Collins Cobuild English Grammar

Reference Section

Pronunciation guide

R1 Here is a list of the phonetic symbols for English:

British English vowel sounds

heart, start, calm.

æ act, mass, lap.

aI dive, cry, mine.

aIə fire, tyre, buyer.

a out, down, loud.

aə flour, tower, sour.

e met, lend, pen.

eI say, main, weight.

eə fair, care, wear.

I fit, win, list.

i feed, me, beat.

Iə near, beard, clear.

ɒ lot, lost, spot.

ə note, phone, coat.

ɔ more, cord, claw.

ɔI boy, coin, joint.

could, stood, hood.

u you, use, choose.

ə sure, pure, cure.

turn, third, word.

but, fund, must.

ə (the weak vowel in) butter, about, forgotten.

American English vowel sounds

calm, drop, fall.

draw, saw.

æ act, mass, lap.

aI drive, cry, lie.

aiər fire, tire, buyer.

au out, down, loud.

auər flour, tower, sour.

e met, lend, pen.

ei say, main, weight.

e^ər fair, care, wear.

I fit, win, list.

i feed, me, beat.

I^ər cheer, hear, clear.

ou note, phone, coat.

ɔ more, cord, sort.

ɔi boy, coin, joint.

could, stood, hood.

u you, use, choose.

j^ər sure, pure, cure.

r turn, third, word.

but, fund, must.

ə (the weak vowel in) about, account, cancel.

consonant sounds

b bed

d done

f fit

g good

h hat

j yellow

k king

l lip

m mat

n nine

p pay

r run

s soon

t talk

v van

w win

x loch

z zoo

ʃ ship

ʒ measure

ŋ sing

tʃ cheap

θ thin

ð then

dʒ joy

Here is a list of the vowel letters:

a e i o u

Here is a list of the consonant letters:

b c d f g h j k l m n p q r s t v w x y z

The consonant y, when it falls in the middle or at the end of a syllable, has the status of a vowel and has a range of pronunciations similar to i.

Forming plurals of countable nouns

R2 Information on which nouns have plurals is given in Chapter 1 (1.14 to 1.193).

R3 In most cases, the plural is written s.

hat hats tree trees

R4 The plural is written es after sh, ss, x, or s, and it is pronounced /Iz/.

bush bushes glass glasses box boxes bus buses

The plural is also written es and pronounced /Iz/ after ch, when the ch is pronounced /tʃ/.

church churches match matches speech speeches

R5 When the s follows one of the sounds /f/, /k/, /p/, /t/, or /θ/, it is pronounced /s/.

belief beliefs week weeks cap caps pet pets moth moths

R6 When the s follows one of the sounds /S/, /z/, or /ʤ/, it is pronounced /IΖ/.

service services prize prizes age ages

R7 Some nouns that end with the sound /θ/, for example mouth, have their plural forms pronounced as ending in /ðΖ/. With others, such as bath and path, the pronunciation can be either /θs/ or /ðΖ/. You may need to check the pronunciations of words like these in a Cobuild dictionary.

R8 In most other cases the s is pronounced /z/.

bottle bottles degree degrees doctor doctors idea ideas leg legs system systems tab tabs

R9 With nouns that end in a consonant letter followed by y, you substitute ies for y to form the plural.

country countries lady ladies opportunity opportunities

With nouns that end in a vowel letter followed by y, you just add s to form the plural.

boy boys day days valley valleys

R10 There are a few nouns ending in f or fe where you form the plural by substituting ves for f or fe.

calf calves elf elves half halves knife knives leaf leaves life lives loaf loaves scarf scarves sheaf sheaves shelf shelves thief thieves wife wives wolf wolves

R11 With many nouns that end in o, you just add s to form the plural.

photo photos radio radios

However, the following nouns ending in o have plurals ending in oes :

domino

echo

embargo

hero

negro

potato

tomato

veto

The following nouns ending in o have plurals that can end in either s or es:

buffalo

cargo

flamingo

fresco

ghetto

innuendo

mango

manifesto

memento

mosquito

motto

salvo

stiletto

tornado

torpedo

volcano

R12 The following nouns in English have special plural forms, usually with different vowel sounds from their singular forms:

child children foot feet goose geese louse lice man men mouse mice ox oxen tooth teeth woman women

R13 Most nouns that refer to people and that end with man, woman, or child have plural forms ending with men, women, or children.

postman postmen Englishwoman Englishwomen grandchild grandchildren

R14 In addition to the nouns mentioned above, there are words that are borrowed from other languages, especially Latin, and that still form their plurals according to the rules of those languages. Many of them are technical or formal, and some of those that are given below are also used with a regular s or es plural ending in non-technical or informal contexts. You may need to check these in a Cobuild dictionary.

