Collins Cobuild English Grammar

objects with prepositions

3.106 Remember that when a phrasal verb consists of an intransitive verb followed by a preposition, the noun phrase always comes after the preposition, even when it is a pronoun.

A number of reasons can account for this change.

They had dealt with the problem intelligently.

If I went away and left you in the flat, would you look after it?

There is a list of phrasal verbs that consist of an intransitive verb and a preposition in paragraph 3.88.

transitive phrasal verbs with prepositions: She talked me into buying it

3.107 Some phrasal verbs consist of a transitive verb and a preposition. They have one noun phrase after the first word, as the object of the verb, and a second noun phrase after the second word, as the object of the preposition.

They agreed to let him into their secret.

The farmer threatened to set his dogs on them.

They’ll hold that against you when you apply next time.

3.108 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that consist of a transitive verb and a preposition:

build into

build on

draw into

drum into

frighten into

hold against

keep to

lay before

leave off

let into

lumber with

make of

put on

put onto

put through

read into

set against

set back

set on

talk into

thrust upon

write into

preposition or adverb: I’ll cross you off, I’ll cross you off the list

3.109 In the case of some transitive phrasal verbs, the second word is a preposition if the third thing involved needs to be mentioned, but it is an adverb if the third thing involved is clear from the context.

Rudolph showed them around the theatre.

Rudolph showed them around.

3.110 Here is a list of transitive phrasal verbs whose second word can be a preposition or an adverb:

cross off

dab on

hawk around

hurl about

keep off

knock off

lop off

push around

scrub off

show around

shut in

sink in

intransitive three-word phrasal verbs: look forward to, catch up with

3.111 Most phrasal verbs consist of two words: a verb and an adverb, or a verb and a preposition. However, some phrasal verbs consist of three words: a verb, an adverb, and a preposition. This type of verb is sometimes called a phrasal-prepositional verb.

Most three-word phrasal verbs are intransitive. The preposition at the end is followed by its own object.

His girlfriend walked out on him.

You’re not going to get away with this!

She sometimes finds it hard to keep up with her classmates.

The local people have to put up with a lot of tourists.

Terry Holbrook caught up with me.

3.112 Here is a list of intransitive three-word phrasal verbs:

be in for

be on to

bear down on

boil down to

break out of

brush up on

bump up against

burst in on

call out for

catch up with

chime in with

clamp down on

clean up after

come across as

come down on

come down to

come down with

come in for

come on to

come out in

come out of

come out with

come up against

come up to

come up with

crack down on

creep up on

crowd in on

cry out against

cry out for

cut back on

date back to

do away with

double back on

face up to

fall back on

fall in with

get away with

get down to

get in on

get off with

get on to

get on with

get round to

get up to

give up on

go along with

go back on

go down with

go in for

go off with

go over to

go through with

grow out of

keep in with

keep on at

keep up with

kick out against

lead up to

live up to

look down on

look forward to

look out for

look up to

make away with

make off with

make up to

match up to

measure up to

miss out on

monkey about with

play along with

play around with

put up with

read up on

run away with

run off with

run up against

shy away from

sit in on

snap out of

stick out for

stick up for

suck up to

take up with

talk down to

tie in with

walk away from

walk away with

walk off with

walk out on

wriggle out of

zero in on

transitive three-word phrasal verbs: He talked me out of buying the car

3.113 A few three-word phrasal verbs are transitive. The direct object of the verb comes immediately after the verb. A second noun phrase is put after the preposition, as normal.

I’ll let you in on a secret.

Kroop tried to talk her out of it.

They put their success down to hard work.

Here is a list of transitive three-word phrasal verbs:

do out of

frighten out of

let in for

let in on

play off against

put down as

put down to

put up to

take out on

take up on

talk out of

BE CAREFUL

3.114 In standard written English it is not possible to have indirect objects with phrasal verbs. The only objects you can have are direct objects of the verb and objects of prepositions. In informal spoken English, however, a few phrasal verbs do have both a direct and an indirect object. In such cases, the indirect object is placed between the verb and the particle, and the direct object follows.

Would you break me off a piece of chocolate, please?

We brought her back some special cookies from Germany.

phrasal verbs in questions and relative clauses

3.115 There is one way in which a preposition that is part of a phrasal verb behaves differently from an ordinary preposition.

Normally, when the object of a preposition is put at the beginning of a question or a relative clause, it can be preceded by the preposition, especially in formal speech or writing. For example, you can say From which student did you get the book? and the document on which he put his signature.

However, if the preposition is part of a phrasal verb, it cannot be put before its object in such structures. You have to say What are you getting at? not At what are you getting?, and the difficulties which he ran up against not the difficulties against which he ran up.

Who were they laughing at?

This was one complication he had not bargained for.

3.116 Most phrasal verbs that contain a transitive verb can be used in the passive. So can a few phrasal verbs that contain an intransitive verb and a preposition. See paragraphs 9.17 and 9.23.

Compound verbs: ice-skate, baby-sit

3.117 Some verbs, such as cross-examine and test-drive, consist of two words. They are sometimes called compound verbs.

He would have been cross-examined on any evidence he gave.

He asked to test-drive a top-of-the-range vehicle.

It is not wise to hitch-hike on your own.

