Jerusalem: The Biography

Notes

PREFACE

1 Aldous Huxley quoted in A. Elon, Jerusalem 62. G. Flaubert, Les Oeuvres complètes 1.290. Flaubert on Jerusalem: Frederick Brown, Flaubert 231–9, 247, 256–61. Melville on Jerusalem: H. Melville, Journals 84–94. Bulos Said quoted in Edward W. Said, Out of Place 7. Nazmi Jubeh: interview with author. David Lloyd George in Ronald Storrs, Orientations 394 (henceforth Storrs). For my introduction I am indebted to the superb discussions of identity, coexistence and culture in Levantine cities in the following books: Sylvia Auld and Robert Hillenbrand, Ottoman Jerusalem: Living City 1517–1917; Philip Mansel, Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean; Mark Mazower, Salonica: City of Ghosts; Adam LeBor, City of Oranges: Jews and Arabs in Jaffa.

PROLOGUE

1 Josephus, The New Complete Works, ‘The Jewish War’ (henceforth JW) 5.446–52. This account is based on Josephus; the Roman sources; Martin Goodman, Rome and Jerusalem: the Clash of Ancient Civilisations (henceforth Goodman), and also the latest archaeology.

2 JW 5.458–62, 4.324.

3 JW 4.559–65.

4 JW 5.429–44.

5 JW 6.201–14. All biblical quotations from the Authorized Version: Matthew 8.22.

6 JW 6.249–315.

7 JW 9. Tacitus, Histories 13. This account of the archaeology is based on: Ronny Reich, ‘Roman Destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus’ Account and Archaeological Record’, in G. Theissen et al. (eds), Jerusalem und die Länder. City peculiar, bigotry: Tacitus 2.4–5. Jews and Jerusalem/Syrians/death agony of a famous city/Jewish superstitions/600,000 inside: Tacitus 5.1–13. Jerusalem before siege: JW 4.84–5.128. Titus and siege: JW 5.136–6.357. Demolition and fall: JW 6.358–7.62. Titus’ prowess: Suetonius, Twelve Caesars 5. Prisoners and death: Goodman 454–5. Josephus saved crucified and friends: Josephus, ‘Life’419 and JW 6.418–20. One-third of population dead: Peter Schäfer, History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World (henceforth Schäfer) 131. Arm of woman/burnt house: Shanks 102. Escape of Christians: Eusebius, Church History 3.5. Escape of ben Zakkai: F. E. Peters, Jerusalem: The Holy City in the Eyes of Chroniclers, Visitors, Pilgrims and Prophet from the Days of Abraham to the Beginning of Modern Times (henceforth Peters) 111–20. Ronny Reich, Gideon Avni, Tamar Winter, Jerusalem Archaeological Park (henceforth Archaeological Park) 15 and 96 (Tomb of Zechariah). Oleg Grabar, B. Z. Kedar (eds), Where Heaven and Earth Meet: Jerusalem’s Sacred Esplanade (henceforth Sacred Esplanade): Patrich, in Sacred Esplanade 37–73.

PART ONE: JUDAISM

1 Ronny Reich, Eli Shukron and Omri Lernau, ‘Recent Discoveries in the City of David, Jerusalem: Findings from the Iron Age II in the Rock-Cut Pool near the Spring’, Israel Exploration Journal 57 (2007) 153–69. Also conversations with Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron. On population and shrine-castles over springs: conversations with Rafi Greenberg. Richard Miles, Ancient Worlds 1–7.

2 Tel Armarna: I. Finkelstein and N.A. Silberman, The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of its Sacred Text (henceforth Finkelstein/Silberman) 238–41. Peters 6–14.

3 Egypt, Moses and Exodus: Exodus 1. ‘I am who I am’: Exodus 3.14. Abraham covenant: Genesis 17.8–10. Melchizedek King of Salem: Genesis 14.18. Isaac: Genesis 22.2. Ramases II and Exodus: Toby Wilkinson, The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt (henceforth Egypt) 324–45; Merneptah 343–5; Israel, Sea Peoples, Philistines 343–53. Nature of God and the two biblical writers: Lester L. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 150–65. Finkelstein/Siblerman 110. Robin Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 49–57, 57–70, 92, 182, 198–202. Wayne T. Pitard, ‘Before Israel: Syria–Palestine in the Bronze Age’, in M. Coogan (ed.), Oxford History of the Biblical World (henceforth Oxford History) 25–9. Edward F. Campbell, ‘A Land Divided: Judah and Israel from Death of Solomon to the Fall of Samaria’, in Oxford History 209. Two sets of Ten Commandments: see Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. Two sackings of Shechem: Genesis 34 and Judges 9. Goliath two versions: 1 Samuel (henceforth S) 17 and 2 S 21.19. T. C. Mitchell, The Bible in the British Museum (henceforth BM), 14 Merneptah Stela. Victor Avigdor Hurowitz, ‘Tenth Century to 586 BC: House of the Lord (Beyt YHWH)’, in Sacred Esplanade 15–35. H. J. Franken, ‘Jerusalem in the Bronze Age’, in K. J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (henceforth Asali) 11–32.

4 Saul and David: 1 S 8–2 S 5. David and Goliath 1 S 17 and 2 S 21.19. Saul’s armour-bearer and lyre-player: 1 S 16.14–23. Anointed by Samuel: 1 S 16.1–13. Marries Saul’s daughter: 1 S 18.17–27. Ziklag: 1 S 27.6. Rule in Hebron: 2 S 5.5. Lament: 2 S 1.19–27; King of Judah: 2 S 2.4. David’s Philistine and Cretan guards: 2 S 8.18 and 1 Chronicles (henceforth C) 18.17. Ronald de Vaux, Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions (henceforth de Vaux) 91–7. Slings: James K. Hoffmeier, Archaeology of the Bible (henceforth Hoffmeier) 84–5. Reich, Shukron and Lernau, ‘Findings from the Iron Age II in the Rock-Cut Pool near the Spring’, Israel Exploration Journal 57 (2007) 153–69.

5 2 S 6, 2 S 7.2–13. Takes Jerusalem: 2 S 5, 2 S 24.25, 2 S 5.6–9, 2 S 7.2–3, 2 S 6.13–18. Renames Jerusalem: 2 S 5.7–9 and 1 C 11.5–7. Builds wall: 2 S 5.9. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. David’s palace and terraced structure: Dan Bahat, Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem (henceforth Bahat) 24. God and the Ark: de Vaux 294–300 and 308–10. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35.

6 2 S 6.20.

7 Bathsheba: 2 S 11–12.

8 Absalom and court politics: 2 S 13–24.

9 2 S 24.6 and 1 C 21.15. Abraham: Genesis 22, 1 Kings (henceforth K) 5.3. Threshing-floor and altar: 2 S 24.19–24, 1 C 21.28–22.5, 1 K 1. David bloodshedder: 1 C 22.8 and 28.3.

10 Death and Solomon anointment:1 K 1 and 2, 1 C 28–9. Burial: 1 K 2.10. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. John Hyrcanus plunders David’s tomb: Josephus, ‘Jewish Antiquities’ (henceforth JA) VII.15.3.

11 Seizure of power: 1 K 1–2.

12 Solomon, chariots/horse-gate: 1 K 9–10, 2 K 11.16. Horse-dealing/chariots: 1 K 10.28–9. Gold: 1 K 10.14. Megiddo, Hazor, Gezer: 1 K 9.15. Ark installed and Temple inaugurated: 1 K 8 and 2 C 7. David’s spears in Temple: 2 K 11.10. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 134–40 and 191–5. 1 K 2–7 and 1 K 10. Horses, chariots, magnificence: 1 K 10.14–19. Gateways: 1 K 9.15–27. Fleet: 1 K 9: 26–8 and 1 K 10.11–13. Empire and administration: 1 K 4.17–19. Wives: 1 K 11.3. 3,000 proverbs and 1,005 songs: 1 K 4.32. With whips: 1 K 12.11. Temple and palace: 1 K 6–7, 2 C 2–4. Ezekiel 40–4. 1 C 28.11–19. The Rock tomb: Shanks 165–74. Carol Meyers, ‘Kinship and Kingship: The Early Monarchy’, in Oxford History 197–203. Traditions of the rock: Rivka Gonen, ‘Was the Site of the Jerusalem Temple Originally a Cemetery?’, Biblical Archaeology Review May–June 1985, 44–55. BM, lavers 45; Phoenician style 61. Trade with Hiram and Phoenicians/craftsmen/origin of Phoenicians/Temple designs and as ‘corporations’ with barbers, prostitutes: Richard Miles, Carthage Must be Destroyed 30–5. Israelites and Phoenicians, purple, alphabet: Miles, Ancient Worlds, 57–68. Temple as ‘site par excellence for divine–human communication’: A. Neuwirth, ‘Jerusalem in Islam: The Three Honorary Names of the City’, in Sylvia Auld and Robert Hillenbrand (eds), Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City, 1517–1917 (henceforth OJ) 219. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. Graeme Auld and Margreet Steiner, Jerusalem 1 54. Solomon and Pharaoh, spoils and daughter: 1 K 9.16. Pharaoh Siamun raid; daughter marriage: Wilkinson, Egypt 404. Tel Qasile potsherd on gold in Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 235–40. De Vaux 31–7, 108–14, 223–4, 274–94. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 113–18. Ivory in Sargon’s Palace in Assyria and King Ahab in Samaria: 1 K 22.39. Phoenician/Syrian parallels: Shanks 123–34 and 165–74. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. On archaeology: author conversations with Dan Bahat and Ronny Reich. New dating of Megiddo, Hazor, Gezer: Finkelstein/Silberman 134–41; Omrid building in Megiddo vs Solomon: Finkelstein/Silberman 180–5. Nicola Schreiber, Cypro-Phoenician Pottery of the Iron Age, on the chronology of Black-on-Red and its implications 83–213, especially Section I ‘10th Century and the Problem of Shishak’ 85–113. Ayelet Gilboa and Ilan Sharon, ‘An Archaeological Contribution to the Early Iron Age Chronological Debate: Alternative Chronologies for Phoenicia and their Effects on the Levant, Cyprus and Greece’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 332, November 2003, 7–80.

13 Israel breakaway: 1 K 11–14 Rehoboam. Kings of Israel Asa to Omri: 1 K 15–17 – Zimri’s massacre – pisseth against wall 1 K 16.11. Sheshonq (Shishak), attack on Jerusalem: Wilkinson, Egypt 405–9. Osorkon: Hoffmeier 107. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 81. Campbell, Oxford History 212–15. Meyers, Oxford History 175. De Vaux 230. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 260. Omrid vs Solomonic structures: Finkelstein/Silberman 180–5.

14 Ahab/Jehoshaphat: 1 K 15–18, 2 K 1–8. Jehoshaphat: I K 15–24 and 2 C 17–20. Finkelstein/Silberman 231–4. Jehu: 2 K 10.1–35. Tel Dan stele: Hoffmeier 87. Ahab vs Assyria/Shalmaneser Monolith inscription: Campbell, Oxford History 220–3. Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III: BM 49–54. Moabite Stone: BM 56.

15 Jehu: 2 K 9–11, 2 C 22. BM 49–56. Tel Dan inscription: Campbell, Oxford History 212. Athaliah: 2 K 11–12. Campbell, Oxford History 228–31. Reich, Shukron and Lernau, ‘Findings from the Iron Age II in the Rock-Cut Pool near the Spring’, Israel Exploration Journal 57 (2007) 153–69: Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. Uzziah/Jotham: 2 K 13–16. Expanding Jerusalem: 2 C 26.9. Fall of Israel/Jerusalem transformed: Finkelstein/Silberman 211–21, 243–8.

16 Ahaz and Isaiah – all references from Book of Isaiah: vision of Jerusalem as sinful nation 1.4; Jerusalem as woman-harlot 1.21 and mount of the daughter of Zion, the hill of Jerusalem 10.32; Jerusalem as guide to nations 2.1–5; Zion in every place 4.5; God in temple 6.1–2; Ahaz 7; Emmanuel 8.8 and a child born 9.6–7; judgement and justice/wolf and lamb, guidance to gentiles 11.4–11; judgement day 26.1–2 and 14–19. Fall of Israel: 2 K 15–17. Finkelstein/Silberman 211–21, 243–8. Jews of Iran: K. Farrokh, Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War (henceforth Farrokh) 25–7. M. Cogan, ‘Into Exile: From the Assyrian Conquest of Israel to the Fall of Babylon’, in Oxford History 242–3. Campbell, Oxford History 236–9. Latest findings on Jewish genetics: ‘Studies Show Jews’ Genetic Similiarity’, New York Times 9 June 2010.

17 Hezekiah: 2 K 18–20, 2 C 29–31. New walls, houses: Isaiah 22.9–11. New Jerusalem: swords into ploughshares: Isaiah 2.4; justice 5.8–25, 1.12–17. Sennacherib and Hezekiah: Isaiah 36–8. New rites: 2 C 30. Jeremiah 41.5. Hezekiah’s tunnel and building: 2 K 20.20 and 2 C 32.30. New quarters: 2 C 32.5. Siloam Inscription: Bahat, Atlas 26–7. Jar-handles belonging to the king: BM 62. Lmlk: for the king – Hoffmeier 108. Reich, Shukron and Lernau, ‘Findings from the Iron Age II in the Rock-Cut Pool near the Spring’, Israel Exploration Journal 57 (2007) 153–69. Royal Steward inscription: BM 65 – confirming Isaiah 22. 15–25. Judaean headdress: BM 72. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 169–70. Archaeology 66; the wall, 137, possibly Nehemiah 3.8. Finkelstein/Silberman 234–43 and 251–64. Hurowitz, Oxford History 15–35.

18 Sennacherib and Assyria: this section is based on J. E. Curtis and J. E. Reade (eds), Art and Empire: Treasures from Assyria in the British Museum, including: the dress of a Judaean soldier 71; the dress of Sennacherib on campaign is based on the reliefs of various Assyrian kings on campaign; the siege of Jerusalem is based on the Lachish reliefs of Nineveh. Assyria: Miles, Ancient Worlds 68–77. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 167; Assyrian texts 185. Egyptian rule: Wilkinson, Egypt 430–35. Disaster of war: Nahum 3.1–3. Micah 1.10–13. Isaiah 1o: 28–32 and chapters 36–8. Cogan, Oxford History 244–51.

19 Manasseh: 2 K 21. Child sacrifice: Exodus 22.29. Kings of Jerusalem child sacrifice: 2 K 16.3 and 21.6. See also: 2 C 28.3, Leviticus 18.21, 2 K 17.31, 2 K 17.17, Jeremiah 7.31 (see Rashi commentary) and Jeremiah 32.35. Phoenician/Carthaginian child sacrifice and discovery of tophet in Tunisia: Miles, Carthage Must be Destroyed 68–73. On Manasseh: Finkelstein/Silberman 263–77. Miles, Ancient Worlds, Grabbe, Ancient Israel 169. Cogan, Oxford History 252–7. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35.

20 Isaiah 8.1; 9.6–7; 11.4–11; 26.1–2, 14–19. Josiah: 2 K 22 and 23, 2 C 35.20–5. De Vaux 336–9. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35.