R15 Some nouns ending in us have plurals ending in i.

cactus cacti focus foci nucleus nuclei radius radi stimulus stimuli

R16 Some nouns ending in um have plurals ending in a.

aquarium aquaria memorandum memoranda referendum referenda spectrum spectra stratum strata

R17 Most nouns ending in is have plurals in which the is is replaced by es.

analysis analyses axis axes basis bases crisis crises diagnosis diagnoses hypothesis hypotheses neurosis neuroses parenthesis parentheses

R18 With some nouns ending in a, the plurals are formed by adding e.

larva larvae vertebra vertebrae

Some, such as antenna, formula, amoeba, and nebula, also have less formal plurals ending in s.

R19 Other nouns form their plurals in other ways. Some of these have two plural forms, one formed with s and one formed in a different way. Usually the form with s is used in less formal English.

appendix appendices or appendixes automaton automata or automatons corpus corpora or corpuses criterion criteria genus genera index indices or indexes matrix matrices phenomenon phenomena tempo tempi or tempos virtuoso virtuosi or virtuosos vortex vortices

Forming comparative and superlative adjectives

R20 Information on how to use the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives is given in Chapter 2 (2.103 to 2.122).

R21 The comparative of an adjective is formed either by adding er to the end of the normal form of the adjective, or by putting more in front of it. The superlative is formed by adding est to the end of the adjective, or by putting most in front of it.

The choice between adding er and est or using more and most usually depends on the number of syllables in the adjective.

Superlatives are usually preceded by the.

R22 With one-syllable adjectives, you usually add er and est to the end of the normal form of the adjective.

tall taller the tallest quick quicker the quickest

Here is a list of common one-syllable adjectives that form their comparatives and superlatives usually, or always, by adding er and est:

big

bright

broad

cheap

clean

clear

close

cold

cool

cross

dark

deep

dry

dull

fair

fast

fat

fine

firm

flat

fresh

full

great

hard

high

hot

large

late

light

long

loose

loud

low

new

nice

old

pale

plain

poor

proud

quick

rare

rich

rough

sad

safe

sharp

short

sick

slow

small

soft

strong

sweet

tall

thick

thin

tight

tough

warm

weak

wet

wide

wild

young

Note that when er and est are added to some adjectives, a spelling change needs to be made.

The patterns of spelling change in forming comparatives and superlatives from adjectives are explained in paragraph R27.

R23 You usually add er and est to two-syllable adjectives ending in y, such as funny, dirty, and silly.

happy happier the happiest easy easier the easiest

Note that there is a spelling change here, which is explained in paragraph R27.

Some other two-syllable adjectives, not ending in y, also have comparatives and superlatives that are usually formed with er and est.

Here is a list of common two-syllable adjectives whose comparatives and superlatives are usually formed like this:

busy

dirty

clever

easy

funny

happy

heavy

lovely

lucky

pretty

quiet

silly

simple

steady

tiny

R24 Some other two-syllable adjectives usually have comparatives and superlatives formed with more and most.

careful more careful the most careful famous more famous the most famous

Here is a list of common adjectives whose comparative and superlative forms are usually formed with more and most:

careful

common

famous

handsome

likely

mature

obscure

pleasant

polite

sudden

R25 Many two-syllable adjectives can have comparatives and superlatives with either the endings er and est, or more and most. In many cases, the er and est forms are more commonly found directly before the noun (in attributive position), and the more and most forms more commonly follow a linking verb such as be or become (in predicative position). For more information about attributive and predicative adjectives, see paragraphs 2.42 to 2.52.

…major hurricanes such as Katrina, the costliest disaster in U.S. history.

Energy is becoming more costly and supplies are drying up.

Less space seemed to make for a friendlier neighborhood feeling.

We are encouraging employers to be more friendly to the local environment.