BE CAREFUL

3.118 It is important to realize that you cannot always guess the meaning of a compound verb if you are not already familiar with it. For example, to soft-soap does not mean to use soap that is soft; it means to flatter someone in order to persuade them to do something for you.

written forms of compound verbs

3.119 Compound verbs are usually written with a hyphen.

No one had cross-referenced the forms before.

Children ice-skated on the sidewalks.

However, some compound verbs may be written with a space between the words and some may be written as single words. For example, both roller-skate and roller skate are used, as are baby-sit and babysit.

forms of compound verbs

3.120 Many compound verbs consist of a noun plus a verb.

It may soon become economically attractive to mass-produce hepatitis vaccines.

Others consist of an adjective plus a verb.

Somebody had short-changed him.

3.121 A few compound verbs consist of words that seem strange because they are not normally used as single words on their own, for example pooh-pooh and shilly-shally. These verbs are usually used in informal conversation rather than formal writing.

Sally had pooh-poohed the idea of three good meals a day.

Come on, don’t shilly-shally. I want an answer.

Other compound verbs look strange because they have been borrowed from foreign languages, for example ad-lib and kow-tow.

They ad-libbed so much that the writers despaired of them.

He resents having to kow-tow to anyone or anything.

intransitive compound verbs

3.122 Some compound verbs do not have an object.

Many people window-shopped in the glass of the great store.

If you keep to the rules, you may roller-skate.

He has learned to lip-read.

I’m learning to water-ski.

Here is a list of compound verbs that do not have an object:

baby-sit

back-pedal

hitch-hike

ice-skate

jack-knife

kow-tow

lip-read

name-drop

play-act

roller-skate

shilly-shally

touch-type

water-ski

window-shop

wolf-whistle

transitive compound verbs

3.123 Other compound verbs typically have an object:

You can spin-dry it and it will still retain its shape.

I didn’t have time to blow-dry my hair.

At first we cold-shouldered him.

They ill-treated our ancestors.

Here is a list of compound verbs that typically have an object:

back-comb

blow-dry

cold-shoulder

court-martial

cross-check

cross-examine

cross-question

cross-reference

double-cross

double-glaze

dry-clean

field-test

force-feed

frog-march

ghost-write

ill-treat

pooh-pooh

proof-read

rubber-stamp

short-change

short-weight

soft-soap

spin-dry

spoon-feed

stage-manage

tape-record

toilet-train

wrong-foot

transitive or intransitive compound verbs

3.124 A third group of compound verbs may be used with or without an object.

Kate had to double-park outside the flat.

Murray double-parked his car and jumped out.

I tried to ad-lib a joke.

The commentator decided to ad-lib.

Here is a list of compound verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:

ad-lib

bottle-feed

breast-feed

bulk-buy

chain-smoke

criss-cross

deep-fry

double-check

double-park

mass-produce

short-circuit

sight-read

spring-clean

stir-fry

tie-dye

inflecting compound verbs

3.125 Only the second part of a compound verb inflects. If the second part is used on its own as a verb, the compound verb usually inflects in the same way as the verb on its own.

See the Reference Section for an explanation of how to inflect verbs.

Linking verbs

3.126 If you want to describe someone or something, for example to say who or what they are or what qualities they have, you use one of a special set of verbs. These verbs are called linking verbs.

Cigarette smoking is dangerous to your health.

The station seemed a very small one.

He looked English.

I became enormously fond of her.

The most common linking verbs are be, become, look, remain, and seem.

adjectives and nouns after linking verbs

3.127 A linking verb links a subject and an adjective or a noun phrase (called a complement). The subject, as usual, comes first and the adjective or noun phrase comes after the verb. The adjective or noun phrase describes or identifies the subject.

Her general knowledge is amazing.

The children seemed frightened.

That’s a very difficult question.

She’s the head of a large primary school.

Suleiman Salle became the first President of Eritrea.

Linking verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.132 to 3.154.

Some other intransitive verbs are sometimes used in a similar way to linking verbs. See paragraphs 3.155 to 3.160.

verbs with object complements: The film made me sad

3.128 Some verbs, such as make and find, are used with an object complement, that is, both an object and an adjective or a noun phrase. The adjective or noun phrase describes the object.

The lights made me sleepy.

I found the forest quite frightening.

These verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.161 to 3.171.

phrases that begin with a preposition

3.129 You can often use a phrase beginning with a preposition after a linking verb.

The first-aid box is on the top shelf.

I began to get in a panic.

For more information about phrases and clauses that can be used after linking verbs, see paragraphs 3.172 to 3.181.

it with be

3.130 Be is often used with it as an impersonal subject. This structure is used to comment on places, situations, actions, experiences, and facts.

It was very quiet in the hut.

It was awkward keeping my news from Ted.

It’s strange you should come today.

Some other linking verbs are occasionally used in a similar way.

The use of it as an impersonal subject is explained in paragraphs 9.31 to 9.45.

there with be

3.131 Be is often used with there as its subject to indicate the existence of something.

There is another explanation.

There is a rear bathroom with a panelled bath.

This use of there is explained in paragraphs 9.46 to 9.55.

Adjectives after linking verbs: He seems happy, I’m tired

3.132 Many adjectives can be used after linking verbs.

I am proud of these people.

They seemed happy.

You don’t want them to become suspicious.

They have remained loyal to the Government.

They can be modified in various ways or have various structures after them.

We were very happy.

Your suspicions are entirely correct.

Their hall was larger than his whole flat.

He was capable of extraordinary kindness.

