the fact that something belongs or relates to a particular person or thing, you can use the word own after the possessive determiner.

I helped him to some more water but left my own glass untouched.

Residents are allowed to bring their own furniture with them if they wish to do so.

Make your own decisions.

I heard it with my own ears.

She felt in charge of her own affairs.

If you use a number or adjective in this structure, you put the number or adjective after own.

…their own three children.

The players provided their own white shorts.

uses of possessives

1.201 Possessive determiners do not always show that what follows them is actually possessed (or owned) by someone. Sometimes they just show that what follows is connected or associated with someone in some way.

They then turned their attention to other things.

…the vitality of our music and our culture.

In summer, hay fever interfered with all her activities.

It’s his brother who has the workshop.

1.202 You can use a possessive determiner in front of a noun that refers to an action, in order to show who or what is doing the action.

…not long after our arrival.

…his criticism of the Government.

…their fight for survival.

I’m waiting for your explanation.

Most of their claims were worthy.

In the last example, their claims refers to the claims that they have made.

1.203 You can also use a possessive determiner to say who or what is affected by an action.

My appointment as the first woman chairman symbolizes change.

…the redistribution of wealth, rather than its creation.

They expressed their horror at her dismissal.

In the last example, her dismissal refers to the fact that she was dismissed by someone or by a company.

In the first of the following examples, his supporters means the people who support him.

…Birch and his supporters.

She returned the ring to its owner.

USAGE NOTE

1.204 Sometimes in English the determiner the is used where there is an obvious possessive meaning. In these cases the possession is already made clear by a preceding noun or pronoun. The following paragraphs explain the situations in which you use the rather than a possessive determiner.

1.205 When you refer to a specific part of someone’s body, you normally use a possessive determiner.

She has something on her feet and a bag in her hand.

Nancy suddenly took my arm.

The children wore nothing on their feet.

She thanked him shyly and patted his arm.

I opened the cupboard and they fell on my head.

He shook his head.

However, when you are describing an action that someone does to a part of someone else’s body, you often use the definite article (the), especially when the body part is the object of a preposition and when the object of the verb is a pronoun. For example, if you say She hit me on the head, head is the object of the preposition on and me is the object of the verb hit.

I patted him on the head.

He took her by the arm and began drawing her away.

You use the definite article because the owner of the body part has already been identified, and you do not need to repeat this information.

Similarly, if the object of the verb is a reflexive pronoun such as myself, yourself, and so on, you use the definite article. This is because the reflexive pronoun already refers to you or to the person who is doing the action, so you do not need to repeat this information by using a possessive determiner.

I accidentally hit myself on the head with the brush handle.

We can pat ourselves on the back for bringing up our children.

Uses of reflexive pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.111 to 1.118.

1.206 If you want to describe something that you do to yourself or that someone else does to themselves, you normally use a possessive determiner.

She was brushing her hair.

‘I’m going to brush my teeth,’ he said.

She gritted her teeth and carried on.

He walked into the kitchen and shook his head.

BE CAREFUL

1.207 You usually use possessive determiners when you refer to people or animals. You do not usually use them to refer to things that are not alive. It is, for example, more usual to say the door or the door of the room than its door.

generic use

1.208 Possessive determiners are sometimes used to talk about things that belong to or are associated with people in general, in a similar way to generic pronouns. For more information on generic pronouns, see paragraphs 1.119 to 1.123.

Your can be used when you are talking about something that belongs to or is associated with people in general, or with a person in a situation that you are imagining.

Can eating a low-fat diet weaken your hair?

Going to the gym is good for your general health.

Part of the process involves discussing your decision with a career counsellor.

In more formal English, one’s is sometimes used instead of your.

A satisfying job can bring structure and meaning to one’s life.

Our can be used to talk about all of mankind or society.

Being a child is not easy in our society.

Their can be used to refer to a person when you do not know, or do not want to specify, whether that person is male or female.

The most important asset a person has is their ability to work.

Each winner received a plaque with their award title.

other possessives

1.209 There are other ways of showing that something is owned by or connected with someone or something else. For example, you can use ’s (apostrophe s) or a prepositional phrase beginning with of.

