Ancient civilizations-2

The Chimú state

The Late Intermediate Period began about 1000 (Rowe has said 900) with the dying out of the signs of unity imposed by Huari. The seeds of the Chimú state were probably sown at the same time, but they are not recognizable until considerably later. Elsewhere there were small independent states, which on the central and southern coasts were in most cases no bigger than a single valley, to judge from the distribution of the distinct pottery styles.

There were few new advances in techniques, and perhaps the most notable was the spread of bronze to the Peruvian coast from northwest Argentina and Bolivia, where tin ore was found and where the manufacture of bronze appears to have originated during the Middle Horizon. A hard alloy of copper and arsenic had been used previously in the centre and north. Pottery improved in quality in most areas, though its artistic character was not equal, for instance, to the earlier products of Moche and Nazca. There was a tendency toward standardization and toward reduction in the number of colours, which went with a degree of mass production. The modeling tradition of the north coast revived, but it was dull and lifeless by comparison with that of Moche times and was generally executed in black ware. In other parts, entirely new styles evolved. That of Chancay, on the central coast, was thin, dull red or cream in colour, with rather a dusty-looking cream slip and painted decoration in black. A common shape was an egg-shaped jar with a flaring collar and a pair of small loop handles, which were sometimes turned into a figure by modeling a face on the collar and adding ill-shaped limbs. Bowls and beakers with slightly bowed, almost vertical sides, were other common shapes. The porosity of the ware and the flaky nature of the slip made this pottery inferior in quality to that of other coastal areas. In the south, pottery of an attractive style was made in the Ica Valley. It was hard, well-burnished buff or red ware, covered with painted, textile-derived patterns in black, white, and red, although some vessels also depicted small birds and fish. Highly characteristic are bowls with a rounded base meeting the inward-sloping sides at a sharp angle and a thickened rim of triangular section.

It is difficult to determine whether any new textile techniques were adopted, but it is unlikely since the extreme versatility of the Peruvian weavers appears already to have covered most of the imaginable varieties at one time or another. On the other hand, fashions varied, and a relevant instance is the use of tapestry. Tapestry was known in the Early Horizon, suffered something of an eclipse in the Early Intermediate Period, and grew greatly in popularity in the Middle Horizon, when notable examples were produced. During the Late Intermediate Period its popularity waned again, although it was used for the finest garments on into the Inca Period; but in Chimú textiles it was generally confined to borders and other small areas. Textiles were similar over the whole coast, and to distinguish between those of different areas is a task for specialists. Some of the most characteristic types were garments adorned with regular rows, horizontal or diagonal, of stylized birds or fish, executed in brocade or double cloth.

In most of the northern valleys irrigation systems reached their maximum extent; and the Virú Valley—which has been the most thoroughly studied—is deceptive in this respect, because much of the land went out of cultivation, possibly owing to removal of part of the population to other valleys by the Chimú rulers. In some cases, the systems of more than one river were connected, and water was taken, for instance, from the Chicama Valley to that of Moche, where Chan Chan was situated.

The legendary Chimú ruler Ñançen Pinco, who began to expand the state, is thought to have begun his reign about 1370, and the names of two predecessors are known; so it is a fair guess that the state was taking shape in the first half of the 14th century, when distinctively Chimú pottery forms appeared. Various rather exotic pottery styles dating before this time have been found in the northern area, but insufficient work has been done on their distribution in time and space. An early type consisted of bottles on a ring base with a loop handle and a narrow, tapering spout, decorated with geometric designs and cursive scrolls in black on a red-and-white ground. There were double whistling vessels, with modeled figures on one vessel connected to a tapering spout on the other by a flat, arched bridge; some early examples were of orange ware with a few dark-red stripes on the spout and bridge, but later ones were black. Carinated whistling vessels of black ware with hornlike projections above the ears on a ring base, with a tapering spout connected to a figure by a bridge, also have been found at an early stage. Similar vessels with two spouts connected by a bridge had a considerable range in time. Another form was a bottle, of black ware, with a tapering spout emerging from a modeled figure or head. These vessels had a strap handle and ring base of variable height. Many of the later blackware vessels had panels in pressed relief, a form of decoration that continued through Chimú times; these bore designs such as men holding staves, moons, or cats on a background of raised dots.

The overwhelming majority of Chimú vessels were of black ware. There was a revival of stirrup spouts, either on modeled vessels such as human figures or reed balsas, or on plain ones with or without pressed relief panels, and these normally had a monkey sitting on the stirrup at the base of the spout. Double vessels, often with a bird head to balance the spout and pressed relief panels on the bodies, continued. Many vessels were lentil-shaped. Jugs with strap handles and pressed relief panels sometimes took on a flattened section to become canteens. These are only a few of the forms that have been found, some resembling immediate predecessors, some new, and some, especially the stirrup spout, revivals of earlier types.