Adjectives used after linking verbs, and the structures used with them, are explained in paragraphs 2.41 to 2.53.

3.133 Here is a list of verbs that can be used as linking verbs with a following adjective:

be

~

appear

feel

look

prove

seem

smell

sound

taste

~

become

come

fall

get

go

grow

keep

remain

stay

turn

Note that the verbs in third group refer to changing or to staying the same.

USAGE NOTE

3.134 Some verbs in the second group listed above have special features.

Appear, prove, and seem are often followed by to be and an adjective, instead of directly by an adjective.

Mary was breathing quietly and seemed to be asleep.

Some people appeared to be immune to the virus.

See paragraph 3.192 for information on using a to-infinitive after these verbs.

3.135 With some verbs in the second group, especially feel, look, and seem, you can use the -ed participle of a verb as an adjective.

The other child looked neglected.

The quarrel of the night before seemed forgotten.

3.136 When you are using the second group of verbs to say what qualities someone or something seems to have, you may want to mention the person whose viewpoint you are giving. You can do this by using a phrase beginning with the preposition to. It usually comes after the adjective.

They looked all right to me.

It sounds unnatural to you, I expect.

BE CAREFUL

3.137 You cannot use all adjectives with all linking verbs. Some verbs, such as be and look, are used with a wide range of adjectives and some are used with a restricted range. For example, taste is used only with adjectives that describe the taste of something; go is used mainly with adjectives that indicate colour or a negative state; and fall is used mainly with asleep, ill, and silent.

Sea water tastes nasty.

It tasted sweet like fruit juice.

Jack went red.

It all went horribly wrong.

The world has gone crazy.

He fell asleep at the table.

The courtroom fell silent.

Nouns after linking verbs: She is a teacher, It remained a secret

3.138 Nouns can be used after the following linking verbs:

be

become

remain

~

feel

look

prove

seem

sound

~

constitute

make

represent

~

comprise

form

qualities

3.139 You can use descriptive nouns or noun phrases after be, become, remain, feel, look, prove, seem, sound, constitute, and represent to say what qualities someone or something has.

Their policy on higher education is an unmitigated disaster.

He always seemed a controlled sort of man.

I feel a bit of a fraud.

The results of these experiments remain a secret.

Any change would represent a turnaround.

Make is only used as a linking verb with a noun that indicates whether someone is good at a particular job.

He’ll make a good president.

using one: That’s a nice one

3.140 With be, become, remain, feel, look, prove, seem, and sound, you can use a noun phrase based on one.

The noun phrase consists of a or an followed by the adjective and one, if the subject is singular. For example, instead of saying The school is large, you can say The school is a large one.

The sound is a familiar one.

The impression the region gives is still a rural one.

If the subject is plural, you can use the adjective followed by ones.

My memories of a London childhood are happy ones.

One can also be followed by a prepositional phrase or a relative clause.

Their story was indeed one of passion.

The problem is one that always faces a society when it finds itself threatened.

size, age, colour, shape

3.141 If you want to make a statement about the size, age, colour, or shape of something, you can use a noun phrase based on size, age, colour, or shape after the linking verbs mentioned in the previous paragraph. The noun phrase begins with a determiner and has an adjective in front of the noun or the preposition of after it.

It’s just the right shape.

The opposing force would be about the same size.

The walls are a delicate pale cream colour.

His body was the colour of bronze.

It is only the size of a mouse.

types of people and things

3.142 You can use noun phrases beginning with a or an, or plural noun phrases without a determiner, after be, become, remain, comprise, and form, to say what type of person or thing someone or something is.

He is a geologist.

I’m not an unreasonable person.

He is now a teenager.

The air moved a little faster and became a light wind.

They became farmers.

Promises by MPs remained just promises.

These arches formed a barrier to the tide.

talking about identity

3.143 You can use names or noun phrases referring to a particular person or thing after be, become, remain, constitute, represent, comprise, and form to talk about exactly who or what someone or something is.

This is Desiree, my father’s second wife.

He’s now the Director of the Office of Management and Budget.

The winner of the competition was Ross Lambert of Forest Hill Primary School.

The downstairs television room became my room for receiving visitors.

…the four young men who comprised the TV crew.

USAGE NOTE

3.144 When you use a noun indicating a unique job or position within an organization, you do not have to put a determiner in front of the noun.

At one time you wanted to be President.

He went on to become head of one of the company’s largest divisions.

pronouns after linking verbs

3.145 Personal pronouns are sometimes used after linking verbs to indicate identity. Note that the object pronouns are used, except in very formal speech or writing.

It’s me again.

Possessive pronouns are also used after linking verbs, to indicate identity or to describe something.

This one is yours.

This place is mine.

Indefinite pronouns are sometimes used to describe something, usually with a qualifying structure after them.

It’s nothing serious.

You’re someone who does what she wants.

When pronouns are used after linking verbs, the linking verb is usually be.

other structures that follow linking verbs

3.146 The use of noun phrases containing measurement nouns after be and other verbs is explained in paragraphs 2.252 to 2.254.

combinations of verbs and prepositions

3.147 Some verbs function as linking verbs when they are followed by a particular preposition.

The object of the preposition describes or classifies the subject of the verb.

His fear turned into unreasoning panic.

Taylor’s fascination with bees developed into an obsession.

An autobiography really amounts to a whole explanation of yourself.