21 Fall: 2 K 24–5. Jeremiah 34.1–7, 37–9, 52. Depravity, hunger, cruelty, cannibalism, menstruous lamentation 1.17; cruelty of women 4.3; children meat 4.10. Psalms 74 and 137. Daniel 1.4 and 5; Desolation, Daniel 11.31. Lachish ostracon: BM 87–8. Iron arrowheads, Bahat, Atlas 28. Lavatory/sewer: Auld and Steiner, Jerusalem 44. House of the Bullae: Archaeological Park 52–4. Gemariah son of Shephan: Jeremiah 36.9–12. Ivory sceptre: Hoffmeier 98. The section on Babylon is based on I. L. Finkel and M. J. Seymour, Babylon: Myth and Reality; D. J. Wiseman, Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon; Finkelstein/Silberman 296–309; Wilkinson, Egypt 441–4; Tom Holland, Persian Fire 46–7. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 69–71. Cogan, Oxford History 262–8. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 170–84. De Vaux 98. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35.

22 Cyrus and the Persians: A. T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire (henceforth Olmstead) 34–66. Farrokh 37–51. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 269–71. M. J. W. Leith, ‘Israel among the Nations: The Persian Period’, in Oxford History 287–9. E. Stern, ‘Province of Yehud: Vision and Reality’ in Lee I. Levine (ed.) Jerusalem Cathedra (henceforth Cathedra) 1.9–21. Cogan, Oxford History 274. Mythical stories of Cyrus and his rise: Herodotus, Histories 84–96. Holland, Persian Fire 8–22. On Cyrus Cylinder: BM 92. Cyrus and President Truman: Michael B. Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East 501. Return: Isaiah 44.21–8, 45.1 and 52.1–2. Ezra 1.1–11 and 3–4. Josephus, ‘Against Apion’ 1.154. Leith, Oxford History 276–302. First mention of Jew: Esther 2.5. Archaeological Park 138.

23 Darius the Great: Ezra 4–6. Haggai 1–2. Zechariah 1.7–6.15. Isaiah 9.2–7. Olmstead, 86–93, 107–18, 135–43; Zerubabbel/Darius possibly in Jerusalem 136–144. The description of Darius is based closely on that of Olmstead 117. Mythical stories of Darius’ rise/the mare’s vagina: Herodotus 229–42. Farrokh 52–74. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 78–85 and 271. Leith, Oxford History 303–5. Holland, Persian Fire 20–62. Joseph Patrich, ‘538 BCE–70 CE: The Temple (Beyt ha-Miqdash) and its Mount’, in Sacred Esplanade 37–73. Miles, Ancient Worlds 115–19.

24 Nehemiah 1–4, 6–7, 13. Archeological Park 137. Leith, Oxford History 276–311. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 85 and 277–81. JA 11.159–82.

25 Fall of Darius III and rise of Alexander: Olmstead 486–508. Farrokh 96–111. JA 11.304–46. Schäfer 5–7. Gunther Holbl, History of the Ptolemaic Empire (henceforth Holbl) 10–46. Maurice Sartre, The Middle East under Rome (henceforth Sartre) 5–6, 20.

26 Ptolemy Soter and Wars of Successors: JA 2. Josephus, ‘Against Apion’ 1.183–92. Ptolemies, style, festival in 274, Wilkinson, Egypt 469–30. Miles, Ancient Worlds 158–70. Adrian Goldsworthy, Antony and Cleopatra (henceforth Goldsworthy) 37–41. On Aristeas: Goodman 117–19, quoting Aristeas. For full text see Aristeas, Letter of Aristeas. Schäfer 7–18 including Agatharchides on Ptolemy taking Jerusalem. Cathedra 1.21. Ptolemy II/Aristeas: Holbl 191. Patrich, Sacred Esplanade 37–73.

27 Simon the Just: Ecclesiasticus 50.1–14 and 4. JA 12.2 and 12.154–236. Tobiads: C. C. Ji, ‘A New Look at the Tobiads in Iraq al-Amir’, Liber Annuus 48 (1998) 417–40. M. Stern, ‘Social and Political Realignments in Herodian Judinea’, in Cathedra 2.40–5. Leith, Oxford History 290–1. Schäfer 17–23. Holbl 35–71. Edwyn Bevan, House of Seleucus 2.168–9. Patrich, Sacred Esplanade 37–73.

28 Antiochus the Great and the Seleucids: Bevan, Seleucus 1.300–18 and 2.32–3 and 51–94. Holbl 127–43 and 136–8. JA 3 and 12.129–54. Seleucid court/dress/army: Bevan, Seleucus 2.269–92. Schäfer 29–39. New Greek Jerusalem: 2 Maccabees 3.1–4.12.

29 Ecclesiasticus 50. Schäfer 32–4. Henri Daniel-Rops, Daily Life in Palestine at the Time of Christ – theocracy 53–5; city life 95–7; punishments 175–8. Sabbath: de Vaux – sacrifices/holocaust 415–7; Sabbath 3482–3; festivals 468–500; high priest 397. Patrich, Sacred Esplanade 37–73.

30 Antiochus IV Epiphanes: 1 Maccabees 1, 1 Maccabees 4. Jason/Menelaos/ Antiochus: 2 Maccabees 1 and 2 Maccabees 4–6, 2 Maccabees 8.7. JA 12.237–65. Antiochus enters temple: 2 Maccabees 5.15. Debauchery in the Temple: 2 Maccabees 6.2. Character: Polybius, Histories 31 and 331; festival 31.3. On Antiochus/festival: Diodorus, Library of History 31.16. This account closely follows Bevan, Seleucus 2.126–61; character 128–32; God manifest 154; death 161. Schäfer 34–47. Sartre 26–8. Building the gymnasium: 2 Maccabees 4.12. Religious edicts: 1 Maccabees 1.34–57, 2 Maccabees 6.6–11. Abomination: Daniel 11.31, 12.11. Schäfer 32–44. Holbl 190. Shanks 112–15; face on coins: silver tetradrachm in Shanks 113. Sartre 9–14. Martyrs and atrocities: 2 Maccabees 6. Greek culture: Goodman 110. Crucifixion: JA 12.256.

31 Judah and Maccabee Revolt: JA 12.265–433. 1 Maccabees 2–4. The Hammer: 2 Maccabees 5.27. Hasidim: origins of Essenes and apocalyptic thought: Book of Enoch 85–90 and 93.1–10 and 91.12–17. JA 12.7. Lysias: 1 Maccabees 4, 2 Maccabees 11. Hanukkah: 1 Maccabees 4.36–9, 2 Maccabees 10.1–8. JA 12.316. Judah in Jerusalem: 1 Maccabees 4.69. Conquests: 1 Maccabees 4–6. Jewish rights restored by Antiochus V: 1 Maccabees 6.59. Lysias vs Jerusalem: 2 Maccabees 11.22–6. Alcimus: 1 Maccabees 7, 8 and 9, 2 Maccabees 13.4–8, 14, 15. JA 8, 9, 10. Nicanor threats defeat head, tongue, hand: 1 Maccabees 7.33–9, 2 Maccabees 14.26, 2 Maccabees 15.36, 2 Maccabees 15.28–37, 1 Maccabees 8.1. Bacchides/death of Judah: 1 Maccabees 8–9. Bevan, Seleucus 2.171–203. Joseph Sievers, The Hasmoneans and their Supporters: From Mattathias to the Death of John Hyrcanus I (henceforth Sievers) 16–72. Michael Avi-Yonah, The Jews of Palestine: A Political History from the Bar Kochba War to the Arab Conquest (henceforth Avi-Yonah) 4–5. Sartre 9–14. Resurrection and apocalypse: Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 98–100. Daniel 12.2–44. Isaiah 13.17–27. Jeremiah 51.1. Acra foundation: Archeological Park 45. Patrich, Sacred Esplanade 37–73.

32 Jonathan: 1 Maccabees 9–16 and JA 13.1–217. Philometer: 1 Maccabees 11.6–7. Onias IV: Holbl 190. JA 12.65–71, 14.131. Holbl 191–4. Schäfer 44–58. Bevan, Seleucus 2.203–28. Sievers 73–103. Simon: JA 13.187–228. Simon as high priest, captain and leader: 1 Maccabees 12 and 13, 1 Maccabees 13.42–51. Acra falls/purple and gold: 1 Maccabees 13.51, 14.41–4. Antiochus VII Sidetes: 1 Maccabees 15.1–16. Simon death: JA 13.228. 1 Maccabees 16.11. Schäfer 56–8. Bevan, Seleucus 2.227–43. Sievers 105–34. Sartre 9–14. Acra foundations: Archeological Park 45; wall 90. Hasmonean walls – Avi-Yonah, 221–4. Peters, Jerusalem 591. Ptolemy VII Euergetes II: Jews and elephants Josephus, ‘Against Apion’ 2.50–5. Holbl 194–204.

33 Hyrcanus: JA 13.228–300. Schäfer 65–74. Hasmonean walls: Avi-Yonah, 221–4. Peters, Jerusalem 591. Walls: Archeological Park 90, 138. Bahat, Atlas 37–40. Converstions with Dan Bahat. Hyrcanus fortress residence: JA 14.403, 18.91. JW 1.142. Mass conversions: Goodman 169–74. Conversions and conquest: Sartre 14–16. Negotiations with Parthians: Marina Pucci, ‘Jewish–Parthian Relations in Josephus’, in Cathedra quoting the Book of Josippon. Greek culture: Goodman 110. Jewish contributions to Temple wealth: JA 14.110. Aristobulos: JA 13.301–20. Alexander Jannaeus: JA 13.320–404. Sartre 9–14. M. Stern, ‘Judaea and her Neighbours in the Days of Alexander Jannaeus’, in Cathedra 1.22–46. Alexandra Salome: JA 13.405–30. Hyrcanus II vs Aristobulos II: JA 14.1–54. Bevan, Seleucus 2.238–49. Sievers 135–48. Shanks 118. Roman treaty: Sartre 12–14.

34 Pompey: JA 14.1–79, including capture of city and entering Holy of Holies 14.65–77; Scaurus/Gabinius/Mark Antony: JA 14.80–103. Antipater: JA 14.8–17. Pompey reduces wall: JA 14.82. Greek allegations about Temple: see Apion and Josephus, ‘Against Apion’. Tacitus, Histories 5.8–9. Cicero, For Flaccus, quoted in Goodman 389–455. John Leach, Pompey the Great 78–101 and 212–14. Goldsworthy 73–6. Patrich, Sacred Esplanade 37–73.

35 Crassus: Farrokh 131–40. JA 14.105–23, especially 110.

36 Caesar, Antipater, Cleopatra: JA 14.127–294. This analysis and account of Cleopatra and Caesar is based on Goldsworthy 87–9; 107; 125–7; 138; 172–81; Holbl 232–9; Schäfer 81–5; Sartre 44–51; Wilkinson, Egypt 492–501. Cleopatra, Mark Antony Plutarch, Makers of Rome; Antipater origins and early career: Niko Kokkinos, Herodian Dynasty: Origins, Role in Society and Eclipse (henceforth Kokkinos) 195–243.

37 Antony, Herod, Parthia: JA 14.297–393. Parthian invasion/Antigonos: Farrokh 141–3. Parthian society, cavalry: Farrokh 131–5. This account of Antony and Cleopatra is based on Holbl 239–42; Goldsworthy 87–9, 183, 342–3; Schäfer 85–6; Sartre 50–3; Wilkinson, Egypt 501–6. See Plutarch, Makers of Rome. Massacre of Sanhedrin: M. Stern, ‘Society and Political Realignments in Herodian Jerusalem’, in Cathedra 2.40–59.

38 Herod takes Judaea 41–37 BC: JA 14.390–491. Farrokh 142–3; Antony’s Parthian war 145–7. Schäfer 86–7. Sartre 88–93.

39 Antony, Cleopatra, Herod: JA 14–15.160. Holbl 239–42.

40 JA 15.39–200. Herod, Actium and Augustus: this account of Cleopatra including the note on the fate of their children is based on Holbl 242–51; Goldsworthy 342–8; Actium 364–9; death, 378–85; Wilkinson, Egypt 506–9 Herod and Cleopatra: JA 15.88–103. Herod as best friend of Augustus and Agrippa: JA 15.361. Description of Augustus: see Suetonius. Herod and Augustus: JA 15.183–200.

41 Herod and Mariamme 37–29 BC: marriage JA 14.465. Relationship: JA 15.21–86 and 15.202–66. Kokkinos 153–63; on Salome 179–86 and 206–16. Herod as king: this account of Herod is based on JA; Kokkinos; P. Richardson, Herod the Great: King of the Jews, Friend of the Romans; Stewart Perowne, Herod the Great; Michael Grant, Herod the Great 117–44. Herod’s court: Kokkinos 143–53 and 351 – quote on Herod’s cosmopolitanism. Wives and concubines: JA 15.321–2. Kokkinos 124–43 and Herod’s education 163–73. Sartre 89–93. Schäfer 87–98. Herod’s wealth: Grant, Herod 165. Games and theatres: JA 15.267–89. Fortressess/Sebaste/ Caesarea: JA 15.292–8; 15.323–41. Famine relief: JA 15.299–317. Citadel and Temple: JA 15.380–424.

42 Herod’s Jerusalem. Temple: JA 15.380–424 and JW 5.136–247. Bahat, Atlas 40–51. On stones/seam – Ronny Reich and Dan Bahat, conversations with author. Seam and extension of Temple Mount: Archeological Park 90. The street probably paved by Agrippa II: Archeological Park 112–13; on Vitruvius and engineering, my explanation is based on Archeological Park 29–31. Philo on Augustus’ sacrifices in Temple: Goodman 394. Trumpeting place: JW 4.12. Cathedra 1.46–80. Simon temple-builder: Grant, Herod 150. Shanks 92–100. Patrich, Sacred Esplanade 37–73. The Red Heifer: Numbers 19. Heifer: this modern research is based on Lawrence Wright, ‘Letter from Jerusalem: Forcing the End’, New Yorker, 20 July 1998.

43 Herod, Augustus/sons to Rome/many wives: JA 15.342–64; with Agrippa/ Crimea/Diaspora Jews etc: JA 16.12–65. Grant, Herod 144–50. Augustus and Agrippa sacrifices: Goodman 394; Philo, Works 27.295.

44 Herod family tragedies/Augustus’ rulings/execution of princes/four wills/last massacre and of innocents/death: JA 16.1–404 and 17.1–205. Kokkinos 153–74. Grant, Herod 211. Diagnosis of death: Philip A. Mackowiak, Post Mortem 89–100. Jesus birth, Bethlehem Massacre, King of Israel/escape to Egypt: Matthew 1, 2 and 3. Sacrifice in Temple/tax/Bethlehem/circumcision: Luke 1–2, Isaiah 7.14. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version, on timing of birth: 202. Brothers, sisters: Mark 6.3, Matthew 13.55, John 2.12, Acts 1.14. Speculative Cleophas theory: James D. Tabor, The Jesus Dynasty (henceforth Tabor) 86–92.

45 Varus’ war/Archelaus before Augustus and reign and downfall: JA 17.206–353. Goodman 397–401. Sartre 113–14. Archelaus: Herod of Luke 1.5. Kokkinos – on coins/using name of Herod, 226. Schäfer 105–12. Zealots founded by Judas the Galilean: JA 18.1–23. Gabriel’s Revelation: Ethan Bronner, ‘Hebrew tablet suggests tradition of resurrected messiah predates Jesus’, New York Times, 6 August 2008.