Mary’s daughter is called Elizabeth.

Very often the person appointed has no knowledge of that company’s end product.

…the house of a rich banker in Paris.

In the opinion of the team, what would they consider to be absolutely necessary?

possessive determiners used in titles

1.210 Possessive determiners are also sometimes used in titles such as Your Majesty and His Excellency. This use is explained in paragraph 1.56.

The possessive form: apostrophe s (’s)

1.211 You usually show that something belongs to or is associated with a specific, named person by adding ’s to the name of the person, and by placing this possessive form in front of the thing that belongs to them, or is associated with them. For example, if John owns a motorbike, you can refer to it as ‘John’s motorbike’.

Sylvia put her hand on John’s arm.

…the main features of Mr Brown’s economic policy.

When you use a noun rather than a name to refer to the person, the noun phrase containing the possessive form also contains a determiner in the usual way.

…his grandmother’s house.

Your mother’s best handbag.

Note that the determiner applies to the possessive form and not to the noun that is being modified by the possessive.

spelling and pronunciation

1.212 The spelling and pronunciation patterns used to form possessives change according to the spelling and pronunciation of the name or noun. These are explained in the Reference Section.

other uses of ’s

1.213 Note that in addition to being the possessive form, the pattern ’s can also be added to words as a contraction of is or has. This is explained in the Reference Section.

showing close connection

1.214 Apostrophe s (’s) is most often added to a noun referring to a person or an animal.

I wore a pair of my sister’s boots.

Philip watched his friend’s reaction.

Billy patted the dog’s head.

It can also be used to show that something belongs to or is associated with a group of people or an institution.

She runs the foreign exchange desk for the bank’s corporate clients.

They also prepare the university’s budget.

…the paper’s political editor, Mr Fred Emery.

There was a raid on the Democratic Party’s headquarters.

What is your government’s policy?

1.215 Apostrophe s (’s) is sometimes added to a noun referring to an object when specifying a part of it or a quality or feature that it has.

I like the car’s design.

You can predict a computer’s behaviour because it follows rules.

Apostrophe s (’s) is used after nouns and names referring to places to specify something in that place.

He is the administrative head of the country’s biggest city.

The city’s population is in decline.

…Britain’s most famous company.

1.216 If you want to emphasize that something belongs or relates to a particular person and nobody else, you use own. Own can be used after the possessive form of a name or noun, as well as after a possessive determiner.

Professor Wilson’s own answer may be unacceptable.

We must depend on David’s own assessment.

If you are specifying a number of things, you put the number after own.

…the Doctor’s own two rooms.

other structures

1.217 When you are talking about two things of the same type that belong to different people you can use the possessive form of a name or noun like a possessive pronoun so that you can avoid repeating the thing itself. In the first example below, her brother’s is used instead of her brother’s appearance.

Her appearance is very different to her brother’s.

My room is next to Karen’s.

It is your responsibility rather than your parents’.

The possessive form can also be used on its own to refer to someone’s home or place of work.

He’s round at David’s.

She stopped off at the butcher’s for a piece of steak.

She hasn’t been back to the doctor’s since.

Possessive pronouns are explained in paragraphs 1.107 to 1.110.

used in prepositional phrases with of

1.218 The possessive form can be used in a prepositional phrase beginning with of after a noun phrase. You use this structure when you are talking about one of a number of things that belong to someone or are associated with them, rather than about something unique.

Julia, a friend of Jenny’s, was there too.

That word was a favourite of your father’s.

USAGE NOTE

1.219 Possessive forms can also be used to refer to things of a particular type that are usually associated with someone.

…a woman dressed in a man’s raincoat.

…a policeman’s uniform.

…women’s magazines.

…the men’s lavatory.

1.220 The possessive form can sometimes be used with nouns that refer to an action in order to show who or what is performing the action.

…the banking service’s rapid growth.

…Madeleine’s arrival at Fairwater House School.

Note that phrases beginning with of are used more commonly to do this, and that they are more formal than this use of possessive forms. The use of prepositional phrases beginning with of to show who or what is performing an action is explained in paragraph 2.282.