Here is a list of verb and preposition combinations that function as linking verbs:

amount to

change into

change to

develop into

grow into

morph into

turn into

turn to

These all have the same basic meaning as become, except for amount to, which has a similar meaning to constitute.

The phrasal verb make up also functions as a linking verb.

Wood made up 65% of the Congo’s exports.

Commenting

3.148 There are several ways in which a to-infinitive can be used to comment on someone or something in relation to an action.

commenting on behaviour: You’re crazy to do that

3.149 If you want to say that someone shows a particular quality when they do something, you can use the structure: subject + linking verb + adjective or noun phrase + to-infinitive.

Most people think I am brave to do this.

I think my father was a brave man to do what he did.

commenting on suitability: She’s the right person to do the job

3.150 You can use a similar structure to say that someone or something would do a particular task better than anyone or anything else.

He was absolutely the right man to go to Paris and negotiate.

She may be an ideal person to look after the children.

He is just the man to calm everyone down.

You cannot use adjectives alone in constructions of this kind. You use a noun phrase containing an adjective such as right, ideal, or best, or just the followed by the noun person, man, or woman. For example, you can say He was the ideal person to lead the expedition, but you cannot say He was ideal to lead the expedition.

Instead of a to-infinitive, you can sometimes use a phrase beginning with the preposition for. In this structure, an adjective can be used alone.

He’s not the right man for it.

They are ideal for this job.

commenting on an event: That was an awful thing to happen

3.151 If you want to express your feeling about an event, you can use a to-infinitive after a noun phrase that follows a linking verb.

It seemed such a terrible thing to happen.

The to-infinitive consists of to and an intransitive verb, usually happen.

You cannot use an adjective alone in constructions of this type. For example, you can say It was a wonderful thing to happen, but you cannot say It was wonderful to happen.

commenting on willingness: Chris is anxious to meet you

3.152 If you want to say that someone is willing or unwilling to do something, you can use a to-infinitive after an adjective that follows a linking verb.

They were willing to risk losing their jobs.

I am anxious to meet Mrs Burton-Cox.

She is eager to succeed.

He is unwilling to answer questions.

I was reluctant to involve myself in this private fight.

You cannot use nouns in constructions of this type. For example, you can say He was willing to come, but you cannot say He was a willing person to come.

commenting on something: This case is easy to carry

3.153 If you want to show your opinion of something by describing what the experience of doing something to it is like, you can use a to-infinitive after an adjective or noun phrase that follows a linking verb.

Silk is comfortable to wear.

It’s a nice thing to have.

Telling someone they smell is a hard thing to do.

She was easy to talk to.

Note that the to-infinitive must be the to-infinitive of a transitive verb or of an intransitive verb followed by a preposition.

commenting on an action: That was a silly thing to do

3.154 If you want to show your opinion of an action, you can use a to-infinitive that has an object.

They thought this was a sensible thing to do.

This is a very foolish attitude to take.

The to-infinitive is usually to do, to make, or to take.

You cannot use an adjective alone in constructions of this kind. For example, you can say It was a silly thing to do, but you cannot say It was silly to do.

Other verbs with following adjectives: He stood still

3.155 Some intransitive verbs can be followed by adjectives in the same way as linking verbs.

George stood motionless for at least a minute.

Pugin died insane at the early age of forty.

However, it is clear that these verbs are not just linking verbs. George stood motionless does not mean the same as George was motionless. In the sentence George stood motionless, the verb stand is performing two functions: it is telling us that George was standing, and it is also acting as a linking verb between George and the adjective motionless.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way:

hang

lie

sit

stand

~

gaze

stare

~

emerge

escape

go

pass

survive

~

blush

flame

gleam

glow

run

~

be born

die

return

Ways in which these verbs can be used with following adjectives are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Adjectives are sometimes used in combination with other verbs, but are separated from the main clause by a comma. This use is dealt with in paragraph 8.147.

USAGE NOTE

3.156 You can use adjectives describing states after hang, lie, sit, and stand.

I used to lie awake watching the rain seep through the roof.

A sparrow lies dead in the snow.

Francis Marroux sat ashen-faced behind the wheel.

She stood quite still, facing him.

Gaze and stare can be used in a similar way with a limited set of adjectives.

She stared at him wide-eyed.

3.157 You can use some combinations of verbs and adjectives to say that something does not happen to someone or something, or that someone does not have something.

Go, pass, emerge, escape, and survive are often used in combinations like these. The adjectives they combine with are often formed by adding un- to -ed participles.

Your efforts won’t go unnoticed.

The guilty went unpunished.

Somehow, his reputation emerged unblemished.

Fortunately we all escaped unscathed.

Mostly, they go unarmed.

The children always went barefoot.

3.158 Verbs such as blush, flame, gleam, glow, and run can be used with colour adjectives after them to say what colour something is or what colour it becomes.

They blew into the charcoal until it glowed red.

The trees flamed scarlet against the grass.

3.159 Die, return, and the passive verb be born can be followed by either adjectives or noun phrases.

She died young.

He died a disappointed man.

At the end of the war, he returned a slightly different man.

He was born a slave.

fixed phrases

3.160 Some combinations of verb and adjective are fixed phrases. You cannot use the verb in front of any other adjective.

I wanted to travel light.

The children ran wild.

The joke was wearing thin with use.