46 Jesus the life and ministry. Pinnacle of temple: Matthew 5.5. Aged twelve in Temple: Luke 2.39–51. Herod Antipas threat to Jesus/Pharisees/the hens/prophet outside Jerusalem: Luke 13.31–5. (Matthew’s version of the same speech is set in the Temple during Jesus’ last visit: Matthew 23.37.) Destruction of Jerusalem and armies foreseen: Luke 22.20–4. Jesus, John resurrected – Herod: Mark 6.14. I beheaded John, but reborn: Luke 9.7–9. Visit to high mountain and meeting with Moses and Elias (similarity to Muhammad’s Night Journey): Mark 9.1–5. Vision of King of Heaven: Matthew 24.3–25.46. Repent Kingdom of Heaven coming: Matthew 5.17. Blessed be the poor: Matthew 5.3. Not destroy law: Matthew 5.17. Exceed righteous Pharisees: Matthew 5.20. Let dead bury dead: Matthew 8.22. Apocalyptic sword and vision of Judgement Day: Matthew 10.21–32. Gnashing of teeth and furnace: Matthew 13.41–58. Son of Man and glory: Matthew 20.28. Must go to Jerusalem: Matthew 16.21. Nations judged: Matthew 25.31–4. Life eternal for righteous: Matthew 25.41 and 25.46. Elite followers, Joanna, wife of Herod’s steward: Luke 8.3. City of great king: Matthew 5.35. Earlier visits to Temple/early version of cleansing of Temple: John 2.13–24.

Son of Man: Daniel 7.13. Vision of Kingdom of Heaven, End of Days, Son of Man, be ready: Matthew 24.2–25.46. Early visits to Jerusalem and escapes from stoning: John 7, 8, 10.22.

Jesus and John the Baptist – same message, repentance/Kingdom of Heaven: Matthew 3.2 and 5.17. John the Baptist, birth: Luke 1.5–80. Mary visits John’s parents: Luke 1.39–41. John denounces Herod and Herodias: Luke 3.15–20.

Herod Antipas and John the Baptist beheading: Mark 6.14–32. John baptizing Jesus: Luke 3.21, Matthew 3.16. Herod Antipas: JA 18.109–19 (story of Herodias, Aretas’ daughter and John the Baptist). JA 18.116–19. Kokkinos 232–7, including identity of Salome. Antipas and Philip’s Tetrarchy and Nabataean war: JA 18.104–42. Salome: Mark 6.17–19. Matthew 14.3–11. Jesus on that fox: Luke 13.32 Diarmaid MacCulloch, A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (henceforth MacCulloch) 83–91.

47 Jesus in Jerusalem. King of Israel entrance: John 12.1–15. Insurrection, Pilate, Siloam: Luke 13.1–4. Prediction of abomination, destruction: Mark 13.14. Hens, vision of desolation: Matthew 23.37–8. In Temple, vision of King of Heaven and Judgement Day: Matthew 24.3–25.46. Jesus in the Temple/not one stone: Mark 13.1–2 and 14.58 and later Stephen quote Isaiah: Acts 7.48. Not one stone: Matthew 24.1–3. Jewish traditions against Temple: Isaiah 66.1. The days in Jersualem: Mark 11–14 and John 12–19. JA 18.63. Early version of cleansing of Temple: John 2.13–24. Portrait of character is based on Geza Vermes, The Changing Faces of Jesus; Geza Vermes, Jesus and the World of Judaism; Geza Vermes, ‘The Truth about the Historical Jesus’, Standpoint, September 2008; MacCulloch; Charles Freeman, A New History of Early Christianity; A. N. Wilson, Jesus; F. E. Peters, Jesus and Muhammad, Parallel tracks, Parallel Lives.

Jerusalem in Jesus’ time. Many nations: Acts 2.9–11. Daniel-Rops, Daily Life in Palestine in the Time of Christ 80–97. MacCulloch 91–6. Palatial Mansion and mikvahs, see Archeological Park. Bahat, Atlas 40–53 and 54–8. Adiabene queen and Jewish kingdom in Iraq: JA 18.310–77. Queen Helena: JA 20.17–96. Goodman 65. Ossuaries: Tabor 10. Son of Man: Daniel 7.13. Upper Room/Last Supper/Pentecost Holy Spirit: Mark 14.15, Acts 1.13–2.2. Patrich, Sacred Esplanade 37–73. For Jesus’ movements in city: see Shimon Gibson, The Final Days of Jesus, especially map facing 115; entry into city 46–9; Last Supper 52–5; Gethsemane 53–5; Gibson’s research and excavations on the pools of Bethesda and Siloam, showing that they may have been mikvah purification pools 59–80; arrest 81–2. Healings at the pools: John 5.1–19 and 9.7–11. Caiaphas in John 11.50. Conversations with Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron on excavations of the first-century Siloam Pool.

48 Pilate: JA 18.55–63; Samaritan disturbances JA 18.85–95. Pilate’s violence: Philo quoting Agrippa I in Sartre 114–15; Goodman 403. See also Daniel R. Schwartz, ‘Josephus, Philo and Pontius Pilate’, in Cathedra 3.26–37. (On Pilate’s actions, Philo says it was shields; Josephus says military standards.) Philo, Works, vol. 10, Embassy to Gaius 37.301–3. Trial: John 18–19 and Mark 14 and 15. Daughters of Jerusalem: Luke 23.28. Powers of Sanhredrin/trial: Goodman 327–31, including Josephus quotation and other examples such as sentencing of James brother of Jesus in AD 62. Barabbas: Mark 15.7. Insurrection, Pilate, Siloam: Luke 13.1–4. Herod and Pilate: Luke 23.12. Arrest and trial: Gibson, Final Days of Jesus 81–106. MacCulloch 83–96.

49 Crucifixion: this account of technique and death is based on Joe Zias, ‘Crucifixion in Antiquity’ on www.joezias.com. Crucifixion, nakedness, burial and new shroud evidence discovered by Shimon Gibson: Final Days of Jesus 107–25 and 141–7; tomb 152–65. This account is based on John 19–20, Mark 15, Matthew 28. JW 7.203 and 5.451. Tabor 246–50. Resurrection: quotation from Luke 24. Matthew 27–8. Mark 16. Caiaphas: Matthew 27.62–6 and 28.11–15. Judas, silver and Potters Field: Matthew 27.5–8 and Acts 1.16–20. Removal of body: Matthew 27.62–4, and 28.11–15 for story of priests offering guards bribes to claim disciples removed the body. Gospel of Peter (probably dating from early second century) 8.29–13.56 in which a crowd surrounds the tomb, then two men remove the body: for analysis, see Freeman, New History of Early Christianity 20–1 and 31–8. Resurrection to Ascension: John 20–1 (including Doubting Thomas).

James the Just as leader, early days of sect: Acts 1–2 and Galatians 1.19, 2.9, 12. Pentecost and tongues: Acts 2. Beautiful Gate healing: Acts 3. Stephen: Acts 6 and 7; stoning 7.47–60. Saul at death of Stephen/persecutor/conversion and acceptance by Church: Acts 7.58–60 and 8.1–9.28.

Various sources reflect the Jewish Christianity: Gospel of Thomas; Clement of Alexandria; the Ascents of James and the Second Apocalypse of James – all quoted and discussed by Tabor, 280–91. Pilate, Samaritans, downfall: JA 18.85–106. Sartre 114–15. Schäfer 104–5. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 297–9, 283–303. Peters, Jerusalem 89–99. Archeological Park 72, 82, 111. Judas, Potter’s Field: Matthew 27.3–8. Tacitus, Histories 15.44. MacCulloch 92–6. Sartre 336–9. Kevin Butcher, Roman Syria and the Near East (henceforth Butcher) 375–80.

50 Herod Agrippa I: JA 18.143–309, 19.1–360. Persecution of James and Peter: Acts 12.20–3. Kokkinos 271–304. Third Wall: Archeological Park 138. Bahat, Atlas 35. Sartre 78–9 and 98–101. Approved by Mishnah: Peters, Jerusalem 96–7. James son of Zebedee and Peter: Acts 11.27–12.1–19. Herod Agrippa reads Deuteronomy: Goodman 83. On Philo, see Philo, Works vol. 10, Embassy to Caligula. Goodman 88, 118. Caligula character: Suetonius, Caligula. Claudius expels Jewish Christians/Chrestus: Suetonius, Claudius.

51 Herod Agrippa II and sisters, Claudius, Nero, Poppaea, the procurators: JW 2. 250–70. JA 20.97–222. Goodman 375–82. Kokkinos 318–30. Stewart Perowne, The Later Herods 160–6. Sartre 79–80.

52 Paul: origins Acts 9–11 and 22–5; Saul at death of Stephen/conversion and acceptance by Church 7.58—60 and 8.1—9.28; return to Jerusalem Acts 11. Quotations from Galatians 11—2.20, 6.11; sin offering 2 Corinthians 5.21; James, Peter, John as ‘pillars’ Galatians 2.6 and 9; Paul’s new Jerusalem, new Israel, Galatians 4.26; on circumcision Philippians 3.2—3; later visit to Jerusalem, arrest, Felix, Agrippa Acts 21—8. Analysis is based on the following: A. N. Wilson, Paul: The Mind of the Apostle; MacCulloch 97—106; Freeman, New History of Early Christianity 47—63; Tabor 292—306; Goodman on Paul’s vast ambition 517—27. James the Just: see Gospel of Thomas and Clement of Alexandria/Eusebius, quoting Hegesippus; the Ascents of James in the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions; the Second Apocalypse of James – quoted in Tabor 287–91. Apostles in Temple: Acts 2.46, 5.21, 3.1–2. ‘Christian’ first used later in Antioch: Sartre 298, 336–9; Acts 11.26.

53 James the Just: death/succession of Simon. James as priest. Paul: life and conversion Acts 7–11 and 22–5. Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History: Life of Constantine the Great 2.23. Peters, Jerusalem 100–7. On James as righteous priest – Hegesippus; succession of Simon, Hegesippus, Epiphanius, Eusebius, Tabor 321–32.

54 Josephus, his life and visit to Rome: Josephus, ‘Life’ 1–17. Book of Revelation: MacCulloch 103–5; Freeman, New History of Early Christianity 107–10: the note on Number of the Beast code is based on Freeman 108. Nero persecutions: see Tacitus, Histories. Jewish Revolt starts: Josephus, ‘Life’ 17–38. JW 2.271–305. JA 20.97–223, 20.252–66. Goodman 404–18. Perowne, Later Herods 98–108 and 117–18. Sartre 113–21. Schäfer 114–23. Nero: death of Peter and Paul, citing Origen, Goodman 531.

55 War, Josephus’ defection and Vespasian as emperor including portents: Suetonius, Vespasian 5; Tacitus, Histories 1.11; Titus and Berenice, Tacitus 2.1–2; emperor/Agrippa II’s support/Berenice in best years and at height of her beauty: Tacitus 2.74–82. JW 2.405–3.340, Josephus defects: JW 3.340–408. War, Gamala and after: JW 4.1–83. Suetonius, Titus 7; wasted a day 8; looks 3. Schäfer 125–9. Sartre 123–7.

PART TWO: PAGANISM

1 Triumph: JW 7.96–162. This analysis of Roman attitudes to Judaism from AD 70 owes much to Goodman 452–5. Tacitus 2.4–5, 5.1–13. Masada: JW 7.163–406 (quotation on Jerusalem is Eleazar in JW). Titus, Agrippa II and Berenice after AD 70: Tacitus 2.2. Suetonius, Titus 7. Cassius Dio quoted in Goodman 459. Agrippa II’s political career: Goodman 458–9; diamond of Berenice quoting Juvenal in Goodman 378. Josephus afer AD 70: Josephus, ‘Life’ 64–76. Last Herodians: Kokkinos 246–50 and 361. Last Herodian under Marcus Aurelius: Avi-Yonah 43.

2 Flavians, Nerva and Trajan. Domitian, Jerusalem and Book of Revelation: Mac-Culloch 103–5. Nerva relaxes Jewish tax: Goodman 469. On Trajan and revolts of 115: Goodman 471–83. Simon, Jesus’ cousin, persecution of House of David, execution 106: Tabor 338–42 quoting Eusebius and Epiphanius as sources on Flavian and Trajan executions of Davidians. Synagogues in Jerusalem: Eusebius, Church History 4.5. Epiphanius quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 125. Sartre 126–8. Eschatological hopes in Palestine: Sibylline Oracles 4–5; Greek Apocalypse of Baruch III and the Syrian Apocalypse of Baruch II. Zakkai: Schäfer 135–40. Jerusalem: Eusebius quoted in Perowne, Later Herods, half city destroyed and seven synagogues, 191. Judaism/ben Zakkai and Jews could live in Jerusalem 70–132: Avi-Yonah 12–54. Trajan: Goodman 471–81, including quote of Appian on Trajan destroying Jews in Egypt; and of Arrian on general destruction of Jews. Jewish revolt: Dio Cassius 68.32.1–2. Eusebius, Church History 4.2.1–5. Schäfer 141–2. Sartre 127–8. Butcher 45–50.

3 Hadrian: Dio Cassius 69.12.1–13.3. Character both admirable and bad: Anthony R. Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor 301–7, including Historia Augusta ‘ cruel and merciful’ etc. and Epitome de Caesaribus ‘ diverse, manifold, multiform’. Frank McLynn, Marcus Aurelius 26–39. Aelia: Bahat, Atlas 58–67. Thorsten Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict – career 34–68 and bar Kochba 89–97 and Antinous 168–91. Goodman 481–5. Archeological Park 140. Yoram Tsafrir, ’70–638 CE: The Templeless Mountain’, in Sacred Esplanade 73–99.

4 Simon bar Kochba/Hadrian: this account is based on Dio Cassius 69.12.1–13.3 and 69.14.1–3; Eusebius, Church History 4.6 and Justin. See Opper, Hadrian 89–97, including latest finds from the Cave of Letters. Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor: influence of Antiochus Epiphanes 228–9; coins on visit to Judea 231; foundation of Aelia 232–4; revolt, bar Kochba 268–78; Book of Numbers/Akiba/ correspondence/ Justin and Eusebius/fall of Betar/plan of new Jerusalem with Hadrian statue on horseback on Holy of Holies with idol of Jupiter from Eusebius, and statue of pig from Jerome, all quoted in Birley. McLynn, Marcus Aurelius 26–39. Bahat, Atlas 58–67. Goodman 485–93, including Roman burial of memories of conflict, even more disastrous than the triumphalism of 70, continuity of Hadrian to Severan dynasty meant no incentive to challenge Hadrian’s ethos 496. See also: Yigal Yadin, Bar-Kokhba – clothes, keys 66; Babatha documents 235. Avi-Yonah 13, probably took Jerusalem/seventy-five settlements destroyed/ Palestinian Jewish population – 1.3 million. Did Hadrian destroy Temple?: Shanks 47, quoting Chronicon Paschale, Julian, rabbinical references to Third Temple destroyed by Hadrian. Cave resistance: Amos Klauer, ‘Subterranean Hideaways of Judean Foothills’, in Cathedra 3.114–35. After 335: Sartre 320–5. Post bar Kochba and Simon bar Yohai: Avi-Yonah 15–39, 66. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99.

