The Little Book of Stoicism

Chapter 2

A Quick History Lesson

“I made a prosperous voyage when I suffered shipwreck.” – Zeno of Citium

The year is around 320 BCE. A Phoenician merchant suffers shipwreck somewhere between Cyprus and the Greek mainland in the Mediterranean Sea. He just lost all his murex dye, a highly valuable purple-colored dye won from the murex sea snail, and with that all his wealth. We are talking about Zeno of Citium who, thanks to this shipwreck, should become the founder of Stoicism many years later.

Zeno’s father was a merchant himself and used to return home from his travels with books purchased in the Greek city of Athens. This might be the reason why after the accident at sea, Zeno went to Athens, sat down in a book store, and read about the Athenian philosopher Socrates who taught around a century earlier. Zeno was so impressed that he asked the bookseller where men like this Socrates could be found. The bookseller pointed in the direction of Crates the Cynic, who was just walking by, and said, “Follow yonder man.”

Indeed Zeno did follow Crates, who was a leading philosopher at the time, and became his pupil for years to come. Zeno was happy how his life took a turn and said, “It is well done of thee, Fortune, thus to drive me to philosophy.” When looking back on the shipwreck time in his life, Zeno later commented, “I made a prosperous voyage when I suffered shipwreck.”

Note: This intriguing shipwreck story was written down by Greek biographer Diogenes Laertius in his Lives of Eminent Philosophers around 150 years after Zeno’s death. There are different versions of the story and the dates are inconsistent and contradictory. So we can’t be sure whether this is the true story or just the most attractive founding story of Stoicism.

After studying with Crates for a time, Zeno chose to go and study with other leading philosophers, before he started his own philosophy several years later in around 301 BCE. Initially, his followers were called Zenonians, but came to be known as Stoics because Zeno gave his lectures in the Stoa Poikilê, the “Painted Porch,” a famous colonnade decorated with paintings of historical battles, located in the Athenian city center. Stoicism was born. Unlike other schools of philosophy, the Stoics followed the example of their hero Socrates and met outside in the public, on this porch, where anyone could listen. So Stoic philosophy was for academic and ordinary people alike and therefore it was something like a “philosophy of the street.”

As we’ve seen, Stoicism was not born out of nowhere, its founder Zeno and the early Stoics had been influenced by different philosophical schools and thinkers, especially by Socrates, the Cynics (like Crates), and by the Academics (followers of Plato). The Stoics adopted Socrates’ question: How to live a good life? They focused on applying philosophy to everyday challenges, on developing a good character and becoming better human beings who excelled in life and cared about other people and nature itself. One thing the Stoics changed from the Cynics was that they abandoned the Cynic asceticism. Unlike the Cynics, the Stoics favored a lifestyle that allowed simple comforts. They argued that people should enjoy the good things in life without clinging to them. As Marcus Aurelius later said, “If you must live in a palace, then you can also live well in a palace.” This allowance of comfort was something that made Stoicism more attractive back then, and certainly today too.

After the death of Zeno (who, by the way, was so admired by the Athenians that they built a bronze statue of him), Stoicism kept its place as a leading Athenian school of philosophy (alongside others) until 155 BCE, when something very important happened to ancient philosophy—the heads of Stoicism (Diogenes of Babylon) and other schools of philosophy were chosen as ambassadors to represent Athens in political negotiations with Rome, in Rome. While the negotiations are of little interest, the cultural impact this visit had is not. The Athenians gave packed lectures and sparked an interest in philosophy among the rather conservative Romans. Stoicism became a thriving school in Rome with all the famous Stoics whose writings serve as the major source of the philosophy today: Seneca, Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius (we’ll get to them shortly.)

Stoicism was one of the most influential and respected schools of philosophy for nearly five subsequent centuries. It was practiced by the rich and the poor, the powerful and the sufferer alike, in the pursuit of the good life. However, after the deaths of its famous teachers—Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, and the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius—Stoicism fell into a slump from which it has yet to recover. The lack of charismatic teachers and the rise of Christianity are the main reasons for the decline of the once so popular philosophy.

The idea of Stoicism, however, found its way into many writings of historical philosophers such as Descartes, Schopenhauer, and Thoreau. And it is finding its way back into the lives of ordinary people like you and me (no offense). This comeback of Stoicism can be traced back to Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy and Albert Ellis’ rational emotive behavior therapy, both of which were influenced by Stoic philosophy. In more recent years, authors such as Pierre Hadot, William Irvine, Donald Robertson, and especially Ryan Holiday have accelerated the return of Stoicism.