Describing the object of a verb

3.161 You can put an adjective after the object of some transitive verbs. This adjective describes the object, and is often called an object complement.

Willie’s remarks made her uneasy.

I find the British legal system extremely complicated.

Some of these verbs are used to say that someone or something is changed or that someone is given a new job. Others are used to describe a person’s opinion of someone or something.

For information on how to use these verbs in the passive, see paragraph 9.21.

verbs that relate to causing something to happen: Their comments made me angry

3.162 If you want to say that someone or something causes a person or thing to have a particular quality, you can use one of a group of transitive verbs, followed by an adjective.

He said waltzes made him dizzy.

They’re driving me crazy.

Then his captor had knocked him unconscious.

She painted her eyelids deep blue.

He wiped the bottle dry.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way:

cut

drive

get

knock

make

paint

pat

pick

plane

render

rub

send

shoot

sweep

turn

wipe

Most of these verbs can be followed by only one adjective or a very small range of adjectives. However make and render can be used with a wide range of adjectives.

keep, hold, leave

3.163 You can also use keep, hold, and leave with an object followed by an adjective, to say that someone or something is caused to remain in a particular state.

The light through the thin curtains had kept her awake.

Leave the door open.

Hold it straight.

verbs that relate to giving someone a job or role

3.164 If you want to say that someone is given an important job, you can use make, appoint, crown, or elect with an object followed by a noun phrase referring to the job.

In 1910 Asquith made him a junior minister.

The noun used in this way does not usually have a determiner when it refers to a unique job.

Ramsay MacDonald appointed him Secretary of State for India.

verbs of opinion

3.165 Some transitive verbs with the general meaning consider can be used with an adjective or noun phrase to say what someone’s opinion of a person or thing is.

They consider him an embarrassment.

Do you find his view of America interesting?

Here is a list of these verbs:

account

believe

consider

deem

find

hold

judge

presume

reckon

think

Prove can also be followed by an object complement, although it means show, not consider.

He had proved them wrong.

3.166 These verbs are often used in the passive. Believe, presume, reckon, and think are nearly always used in the passive in these structures.

Her body was never found and she was presumed dead.

30 bombers were believed shot down.

3.167 All the verbs listed in paragraph 3.165 except account can also be used with a to-infinitive clause after their object showing what someone thinks a person or thing is like or does.

We believed him to be innocent.

See paragraph 3.206 for information about using a to-infinitive clause after the object of these verbs.

3.168 You can use the verbs listed in 3.165 with it as their object followed by an object complement and a to-infinitive clause to show someone’s opinion of an action. For example, instead of saying She found breathing difficult, you can say She found it difficult to breathe.

Gretchen found it difficult to speak.

He thought it right to resign.

He considered it his duty to go.

These are examples of it being used in an impersonal way. For more information about the impersonal use of it, see paragraphs 9.31 to 9.45.

describing and naming

3.169 If you want to say that people use a particular word, word group, or name to describe or refer to someone or something, you can use the word, word group, or name after one of a group of transitive verbs.

People who did not like him called him dull.

They called him an idiot.

Everyone called her Molly.

He was declared innocent.

They named the place Tumbo Kutu.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way. The first group is followed by an adjective; the second group is followed by a noun phrase; and the third group is followed by a name.

call

certify

declare

label

pronounce

term

~

brand

call

declare

designate

label

proclaim

term

~

call

christen

dub

name

nickname

titles

3.170 The passive verbs be entitled, be headed, and be inscribed are followed by a title or inscription.

The draft document was entitled ‘A way forward’.

describing states

3.171 A few transitive verbs can be followed by an adjective to say that someone or something is in a particular state when something happens to them, or is preferred to be in that state.

More than forty people were burned alive.

…a soup that can be served cold.

They found it dead.

Do you want it white or black?

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way:

burn

eat

find

leave

like

prefer

serve

show

want

Sometimes an -ed participle or an -ing participle describing a state is used.

She found herself caught in a strong tidal current.

Maureen came in and found Kate sitting on a chair staring at the window.

Using a prepositional phrase after a linking verb

3.172 When you want to give information about someone or something by describing their circumstances, you can sometimes use a prepositional phrase after a linking verb.

use after be

3.173 You can use many kinds of prepositional phrase after be.

He was still in a state of shock.

I walked home with Bill, who was in a very good mood.

She had an older brother who was in the army.

I’m from Dortmund originally.

…people who are under pressure.

Your comments are of great interest to me.

This book is for any woman who has a child.

use after other verbs

3.174 Some other linking verbs can be used with a more restricted range of prepositional phrases.

He seemed in excellent health.

We do ask people to keep in touch with us.

These methods have gradually fallen into disuse.

He got into trouble with the police.

Here is a list of other linking verbs that are used with prepositional phrases:

appear

fall

feel

get

keep

remain

seem

stay

referring to place

3.175 Some verbs that are always or often followed by an adjective can also be used with prepositional phrases relating to place.

She’s in California.

I’ll stay here with the children.

The cat was now lying on the sofa.

Here is a list of these verbs:

be

keep

remain

stay

~

hang

lie

sit

stand

For more information about prepositional phrases and adverbs relating to place, see paragraphs 6.73 to 6.92 and 6.53 to 6.72.

referring to time

3.176 Be can be used with time expressions to say when something took place or will take place.

That final meeting was on 3 November.