5 Hadrianic city/Roman administration: Butcher 135–300, 240–50, 335–45. Sartre 155, 167–9. Archaeological mysteries, Tenth Legion/Roman finds south of Temple Mount, Herodian ashlars in foundations of Hadrianic Temple: Shanks 43–53. Statues of emperors still on Temple Mount for visit of Bordeaux Pilgrim 333: Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 592–3. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99. Deliberate burying of Golgotha: Eusebius, Life of Constantine 3.26–8. Sozomen, Church History 2.1, quoted in Peters 137–42. Zalatinos/Alexander Church/Hospice, Hadrianic walls and outside wall of Helena’s Church: author conversations with Gideon Avni and Dan Bahat. Syncretism of Aelia gods: Sartre 303–21. Attitude to Jews and Roman Aelia: Goodman 490–5. Relaxation of Antoninus Pius: Sartre 320–5. Visit of Marcus Aurelius: Goodman 498. Marcus Aurelius: Butcher 46–8. Herodian Governor of Palestina Julius Severus: Avi-Yonah 43–5. Marcus Aurelius in Aelia quoting Ammianus Marcellinus: Goodman 498. Today’s Old City is Hadrianic shape: David Kroyanker, Jerusalem Architecture (henceforth Kroyanker) 14. Jews: Visit of Septimus Severus, Caracalla, Judah haNasi: Goodman 496–7, 506–11. Severus: Butcher 48–51. Judaism/Judah haNasi: Sartre 319–35. Visits to Jerusalem, Judah haNasi: Avi-Yonah 50–6, 140; Tanaim and court of Nasi/patriarchs up to Judah the Prince 39–40, 54–75; Jerusalem, rending garments 79–80; Severans and Judah the Prince and small group of Rabbi Meir’s students of Holy Community settle in Jerusalem 77–9. Severus and civil war, Caracalla: Sartre 148–9, 157; Butcher 48–51. Jewish return to Jerusalem: Sartre 321–2; Goodman 501–8. Jewish traditions on Jerusalem, in Tosefta, Amidah etc. quoted in Goodman 576–7. Simon Goldhill, Jerusalem: A City of Longing 179. Christian beliefs and persecutions: Goodman 512–24. Isaiah Gafni, ‘Reinterment in Land of Israel’, in Cathedra 1.101. Christianity after 135: Freeman, New History of Early Christianity 132–41; Ebionites 133; Gnostics 142–54. Early Christians, Gnosticism: MacCulloch 121–37; relations with Roman state 156–88; Christian alternative to Rome 165; Severus, to third-century crisis, Mithraism, Mani, Diocletian 166–76. Joseph Patrich, ‘The Early Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Light of Excavations and Restoration’, in Y. Tsafrir (ed.), Ancient Churches Revealed 101–7. Synagogues: seven synagogues; one remained on Mount Zion in AD 333: Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 592–3. Epiphanius quoted: Peters, Jerusalem 125–7. Schäfer 168. Christianity and persecutions and decay of Roman power: Butcher 86–9; revolts against Romans 65–6. Twenty-five changes of emperor in 103 years/Zenobia; Diocletian visits Palestina 286: Avi-Yonah 91–127 and 139–49. Michael Grant, Constantine the Great 126–34. Sartre 339. On Palmyran empire and Zenobia: P. Southern, Empress Zenobia: Palmyra’s Rebel Queen.

PART THREE: CHRISTIANITY

1 Constantine. Rise and character: Warren T. Treadgold, A History of Byzantine State and Society (henceforth Treadgold) 30–48. Grant, Constantine 82–4, 105–15; Sun God 134–5; Milvian Bridge vision 140–55; Church 156–86. Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire (henceforth Herrin) 8–11. Patron gods of Caesar Augustus and Aurelian, smallness of Christian religion, Jews as detestable mob, Jewish history as Roman history: Goodman 539–48. Crispus/Fausta sexual offence: Treadgold 44. Avi-Yonah 159–64. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 247. MacCulloch 189–93. Last years: Grant, Constantine 213. John Julius Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries (henceforth Norwich) 1.31–79. Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam 10–11. On Christological debates and shock-troop monks: Chris Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000 (henceforth Wickham) 59–67.

2 Helena in Jerusalem. Eusebius, Life of Constantine 3.26–43. Sozomen, Church History 2.1, 2.26. Helena barmaid: Grant, Constantine 16–17; visit 202–5. Zeev Rubin, ‘The Church of Holy Sepulchre and Conflict between the Sees of Caesarea and Jerusalem’, in Cathedra 2.79–99 on early visit of Constantine’s mother-in-law, Eutropia, in 324. Founding of Church: MacCulloch 193–6. Temple Mount, space and holiness to Jews/defeat of old revelation and victory of new: Oleg Grabar, The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem 28. Goldhill, City of Longing 179. Peters, Jerusalem 131–40. New Jerusalem: Goodman 560–77; Jewish reverence for Jerusalem 576–7. Jews: Avi-Yonah 159–63; small Jewish revolt reported in John Chrysostom 173. Basilicas and ceremonies of church: MacCulloch 199; Arianism 211–15. Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 589–94; see also Peters, Jerusalem 143–4, including new name for Zion. Confusion about real Zion: 2 Samuel 5.7, Micah 3.12. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99.

3 Constantius: Avi-Yonah, 174–205. Julian: Treadgold 59–63. Jews/Temple: Yohanan Levy, ‘Julian the Apostate and the Building of the Temple’, in Cathedra 3.70–95. Temple: Sozomen, Church History 5.22. Isaiah 66.14. Archeological Park 22. Norwich 339–100. Did Jews remove statues?/Isaiah inscription: Shanks 53–5. Arab revolts of Queen Maria and Saracen War in 375: Butcher 65–6.

4 The first pilgrims fourth/fifth century/Hun invasion: Zeev Rubin, ‘Christianity in Byzantine Palestine – Missionary Activity and Religious Coercion’, in Cathedra 3.97–113. Cheating, adultery – Gregory of Nyssa quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 153; prostitutes, actors – Paulinus of Nola quoted 153; Jerome on Paula quoted 152. Jerome: Freeman 274–84, including quotes on sex, virginity and swine. Festivals evolve, cross-biting: Egeria, Pilgrimage to the Holy Places, 50, 57–8, 67–74; and Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 589–94. Jerome on Britons: Barbara W. Tuchman, Bible and Sword (henceforth Tuchman) 23. Byzantine guides to Jerusalem: Breviarius and Topography of the Holy Land, quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 154–7. The Jews in Jerusalem/Temple Mount with statues: Bordeaux Pilgrim, Itinerary 589–94. Mob of wretches: Jerome quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 145. Jewish revolt: Treadgold 56. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 213–14. Shanks 57. Peters, Jerusalem 143–4. Zion: 2 Samuel 5.7, Micah 3.12. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99. Monasticism: Wickham 59–67.

5 Eudocia, Barsoma, Christianity in Palestine: Rubin, ‘Christianity in Byzantine Palestine – Missionary Activity and Religious Coercion’, in Cathedra 3.97–113. Treadgold 89–94. Bahat, Atlas 68–79. Remains of Eudocia’s walls/Siloam Church: Archeological Park 42–4, 137 and 138. Eudocia and Barsoma: Peters, Jerusalem 157–62, including Piacenza Pilgrim seeing her tomb. Christology, monastic shock-troops: Wickham 59–67. Relics: Stephen Runciman, A History of the Crusades (henceforth Runciman) 1.40 and 49. Grabar, Shape of the Holy 25, 37. Christianization and anti-Jewish laws: Theodosius I and II: Avi-Yonah 213–21, 240–5; on Jerome – Jewish worms quoted at 222; end of patriarchate 225–30. Norwich 139–51. Creed and righteous behaviour: Donner, Muhammad 10–17. MacCulloch on monasticism including lollipop stylite pillar: 200–10; on Nestorius/Monophysitism 222–8. End of Hillelite patriarchs: G. Krämer, A History of Palestine (henceforth Krämer) 24. Armenian monks and asceticism: Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, ‘Historical Itinerary of the Armenian People in Light of its Biblical Memory’, ms.

6 Justinian – Byzantine climax. Justin and Justinian: Treadgold 174–217. Donner, Muhammad 5–6; apocalyptic vision of the Last Emperor 16; Yemenite Jewish kingdom 31–4; Justinian’s vision 4–17. Wickham 92–5. Vision and building: Herrin 50–7. Gossip: see Procopius, Secret Life. Building: Bahat, Atlas 68–79. Building and pilgrims: Peters, Jerusalem 162–4: Piacenza Pilgrim; ‘Life of Sabas’ by Cyril of Scythopolis; Procopius, ‘On Buildings’, quoted in Peters. Grabar, Shape of the Holy 38–40, including Cyril quote; life in Jerusalem 24–38, including concepts of holy space/churches facing or backing on to Temple Mount. Jewish tragedy: Avi-Yonah 221–4 and 232–7, but c. 520 new Sanhedrin chief from Babylon to Tiberias, ruling Jews for seven generations until move to Jerusalem in 638; Justinian anti-Jewish legislation 246–8; Jews in Tiberias in contact with Jewish kings of Yemen 246–8. Treadgold 177. Butcher 383. Temple menorah – Byzantine triumph then to Jerusalem in 534: Perowne, Later Herods 177. Norwich 212. Byzantine style of dress: see Ravenna mosaic and Herrin on Theodora and ladies-in-waiting 67. Houses, mosaics and churches: on Orpheus semi-pagan/semi-Christian: Ashar Ovadius and Sonia Mucznik, ‘Orpheus from Jerusalem – Pagan or Christian Image’, in Cathedra 1.152–66. Nea Church: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 34–8; Madaba Map 27. M. Avi-Yonah, ‘The Madaba Mosaic Map’, Israel Exploration Society. See also article: Martine Meuwese, ‘Representations of Jerusalem on Medieval Maps and Miniatures’, Eastern Christian Art 2 (2005) 139–48. H. Donner, The Mosaic Map of Madaba: An Introductory Guide. Nea, last column in Russian Compound: Shanks 86–7. Byzantine rich houses south and west of Temple Mount: Archeological Park 147 and 32–3; extended Cardo 10 and 140; bathhouses near Jaffa Gate 125; Nea 81; monks in First Temple Jewish tombs 39. Burial with bells: see Rockefeller Museum. Jerusalem chariot-racing: Yaron Dan, ‘Circus Factions in Byzantine Palestine’, in Cathedra 1.105–19. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99.

7 Persian invasion. The Persian general’s full name was Razmiozan, known as Farrokhan Shahrbaraz – the Royal Boar. Justin II to Phocas – decline: Treadgold 218–41. Sassanian king, state and religion: Donner, Muhammad 17–27. Avi-Yonah, 241, 254–65, including Midrash of Elijah and 20,000 Jewish soldiers quoting Eutychius; Salvation Midrash/Book of Zerubbabel, Nehemiah stories 265–8; Jews expelled 269–70. Sebeos, Histoire d’Héraclius 63–71. See also: A. Courret, La Prise de Jérusalem par les Perses; and Norwich 279–91. Arab tribes: Butcher 66–72. Jerusalem chariot-racing: Dan, ‘Circus Factions in Byzantine Palestine’, in Cathedra 1.105–19.

Sassanids rise: Farrokh 178–90; Khusrau II 247–61. Sassanians before the Arab conquest: Hugh Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests 98–111.

Destruction of Jerusalem: F. Conybeare, ‘Antiochus Strategos: Account of the Sack of Jerusalem’, English Historical Review 25 (1910) 502–16. City destroyed: Bahat, Atlas 78–9. Bones of monks in Monastery of St Onufrius: Archeological Park 137. Jewish role and Lion’s Cemetery where martyrs buried in Mamilla: J. Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 57 and 241. Dan, ‘Circus Factions in Byzantine Palestine’, in Cathedra 1.105–19, inscription on Blues. Massacre myths: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 36–43. Traces of a Jewish building on Temple Mount, seventh century but dating from Persian or early Islamic period: Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 99.

8 Heraclius: this is based on Walter E. Kaegi, Heraclius: Emperor of Byzantium. Treadgold 287–303. Farrokh 256–61. Butcher 76–8. Herrin 84–6. Norwich 291–302. Entering Jerusalem: Conybeare, ‘Antiochus Strategos’ 502–16. Defeated Romans: Koran (trans. M.A.S. Abdel Haleem) 30.1–5. Golden Gate – Byzantine or Umayyad: Bahat, Atlas 78–9. Goldhill, City of Longing 126. Heraclius and Jews, Benjamin of Tiberias: Avi-Yonah 260–76. First Crusader: Runciman 1.10–13. Heraclius in Jerusalem: Abu Sufyan’s memory: Kennedy, Conquests 74; Palestine in decline 31–2. Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 73–99. Heraclius and campaigns: Donner, Muhammad 17–27; Last Emperor 17–18. Wickham 256–61.

PART FOUR: ISLAM

1 Muhammad: Arabia before Prophet: this is based on the following: Koran; Ibn Ishaq, Life of Muhammad; Al-Tabari, Tarikh: The History of al-Tabari. Analysis and narrative – for conventional approach: W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman; Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. For new analysis: Donner, Muhammad; F. E. Peters, Muhammad and Jesus, Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives.

Apocalypse in Koran/Last Days/The Hour: Hour is near: Koran 33.63, 47.18. Hour nigh: Koran 54.1. Koran: Introduction ix–xxxvi. Isra and Miraj: Koran 17.1, 17.60, 53.1–18, 81.19 and 25. Change of qibla: Koran 2.142–50; Solomon and djinns in temple: Koran 34.13. Jewish sins and Nebachadnezzar fall of Temple: Koran 17.4–7. Jihad/killing/sword verse/People of the Book/dhimmi: Koran 16.125, 4.72–4, 9.38–9, 9.5, 9.29; no compulsion in religion 2.256, 3.3–4, 5.68, 3.64, 29.46. Donner, Muhammad 27–38; life and rise of Muhammad and limits of his biography 39–50; limits of sources, quotes of Thomas the Presbyter 50–7; beliefs of early Islam, Donner’s theory of Believers vs Muslims and number of mentions in Koran: 57–61; rituals 61–9; ecumenism of early Believers especially attitude to Jews and the umma document 72–4; Prophet and Apocalypse 78–82; militant jihad 83–6; ecumenical openness to Jews and Christians – quotations from Donner 87–9; Abu Sufyan and Meccan elite co-opted 92–7.

Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad 200–10. Jesus meets Moses and Elijah: Mark 9.1–5. Muhammad, mystery of early Islam; doubts of some scholars of entire history before 800, question of conquest, early caliphs: Wickham 279–89. Armstrong, Muhammad 94; qibla 107; relations with Jews 102, 111, 161–3.

Muhammad in Syria: Kennedy, Conquests 77. Early Islam: Chase F. Robinson, Abd al-Malik 13. Herrin 86–8. Muhammad’s rise: Kennedy, Conquests 45–7; no one more destitute than us, among us who would bury our daughters, God sent us a well-known man, the best among us, Arabian tribes before Muhammad, letters of Muslim soldiers vs Persians, 47. Letters of Muslim soldiers on Persian conquest: al-Tabari, Tarikh 1.2269–77, 2411–24; 2442–4; 2457–63. These sources describe the Arab invaders of Persia just after the Palestinian conquest. Sophronius: Peters, Jerusalem 175. Relations with the Arabian Jewish tribes, first qibla etc., Israiliyat: Isaac Hassan, ‘Muslim Literature in Praise of Jerusalem’, in Cathedra 1.170–2. Importance of advice of Jewish converts: Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History (henceforth Ibn Khaldun) 260.

2 Abu Bakr to Othman. The first successors to Prophet, sources: Donner, Muhammad 91–5; Prophet and Apocalypse 78–82 and 97; knowledge of Syria 96; jihad 83–6; ecumenical openness to Jews and Christians – quotations from Donner 87–9; caliph title used only (possibly) by Abu Bakr but more usually Commander of the Believers and succession 97–106; the nature of Islamic expansion, churches not destroyed 106–19; early version of shahada (without ‘Muhammad is his prophet/apostle’) 112; Bishop Sebeos and Jewish governor 114; ecumenical 114–15; on sharing churches 114–5; on Cathisma Church with mihrab and in Jerusalem itself 115; Abu Bakr conquests 118–33.