Here is a list of common adjectives that can have either type of comparative and superlative:

angry

costly

cruel

friendly

gentle

narrow

remote

risky

shallow

stupid

subtle

R26 Adjectives that have three or more syllables usually have comparatives and superlatives with more and most.

dangerous more dangerous the most dangerous ridiculous more ridiculous the most ridiculous

However, some three-syllable adjectives are formed by adding un to the beginning of other adjectives. For example, unhappy is related to happy and unlucky to lucky. These three-syllable adjectives have comparatives and superlatives formed either by adding er and est or by using more and most.

He felt crosser and unhappier than ever.

R27 When you add er or est to an adjective, you sometimes need to make another change to the end of the adjective as well.

If a one-syllable adjective ends in a single vowel letter followed by a single consonant letter, you double the consonant letter when adding er or est.

big bigger the biggest hot hotter the hottest

However, you do not do this with two-syllable adjectives.

clever cleverer the cleverest stupid stupider the stupidest

If an adjective ends in e, you remove the e when adding er or est.

wide wider the widest simple simpler the simplest

Note that with adjectives ending in le, the comparative and superlative have two syllables, not three. For example, simpler (from simple /′SImpǝl/) is pronounced /′SImpǝl/.

If an adjective ends in a consonant letter followed by y, you replace the y with i when adding er or est.

dry drier the driest angry angrier the angriest unhappy unhappier the unhappiest

Note that with shy, sly, and spry, you add er and est in the ordinary way.

R28 Good and bad have special comparatives and superlatives, which are not formed by adding er and est or by using more and most.

Good has the comparative better and the superlative the best.

There might be better ways of doing it.

This is the best museum we’ve visited yet.

Bad has the comparative worse and the superlative the worst.

Things are worse than they used to be.

The airport there was the worst place in the world.

Note that ill does not have a comparative form and so worse is used instead.

Each day Kunta felt a little worse.

R29 The adjective old has regular comparative and superlative forms but, in addition, it has the forms elder and the eldest. These forms are used only to talk about people, usually relatives.

…the death of his two elder brothers in the First World War.

Bill’s eldest daughter is a doctor.

Note that unlike older, elder never has than after it.

R30 There is no comparative or superlative of little in Standard English, although children sometimes say littler and the littlest. When you want to make a comparison, you use smaller and the smallest.

R31 The comparatives and superlatives of compound adjectives are usually formed by putting more and most in front of the adjective.

self-effacing more self-effacing the most self-effacing nerve-racking more nerve-racking the most nerve-racking

Some compound adjectives have adjectives as their first part. Comparatives and superlatives of these compounds are sometimes formed using the comparative and superlative of the adjective.

good-looking better-looking the best-looking

Similarly, some compound adjectives have adverbs as their first part. Their comparatives and superlatives are sometimes formed using the comparative and superlative of the adverb.

well-paid better-paid the best-paid badly-planned worse-planned the worst-planned

The comparatives and superlatives of adverbs are explained in paragraphs R150 to R154.

The spelling and pronunciation of possessives

R32 The use of the possessive form of names and other nouns is explained in Chapter 1 (1.211 to 1.221).

R33 The possessive form of a name or other noun is usually formed by adding apostrophe s (’s) to the end.

Ginny’s mother didn’t answer.

Howard came into the editor’s office.

R34 If you are using a plural noun ending in s to refer to the possessor, you just add an apostrophe (’).

I heard the girls’ steps on the stairs.

We often go to publishers’ parties in Bloomsbury.

However, if you are using an irregular plural noun that does not end in s, you add apostrophe s (’s) to the end of it.

It would cost at least three policemen’s salaries per year.

The Equal Pay Act has failed to bring women’s earnings up to the same level.

…children’s birthday parties.

R35 If something belongs to more than one person or thing whose names are linked by and, the apostrophe s (’s) is put after the second name.

…Martin and Tim’s apartment. …Colin and Mary’s wedding.

R36 If you want to say that two people or things each possess part of a group of things, both their names have apostrophe s (’s).

The puppy was a superb blend of his father’s and mother’s best qualities.

R37 When you are using a name that already ends in s, you can simply add an apostrophe, for example St James’ Palace, or you can add apostrophe s (’s), for example St James’s Palace. These spellings are pronounced differently. If you simply add an apostrophe, the pronunciation remains unaltered, whereas if you add apostrophe s (’s), the possessive is pronounced /Iz/.