For more information about time expressions, see paragraphs 4.85 to 4.111.

use in transitive structures

3.177 Prepositional phrases can also be used in transitive structures to say that someone or something is caused to be in a particular state.

They’ll get me out of trouble.

The fear of being discovered kept me on the alert.

Talking about what role something has or how it is perceived: the preposition as

3.178 Prepositional phrases beginning with as can be used after some verbs.

use in intransitive structures

3.179 Prepositional phrases beginning with as are used after certain intransitive verbs to show what role or function the subject has, or what identity they pretend to have.

Bleach removes colour and acts as an antiseptic and deodoriser.

He served as Kennedy’s ambassador to India.

The sitting room doubles as her office.

Here is a list of verbs that can be followed by as in this way:

act

come

double

function

pass

pose

serve

Work can also be used in this way, when it has a human subject.

She works as a counsellor with an AIDS charity.

use in transitive structures

3.180 A number of transitive verbs can be used with as after their object.

With some, a noun phrase is used after as. The as phrase describes the role of the object or what it is thought to be.

I wanted to use him as an agent.

I treated business as a game.

Here is a list of transitive verbs that can be used with as and a noun phrase:

brand

cast

categorize

certify

characterize

choose

class

condemn

consider

define

denounce

depict

describe

diagnose

elect

establish

give

hail

identify

intend

interpret

label

name

perceive

recognize

regard

scorn

see

suggest

take

treat

use

view

With others, an adjective is used after as. The adjective indicates what quality or characteristic the object is thought to have.

Party members and officials described him as brilliant.

They regarded manual work as degrading.

Here is a list of transitive verbs that can be used with as and an adjective:

brand

categorize

certify

characterize

class

condemn

define

denounce

depict

describe

diagnose

establish

label

perceive

regard

scorn

see

view

3.181 Look upon, refer to, and think of are also used with as in this way. As must be followed by a noun when used with refer to.

In some households the man was referred to as the master.

Talking about closely linked actions: using two main verbs together

3.182 This section describes the ways in which you use two main verbs together to talk about two actions or states that are closely linked.

These two actions may be performed by the same person. See paragraphs 3.189 to 3.201.

She stopped speaking.

Davis likes to talk about horses.

Alternatively, the actions may be performed by different people. If they are, the performer of the second action is the object of the first verb. See paragraphs 3.202 to 3.212.

I don’t want them to feel I’ve slighted them.

One of the group began pumping her chest to help her breathe.

3.183 Note that the first verb needs the second verb after it because it does not give enough information on its own. For example, I want does not give enough information to be a useful statement, but I want to talk to you does.

Some of the verbs dealt with below, for example want and like, can also be ordinary transitive verbs, with a noun phrase after them. Transitive verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.14 to 3.25.

3.184 If you want to talk about two actions that are less closely linked, you refer to each action in a separate clause. Ways of combining clauses are explained in Chapter 8.

verb forms

3.185 The first verb involved in this type of structure is the main verb of the structure. It usually inflects for tense and agrees in number with the subject; it is finite.

I wanted to come home.

Lonnie wants to say sorry.

More and more people are coming to appreciate the contribution that these people make to our society.

3.186 The second verb in the combination does not inflect for tense or change its form at all; it is non-finite.

She tried to read.

They had been trying to read.

Information about finite and non-finite forms can be found in the Reference Section.

3.187 There are four non-finite verb forms that are used for the second verb in this type of structure:

the -ing participle

the to-infinitive

the infinitive without to

the -ed participle

Note that the infinitive without to and the -ed participle form of the verb are used in only a few combinations.

Other kinds of -ing form and infinitive are also sometimes used.

Those very close to the blast risk being burnt.

Neither Rita nor I recalled ever having seen her.

She wanted to be reassured.

They claimed to have shot down 22 planes.

3.188 The position of not in negative structures of this type is explained in paragraphs 5.57 and 5.58.

Talking about two actions done by the same person

3.189 When you are talking about two actions that are done by the same person, you use the second verb directly after the first.

Children enjoy playing alongside each other.

You deserve to know the truth.

verbs followed by an -ing participle

3.190 Some verbs are always followed by an -ing participle clause in structures of this kind.

She admitted lying to him.

Have you finished reading the paper?

He missed having someone to dislike.

I recall being very impressed with the official anthems.

Here is a list of verbs that are used with an -ing participle, but not a to-infinitive:

admit

adore

appreciate

avoid

celebrate

commence

consider

contemplate

defer

delay

deny

describe

detest

discontinue

dislike

dread

endure

enjoy

fancy

finish

go

imagine

keep

lie

loathe

mention

mind

miss

postpone

practise

recall

report

resent

resist

risk

sit

stand

stop

suggest

These verbs are also sometimes used with a passive -ing form.

They enjoy being praised.

Admit, celebrate, deny, mention, and recall are quite often used with a perfect -ing form.

Carmichael had denied having seen him.

USAGE NOTE

3.191 Note that need can be used with an -ing participle after it, but the -ing participle then has the same meaning as a passive to-infinitive. For example, The house needs cleaning means the same as The house needs to be cleaned.

Require and want are also occasionally used in the same way, although some people do not like this use of want.

verbs followed by a to-infinitive

3.192 Other verbs are used with a to-infinitive.

Mrs Babcock had always longed to go to Ireland.

She forgot to bring a suitcase.

She wishes to ask a favour of you.