The Most Important Stoic Philosophers

Look around, you’re in the middle of thousands of excited people swinging their flags, shouting and cheering madly for their favorite chariot racers down in the arena of the Circus Maximus—zoom out, go half a mile north, zoom in—Roar! Straight in front of you, a gladiator fighting a lion, on your right, a gladiator aiming his spear in your direction, left, a monstrous elephant sprinting at you! In these dramatic times, our main characters taught and practiced Stoic philosophy. Although philosophy is much less exciting than bloody battles in the Colosseum (where you just got smashed by an elephant), it’s the philosophy that survived until today. For good reasons as you’ll learn in the following chapters.

Now, we’ll look at the four Roman Stoics whose writings and teachings survived for nearly two millennia and now build the foundation of Stoicism: Seneca, Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. It’s said that over a thousand books had been written on Stoic philosophy but only a handful survived—mainly the ones from these luminaries.

Luckily, these brilliant (but also flawed) men did not live in caves somewhere in the mountains, but all of them were fully engaged in society and worked hard to make the world a better place. You’ll meet an incredible wealthy playwright and equivalent of the modern-day entrepreneur, you’ll meet an early feminist, and a crippled slave who should become the main influence of the Roman Emperor and mightiest person in the world. To stay true to the name of this book, we’ll only scratch the surface of these fascinating lives of the four most important Stoic philosophers.

Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BCE – 65 CE)

“If a man knows not which port he sails, no wind is favorable.” – Seneca

The most controversial Stoic philosopher, Lucius Annaeus Seneca, mainly known as Seneca the Younger or simply Seneca, was born around the time of Jesus in Cordoba, Spain, and educated in Rome, Italy. He is renowned as one of the finest writers of antiquity and many of his essays and personal letters survived and serve as an important source of Stoic philosophy. These writings speak to us because he focused on the practical aspect of Stoicism, down to how to take a trip, how to deal with adversity and its provoked emotions such as grief or anger, how to handle oneself while committing suicide (which he was ordered to do), how to deal with wealth (which he only knew too well), and poverty.

Seneca lived an extraordinary life, a life that raises many questions when studied closely. Apart from his letters which are still read almost two millennia after his passing, he made it into the history books for many more reasons. He was a successful playwright. He got extremely wealthy thanks to smart financial undertakings (the modern-day entrepreneur and investor if you will). He was exiled for committing adultery with the emperor’s niece to what he called the “barren and thorny rock” Corsica—which, by the way, is a popular holiday destination known for diverse and scenic landscapes. After eight years of exile, the emperor’s new wife wanted Seneca as a tutor to her son Nero.

Once Nero became emperor, Seneca was promoted to his advisor and became one of the wealthiest people in the Roman Empire. According to author Nassim Taleb, who devoted a whole chapter to Seneca in his book Antifragile, “his fortune was three hundred million denarii (for a sense of equivalence, at about the same period in time, Judas got thirty denarii, the equivalent of a month’s salary, to betray Jesus).” This extreme wealth while being a philosopher that promoted the indifference of external possessions is a reason why Seneca sometimes gets called a hypocrite. The other fact that raises questions is that he was the tutor and advisor of Emperor Nero, who was a self-indulgent and cruel ruler and had his mother and many other people killed. In 65 CE, Nero ordered Seneca to commit suicide because he was supposedly involved in a conspiracy against the Emperor.

Hypocrite or not, Seneca lived a turbulent life full of riches and power but also of philosophy and introspection (he understood well enough that he was imperfect). Stoicism remained a constant in his life and stamped his many helpful and inspirational letters that I’ll quote liberally throughout this book.

Musonius Rufus (c. 30 CE – c. 100 CE)

“Since every man dies, it is better to die with distinction than to live long.” – Musonius Rufus

The least known of the four great Roman Stoics, Gaius Musonius Rufus taught Stoic philosophy in his own school. We know little about his life and teachings because he didn’t bother to write anything down. Fortunately, one of Musonius’ pupils, Lucius, took notes during the lectures. Rufus advocated for a practical and lived philosophy. As he put it, "Just as there is no use in medical study unless it leads to the health of the human body, so there is no use to a philosophical doctrine unless it leads to the virtue of the human soul." He offered detailed advice on eating habits, sex life, how to dress properly, and how to behave toward one’s parents. Besides thinking philosophy should be highly practical, he thought it should be universal. He argued that women and men alike can benefit from education and the study of philosophy.