R38 Apostrophe s (’s) is pronounced differently in different words. It is pronounced

/S/ after the sound /f/, /k/, /p/, /t/, or /θ/.

/Iz/ after the sound /S/, /z/, /ʃ/,/ʒ/, /tʃ/, or /ʤ/.

/z/ after all other sounds.

R39 If you are using a compound noun, you add apostrophe s (’s) to the last item in the compound.

He went to his mother-in-law’s house.

The parade assembled in the Detective Constable’s room.

R40 Apostrophe s (’s) can be added to abbreviations and acronyms in the same way as to other words.

He will get a majority of MPs’ votes in both rounds.

He found the BBC’s output, on balance, superior to that of ITV.

The majority of NATO’s members agreed.

Numbers

R41 The uses of cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and fractions have been explained in Chapter 2 (2.208 to 2.249). The use of ordinals to express dates is explained in paragraph 4.88. Lists of numbers and details about how to say and write numbers and fractions are given below.

Cardinal numbers

R42 Here is a list of cardinal numbers. The list shows the patterns of forming numbers greater than 20.

0 zero, nought, nothing, oh 5 five 1 one 6 six 2 two 7 seven 3 three 8 eight 4 four 9 nine 10 ten 60 sixty 11 eleven 70 seventy 12 twelve 80 eighty 13 thirteen 90 ninety 14 fourteen 100 a hundred 15 fifteen 101 a hundred and one 16 sixteen 110 a hundred and ten 17 seventeen 120 a hundred and twenty 18 eighteen 200 two hundred 19 nineteen 1000 a thousand 20 twenty 1001 a thousand and one 21 twenty-one 1010 a thousand and ten 22 twenty-two 2000 two thousand 23 twenty-three 10,000 ten thousand 24 twenty-four 100,000 a hundred thousand 25 twenty-five 1,000,000 a million 40 forty 2,000,000 two million 50 fifty 1,000,000,000 a billion

R43 When you say or write in words a number over 100, you put and before the number expressed by the last two figures. For example, 203 is said or written two hundred and three and 2840 is said or written two thousand, eight hundred and forty.

Four hundred and eighteen men were killed and a hundred and seventeen wounded.

And is often omitted in American English.

…one hundred fifty dollars.

R44 If you want to say or write in words a number between 1000 and 1,000,000, there are various ways of doing it. For example, the number 1872 can be said or written in words as

eighteen hundred and seventy-two

one thousand eight hundred and seventy-two

one eight seven two

eighteen seventy-two

Note that you cannot use a instead of one for the second way.

The third way is often used to identify something such as a room number. With telephone numbers, you always say each figure separately like this.

The last way is used if the number is a date.

R45 Unlike some other languages, in English when numbers over 9999 are written in figures, a comma is usually put after the fourth figure from the end, the seventh figure from the end, and so on, dividing the figures into groups of three. For example, 15,500 or 1,982,000. With numbers between 1000 and 9999, a comma is sometimes put after the first figure. For example 1,526.

When a number contains a full stop, the number or numbers after the full stop indicate a fraction. For example, 2.5 is the same as two and a half.

Ordinal numbers

R46 Here is a list of ordinal numbers. The list shows the patterns of forming ordinal numbers greater than 20.

1st first 26th twenty-sixth 2nd second 27th twenty-seventh 3rd third 28th twenty-eighth 4th fourth 29th twenty-nineth 5th fifth 30th thirtieth 6th sixth 31st thirty-first 7th seventh 40th fortieth 8th eighth 41st forty-first 9th nineth 50th fiftieth 10th tenth 51st fifty-first 11th eleventh 60th sixtieth 12th twelfth 61st sixty-first 13th thirteenth 70th seventieth 14th fourteenth 71st seventy-first 15th fifteenth 80th eightieth 16th sixteenth 81st eighty-first 17th seventeenth 90th ninetieth 18th eighteenth 91st ninty-first 19th nineteenth 10oth hundredth 20th twentieth 101st hundred and first 21st twenty-first 200th two hundredth 22nd twenty-second 1000th thousandth 23rd twenty-third 1,000,000th millionth 24th twenty-fourth 1,000,000,000th billionth 25th twenty-fifth

R47 As shown in the above list, ordinals can be written in abbreviated form, for example in dates or headings, or in informal writing. You write the last two letters of the ordinal after the number expressed in figures. For example, first can be written as 1st, twenty-second as 22nd, hundred and third as 103rd, and fourteenth as 14th.