Here is a list of verbs that are used with a to-infinitive, and rarely or never with an -ing participle:

ache

afford

agree

aim

appear

arrange

ask

attempt

care

choose

claim

consent

dare

decide

demand

deserve

desire

disdain

endeavour

expect

fail

fight

forget

grow

happen

help

hesitate

hope

intend

learn

live

long

manage

mean

need

neglect

offer

opt

pay

plan

pledge

prepare

pretend

promise

prove

reckon

refuse

resolve

scorn

seek

seem

survive

swear

tend

threaten

trouble

venture

volunteer

vote

vow

wait

want

wish

Most of these verbs can be used with a passive infinitive.

She refused to be photographed.

He deserves to be shot.

The following verbs from the above list are not usually used with a passive infinitive, because of their meanings:

claim

dare

forget

intend

learn

manage

mean

neglect

pretend

threaten

trouble

venture

Appear, claim, happen, pretend, prove, seem, and tend are quite often used with a perfect infinitive.

They seemed to have disappeared.

Note that help is also followed by the infinitive without to.

Coffee helped keep him alert.

USAGE NOTE

3.193 Note that afford is always preceded by a modal, and that care is normally used with a negative.

Can we afford to ignore this source of power as other sources of energy are diminishing? …a kitchen for someone who doesn’t care to cook.

3.194 The use of have followed by a to-infinitive clause is explained in paragraph 5.242.

verbs used with either form

3.195 A few verbs can be used with either an -ing participle or a to-infinitive without changing the meaning of the verb.

It started raining.

A very cold wind had started to blow.

We both love dancing.

He loves to talk about his work.

Here is a list of verbs that can be followed either by an -ing participle or a to-infinitive without greatly changing the meaning:

attempt

begin

bother

cease

continue

deserve

fear

hate

like

love

prefer

start

Note that bother is often used with a negative or a broad negative.

He didn’t bother complaining about it.

We hardly even bother to clean it.

USAGE NOTE

3.196 With a few verbs, the meaning is altered depending on whether you use an -ing participle or a to-infinitive. These verbs are come, go on, remember, try, and regret.

If someone comes running, flying, or hurtling somewhere, they move in that way. If you come to do something, you gradually start doing it.

When they heard I was leaving, they both came running out.

People came to believe that all things were possible.

If you try to do something, you attempt it, to see if you can do it. If you try doing something, you do it in order to find out if it is effective.

She tried to think calmly.

Try lying down in a dark room for a while. That usually helps.

With the other verbs, the difference in meaning relates to the timing of the action.

If you go on doing something, you continue to do it, but if you go on to do something, you subsequently start doing it.

They went on arguing into the night.

She went on to talk about the political consequences.

If you remember doing something, you did it in the past, but if you remember to do something, you do it at the present time.

I remember promising that I would try.

We must remember to say thank you.

Similarly, if you regret doing something, you have already done it, but if you regret to do something, you have to do it at the present time.

She did not regret accepting his offer.

I regret to say rents went up.

Regret is only used with the to-infinitive of a small number of verbs that share the meaning of giving or receiving information. These verbs are:

announce

inform

learn

say

see

tell

BE CAREFUL

3.197 When you have a choice between an -ing participle and a to-infinitive, you do not use the -ing participle if the first verb is in a progressive form.

The Third World is beginning to export to the West.

The big clouds were starting to cover the sun.

Educational budgets are continuing to increase.

With verbs that cannot be followed by a to-infinitive, you normally use a noun phrase instead of the -ing participle.

I knew Miss Head would just be finishing her cello practice.

3.198 Note that a few verbs, principally need, want, have, buy, and choose, are used with an object and a to-infinitive when talking about two actions performed by the same person. The to-infinitive must be transitive. It is understood as relating to the noun, rather than being closely connected with the first verb.

I need a car to drive to work.

She chose the correct one to put in her bag.

to-infinitive showing purpose

3.199 Note that verbs that refer to a deliberate action are sometimes followed by a clause expressing purpose. Here, to means in order to.

Several women moved to help her.

The captain stopped to reload the machine-gun.

Note that the first verb has a complete meaning of its own; the second verb is giving a reason for the first action, not completing the information about it.

See paragraphs 8.43 to 8.46 for more details on expressing purpose.

USAGE NOTE

3.200 When the base form of try is used, for example as an imperative or with a modal, it is sometimes used with and followed by the base form of the second verb, rather than with a to-infinitive. The two actions seem to be separate, because of the and, but are in fact very closely linked.

Try and get a torch or a light, it’s terribly dark down here.

I’ll try and answer the question.

Some speakers consider this to be informal or incorrect.

Come and go are often used in a similar way with and, in simple forms as well as in the base form. The verb after and can also inflect.

Come and see me whenever you feel depressed.

I went and fetched another glass.

get with an -ed participle

3.201 In informal spoken English, get is sometimes used with an -ed participle directly after it, in a structure with a passive meaning.

Then he got killed in a plane crash.

When get is used to form passives in the past and present perfect, American English normally uses the participle gotten, rather than got.

Her foot had gotten caught between some rocks. (Am)

Talking about two actions done by different people

3.202 If you want to talk about two closely linked actions that are performed by different people, you follow the first verb with an object. This object then functions as the subject of the second verb. For example, in She asked Ginny to collect the book, Ginny is the person who is asked, and she is also the person who performs the action of collecting the book.

I saw him looking at my name on the door.