1.221 Sometimes you can add apostrophe s (’s) to a noun referring to the thing affected by the performer of an action and put it in front of the noun referring to that performer. For example, you can talk about the scheme’s supporters.

…Christ’s followers.

…the car’s owner.

Sometimes an apostrophe s (’s) structure can be used to refer to the thing affected by an action.

…Capello’s appointment as England manager.

Note again that of structures are more commonly used to do this.

other ways of showing possession

1.222 It is also possible to show possession by using either a prepositional phrase beginning with of, or a structure with a noun modifier in it.

Prepositional phrases beginning with of are explained in paragraphs 2.277 to 2.283. Noun modifiers are explained in paragraphs 2.169 to 2.174.

Indefinite determiners: all, some, many, etc.

1.223 Indefinite determiners are used in noun phrases when you are talking about people or things in a general way, without identifying them.

Here is a list of indefinite determiners:

a

all

an

another

any

both

each

either

enough

every

few

little

many

more

most

much

neither

no

other

several

some

A, and an are the most common indefinite determiners; they are sometimes called the indefinite article. For more information about a and an, see paragraphs 1.228 to 1.235.

For more information about the other indefinite determiners, see paragraphs 1.236 to 1.250.

with countable nouns

1.224 A and an are used with singular countable nouns, and show that you are talking about just one person or thing.

Another is used with singular countable nouns and other with plural countable nouns, but only after one or more of the same type of person or thing has been mentioned.

Any can be used with singular and plural countable nouns to talk about one or more people or things. You use enough, few, many, more, most, several, and some with plural countable nouns to show that you are talking about a number of people or things. Each of these determiners indicates a different set or group within the total number. For more information about their meanings, see the section beginning at paragraph 1.236.

All, both, each, either, and every show that you are talking about the total number of people or things involved. Both and either specify that only two people or things are involved. Both is used with a plural noun, and either with a singular noun. All, each, and every usually show that there are more than two. All is used with a plural noun, and each and every with a singular noun.

No and neither refer to the total number of things involved in negative statements. No is used with singular or plural nouns, and neither only with singular nouns. No and neither are covered in the section on negative words in Chapter 5.

For more information about countable nouns, see paragraphs 1.15 to 1.22.

with uncountable nouns

1.225 For uncountable nouns, any, enough, little, more, most, much, and some are used to talk about a quantity of something. No and all indicate the total quantity of it.

For more information about uncountable nouns, see paragraphs 1.23 to 1.33.

BE CAREFUL

1.226 A, an, another, both, each, either, every, few, many, neither, and several are not usually used with uncountable nouns.

using nouns without determiners

1.227 When you are referring to things or people in an indefinite way, you can sometimes use a noun without a determiner.

…raising money from industry, government, and trusts.

Permission should be asked before visitors are invited.

Uncountable nouns are usually used without a determiner.

Health and education are matters that most voters feel strongly about.

Wealth, like power, tends to corrupt.

Plural nouns are used without a determiner when you are referring to all the people or things of a particular kind.

Dogs need a regular balanced diet, not just meat.

Are there any jobs that men can do that women can’t?

Plural nouns can also be used without a determiner to talk about an unspecified number of things.

Teachers should read stories to children.

Cats and dogs get fleas.

For more information about plural nouns, see paragraphs 1.41 to 1.46.

A and an

1.228 A and an are the most common indefinite determiners. They are used for talking about a person or thing when it is not clear or not important which one is intended. You put a or an in front of the singular form of a countable noun.

He’s bought the children a puppy.

He was eating an apple.

An old lady was calling to him.

choosing a or an

1.229 You use a when the following word begins with a consonant sound.

…a piece…a good teacher…a language class.

This includes some words that begin with a vowel in their written form, because the first sound is a y sound, /j/.

…a university…a European language.

You use an when the following word begins with a vowel sound.

…an example…an art exhibition…an early train.

This includes some words that begin with the letter h in their written form, because the h is not pronounced.

…an honest politician…quarter of an hour.