…on August 2nd.

…the 1st Division of the Sovereign’s Escort.

Fractions and percentages

R48 You can write a fraction in figures, for example ¹/₂, ¹/₄, ³/₄, and ²/₃. These correspond to a half, a quarter, three-quarters, and two-thirds respectively.

R49 Fractions are often given in a special form as a number of hundredths. This type of fraction is called a percentage. For example, three-hundredths, expressed as a percentage, is three per cent. It can also be written as three percent or 3%. A half can be expressed as fifty per cent, fifty percent, or 50%.

About 60 per cent of our students are women.

Ninety percent of most food is water.

Before 1960 45% of British trade was with the Commonwealth.

You can use percentages on their own as noun phrases when it is clear what they refer to.

Ninety per cent were self employed.

…interest at 10% per annum.

Verb forms and the formation of verb phrases

R50 Verbs have several forms. These forms can be used on their own or combined with special verbs called auxiliaries. When a verb or a combination of a verb and an auxiliary is used in a clause, it is called a verb phrase. Verb phrases can be finite or non-finite. If a verb phrase is finite, it has a tense. A non-finite verb phrase contains a verb in the form of an infinitive or an -ed or -ing participle.

Verb phrases are used to refer to actions, states, and processes. The use of verb phrases in clauses to make statements is explained in Chapter 3.

R51 Verb phrases can be active or passive. You use an active verb phrase if you are concentrating on the performer of an action, and you use a passive verb phrase if you are concentrating on someone or something that is affected by an action. Further information on the use of passive verb phrases is given in Chapter 9 (9.8 to 9.24).

R52 Regular verbs have the following forms:

a base form e.g. walk

an s form e.g. walks

an -ing participle e.g. walking

a past form e.g. walked

The base form of a verb is the form that is used in the infinitive. It is the form that is given first in a dictionary where a verb is explained, and that is given in the lists in this grammar.

The s form of a verb consists of the base form with s on the end.

The -ing participle usually consists of the base form with ing on the end. It is sometimes called the present participle.

The past form of a verb usually consists of the base form with ed on the end.

In the case of regular verbs, the past form is used for the past tense and is also used as the -ed participle. It is sometimes called the past participle.

However, with many irregular verbs (see paragraph R72) there are two different forms:

a past tense form e.g. stole

an -ed participle form e.g. stolen

There are rules about the spelling of the different forms of verbs, depending on their endings. These are explained in paragraphs R54 to R70.

Certain verbs, especially common ones, have irregular forms. These are listed in paragraphs R72 to R75.

The forms of the auxiliaries be, have, and do are given in paragraph R80.

R53 Each verb form has various uses.

The base form is used for the present tense, the imperative, and the infinitive, and is used after modals.

The s form is used for the third person singular of the present tense.

The -ing participle is used for progressive forms, -ing adjectives, -ing nouns, and some clauses.

The past form is used for the past simple, and for the -ed participle of regular verbs.

The -ed participle is used for perfect forms, passives, -ed adjectives, and some clauses.

R54 The basic verb forms have been described in paragraph R52. The following paragraphs explain how the various forms of verbs are spelled. They also give details of verbs that have irregular forms. The forms of the auxiliaries be, have, and do are dealt with separately in paragraphs R80 to R88.

R55 The s form of most verbs consists of the base form of the verb with s added to the end.

sing sings write writes

When the s follows one of the sounds /f/, /k/, /p/, /t/, or /θ/, it is pronounced /s/.

break breaks keep keeps

When the s follows one of the sounds /S/, /z/, or /ʤ/, it is pronounced /Iz/.

dance dances manage manages

In most other cases the s is pronounced /z/.

leave leaves refer refers

R56 With verbs whose base form ends in a consonant letter followed by y, you substitute ies for y to form the s form.

try tries cry cries

R57 With verbs which end in sh, ch, ss, x, zz, or o, es rather than s is added to the base form of the verb. The es is pronounced /Iz/ when it is added to a consonant sound, and pronounced /z/ when it is added to a vowel sound.

diminish diminishes reach reaches pass passes mix mixes buzz buzzes echo echoes

R58 With one-syllable verbs that end in a single s, you usually add ses. Forms with a single s are more common in American English.

bus busses buses gas gasses gases

R59 Most verbs have -ing participles formed by adding ing to the base form, and past forms formed by adding ed to the base form.

paint painting painted rest resting rested

With all -ing participles, the ing is pronounced as a separate syllable: /Iŋ/.