Apocalypse/The Hour: Koran 33.63, 47.18. Hour nigh: Koran 54.1. Early armies at Yarmuk and al-Qadisiyah, only 30,000 men, power of religious propaganda and motivation: Ibn Khaldun 126. Development of title khalifa: Ibn Khaldun 180. Omar takes title Commander of the Faithful: Kennedy, Conquests 54–6 and 72–5. Barnaby Rogerson, The Heirs of the Prophet Muhammad and the Roots of the Sunni–Shia Schism (henceforth Rogerson) 83, 128–9, 169.

Omar takes Palestine, Byzantine empire, weaknesses, plague, poverty: Kennedy, Conquests, 142–98; settlement of Palestine and Iraq 95–7; Amr al-As 46–51 and 70–3; Khalid bin Walid 70–3. Yaqubi, History 2.160–70, and al-Baladhuri, Conquest of the Countries, quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 176–7. Defeat of Byzantines: Runciman 1.15 Khalid in command at Damascus and Yarmuk: Kennedy, Conquests 75–89. Early administration: Rogerson 220.

3 Omar enters Jerusalem: Koran 17.1, change of qibla: Koran 2.142–4. Concept of Day of Judgement: Koran 3.185 33.63, 47.18. 54.1.

Covenant – Tabari, Annals 1.2405, in Peters, Jerusalem 18. Muthir al-Ghiram in Guy Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems 139–44. Eutychius quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 189–90.

Grabar, Shape of the Holy 45–50. Omar looks, character, stories: Ibn Khaldun 162. Kennedy, Conquests 125–30. Rogerson 171–82.

Donner, Muhammad: Omar conquest of Jerusalem, 125; Jews 114–15; Apocalypse 78–82 and 97; militancy 83–6; openness to Monotheists – quotations from Donner 87–9. Shlomo D. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem in the Arab Period 638–1099, in Cathedra 2: 168–75.

Omar takes surrender: Kennedy, Conquests 91–5. Abdul Azis Duri, ‘Jerusalem in the Early Islamic Period’, in Asali, 105; early hadith and fadail: in Asali, 114–16. Jerusalem further place of prayer: Koran 17.1. On importance of Holy Land, Jerusalem and Aqsa: Mustafa Abu Sway, ‘The Holy Land, Jerusalem and the Aqsa Mosque in Islamic Sources’, in Sacred Esplanade 335–43. Wickham 279–89.

Jewish hopes, move to Jerusalem: J. Mann, The Jews in Egypt and Palestine under the Fatimid Caliphs (henceforth Mann) 1.44–7. Jewish traditions – Israiliyat and Kaab quotations: Hassan, ‘Muslim Literature in Praise of Jerusalem,’ in Cathedra 1.170–2. Meir Kister, ‘A Comment on the Antiquity of Traditions Praising Jerusalem’, in Cathedra 1.185–6.

The names of the city: Angelika Neuwirth, ‘Jerusalem in Islam: The Three Honorific Names of the City’, in OJ 77–93. Seventeen Muslim names/seventy Jewish in Midrash/multiplicity is greatness, quoted in Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 187. Grabar, Shape of the Holy 112. Omar on Temple Mount: Isaac ben Joseph quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 191–2; on Jews cleansing Temple Mount and banning: Salman ben Yeruham quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 191–4. Filth on Temple Mount deliberately placed by Helena – Mujir al-Din, Histoire de Jérusalem et d’Hébron (henceforth Mujir) 56–7, and on Jews cleansing Temple Mount. Earliest mosques: Kennedy, Conquests 121 and 134.

First cemetery and early burials of Companions of Prophet: Kamal Asali, ‘Cemeteries of Old Jerusalem’, in OJ 279–84. Sophronius, abomination: in Peters, Jerusalem 190. First sight of Jerusalem from hill: Sari Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country 29. Hussein bin Talal, King Hussein of Jordan, My War with Israel 122. Arculf in Thomas Wright, Early Travels in Palestine 1–5. Jews in Omar’s armies – see Professor Rood in JQ 32, Autumn 2007. Jewish aspirations: Sebeos quoted in Goldhill, City of Longing 76. Mann 1.44–7. Shared church and mosques: Ross Burns, Damascus: A History 100–5. Donner, Muhammad: see earlier references.

Early names of Jerusalem: see Sacred Esplanade 13. Palestine/Syria holy land: Koran 5.21. Jewish worship on Temple Mount: Miriam Frenkel, ‘Temple Mount in Jewish Thought’, in Sacred Esplanade 346–8.

The Arabs and armies – elite, tactics, armies, motivation, poverty including camel hair mixed with blood: Ibn Khaldun 162–3; 126. Kennedy, Conquests 40–2, 57–65; style of soldiers and female booty 111–13. Al-Tabari, Tarikh 1.2269–77, 2411–24, 2442–4, 2457–63. These sources describe the Arab invaders of Persia just after the Palestinian conquest. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 105–9.

4 Muawiya: this portrait is based on R. Stephen Humphreys, Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan: From Arabia to Empire 1–10 and 119–34; family 38–42; rise 43–53. Donner, Muhammad: Muawiya admired by Jews and Christians 141–3; Apocalypse 143–4; first civil war 145–70; reign of Muawiya 171–7; openness 87–9. Jews plan new Temple: Sebeos quoted in Guy Stroumsa, ‘Christian Memories and Visions of Jerusalem in Jewish and Islamic Context’, in Sacred Esplanade 321–33 especially 329–30. Building on Temple Mount, Persian or early Islamic: Tsafrir, ‘70–638 CE: The Templeless Mountain’, Sacred Esplanade 99. Jewish worship on Temple Mount ended by Caliph Omar ibn Abd al-Malik 717–20: Frenkel, ‘Temple Mount in Jewish Thought’, Sacred Esplanade 346–8 Ibn Khaldun: on bayah 166–7; change from theocratic to royal authority 160–8; Christian administration 192; Muawiya – develops the mihrab after attempted assassination 222; introduces sealing of letters 219; introduces throne due to fatness 216. Caesar of the Arabs: Rogerson 326. Mosque: Arculf, St Adamnan, Pilgrimage of Arculfus in the Holy Land 1.1–23.

Lover of Israel (Muawiya) hews Temple Mount, built mosque – Simon ben Yahati quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 199–200; possibility of Muawiya making Jerusalem the capital of Arab empire/adapting Herodian platform from square to rectangular and lowering Antonia Fortress 201. Jewish Arabian food: S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society 1.72. Apocalyptic Midrash and al-Mutahar ibn Tahir attribute building of prayer place on Temple Mount to Muawiya: Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 76. Grabar, Shape of the Holy 50.

Administration by Christians: Mansur ibn Sargun: Burns, Damascus 100–15. Administering Palestine: Rogerson 189–92, including quotation ‘I apply not my sword…’ Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 174.

Othman: Rogerson 233–87. Muawiya’s palaces: Humphreys, Muawiya 10–12; politics of lineage 26–37.

Muawiya on Judgement Day/on Syria/sanctifying land/land of ingathering and Judgement: Hassan, ‘Muslim Literature in Praise of Jerusalem’, in Cathedra 1.170. On Judgement Day: Neuwirth, ‘Jerusalem in Islam: The Three Honorific Names of the City’, OJ 77–93. War against Byzantines: Herrin 91–2. Dome of the Chain: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 130. Bayah allegiance – Tabari quoted in Grabar, Shape of the Holy 111–2. Walks through Christian sites: Humphreys, Muawiya 128–9. Umayyads and Jerusalem: Asali, Jerusalem 108–10. Patron and sheikh: Chase F. Robinson, Abd al-Malik 65. Yazid and succession: Humphreys, Muawiya 96–102. Yazid: Ibn Khaldun 164.

5 Abd al-Malik and Dome. This portrait of the caliph and imagery and significance of the Dome is based on Andreas Kaplony, ‘The Mosque of Jerusalem’, in Sacred Esplanade 101–31; Grabar, Shape of the Holy; and Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock; Donner, Muhammad; and Chase F. Robinson, Abd al-Malik. Islamic traditions: al-Tabari, Tarikh 1.2405, and Muthir al-Ghiram quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 187–9.

Donner, Muhammad: civil war 177–89; community of believers into organized Islam 194–9; Last Judgement and Dome of Rock 199–203; Believers into Islam and caliphate, emphasis on caliph/Koran/double shahada/hadith/God’s deputy 203–12; development of Islamic rituals 214; development of Islamic origins, history 216–18. Political mission and religious aims: Wickham 289–95. Abd al-Malik looks: Robinson, Abd al-Malik 52–61; on concubines 20; on flattery 85; rise 25–43; Umayyad residences 47–8. On royal authority: Ibn Khaldun 198–9. Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems 114–20 and 144–51.

Description and aesthetics of the Dome: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 52–116. On services based on Jewish Temple, quote on Temple rebuilt, Koran as Torah: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 108–112, including Umayyad ritual from al-Wasiti, Fadail Bayt al-Muqaddas 112. Building the Dome. Robinson, Abd al-Malik 4–9 and 98–100; character 76–94; milestones around Ilya 113–12. On aim to overshadow Church of Sepulchre see al-Muqaddasi, A Description of Syria Including Palestine (henceforth Muqaddasi) 22–3.

Caliph Omar ibn Abd al-Malik 717–20: Frenkel, Sacred Esplanade 346–8. Jews dream of rebuilding Temple and granted acccess – Salman ben Yeruham quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 193, and Isaac ben Joseph at 191–2. Jewish attendants of Dome: Mujir 55–7. Jews and Temple: Sebeos quoted in Stroumsa, Sacred Esplanade 321–33 especially 329–30. Traces of building, seventh century, Persian or early Islamic: Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 99. Mosque: Arculf, St Adamnan, Pilgrimage of Arculfus in the Holy Land 1.1–23.

Eating a banana; Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 190 quoting Ibn Asakir’s fadail. Caliph Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik in Jerusalem/bayah/plan to make it imperial capital/ Jewish attendants in Dome: Mujir 56–8. The Dome: Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 109–11. Peters, Jerusalem 197. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 174. Jewish attendants, other buildings: Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 175–80. Byzantine influences on Dome: Herrin 90. Shanks 9–31.

On importance of Holy Land, Jerusalem and Aqsa: Mustafa Abu Sway, Sacred Esplanade 335–43.

6 Umayyad Jerusalem. Al-Aqsa – Grabar, Shape of the Holy 117–22; Aphrodito papyri 12; Umayyad caliphs in Jerusalem, Sulayman and Umar 111; palaces to south of Temple Mount 107–10; the Haram Double and Triple Gates/Gate of Prophet and possibly Golden Gate 122–8 and 152–8; four major domes 158; sceptical that the new Umayyad public buildings south of Temple Mount are necessarily palaces 128–30; Haram 122–8; Dome of the Chain 130–2; city life, Christians and Jews in city 132–5. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 178. Kroyanker 32. Umayyad residences Robinson, Abd al-Malik 47–8. Herrin 90. Shanks 9–31. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine 69–74 and 104. Mann, 1.44–5. Day of Judgement: Koran 3.185. Byzantine wooden beams in Rockefeller Museum. On apocalyptic geogyaphy and site of Divine–human communication: Neuwirth, OJ 77–93. This account of Islamic End of Days is substantially based on Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 108–31, especially 124.

Decline of Umayyads and rise of Abbasids: Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 178–81. Dynasties have a natural span like individuals: Ibn Khaldun 136. On associations of Apocalypse and Divine Judgement with Jewish traditions of creation and Apocalypse: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 133. Jewish worship on Temple Mount 717–20: Frenkel, Sacred Esplanade 346–8.

On Jewish living areas, on Umayyad palaces: Bahat, Atlas 82–6. Jews banned from Haram and praying at walls, gates: Isaac ben Joseph quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 191, and Solomon ben Yeruham at 193. Mujir 56–7. On Christian pilgrims and festivals and Sepulchre: Arculf, St Adamnan, Pilgrimage of Arculfus in the Holy Land 1.1–23. Williband and Arculf, quoted in Peters 202–12. Umayyad palaces: Archeological Park 26–7, including old stones and lavatory. Walid I and the desert qasrs, Umayyad singing stars: The Umayyads: The Rise of Islamic Art 110–25. Walid II/Hisham – Palace of Khirbet al-Mafjar near Jericho – paintings at Rockefeller Museum. Decline of Umayyads and rise of Abbasids: Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 180–1. Abassid denunciation of Umayyads: Humphreys quoting Tabari. Abbasid revolution: Wickham 295–7.

7 Al-Mansur. Take surname titles to separate themselves: Ibn Khaldun 181; Abbasid black banners and change to green 215. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 180–1. Kennedy, Conquests 11–50, including the dead Alids 16; Baghdad 133; court life 139; House of Wisdom/translation of Greek texts 252–60. House of Wisdom, 6,000 books: Wickham 324–31. Jonathan Lyons, House of Wisdom 62–70 and 89–90. Al-Mansur and al-Mahdi visits to Jerusalem: Peters, Jerusalem 215–17. Abbasid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Al-Mansur and meanness of restorations: Mujir 59. Mahdi visit: Muqaddasi 41–2. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 112–13. Decline in Jerusalem/quote of Thaur ibn Yazid: Neuwirth, OJ 77–93.

8 Haroun al-Rashid and Charlemagne. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 181–2. Kennedy, The Court of the Caliphs: The Rise and Fall of Islam’s Greatest Dynasty 51–84. Peters, Jerusalem 217–23, including Benedict Chronicle and Memorandum on the Houses of God and Monasteries in the Holy City, listing staff and taxes; and Bernard, Itinerary. Hywel Williams, Emperor of the West: Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire, 230–3. William of Tyre, Deeds Done Beyond the Sea (henceforth William of Tyre) 1.64–5. Gift to Charlemagne: Lyons, House of Wisdom 45. On legend see: Anon., Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne à Jérusalem et à Constantinople. Charlemagne as David: Wickham 381.

9 Maamun. Climax of Arab culture – marriage of al-Maamun and Buran: Ibn Khaldun 139. Maamun: Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 252–260; House of Wisdom, 6,000 books: Wickham 324–31; Lyons, House of Wisdom 62–70 and 89–90. Inscription of Maamun on al-Aqsa: Nasir-i-Khusrau, Diary of a Journey through Syria and Palestine. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 182. Abbasid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Abbasid culture: Kennedy, Conquests 84–129; Tahirids and Abd Allah ibn Tahir liberates Jerusalem 91 and 203; sumptuous marriage 168; singing girls 173; Maamun in Syria and Egypt 208–9 and death 211–12. Maamun and House of Wisdom, 6,000 books: Wickham 324–31. Translation of Greek texts: Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 252–60.

10 Destruction of dynasty prestige and rise of Persian/Turk ghulam: Ibn Khaldun 124; title of sultan, Abbasids lose power 155 and 193; decay of Abbasids 165–6. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 182–3. Al-Mutasim, peasant revolts 840s, Turkish ghulam: Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 213–17; dhimmi forced to wear yellow clothing by Caliph al-Mutawwakil in 850 240. Peasant revolt 841: Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 113; Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 182. Khazar debate: see K. A. Brook, The Jews of Khazaria; A. Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe; S. Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People; on the latest findings on Jewish genetics: ‘Studies Show Jews’ Genetic Similiarity’, New York Times 9 June 2010.