You can’t stop me seeing him!

use of possessive determiner

3.203 Note that when the second verb is an -ing participle, a possessive determiner is sometimes used in front of it, instead of a pronoun. This is rather formal.

These professional ethics prevent their discussing their clients with the public.

She did not like my living in London.

Note that a possessive determiner is only used in this way when the second verb can have a human subject.

transitive verbs with an -ing participle

3.204 Some verbs are used with an object and an -ing participle.

He caught Hooper looking at him.

Here is a list of verbs that are used with an object and an -ing participle:

catch

describe

feel

find

hear

imagine

keep

leave

like

notice

observe

picture

prevent

save

see

send

spot

stop

want

watch

Listen to also belongs in this group. The object after it is the object of the preposition to.

I listened to Kaspar talking.

These verbs are sometimes used with a passive -ing form, but not usually with a perfect -ing form.

She felt herself being spun around.

verbs with an infinitive without to

3.205 Some of the verbs in the above paragraph can also be used with an infinitive without to.

She felt her hair rise on the back of her neck

Dr Hochstadt heard her gasp.

There is a slight change of meaning depending on which form is used. If you choose the -ing participle, you emphasize that the action continued happening for a period of time.

But I stayed there, listening to her singing.

I looked over and saw Joe staring at me.

If you choose the infinitive without to, you emphasize that the action was completed.

We listened to Jenny finish the sonnet.

It was the first time she had heard him speak of his life.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used with an -ing participle or an infinitive without to, with the change of meaning described above:

feel

hear

listen to

notice

observe

see

watch

Note that these verbs can be used in the active only when they are followed by an infinitive without to. See also paragraph 3.208.

transitive verbs with a to-infinitive

3.206 Other verbs are used with an object and a to-infinitive clause.

His sister had taught him to sew.

I encourage students to do these exercises at home.

Here is a list of verbs that are used with an object and a to-infinitive:

advise

allow

ask

beg

cause

challenge

choose

command

compel

dare

defy

enable

encourage

expect

forbid

force

get

help

induce

inspire

instruct

intend

invite

lead

leave

like

mean

move

oblige

order

pay

permit

persuade

prefer

press

programme

prompt

recruit

remind

teach

tell

train

trust

urge

use

want

warn

Note that some of the verbs in the above list are used for reporting orders, requests, and advice. For more information on this use, see paragraph 7.39.

Here is a list of verbs that are always or usually used in the passive when followed by a to-infinitive:

allege

assume

believe

claim

consider

deem

discover

estimate

feel

find

know

learn

prove

reckon

report

require

rumour

say

see

think

understand

They refer to saying, thinking, or discovering. The to-infinitive that follows them is most commonly be or have, or a perfect infinitive.

The house was believed to be haunted.

He was proved to be wrong.

using the passive

3.207 If you do not know who the subject of the second verb is, or you do not want to mention them, you can use a passive construction.

A gardener was immediately sacked if he was caught smoking.

I was asked to come for a few days to help them.

The following verbs are not usually used in the passive when followed by an -ing participle:

feel

imagine

like

listen to

prevent

save

stop

want

The following verbs are not usually used in the passive when followed by a to-infinitive:

defy

get

like

prefer

want

USAGE NOTE

3.208 Hear, observe, and see are not used with a to-infinitive when they are active but they can be used with either an -ing participle or a to-infinitive when they are passive.

You use them with an -ing participle when you want to show that the action described by the second verb took place over a period of time.

A terrorist was seen standing in the middle of the road.

Her companions could be heard playing games.

If a to-infinitive is used, you are implying that the action was completed.

She could distinctly be seen to hesitate.

The baby was seldom heard to cry.

See also paragraph 3.205.

verbs followed by for and a to-infinitive

3.209 There are some verbs used with another verb with a to-infinitive that are followed by the preposition for and its object, rather than by a direct object. The object of for is the performer of the second action.

They called for action to be taken against the unions.

I waited for him to speak.

Note that the to-infinitive is often a passive one.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way:

appeal

apply

arrange

ask

call

clamour

long

opt

pay

plead

press

vote

wait

wish

yearn

transitive verbs with an infinitive without to

3.210 A few verbs are followed by an object and an infinitive without to, not an -ing participle or a to-infinitive. They are let, make, and have in the sense of cause to happen or experience.

Jenny let him talk.

My father made me go for the interview.

He lay in a darkened room and had her bring him meals on trays.

Verbs that can be used either with an infinitive without to or with an -ing participle are explained in paragraph 3.205.

have and get used for showing cause

3.211 A special use of have when used with another verb is to say that the subject causes something to be dealt with by someone else. In this case, have is followed by an object referring to the thing dealt with, and then by the -ed participle of a transitive verb or of an intransitive verb followed by a preposition.

I have my hair cut every six weeks.

This structure is also used to say that something belonging to the subject of have is affected in some way.

She’d just lost her job and had some money stolen.

If you want to mention the performer of the second action, you use by followed by a noun.

He had to have his leg massaged by his trainer.

Get can also be used with an object and an -ed participle to talk about causing something to be dealt with or affected in some way.

We must get the car repaired.

want and need with an -ed participle

3.212 Want is also used with an object and an -ed participle, to show that you would like something to be done.

I want the whole approach changed.

I don’t want you hurt.

Need is used in a similar way, usually when the object is something that belongs to the subject.

You need your eyes tested.