A is usually pronounced /ǝ/. An is usually pronounced /ǝո/.

not being specific about which person or thing you are referring to

1.230 People often say that you use a or an when you are mentioning something for the first time, but this is not a very helpful rule because there are so many situations where you use the for the first mention of something. See, for example, paragraphs 1.166, 1.167, and 1.168.

You usually use a or an when it is not clear or not important which specific person or thing is being referred to.

She picked up a book.

After weeks of looking, we eventually bought a house.

A colleague and I got some money to do research on rats.

adding extra information

1.231 Sometimes, a or an is simply followed by a noun.

I got a postcard from Susan.

The FBI is conducting an investigation.

But if you want to add extra information, you can add an adjective, or a following clause or phrase.

I met a Swedish girl on the train from Copenhagen.

I’ve been reading an interesting article in The Economist.

We had to write a story about our parents’ childhood.

I chose a picture that reminded me of my own country.

a or an after linking verbs

1.232 You can also use a or an after a linking verb.

She is a model and an artist.

His father was an alcoholic.

Noise was considered a nuisance.

His brother was a sensitive child.

For more information about linking verbs, see Chapter 3.

a and an with uncountable nouns

1.233 Sometimes, a or an are used with an uncountable noun, especially one that relates to human emotions or mental activity. This only happens when the uncountable noun is limited by an adjective, or a phrase or clause giving more information.

A general education is perhaps more important than an exact knowledge of some particular theory.

She had an eagerness for life.

using individuals to generalize

1.234 You can use a or an with a noun when you are using one individual person or thing to make a general statement about all people or things of that type. For example, if you say A gun must be kept in a safe place, you are talking about an individual gun in order to make a general statement about all guns.

A computer can only do what you program it to do.

A dog likes to eat far more meat than a human being.

An unmarried mother was looked down on.

This is not the usual way of referring to groups. Normally, if you want to make a statement about all the people or things of a particular kind, you use the plural form of a noun without a determiner. See paragraph 1.227 for more information about this.

nouns referring to one thing only

1.235 A and an are sometimes used with singular nouns such as sun, moon, and sky that refer to just one thing. You normally use the with these nouns, but you use a or an when you are drawing attention to some special feature by adding a modifier or a following phrase or clause to the noun. This use is particularly common in literature.

We drove under a gloomy sky.

A weak sun shines on the promenade.

For more information on singular nouns, see paragraphs 1.34 to 1.40.

Other indefinite determiners

some

1.236 Some is usually used to show that there is a quantity of something or a number of things or people, without being precise. It is used with uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns.

Some is usually used in affirmative statements.

There is some evidence that the system works.

There’s some chocolate cake over there.

I had some good ideas.

Some can be used in questions, when you expect the answer to be yes.

Could you give me some examples?

Would you like some coffee?

Some is also used to mean quite a large amount or number. For example, in I did not meet her again for some years, some means almost the same as several or many.

You will be unable to restart the car for some time.

It took some years for Dan to realize the truth.

1.237 You can also use some in front of numbers, in slightly more literary English, to show that you are not being totally accurate.

I was some fifteen miles by sea from the nearest village.

…an animal weighing some five tons.

1.238 When you want to emphasize that you do not know the identity of a person or thing, or you think their identity is not important, you can use some with a singular countable noun, instead of a or an.

Most staff members will spend a few weeks in some developing country.

Supposing you had some eccentric who came and offered you a thousand pounds.

any

1.239 Any is used before plural nouns and uncountable nouns when you are referring to a quantity of something that may or may not exist.

The patients know their rights like any other consumers.

Check online if you’re in any doubt.

You can stop at any time you like.

Any is also used in questions asking whether something exists or not. It is also used in negative statements to say that something does not exist.

Do you have any advice on that?

Do you have any vacancies for bar staff?

It hasn’t made any difference.

Nobody in her house knows any English.

I rang up to see if there were any tickets left.

Questions and negative statements are explained further in Chapter 5.

Note that you can use any with singular countable nouns to talk about someone or something of a particular type, when you do not want to mention a specific person or thing.

Any big tin container will do.

Cars can be rented at almost any US airport.

Any can also be used as a pronoun. See paragraphs 1.93 to 1.161 for more information about pronouns. It is also used in if-clauses. For more information about these, see Chapter 8.

another and other

1.240 Another is used with singular countable nouns to talk about an additional person or thing of the same type as you have already mentioned.