Musonius Rufus was the most prominent Stoic teacher at the time and his influence in Rome was respectable. Too much so for tyrannical Emperor Nero that he exiled him to the Greek island Gyaros in 65 CE (and yes, exile was common in ancient Rome). Seneca’s description of Corsica as a “barren and thorny rock” would have fitted much better to Gyaros, which really was (and still is) a desert-like island. After Nero’s death in 68 CE, Musonius returned to Rome for seven years before he got exiled again. He died in around 100 CE and left behind not only the few lecture notes from Lucius, but also his most famous pupil, Epictetus, who as we’ll see right now, became an influential Stoic teacher himself.

Epictetus (c. 55 CE – c. 135 CE)

“Don’t explain your philosophy. Embody it.” – Epictetus

Epictetus was born a slave in Hierapolis (present-day Pamukkale in Turkey). His real name, if he had one, is unknown. Epictetus simply means “property” or “the thing that was bought.” He was acquired by Epaphroditos, a wealthy freedman (that is, a former slave himself) who worked as a secretary to Emperor Nero in Rome, the place where Epictetus spent his youth. He was crippled in one leg either by birth or by an injury received from a former master. His new master Epaphroditos treated him well and allowed him to study Stoic philosophy under the most renowned teacher in Rome, Musonius Rufus.

Sometime after Nero’s death in 68 CE, Epictetus was freed by his master—a common practice in Rome with intelligent and educated slaves. He started his own school and taught Stoic philosophy for nearly twenty-five years until the Emperor Domitian famously banished all philosophers from Rome. Epictetus fled and moved his school to Nicopolis, Greece, where he led a simple life with few possessions. After the assassination of Domitian, Stoicism regained its respectability and became popular among the Romans. Epictetus was the leading Stoic teacher at the time and could have moved back to Rome, but chose to stay in Nicopolis, where he died in around 135 CE. Despite its location, his school attracted students from all around the Roman Empire and taught them, among other things, how to retain dignity and tranquility even in the face of life’s hardships.

Just like his own teacher Musonius Rufus, Epictetus didn’t write anything down. Fortunately, there was again a geek among the students, Arrian, who radically took notes and wrote the famous Discourses—a series of extracts of Epictetus’ lectures. (Now I’m the geek who is trying to organize all of Stoicism into a little book . . .) Arrian also compiled the short book Enchiridion, a summary of the most important principles of the Discourses. Enchiridion often gets translated as Handbook, but it literally means “ready at hand”—more like a dagger than a handbook, always ready to deal with life’s challenges.

Marcus Aurelius (121 CE – 180 CE)

“It never ceases to amaze me: we all love ourselves more than other people, but care more about their opinion than our own.” – Marcus Aurelius

“Waste no more time arguing about what a good man should be. Be one.” These words were written not by some slouch but by a rare example of a philosopher king and, at the time, most powerful man on earth—Marcus Aurelius, emperor of the legendary Roman Empire. He is the most well-known of all the Stoic philosophers and his Meditations, a series of 12 short books which he wrote entirely to himself (like a diary) as his own guidance and self-improvement, is considered one of the greatest works of philosophy of all time.

As a teenager, it’s said Marcus not only enjoyed activities such as wrestling, boxing, and hunting, but also philosophy. He studied with different philosophers, one of which lent him a copy of Epictetus’ Discourses, which became the single most important influence on him. When he was sixteen, Emperor Hadrian adopted Marcus’ maternal uncle Antoninus, who in turn adopted Marcus (his real father died when he was younger). When Marcus entered palace life, his political power didn’t go to his head (he didn’t let it), neither as a co-emperor of his adoptive father nor as an emperor himself after Antoninus’ death. For one thing, he exercised great restraint in his use of power and money. Furthermore, despite his interest in Stoic philosophy, he chose not to use his power to preach Stoicism and lecture his fellow Romans on the benefits of its practices. He was an exceptionally good emperor and ruled from 161 CE to his death in 180 CE and counts as the last of a succession of rulers known as the Five Good Emperors.