With verbs whose base form ends with one of the sounds /f/, /k/, /p/, /s/, /ʃ/, or /tʃ/, the ed of the past form is pronounced /t/. For example, pressed is pronounced /prest/ and watched is pronounced /wɒtʃt/.

With verbs whose base forms ends with the sound /d/ or /t/, the ed of the past form is pronounced /d/. For example, patted is pronounced /pæId/ and faded is pronounced /feIdId/.

With all other verbs, the ed of the past form is pronounced /d/. For example, joined is pronounced /ʤɔInd/ and lived is pronounced /lIvd/.

R60 With most verbs that end in e, the -ing participle is formed by substituting ing for the final e. Similarly, you substitute ed for the final e to form the past form.

dance dancing danced smile smiling smiled fade fading faded

R61 In the case of a few verbs ending in e, you just add ing in the normal way to form the -ing participle. You still substitute ed for e to form the past.

singe singeing singed agree agreeing agreed

Here is a list of these verbs:

age

agree

binge

canoe

disagree

dye

eye

flee

free

glue

knee

queue

referee

see

singe

tiptoe

whinge

R62 To form the -ing participle of a verb that ends in ie, you substitute ying for ie.

tie tying

Note that the past form of such verbs is regular, following the pattern in R60.

R63 To form the past form of a verb that ends in a consonant letter followed by y, you substitute ied for y.

cry cried

Note that the -ing participle of such verbs is regular, following the pattern in R59.

R64 If the base form of a verb has one syllable and ends with a single vowel letter followed by a consonant letter, you double the final consonant letter before adding ing to form the -ing participle or ed to form the past form.

dip dipping dipped trot trotting trotted

Note that this does not apply if the final consonant letter is w, x, or y.

row rowing rowed box boxing boxed play playing played

R65 The final consonant letter of some two-syllable verbs is also doubled. This happens when the second syllable ends in a single vowel letter followed by a consonant letter, and is stressed.

refer referring referred equip equipping equipped

R66 In British English, when a two syllable verb ends in a single vowel letter followed by a single l, the l is doubled before ing or ed is added to it, even if there is no stress on the last syllable.

travel travelling travelled quarrel quarrelling quarrelled

A few other verbs also have their final consonant letter doubled.

program programming programmed worship worshipping worshipped hiccup hiccupping hiccupped kidnap kidnapping kidnapped handicap handicapping handicapped

R67 All the verbs described in R66, except handicap, can have their -ing participle and past form spelled with a single consonant letter in American English.

travel traveling traveled worship worshiping worshiped

R68 Here is a list of the verbs whose final consonant letter is doubled before ing and ed in both British and American English:

ban

bar

bat

beg

blot

blur

bob

brag

brim

bug

cap

chat

chip

chop

clap

clog

clot

cram

crib

crop

cup

dab

dam

dim

din

dip

dot

drag

drop

drug

drum

dub

fan

fit

flag

flap

flip

flop

fog

fret

gas

gel

glut

grab

grin

grip

grit

grub

gun

gut

hem

hop

hug

hum

jam

jet

jig

jog

jot

knit

knot

lag

lap

log

lop

man

mar

mob

mop

mug

nag

net

nip

nod

pad

pat

peg

pen

pet

pin

pit

plan

plod

plug

pop

prod

prop

rib

rig

rip

rob

rot

rub

sag

scan

scar

scrap

scrub

ship

shop

shred

shrug

shun

sin

sip

skid

skim

skin

skip

slam

slap

slim

slip

slop

slot

slum

slur

snag

snap

snip

snub

sob

spot

squat

stab

star

stem

step

stir

stop

strap

strip

strut

stun

sun

swab

swap

swat

swig

swot

tag

tan

tap

thin

throb

tip

top

trap

trek

trim

trip

trot

vet

wag

wrap

~

abet

abhor

acquit

admit

allot

commit

compel

confer

control

defer

deter

distil

embed

emit

enrol

enthral

equip

excel

expel

incur

instil

occur

omit

outwit

patrol

propel

rebel

rebut

recap

recur

refer

regret

remit

repel

submit

transfer

transmit

~

handicap