Could I have another cup of coffee?

He opened another shop last month.

It can also be used before numbers to talk about more than one additional thing.

Margaret staying with us for another ten days.

Five officials were sacked and another four arrested.

Other is used with plural nouns, or occasionally with uncountable nouns.

Other people must have thought like this.

They are either asleep or entirely absorbed in play or other activity.

selecting from a group

1.241 Enough is used to say that there is as much of something as is needed, or as many things as are needed. You can therefore use enough in front of uncountable nouns or plural nouns.

There’s enough space for the children to run around.

They weren’t getting enough customers.

Many indicates that there is a large number of things, without being very precise. You use many with a plural countable noun.

He spoke many different languages.

When you want to emphasize that there is only a small number of things of a particular kind, you use few with a plural countable noun.

There are few drugs that act quickly enough to be effective.

There were few doctors available.

Few is quite formal. In less formal English, you can use not many with the same meaning.

There aren’st many gardeners like him.

Most indicates nearly all of a group or amount. You use most with an uncountable noun or a plural countable noun.

Most people recover but the disease can be fatal.

Most farmers are still using the old methods.

Several usually indicates an imprecise number that is not very large, but is more than two. You use several with a plural countable noun.

Several projects had to be postponed.

I had seen her several times before.

There were several reasons for this.

all, both, and either

1.242 All includes every person or thing of a particular kind. You use all with an uncountable noun or a plural countable noun.

They believe that all prisoners should be treated the same.

Both is used to say something about two people or things of the same kind. You use both with a plural countable noun. The two people or things have usually been mentioned or are obvious from the context. Both is sometimes used to emphasize that two people or things are involved, rather than just one.

There were excellent performances from both actresses.

Denis held his cocoa in both hands.

Either is also used to talk about two things, but usually indicates that only one of the two is involved. You use either with a singular countable noun. When it is part of the subject of a clause, the verb is in the singular.

No argument could move either old gentleman from this decision.

If either parent has the disease, there is a much higher chance that the child will develop it.

Note that either can mean both of two things, especially when it is used with end and side.

They stood on either side of the bed.

each and every

1.243 You use each and every when you are talking about all the members of a group of people or things. You use each when you are thinking about the members as individuals, and every when you are making a general statement about all of them. Each and every are followed by a singular countable noun.

Each seat was covered with a white lace cover.

They would rush out to meet each visitor.

This new wealth can be seen in every village.

Every child would have milk every day.

Each applicant has five choices.

I agree with every word Peter says.

You can modify every but not each. You can say things such as Almost every chair is broken or Not every chair is broken but you cannot say Almost each chair is broken or Not each chair is broken. This is because each is slightly more precise and definite than every.

Note that each can be used when talking about two people or things, but every is only used for numbers larger than two.

little and much

1.244 If you want to emphasize that there is only a small amount of something, you use little. You use much to emphasize a large amount. Little and much are used with uncountable nouns.

Little is used only in affirmative statements. It is not used in questions or negatives.

There was little applause.

We’ve made little progress.

We have very little information.

Little is quite formal. In less formal texts, not much is more common. For example, instead of saying We’ve made little progress, you can say We haven’t made much progress.

Much is usually used in questions and negatives.

Do you watch much television?

He did not speak much English.

Very much is used only in negative statements. For example, I don’t have very much sugar means I have only a small quantity of sugar.

I haven’t given very much attention to this problem.

Much is used in affirmative statements when it is modified by an adverb such as too, so or as.

It would take too much time.

Provide as much information as you can about the property.

In more formal English, much can be used in affirmative statements without an adverb. This usage is most common with abstract nouns, particularly those relating to discussion, debate and research.

The subject of company annual accounts is generating much debate among accountants and analysts.

The team’s findings have caused much excitement among medical experts.

After much speculation, intelligence agencies now believe that he survived.