11 Ibn Tulun and Tulunids: Thierry Bianquis, ‘Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tulun to Kafur 868–969’, in Carl F. Petry (ed.), Cambridge History of Egypt, vol 1: Islamic Egypt 640–1517 (henceforth CHE 1) 86–108; the Carmatian rebellion 106–8; special role of Jerusalem 103. Karaites: Norman Stillman, ‘The Non-Muslim Communities: The Jewish Community’, in CHE 1.200. Rise of Karaites: Mann 1.60–5.

The Turkish amir Amjur and son Ali ruled Palestine for the Abbasids from 869 and were praised by Patriarch Theodosius for tolerance: Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 183. Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 84–111. Khazars: Brook, The Jews of Khazaria 96–8; Mann, 1.64. Gideon Avni: conversations with author, Khazar synagogue in Jewish Quarter quoted in Geniza. Khazars respect Jerusalem Academy: Mann 1.64–5.

12 Ikhshids and Kafur: Bianquis, CHE 1.109–19. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 183–4. Byzantine advance on Jerusalem: John Tzimiskes text in Peters, Jerusalem 243.

13 Ibn Killis: Bianquis, CHE 1.117. Stillman, CHE 1.206. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 184.

14 Fatimids/Jawhar/Killis as vizier, Fatimids: Paul E. Walker, ‘The Ismaili Dawa and the Fatimid Caliphate’, in CHE 1.120–48. Paula A. Sanders, ‘The Fatimid State’, in CHE 1.151–4. Bianquis, CHE 1.117. Messianic Fatimids: Wickham 336–8. Jewish potentates: Stillman, CHE 1.206–7. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 184. On Killis, Jewish Governor of Palestine-Syria, Christian viziers: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.33–4.

15 Paltiel/Jews and Christians in Jerusalem under the Fatimids. On Paltiel and places of prayer in Jerusalem: Ahima’as, The Chronicle of Ahima’as 64–6, 95–7. Moses Maimonides, Code of Maimonides Book 8 Temple Service 12, 17 and 28–30. On Paltiel and family: Mann, 1.252. Fatimids pay Jewish subsidy: Peters, Jerusalem 276 – proved by al-Hakim’s cancellation. Grabar, Shape of the Holy: Jews in Jerusalem/Paltiel’s funeral attacked in 1011: 144–50, 162–8. Mourners of Zion/call for aliyah by Daniel al Kumisi: Peters, Jerusalem 227–9; Karaites 229–32. Moshe Gil, ‘Aliyah and Pilgrimage in Early Arab Period’, in Cathedra 3.162–73. Jewish Academy: Peters, Jerusalem 232–3; poverty and begging letters 233–4; place of worship – Mount of Olives – Geniza says above Absalom’s monuments 603. Pilgrimage – aura of distinction and Jewish/Christian emulation of Muslims: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.55 Stillman, CHE 1.201–9. Christian pilgrimages from Egypt: Ibn al-Qalanisi, Continuation of the Chronicle of Damascus (henceforth Qalanisi) 65–7. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 118–19.

16 Al-Muqaddasi and Islamic Jerusalem under the Fatimids: quotations are from Muqaddasi – on beauty of Dome, Haram and al-Aqsa 41–68; on mystics and cheeses 67–9; Jews and Christians 75–7; on Day of Judgement, filthy baths, water 34–7. Day of Judgement and arrival of Mahdi: Ibn Khaldun 257–8. Fatimid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 119. A banana at the Dome: Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 190 quotes Ibn Asakir.

17 Al-Hakim: Christian mother – William of Tyre 1.65–7. Sanders, CHE 1.152. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 185. Islamic seeking of knowledge: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.51. Runciman 1.35–6. Mann 1.33–41. On al-Khidr shrine see William Dalrymple, From Holy Mountain 339–44. Jaber el-Atrache, ‘Divinity of al-Hakim’, Lebanon through Writers’ Eyes (eds.) T. J. Gorton and A. F. Gorton, 170–1.

18 Holy Fire: Qalanisi 65–7. Martin Gilbert, Rebirth of a City 160. Shudder with horror – Mujir 67–8. Holy Fire, descriptions in Peters, Jerusalem 262, including first mention AD 870 of ritual in Bernard Itinerary 263. Christian pilgrims, including Fulk: David C. Douglas, William the Conqueror 35–7. Runciman 1.43–9.

19 Hakim, Holy Sepulchre and Death: Gilbert Rebirth of a City 160. Holy Fire: Mujir 67–8. Holy Fire, descriptions in Peters, Jerusalem 262, including first mention AD 870 of ritual in Bernard Itinerary 263. Christian pilgrims: Runciman 1.43–9. Fatimid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Qalanisi 65–7. Yahya ibn Said quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 260; Jewish persecutions, loss of subsidy 276. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 132. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 185–6. Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.1–5, 18, 34, 71. On Sweyn, Duke Robert of Normandy: Douglas, William Conqueror 35–7: Tuchman 3–4. ‘Divinity of Hakim’, Lebanon 170–1.

20 Al-Zahir and al-Mustansir, rebuilding of Holy Sepulchre, walls, Christian Quarter: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Al-Zahir: William of Tyre 1.67–71; walls, Amalfitian hospice, Quarter 1.80–1; area of Muristan rebuilt 2.240–5. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 188. Rebuilding: Peters, Jerusalem 267; walls of Jerusalem and protection of Christian Patriarchs’ Quarter – Yahya quoted in Peters. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 132–3.

Christian pilgrimage, al-Mustansir, Jewish viziers: Stillman, CHE 1.206–7. Norman/Royal/aristocratic pilgrims: Douglas, William Conqueror 35–7. German pilgrimage led by Arnold Bishop of Bamberg and bloodbath outside Jerusalem 1064: Peters, Jerusalem 253. Bloodbath: see Florence of Worcester, Chronicle. Age of pilgrims: Runciman 143–9. Christopher Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (henceforth Tyerman) 43. Dangers and persecution of Christian pilgrims: William of Tyre 1.71 and 81. Tortures and burst bowels, Urban II quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 251; Jews, al-Zahir security 277. Jewish pilgrimage and travel: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.55–61. Muslim pilgrimage, Nasir-i-Khusrau: all quotations are from Nasir-i-Khusrau, Diary of a Journey through Syria and Palestine; on Nasir, Grabar, Shape of the Holy 137–8, 145–53. Holiness of Jerusalem: Hasson, Cathedra 1.177–83. Sanctity: Ibn Khaldun 269. Consecration of haj from Jerusalem: Duri in Asali, 118. Tustari grand viziers: Mann 1.74–6. Solomon ben Yehuda, gaon of Jerusalem 1025–51 – things ‘so bad like of which didn’t occur since the Jews returned’/on fall of Tustari; Jerusalem threatened by Arab rebels 1024–9; tolerance of al-Zahir of Jews and Karaites: Mann 1.134–6. Gaon and Nasi Daniel ben Azarya in Jerusalem eleven years 1051–62 succeeded as gaon by Elijah Hakkohen – but fled Jerusalem to Tyre: Mann 1.178–80; Arab revolt of Hassan of Banu Jarrah 1.158–71. Treaty with Byzantines: Runciman 1.35–7.

21 Seljuks: Ibn Khaldun 252. Atsiz takes Jerusalem, revolt and storming; Tutush and Ortuqids: Solomon ben Joseph Ha-Kohen, ‘The Turkoman Defeat at Cairo’, American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures January 1906. Hiyari in Azali, Jerusalem 135–7. Goitein, ‘Jerusalem’ 186. Joshua Prawer, Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 7–9. Turkish military tactics: Norman Housley, Fighting for the Cross: Crusading to the Holy Land 111–14. Ortuq and arrow: Runciman 1.76; Seljuks 1.59. Muslim revival including visit of al-Ghazali and Ibn al-Arabi: Mustafa A. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 130–7. Dangers and persecution of Christian pilgrims: William of Tyre 1.71. Tortures, Urban II: Peters, Jerusalem 251; Jews flee to Haifa then Tyre 277. Ruins of Jerusalem sites: Halevi, Selected Poems of Judah Halevi, ed. H. Brody 3–7. Maimonides, Code 28–30. Peters, Jerusalem 276–9. Muslims: Ghazali quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 279–80 and 409; Mujir 66 and 140; Nusseibeh, Country 126–7. Popular history of the Seljuks: John Freely, Storm on Horseback: Seljuk Warriors of Turkey 45–64.

PART FIVE: CRUSADE

1 Crusade, Godfrey, taking of Jerusalem. This account of the Crusades is based on the essential classics Steven Runciman, The Crusades; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A Short History; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade; Joshua Prawer, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem; Denys Pringle, The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus (henceforth Pringle); the works of Benjamin Z. Kedar; and the excellent new books Christopher Tyerman, God’s War; Jonathan Phillips, Holy Warriors; and Thomas Asbridge, The Crusades; along with primary Christian sources William of Tyre, Fulcher of Chartres, Gesta Francorum and Raymond d’Aguilers, and Muslim sources Ibn al-Athir, and later Ibn Qalanisi and Usama bin Munqidh; on warfare, Norman Housley, Fighting for the Cross; on life in Jerusalem, Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades.

Raymond and Gesta are quoted in August C. Krey, The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants 242–62; al-Athir and al-Qalanisi are quoted, unless otherwise sourced, in Francesco Gabrieli, Arab Historians of the Crusades (henceforth Gabrieli). Storming: al-Athir, Gabrieli 10–11. Tyerman 109–12. 3,000 dead, smaller massacre: Benjamin Z. Kedar, ‘The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in Western Historiography of the Crusades’, in Crusades 3 (2004) 15–75. Phillips, Warriors 24; Asbridge, Crusades 90–104. 3,000 killed on Haram and women killed in Dome of Chains: Ibn al-Arabi quoted in Benjamin Z. Kedar and Denys Pringle, ‘1099–1187: The Lord’s Temple (Templum Domini) and Solomon’s Palace (Palatium Salomonis)’, in Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 15–33. On Jerusalem image and Holy War: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 26 and 35–8; massacre 217–19. The Princes of the Crusade: Tyerman 116–25; Crusader psychopaths 87. Fragmentation of Arabs and Islamic city states – see William of Tyre and al-Athir quoted in Tyerman 343 and Grabar, Shape of the Holy 18. Runciman 1.280–5. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 137–40.

On Crusader buildings of Jerusalem, thanks to Professor Dan Bahat who gave the author a Crusader tour. On Arnulf morals: B. Z. Kedar, ‘Heraclius’, in B. Z. Kedar, H. E. Mayer and R. C. Smail (eds), Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem 182. B. Z. Kedar, ‘A Commentary on the Book of Isaiah Ransomed from the Crusaders’, in Cathedra 2.320. OJ 281. Storming and ransoming of Jews: Prawer, Jews in the Latin Kingdom 19–40. On Jews: Mann 198–201. William of Tyre 1.379–413. The campaign: Tyerman 124–153; storming 155–64; few knights 178. Massacre: al-Athir in Gabrieli 10–11. Storming: Gesta Francorum 86–91. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem 1.xxiv and xxxiii and 2.vi. up to bridle reins in blood – quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 285. City population statistics: Tyerman 2–3. Turkish tactics: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 111–14; Frankish tactics 118–22.

2 Baldwin I. This portrait is based on William of Tyre 1.416–17; Fulcher, History; Tyerman 200–7; Runciman 1.314–15 and 2.104, including Baldwin’s wives and Adelaide’s arrival in Jerusalem and Sigurd visit 92–3. ‘Saga of Sigurd’ quoted in Wright, Early Travellers 50–62.

Building – use of Citadel, spolia from al-Aqsa for Sepulchre: Boas, Jerusalem 73–80. The Crusader Haram: Kedar and Pringle, ‘1099–1187: The Lord’s Temple (Templum Domini) and Solomon’s Palace (Palatium Salomonis)’, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Holy Sepulchre: Charles Couasnon, The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem 19–20. Kroyanker 40–3. N. Kenaan, ‘Sculptured Lintels of the Crusader Church of the Holy Sepulchre’, in Cathedra 2.325. Runciman 3.370–2. The traditions and calendar, pilgrims: Tyerman 341. Holy Fire – Daniel the Abbott quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 263–5; methesep and administration of city 301. Calendar and rituals: Boas, Jerusalem 30–2; chief political posts and courts 21–5; coronation 32–5; Golden Gate, on possible Crusader domes 63–4, citing Pringle; Crusader graves on Temple Mount 182; John of Wurzburg says ‘illustrious’ people buried near Golden Gate, Crusader style and workshop on Temple Mount 191–8. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 97–102 on coronations; True Cross 32–3; crown 94–125. On True Cross: Imad quoted in Grabar, Shape of the Holy 136. James Fleming, Biblical Archaeology Review, January–February 1969, 30. Shanks 84–5. Red tent of king: Runciman 2.458–9; Crusader style 3.368–83. Style and reuse of Herodian stones, citadel and towers: Kroyanker 4, 37–43.

3 Baldwin II: Tyerman 206–8. Gift for kingship: al-Qalanisi, Gabrieli 40. Jerusalem: Bahat, Atlas 90–101. Royal palaces, palace close to Sepulchre: Boas, Jerusalem 77–80. Palace: Arnald von Harf quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 355.

On the Orders, this is based on Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Knights of St John in Jerusalem and Cyprus 1050–1310; Piers Paul Read, The Templars; Michael Haag, The Templars: History and Myth; Boas, Jerusalem; and Prawer, Latin Kingdom. Templar Temple Mount: Theodorich, Description of the Holy Places 30–2. Templar traditions, rules: Anonymous Pilgrim quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 323. Military organization, knights, Turcopoles: Tyerman 220, 228 and orders 169. Orders: Boas, Jerusalem 26–30; Templar Temple Mount, baths 142–60; stables quoting John of Wurzburg and Theodorich (10,000 horses) 163; Hospitallers 156–9. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 252–79. Orders: Runciman 2.312–14. Crusaders on Temple Mount: Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock 163. The Crusader Haram: Kedar and Pringle, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. On Temple Mount: Church on Antonia site, Michael Hamilton Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Survey 204–5; Templar Hall on south-west corner of Temple Mount 260–1; Templar Augustinian Canons north of Dome. Single gate with access to Solomon’s Stables: Archaeological Park 31. On Armenian settlement and rebuilding of St James’s Cathedral after 1141: Dorfmann-Lazarev, ‘Historical Itinerary of the Armenian People in Light of its Biblical Memory’.

4 Fulk and Melisende, based on William of Tyre 2.50–93 and 135; character of Melisende 2.283. Tyerman 207–9. Runciman 2.178, 233, 190. Coronation of Jerusalem kings: Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Old French Continuation of William of Tyre and Sources in Translation (henceforth Continuation) 15. Calendar and rituals: Boas, Jerusalem 30–2; chief political posts 21–5; coronation 32–5. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 97–102 on coronations.

Zangi and Edessa: al-Athir, Gabrieli 41–3 and 50–1; character and death 53–5; Qalinisi 44–50; Usamah on life in Zangi army, Zangi king of amirs 38 and 169–71. Zangi: Phillips, Warriors 75–6; Ibn Jubayr quoted on wedding 47; coronation 56–8; penalties for adultery 60–1; psalter as Fulk’s gift 69–71; Holy Sepulchre 103. Zangi, character: Asbridge, Crusades 225–7.