Ñançen Pinco is believed to have conquered the coast from the Saña River, just south of Lambayeque, south to Santa. After him came six rulers before Minchançaman, who conquered the remainder of the coast from at least as far north as Piura and possibly to Tumbes, south almost to Lima. His triumph was short-lived since he himself was conquered by the Inca in the early 1460s.

Chan Chan: citadelAdobe citadel at the Chan Chan archaeological site, near Trujillo, Peru.© Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Chan Chan: reconstructionReconstruction at the Chan Chan archaeological site, near Trujillo, Peru.© Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Chan Chan: reconstructed wallsReconstructed adobe walls at the Chan Chan archaeological site, near Trujillo, Peru.© Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner)The Chimú state originated in the Moche Valley, where its capital, Chan Chan, lay. There were other cities at Farfán and Pacatnamú in the Pacasmayo Valley and at Purgatorio and Apurlé in the Leche and Motupe valleys, respectively, which shared some features with Chan Chan. All included large walled compounds. Apart from the cities, there were defensive settlements, such as one in the narrow part of the Moche Valley, up which it straggled for five miles, occupying terraced hillsides and side valleys and commanding three of the main canals. A third type of settlement consisted of scattered compounds in the midst of large irrigated areas, one example of which was found in the Chicama Valley alongside an irrigation canal that took water to Chan Chan. Chan Chan covered an area of about 14 square miles (36 square km), with a central area of about 2.5 square miles containing 10 or more large rectangular enclosures sometimes called ciudadelas (“citadels”). These were surrounded by tapering adobe walls, 10 feet thick at the base and about 30 feet high. They ranged in size from about 400 by 200 yards to 650 by 400 yards.

At least six of these citadels have similar plans, and one has been studied in detail. It has a narrow opening at the north end and is divided into three parts by high walls. The northern part contains a large entry court, flanked by a kitchen area and several smaller courts, leading to a densely built area of small courts, some of which have a U-shaped structure at one end, while others are filled with small rooms. The U-shaped structures, which do not appear to have been roofed, may have been shrines, and the courts that contain them may have had walls covered with mud-plaster reliefs, such as bands of animals, birds, or fish, scrolls, or step frets, arranged in a manner reminiscent of Chimú textiles. The central part has a somewhat smaller entrance court leading to several courts occupied by rooms, perhaps storerooms, although nothing was found in them. Another feature of this area is a great burial platform with rows of chambers arranged in three levels. All these features are connected by narrow and tortuous passages. The southern part is an open area, containing one or more pukíos (rectangular areas where the ground has been lowered to the water table, either to supply water or to grow plants). In the spaces between the enclosures, and elsewhere in the city, are large areas of dwellings, irrigated areas, and cemeteries.

Chan Chan: royal tombRoyal tomb in the Tschudi citadel at Chan Chan archaeological site, near Trujillo, Peru.© Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

It is now thought that the ciudadelas may have been the dwellings of the ruling classes and their immediate retainers, and it has even been suggested that they were the palaces of successive rulers, maintained by their descendants in the way that those of deceased Inca were maintained in Cuzco. The number of recognizable ciudadelas agrees with the number (10) of known Chimú rulers. This intriguing suggestion is further supported by the belief that the Inca learned a great deal from the Chimú after they conquered them, for, not content with carrying Minchançaman off to Cuzco, they established a colony of north-coast workmen there, and Topa Inca Yupanqui (Thupa ’Inka Yupanki) appears to have worked out the political organization of the empire at the same time, basing it largely on the Chimú system.

Roads between the valleys were always necessary to coastal states and were vital to the Chimú, and the Inca may have learned something in this connection also. There are almost continuous traces of a road from just north of Lambayeque to the Chao Valley just south of Virú, with remains even farther south in Santa, Nepeña, and Casma. The remains differ in elaboration and tend to be wider and more imposing near the cities; in the deserts between valleys they were tracks marked by posts or bordered by low walls, but in the valleys the simplest type is a leveled surface 15 to 25 feet wide, with walls of stone or adobe about three feet high and with the surface of the road sometimes being raised.

Although the Chimú had a powerful, aggressive, organized state, their dependence on elaborate irrigation systems for the maintenance of concentrated populations rendered them vulnerable to attack, which was one of the main factors that enabled the Inca to take them over comparatively easily. Geoffrey H.S. Bushnell John V. Murra