Usually, though, much is not used in affirmative statements. Instead, people generally use a lot of and, in less formal texts, lots of. For example, people would not usually say I have much work to do; instead, they would say I have a lot of work to do. For more information on a lot of, see 2.176.

certain, numerous, and various

1.245 Some other words can be indefinite determiners, such as certain, numerous, and various. You use certain, numerous and various with a plural countable noun.

Certain is used to refer to some members of a group, without specifying which ones.

We have certain ideas about what topics are suitable.

Numerous, like many, indicates a large number in an imprecise way.

I have received numerous requests for information.

Various is used to emphasize that you are referring to several different things or people.

We looked at schools in various European countries.

more, few, and less

1.246 There are three comparatives that are determiners. More is used in front of plural and uncountable nouns, usually with than, to refer to a quantity or amount of something that is greater than another quantity or amount.

He does more hours than I do.

His visit might do more harm than good.

But more is also often used to refer to an additional quantity of something rather than in comparisons.

More teachers need to be recruited.

We need more information.

Less is used to refer to an amount of something that is smaller than another amount. Fewer is used to refer to a group of things that is smaller than another group. Less is usually used before uncountable nouns and fewer before plural nouns, but in informal English less is also used before plural nouns.

The poor have less access to education.

…machinery which uses less energy.

As a result, he found less time than he would have hoped for his hobbies.

There are fewer trees here.

For more information about comparison, see paragraphs 2.103 to 2.139.

other expressions

1.247 Some other expressions also behave like indefinite determiners: a few, a little, a good many, a great many. These have a slightly different meaning from the single word determiners few, little, and many.

If you are mentioning a small number of things, but without any emphasis, you can use a few with plural countable nouns.

They went to San Diego for a few days.

A few years ago we set up a factory.

I usually do a few jobs for him in the house.

Similarly, if you are just mentioning a small amount of something without any emphasis, you can use a little with uncountable nouns.

He spread a little honey on a slice of bread.

I have to spend a little time in Oxford.

Charles is having a little trouble.

However, a good many and a great many are more emphatic forms of many.

I haven’t seen her for a good many years.

He wrote a great many novels.

modifying determiners: four more rooms, too much time

1.248 Some indefinite determiners can be modified by very, too, and far, or sometimes by another indefinite determiner.

You can modify more with numbers or with other indefinite determiners.

Downstairs there are four more rooms.

There had been no more accidents.

You will never have to do any more work.

You can use too many or too much to say that a quantity is more than is wanted or needed, and too few or too little if it is not enough.

There were too many competitors.

They gave too much power to the Treasury.

There’s too little literature involved.

You can use very before few, little, many, and much. You can also say a very little or a very great many.

Very many women have made their mark on industry.

Very few cars had reversing lights.

I had very little money left.

using one

1.249 You use one as a determiner when you have been talking or writing about a group of people or things and you want to say something about a particular member of the group. One is used instead of a or an and is slightly more emphatic.

We had one case that dragged on for a couple of years.

They criticise me all the time, wrote one woman.

I know one household where that happened, actually.

The use of one as a number is explained in paragraphs 2.214 to 2.215.

1.250 Many determiners are also pronouns; that is, they can be used without a following noun. For more information about these, see paragraphs 1.154 to 1.161.

predeterminers: all the people, quite a long time

1.251 Normally, a determiner is the first word in a noun phrase. However, there is a class of words called predeterminers which can come in front of a determiner.

Here is a list of predeterminers:

all

both

double

half

many

quarter

twice

~

quite

rather

such

what

The first group are used to talk about amounts or quantities. All can also be used to refer to every part of something. When used with this meaning it is used with an uncountable noun.

All the boys started to giggle.

He will give you all the information.

All these people knew each other.

I shall miss all my friends.

I invited both the boys.

Both these parties shared one basic belief.

She paid double the sum they asked for.

I’m getting twice the pay I used to get.

In the second group, quite and rather can be used either to emphasize or to reduce the effect of what is being said. In speech, the meaning is made clear by your tone of voice. In writing, it is sometimes difficult to know which meaning is intended without reading more of the text.

It takes quite a long time to get a divorce.

It was quite a shock.

Seaford is rather a pleasant town.

It was rather a disaster.

Such and what are used for emphasis.

He has such a beautiful voice.

What a mess!