5 Usamah bin Munqidh, The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades (henceforth Usamah – scholar, cavalier, Muslim 26; Zangi king of amirs 38; brutality of amirs 169–71; hunting with Zangi 202–3; loss of library 44; importance of Islam and jihad, father 63–4 and 202; Eastern doctors 66; Franks’ medicine 145–6; meetings with Fulk 76–7; goshawk 205–6; pilgrimage to Jerusalem 250; buying hostages 93; meeting Baldwin II 94; father cuts arm off servant 129; Frankish converts to Islam 142–3; nature of Franks’ invitation to Europe 144; at Temple 147–8; women and pubic shaving 148–50; law 151–2; Franks acclimatized to East 153; small things and death 156; victory and God 160.

Description of markets and streets: condition of the city of Jerusalem 1187 quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 298–303. The Crusader Haram: Kedar and Pringle, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Commerce: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 408–9. On Syrian doctors, see William of Tyre on death of Baldwin III and Amaury. Population and adoption of Eastern customs: Fulcher, History 2.vi, 6–9 and 3.xxxvii. Different peoples in Jerusalem: anonymous pilgrim in Peters 307–8. Ali al-Harawi, on pictures in Dome: Peters, Jerusalem 313–18. Templars ride out to practise daily: Benjamin of Tudela, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela 20–3; see also Wright, Early Travellers. Jerusalem in 1165, ‘people of all tongues’, Jews pray at Golden Gate: Benjamin of Tudela quoted in Wright 83–6. Jerusalem 1103: Saewulf quoted in Wright, Early Travellers 31–9. On festivals, City of Jerusalem guide and al-Harawi: Peters Jerusalem, 302–18.

On Armenian settlement and rebuilding of St James’s Cathedral after 1141: Dorfmann-Lazarev, ‘Historical Itinerary of the Armenian People in Light of its Biblical Memory’. On Melisende building, settlement, Armenians under Crusades: Kevork Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 18–23 and 25–8. On Armenian settlement of refugees – thanks to George Hintlian. Armenian Quarter develops: Boas, Jerusalem 39. Crusader plans for Bab al-Silsila St Giles Church: author’s visit to Temple Tunnels, guided by Dan Bahat. Crusader churches on Bab al-Silsila: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 443 and on site of Antonia 204–5. On Melisende Fulk regime: Tyerman 206–11. Runciman 2.233. On building: Grabar, Dome of Rock grille 167. On churches: see Pringle. Building – use of Citadel, spolia from al-Aqsa for Sepulchre: Boas, Jerusalem 73–80. Kedar and Pringle, Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Holy Sepulchre: Couasnon, Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem 19–20. Kroyanker 40–3. Kenaan, ‘Sculptured Lintels of the Crusader Church of the Holy Sepulchre’, in Cathedra 2.325.

Burial rites and shrines as theatre: Jonathan Riley-Smith, ‘The Death and Burial of Latin Christian Pilgrims to Jerusalem and Acre, 1099–1291’, Crusades 7 (2008): burial sites, holy places as stage-sets, including quote from Riley-Smith, on burial of Beckett’s murderers. Death in Jerusalem/Mamilla: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 184. Boas, Jerusalem 181–7, including Aceldama and burial on Temple Mount of Frederick, Advocate of Regensburg, died 1148; Conrad Schick found bones near Golden Gate. Archery practice, Boas, Jerusalem 163.

Psalter, arts: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 416–68. Runciman 3.383. See also J. Folda, Crusader Art: The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land, 1099–1291. Population and dress of military orders and Jerusalemites: Boas, 26–30 and 35–40. Tavern with chains: conversations with Dan Bahat. Life in Jerusalem, baths, Venetian and Genoese streets, poulains: Runciman 2.291–3.

Life and luxury, turbans, furs, burnous, baths, pork, Ibelin Beirut palace: Tyerman 235–40. Maps and vision of Jerusalem: fourteen maps of Frankish Jerusalem, eleven of them round, usually with the cartographic convention of the cross within a circle on the streets: Boas, Jerusalem 39 in royal palace on Cambrai map. Royal palace: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 110–11.

Sex and women on Crusade: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 174–7. Whores in Outremer – Imad al-Din quoted in Gabrieli 204–5. Muslims: Ali al-Harawi quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 381. Jews – visit of Judah Halevy: Brenner 88–90. Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 144. Selected Poems of Judah Halevi, trans. Nina Salaman; also see Peters, Jerusalem: 278.

Runciman 3.370–2. The traditions and calendar, pilgrims: Tyerman 341. Holy Fire – Daniel the Abbott quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 263–5, methesep and administration of city 301. Calendar and rituals: Boas, 30–2; 21–5; 32–5. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 97–102; True Cross 32–3; crown: 94–125. On True Cross: Imad quoted in Grabar, Shape of the Holy 136.

Golden Gate: Boas, 63–4; Crusader graves 182; Temple Mount 191–8. J. Fleming, Biblical Archaeology Review January–February 1969, 30. Shanks 84–5. Red tent of king: Runciman 2.458–9; Crusader style 3.368–83. Style and reuse of Herodian stones: Kroyanker 4, 37–43. Dome of Rock: Ali al-Harawi quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 318.

Zangi, character, deathbed witness, Asbridge, Crusades 225–7. Hamilton A. R. Gibb, ‘Zengi and the Fall of Edessa’, in M. W. Baldwin (ed.), The First Hundred Years, vol. 1 of K. M. Setton (ed. in chief), A History of the Crusades 449–63.

6 Second Crusade: Qalinisi quoted in Gabrieli 56–60; al-Athir 59–62. William of Tyre: on Eleanor and Raymond 2.180–1; on debacle of Damascus 2.182–96. Zangi’s character, death: Asbridge, Crusades 225–7. Gibb, ‘Zengi and the Fall of Edessa’, in Baldwin, First Hundred Years 449–63.

The most recent account is Jonathan Phillips, The Second Crusade 207–27. On Louis and Eleanor: Ralph V. Turner, Eleanor of Aquitaine 70–98. Tyerman 329–37. Fourteen maps of Frankish Jerusalem, Boas, Jerusalem 39. Royal palace: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 110–11. On Church of Holy Sepulchre, this account and analysis is closely based on Riley-Smith, ‘Death and Burial of Latin Christian Pilgrims to Jerusalem and Acre, 1099–1291’, Crusades 7 (2008); Pringle; Folda, Crusader Art, Couasnon, Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem 19–20; Kroyanker 40–3; Kenaan, Cathedra 2.325; Boas, Jerusalem 73–80; Runciman 3.370–2.

7 Baldwin III: character, William of Tyre 2.137–9; the account of his reign is based on 2.139–292; death and grief 2.292–4. Tyerman 206–8. Runciman 2.3.334, 2.242, 2.361–3; Ortuqids attack 2.337; Ascalon 2.337–58. Nur al-Din and Sunni revival: Qalinisi 64–8. Tyerman 268–73. Asbridge, Crusades 229–33. Nur al-Din polo: Phillips, Warriors 110. Hamilton A. R. Gibb, ‘The Career of Nur-ad-Din’, in Baldwin, First Hundred Years 513–27. On Andronicus: Bernard Hamilton, The Leper King and his Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (henceforth Leper) 173–4.

8 Amaury and Agnes, sleaziness of Jerusalem politics: Leper 26–32. Tyerman 208–10. Amaury builds Royal Palace: Boas, Jerusalem 82. On Egyptian strategy/negotiations with Assassins: Leper 63–75. Five Egyptian invasions: Tyerman 347–58; Syrian doctors 212. Runciman 2.262–93; death of kings 2.398–400. Overmighty military orders – e.g. Hospitallers vs patriarch, William of Tyre 2.240–5; Templar disobedience to Amaury. Agnes married Reynard of Marash; engaged to Hugh of Ibelin; married Prince Amaury then Hugh of Ibelin then Reynard of Sidon, who divorced her; lovers allegedly included Amaury of Lusignan and Heraclius the Patiarch: Runciman 2.362–3, 407.

9 William of Tyre: life and link with Usamah’s library: Introduction, William of Tyre 1.4–37. Usamah’s books 44. Baldwin IV, leprosy: William of Tyre 2.397–8. Leper 26–32.

10 Moses Maimonides: this account is based on Joel L. Kraemer, Maimonides: The Life and World of One of Civilisation’s Greatest Minds; refusal to serve Crusader king probably between 1165 and 1171, 161; Jerusalem visit 134–41; Fatimid doctor 160–1; doctor of Qadi al-Fadil and then Saladin 188–92; al-Qadi al-Fadil 197–201; Saladin’s doctors 212 and 215; fame and court life – doctor of al-Afdal 446; Taki al-Din/sex life 446–8. Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 142. Did Maimonides pray in the Dome of the Rock?: Kedar and Pringle believe he did –Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Benjamin of Tudela on Jewish dyers, David’s Tomb and Alroy: see Wright, Early Travellers 83–6, 107–9. Michael Brenner, Short History of the Jews (henceforth Brenner), on Alroy 80; on Maimonides 90–92.

11 Books/Usamah, William of Tyre 1.4–37. Usamah, 44. Baldwin IV, leprosy: William of Tyre 2.397–8. Leper 26–32.

12 Baldwin IV. Death of Nur al-Din – al-Athir, in Gabrieli 68–70. William of Tyre, death of kings, 2.394–6; succession and symptoms 2.398–9. Along with William of Tyre, this is based on Leper 32–197; on leprosy see article by Dr Piers D. Mitchell in Leper 245–58. Heraclius and mistress, child: Continuation 43–5. Tyerman 216. Heraclius debauchery unfairly exaggerated – for a more positive view see B. Z. Kedar in Kedar, Mayer and Smail (eds), Outremer 177–204. W. L. Warren, King John: Heraclius’ tour and Prince John, 32–3. Burial of Baldwin V and sarcophagus: Boas, Jerusalem 180. Tyerman 210–13 and 358–65. Runciman 2.400–30. Reynard of Chatillon: Leper 104–5. Reynald raids Mecca caravan and takes Saladin’s sister: Continuation 29.

13 Guy and Sibylla: road to Hattin, crowning and spy in Sepulchre: Continuation 25–9; Reynauld, torture of Mecca caravan: Continuation 25–6. Ibn Shaddad, The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin (henceforth Shaddad) 37. For sympathetic analysis of Guy: R. C. Smail, ‘The Predicaments of Guy of Lusignan’, in Kedar, Mayer and Smail (eds), Outremer 159–76. Tyerman 356–65. Runciman 2.437–50. Coronation: Kedar, Outremer 190–9. M. C. Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson, Saladin: Politics of Holy War (henceforth Saladin) 246–8. Massacre of Templars and political unity: Continuation 32–5. Hattin/killing of Reynald: Continuation 37–9, 45–8. Cresson and invasion: Shaddad 60–3. For Raymond’s role see M. W. Baldwin, Raymond III of Tripoli and the Fall of Jerusalem.

14 Saladin and Hattin: Shaddad 37–8. Continuation, 36–9 and 45–8. Battle, Reynald: Shaddad 73–5. Al-Athir: Gabrieli 119–25; Imad al-Din (army, battlefield, killing of Reynald, True Cross, killing Templars): Gabrieli 125. B. Z. Kedar (ed.), The Horns of Hattin 190–207. N. Housley, ‘Saladin’s Triumph over the Crusader States: The Battle of Hattin, 1187’, History Today 37 (1987). Promise to kill Reynald: Saladin 246–8; the battle 252–65. Runciman 2.453–60. Tyerman 350–72. Saladin splits infantry from knights: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 124–6.

15 Saladin takes Jerusalem: Shaddad 77–8; Shaddad joins service of Saladin 80; visits to Jerusalem for festivals 89. Continuation 55–67. Al-Athir quoted in Gabrieli 139–46; Imad al-Din 146–63 (women). Saladin 271–7; campaign after Jerusalem 279–94. Runciman 2.461–8. Fall of the city: Michael Hamilton Burgoyne, ‘1187–1260: The Furthest Mosque (al-Masjid al-Aqsa) under Ayyubid Rule’, in Sacred Esplanade 151–75.

16 Saladin, character, career, family, court: this is based on the primary sources Ibn Shaddad and Imad al-Din; on Lyons and Jackson, Saladin; and R. Stephen Humphreys, From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus 1193–1260. Shaddad: early life 18; beliefs and character 18; modesty, old man, crises with Taki al-Din, justice 23–4; lack of interest in money 25; illness 27, 29; jihad 28–9; crucifixion of Islamic heretic 20; visits to Jerusalem 28; sadness over Taki 32; court life, asceticism 33; fill of worldly pleasures 224; mud on clothes 34; geniality like Prophet holding hands until released 35; Frankish baby 36; rise to power 41–53; favourite son 63; special advice to Zahir on ruling 235; crises and conflict with amirs and grandees 66; swap of Zahir and Safadin 70.

Youth in Damascus polo, Saladin 1–29; debauchery satire of Taki 118–20; challenges of Taki and sons 244–6; distribution of new conquests 279–94; war 364–74. Saladin’s style of ruling: Humphreys, Ayyubids 15–39. Saladin’s mistakes: al-Athir quoted in Gabrieli 180. As court physician to Saladin and Taki al-Din, sex life: Kraemer, Maimonides, doctor of Qadi al-Fadil and then Saladin 188–92; 197–201; Saladin’s 212 and 215; doctor of al-Afdal 446; Taki al-Din 446–8.

17 Saladin and Islamic Jerusalem. Ibn Shaddad in charge of Jerusalem, Salahiyya Shafii madrassa, appoints governors: Saladin 236–7. Imad al-Din: Gabrieli 164–75, including Taki al-Din and princes cleaning the Haram, opening up of Rock, robe for preacher, Citadel of David restored with mosques; convent for Sufis in patriarch house, Shafii madrassa in St Anne’s; Adil encamped in Church of Zion. Turkish military tactics: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 111–14; Saladin’s multinational army 228; Saladin’s image 229–32. Ayyubid architecture on the Haram: Burgoyne, ‘1187–1260: The Furthest Mosque (al-Masjid al-Aqsa) under Ayyubid Rule’, Sacred Esplanade 151–75. Saladin and Afdal’s buildings and changes: Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 169–72 and Donald P. Little, ‘Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks’, in Asali, Jerusalem 177–83. Saladin’s madrassa, khanqah, Muristan/ Afdal’s Mosque of Omar: Bahat, Atlas 104–7. Qubbat al-Miraj – Dome of Ascension, either Crusader baptistery or built with Crusader spolia; Bab al-Silsila built with Crusader spolia: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 47–8.

Armenian Jerusalem: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 1–5; Muazzam pays for Armenian building 43.

Jewish return, Harizi: Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 134 and 230. Saladin invitation and return: Yehuda al-Harizi quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 363–4. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 233–47.

On the Nusseibehs: see Mujir al-Din who saw Saladin’s signature on appointment to Sepulchre/Khanqah Salahiyya. Hazem Zaki Nusseibeh, The Jerusalemites: A Living Memory 395–9.

18 Richard and Third Crusade: unless otherwise stated, this portrait of Richard I is based on John Gillingham, Richard I. Crisis on second march to Jerusalem: Shaddad 20–122; sadness over Taki death 32; fury over amirs’ refusal to fight at Jaffa 34. Continuation 92–121. Runciman 3.47–74.

Acre: Shaddad 96–8; arrival of Richard 146–50; fall and killing of prisoners 162–5; infant child 147; killing of Frank prisoners 169; negotiations with Adil and Richard 173–5; Arsuf 174–80; inspection of Jerusalem 181; Adil and Richard letters 185; marriage 187–8, 193; best course is jihad 195; marriage to Richard’s niece 196; winter in Jerusalem 197; advance on Jerusalem/attack on Egyptian caravan 205–7; crisis at Jerusalem; love of city move mountains 210–12; prayers in Jerusalem 217; Jaffa red-haired Richard 223; Saladin no worldly pleasures 224; Jerusalem walls 226; Richard ill 227; Treaty of Jaffa visitors to Jerusalem, Saladin and Adil to Jerusalem 231–4; Saladin’s advice to son Zahir 235; Shaddad in charge of Jerusalem, Salahiyya Shafii madrassa, appoints governors 236–7.

Acre: al-Athir quoted in Gabrieli 182–92 and 198–200; Imad al-Din 200–7, including women; Richard 213–24; negotiations up to Treaty of Jaffa 235–6. See also Itinerarium Regis Ricardi, quoted in Thomas Archer, Crusade of Richard I. Phillips, Warriors 138–65. Saladin 295–306, 318–30; Saladin and Richard 333–6; Arsuf 336–7; negotiations 343–8; advance on Jerusalem 350–4; Jaffa 356–60; treaty 360–1; to Jerusalem 13 September and Fadil’s anxiety about city 362–3. Long siege of Acre: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 133; Richard’s genius at Arsuf 124–6 and 143; Turkish military tactics 111–14; Saladin and Richard 229–32; sex and women on Crusade 174–7. Frank McLynn, Lionheart and Lackland 169–218.

19 Saladin’s death: this is based, unless otherwise stated, on Shaddad and Humphreys, Ayyubids. Ayyubid dynasty to Safadin: death, Shaddad 238–245. Rise of Safadin: Humphreys, Ayyubids 87–123; investment of Muazzam with Damascus in 1198 108; Muazzam moves to Jerusalem in 1204 145; Safadin character and rule, brilliantly successful, the ablest of his line 145–6, 155–6; Muazzam in Jerusalem 11; inscriptions, title of sultan, independent ruler 150–4; Muazzam independent after death of Safadin 155–92; character of Muazzam 185–6, 188–90. War of Saladin’s sons: Runciman 3.79–83. Jerusalem under Afdal, Safadin and Muazzam, architecture, Burgoyne, ‘1187–1260: The Furthest Mosque (al-Masjid al-Aqsa) under Ayyubid Rule’, Sacred Esplanade 151–75. Inscriptions of Adil in citadel and fountains on Haram and Muazzam’s Ayyubid Tower, madrassas, Haram, walls, khan in Armenian Gardens: Bahat, Atlas 104–7. Adil and Muazzam on al-Aqsa: Kroyanker 44. Qubbat al-Miraj – Dome of Ascension; Bab al-Silsila 1187–99: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 47–8; Muazzam golden age of Ayyubids, restored south-east stairway to Dome 1211, built Nasiriyya Zawiya at Golden Gate 1214, central portal of al-Aqsa 1217, walls restored, built Qubbat al-Nalwiyya 1207 at south-west corner of Haram as a Koran school, Hanafi madrassa 48–9. M. Hawari, ‘The Citadel (Qal’a) in the Ottoman Period: An Overview’, in Archeological Park 9, 81. On Muazzam character: Mujir 85–7 and 140. Muazzam – seven towers plus mosque at Citadel: Little in Asali, Jerusalem; Muazzam’s Jerusalem 177 – 180; Ayyubid panic 183–4.

John of Brienne and Fifth Crusade: Tyerman 636–40. Runciman 3.151–60; al-Athir quoted in Gabrieli 255–6. Panic in Jerusalem: Little in Asali, Jerusalem 183. Jews leave: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 86–90.

20 Frederick II: character – this is based on David Abulafia, Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor, especially concept of monarchy 137; lance of Christ 127; Jews 143–4; crushing Muslims 145–7; Jews and Muslims 147–53; Lucera 147; marriage 150–4; crusade 171–82; songs, culture 274; Michael Scot magician 261. On Kamil and Muazzam: Humphreys, Ayyubids 193–207. Runciman 3.175–84. Tyerman 726–48, 757.

21 Frederick in Jerusalem: Ibn Wasil quoted in Gabrieli 269–73 and al-Jauzi 273–6. Abulafia, Frederick II 182–94; gifts to Kamil 267; songs to ‘flower of Syria’ 277. Little in Asali, Jerusalem 184–5. Building in Jerusalem: author discussion with Dan Bahat. Tyerman 752–5. Runciman 3.188–91. Phillips, Warriors 255.

22 Latin Jerusalem 1229–44. Franks refortify Jerusalem; Nasir Daud takes city; then faced with Thibault of Navarre/Champagne restored to Franks along with part of Galilee; Nasir Daud retakes; then in spring 1244 Jerusalem again returned to Franks, allowed to control Haram: Humphreys, Ayyubids 260–5. New Frankish building, invasion of Nablusites, siege of Nasir Daud: Boas, Jerusalem 20 and 76. Tyerman 753–5, 765. Runciman 3.193 and 210–11. Jews: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 90. Goitein, Palestinian Jewry, 300. B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Jews in Jerusalem’, in B. Z. Kedar (ed.), Jerusalem in the Middle Ages: Selected Papers 122–37. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 170–1. Templars in Dome of the Rock: Little in Asali, Jerusalem 185. J. Drory, ‘Jerusalem under Mamluk Rule’, in Cathedra 1.192. Wine in Dome: Ibn Wasil quoted in C. Hillenbrand, Crusaders 317.

23 Khwarizmian Tartars/Barka Khan: author visit to Khalidi Library, Barka Khan turba in Silsila Street, thanks to Haifa Khalidi. Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 109–216 and 380. Humphreys, Ayyubids 274–6. Tyerman 771. Runciman 3.223–9. On tomb: conversation with Dr Nasmi Joubeh.

24 Fall of Ayyubids/assassination of Turanshah and rise of Baibars: character portrait based on Robert Irwin, The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate 1250–1382 (henceforth Irwin). Ibn Wasil quoted in Gabrieli 295–300; Baibars at war, Ibn Az-Zahir quoted in Gabrieli 307–12. Tyerman 797–8. Runciman 3.261–71. Rise of Baibars, ferocious, nervous, sleepless, inspections, character, the rise of the Mamluks, Irwin 1–23; career 37–42. Humphreys, Ayyubids 302–3; Baibars in Palestine Syria 326–35; Nasir gets Jerusalem again, Baibars moves down to Jerusalem and plunders it 257.

Nachmanides: Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 160–1, 252–3. King Hethum II: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 4–5. Mamluk as Islam’s Templars: Ibn Wasil quoted in Gabrieli 294. Baibars, Aibek and Shajar diamonds, clogs: Phillip, Warriors 258–69. Khalidi Library: author interview with Haifa Khalidi; Jocelyn M. Ajami, ‘A Hidden Treasure’, in Saudi Aramco World Magazine.

PART SIX: MAMLUK

1 Baibars in power: Irwin 37–42 and 45–58. Tyerman 727–31, 806–17. Runciman 3.315–27. Mamilla – the Zawiya al-Qalandariyya and Turba al-Kabakayya (tomb of exiled Governor of Safed, al-Kabaki): Asali in OJ 281–2. On Mamluk rise: this account of the Mamluks is based on Linda S. Northrup, ‘The Bahri Mamluk Sultanate’, in CHE 1.242–89, especially on nature of Mamluk relationships 251; quotation from Ibn Khaldun (grouse/House of War) 242; Baibars military power 259; Mamluk favourite Sufism vs Taymiyya 267; pressure on Christians and Jews 271–2; Baibars victory over Mongols, Crusaders, Seljuks 273–6. Mamluk culture, on horseback, rules: Stillman, ‘The Non-Muslim Communities: The Jewish Community’, CHE 1.209, and Jonathan P. Berkey, ‘Culture and Society during the Middle Ages’, CHE 1.391. Mamluk emblems, Baibars’ lions: Irene A. Bierman, CHE 1.371–2. Baibars at war: Ibn Az-Zahir quoted in Gabrieli 307–12; sarcastic letter on Cyprus campaign 321. Burns, Damascus 198–200. Baibars’ death: Runciman 3.348. Jerusalem/Baibars: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 58–9, 66, 77. Donald P. Little, ‘1260–1516: The Noble Sanctuary under Mamluk Rule – History,’ in Sacred Esplanade 177–87. Michael Hamilton Burgoyne, ‘The Noble Sanctuary under Mamluk Rule – Architecture’, in Sacred Esplanade 189–209. Baibars builds Khan al-Zahir: Mujir 239. Baibars’ violent, perverted Sufi adviser Sheikh Khadir: Irwin 54. Asali, OJ 281–2. Cathedra 1.198. Edward I Crusade: Tyerman 810–12; Runciman 3.242–3. M. Prestwich, Edward I, 66 and 119.

2 Qalawun, Ashraf Khalil, Nasir Muhammad: the portrait of Qalawun is based on Linda Northrup, From Slave to Sultan: The Career of al-Mansur Qalawun and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria, and on Irwin. Irwin 63–76. Jerusalem titles: Northrup, From Slave to Sultan 175. Repair of al-Aqsa roof: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 77 and 129. Khalil and Acre: Irwin 76–82. Fall of Acre: Runciman 3.387–99, 403–5, 429.

3 Ramban and other Jewish visitors: Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 155–61 and 241. Peters, Jerusalem 363 and 531. Minaret: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 513.

4 Armenians and Mongols 1300: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 4–5. Reuven Amitai, ‘Mongol Raids into Palestine’, JRAS 236–55. Niccolo of Poggibonsi quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 410.

5 Mamluk Jerusalem: this is based on Burgoyne’s Mamluk Jerusalem; Irwin on Mamluk politics; Kroyanker. Nasir visit 1317 and building: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 77–85; Sufis 419–21; Nasir and Tankiz 278–97 and 223–33; Citadel 85; Mamluk style 89; blind Ala al-Din 117; tradition of Mamluk tombs from Nur al-Din 167–8. Mamluk style: Kroyanker 47–58. On building: Drory, Cathedra 1.198–209. Citadel rebuilt: Hawari, OJ 493–518.

Nasir Muhammad: this portrait is based on Irwin 105–21, including Irwin quote greatest and nastiest. On Nasir and killing of amirs: Ibn Battutah, Travels 18–20; on Jerusalem 26–8. Nasir: Burns, Damascus 201–16. Administration: Little in Asali, Jerusalem 187–9; on Muslim literature of fadail; 193–5, Sufis 191–2. On Nasir waqfs, building, Mujir 102; on parades in Jerusalem 181–2. Irwin: Mamluk executions 86; on religious jurist Ibn Taymiyya 96–7; anti-Christian and anti-Jewish policies 97–9; Mongols 99–104. Mamluk religion, Sunni and Sufism: Northrup, CHE 1.265–9; politics, rise of Nasir and autocracy 251–3. On proximity to Haram: Tankiz inscription ‘pure neighbour’: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 65. On waqfs: Ibn Khaldun quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 381. Al-Hujr poem on hell and paradise: quoted by Mujir 184. Bedouin attacks: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 59; on Sufis 63. New sanctity of Jerusalem: Book of Arousing Souls by al-Fazari quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 374; Ibn Taymiyya 375–8. King Robert and Franciscans: Clare Mouradian, ‘Les Chrétiens: Un Enjeu pour les Puissances’, in C. Nicault (ed.) Jérusalem, 1850–1948: Des Ottomans aux Anglais, entre coexistence spirituelle et déchirure politique 177–204. Franciscans and King Robert of Apulia/Calabria: Felix Fabri, The Book of Wanderings 2.279–82. Ludolph von Suchem in Peters, Jerusalem 422. Little, Sacred Esplanade 177–87. Burgoyne, Sacred Esplanade 189–209. Irwin: brutality 86; Ibn Taymiyya 96–7; anti-minority policies 97–9; Mongol invasion 99–104.

6 Ibn Khaldun and Tamurlane: Ibn Khaldun 5, 39, 269. Walter J. Fischel, Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane 14–17, 45–8. Jerusalem ulema offer keys: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 59. Local Jerusalems: Anu Mand, ‘Saints’ Corners in Medieval Livonia’, in Alan V. Murray, Clash of Cultures on the Medieval Baltic Frontier 191–223.

7 Non-Muslim Jerusalem under late Mamluks: Little, Sacred Esplanade 177–87; Burgoyne, Sacred Esplanade 189–209. Stillman, CHE 1.209. New minarets at Salahiyya Khanqah in 1417: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 517; on Jews 64 – on tranquillity – Isaac ben Chelo 1374; on trades Elijah of Ferrara. New minarets over Christian and Jewish shrines: Mujir 69, 163, 170; attack on Christians 1452, 254–6. A. David, ‘Historical Significance of Elders Mentioned in Letters of Rabbi Obadiah of Bertinaro’, and Augusti Arce, ‘Restrictions upon Freedom of Movement of Jews in Jerusalem’, in Cathedra 2.323–4. Prayers at Golden Gate: Isaac ben Joseph quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 192; population and prayers, Meshullam of Voltera 408; Obadiah, prayers at gates 408; gradual ruin, jackals, attacks during drought, Obadiah’s disciple, seventy families, Jewish study house near Western Wall?, facing Temple on Olives 392, 473, 407–9; Meshuallam and Obadiah, Jewish pilgrims 407–9; Isaac ben Joseph 1334 on French Jews, law studies, Kabbala 474–5. Jewish prayers at Zechariah tomb, cemetery, and visit to the gates, Huldah, Golden Gate: Archaeological Park 36, 98, 107.

Christians: Armenians and Jaqmaq: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 5. On visit to Haram in disguise, interest in others and learning phrases: Arnold von Harff quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 406–7. Governor’s house and concubines: Fabri, Book of Wanderings 1.451; Barsbay and Jewish bid for Tomb of David 1.303–4; rules for pilgrims 1.248–54; entering Sepulchre, hair, stalls, Saracens, bodies, graffiti, traders, exhaustion, stress, questions 1.299, 341, 363, 411–15, 566–7, 2.83–7. History of Franciscans: Elzear Horn, Ichnographiae Monumentorum Terrae Sanctae 81–3. Pay or beaten to death: Niccolo di Poggibonsi (1346) quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 434; way of the Cross 437; on Mount Zion, King Rupert etc.: Elzear Horn quoted at 369; burning of four monks 1391, 459; no entry on horseback, Bertrandon de la Brocquière 1430s, 470. Henry IV: Tuchman 45. Henry V: Christopher Allmand, Henry V 174. 8 Qaitbay. Parades: Mujir 182; beauty 183, quotes Ibn Hujr; Qaitbay visit 142–4, 288. Ashrafiyya and sabil: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 78–80, 589–608; royal residence Tankiziyya 228. Kroyanker 47. Qaitbay and omelette: Peters, Jerusalem 406. Door of Aqsa: Goldhill, City of Longing 126. Drory, Cathedra 1.1196–7. Governor’s house and concubines: Fabri, Book of Wanderings 1.451; also Qaitbay allows refurbishment of Sepulchre 1.600–2; town, Obadiah on Jerusalem Jews 1487: Peters, Jerusalem 475–7. Al-Ghawry: Carl F. Petry, ‘Late Mamluk Military Institutions and Innovation’, in CHE 1.479–89. Rise of Ottomans: Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923 (henceforth Finkel) 83–4.