Ancient civilizations-2

The eastern Italics

A great part of the central and southern Italian peninsula was occupied in protohistoric and historic times by populations forming a vast ethnic and linguistic unit—the eastern Italics or Umbro-Sabellians. To the south, in the mountains of the Abruzzo, lived the Samnites, who later spread into Campania, Lucania, and what is now Calabria. In the centre were the Vestini, Paeligni, Marrucini, Marsi, Aequi, Volsci, and Sabini. Farther north lived the Umbri. The origin and relationship of all these peoples is unclear. Ancient ethnographic traditions bearing on central Italy link the Samnites to the Sabines and the Sabines to the Umbri, locating their primitive centre of dispersion in the Rieti basin and in the area of Amiternum. Their diffusion was attributed to the mass emigration of an entire generation in search of a new homeland (so-called sacred spring).

The linguistic data prove the unity of the group of eastern-Italic idioms, belonging to the Indo-European stock but differing from the Latin. Within this group may be distinguished a southern variant (Sabellic or Oscan) known from an abundant harvest of epigraphic documents from Samnium, Campania, and southern Italy. This variant is to be attributed to the Samnites and to a large part of the minor stocks of central Italy, including the Sabines, known from isolated inscriptions in central Italy. On the other hand, a northern (Umbrian) variant is represented by inscriptions of Umbria—principally bronze tablets from Gubbio, inscribed between the 4th and 1st century bce by a brotherhood of Umbrian priests—and by a bronze tablet from Velletri. The eastern Italic words reported by the Classical writers, as well as toponomastics, confirm these conclusions.

Notwithstanding the original unity of stock and of language, these populations had diverse histories and cultures. The Samnites from Molise (the Caraceni, the Pentri, and the Frentani) in the 5th and 4th centuries bce occupied Campania—where they vanquished Etruscans and Greeks and assumed from the local tribes the name Opici, or Osci—as well as Lucania (with the Hirpini or Lucani), reaching what is now Calabria—where they took the name Bruttii—and finally Sicily. Defeated by Rome in the Samnite wars (4th and early 3rd centuries bce), the Samnites tried for the last time, in the period of the Social War (90–83 bce), to counterpose to the Romans an Italic nationality of their own. A considerable difference existed between the culture of the mountain Samnites—organized in confederate tribes centred on fortified villages and in the 5th and 4th centuries still retaining aspects of the “iron culture”—and the high civilization of the Campani and Lucani established in the ancient cities of Capua, Nola, Nocera, and Paestum and dominated by Greek and Etruscan influence.

Some central tribes—the Marrucini, Vestini, Paeligni and Marsi—appear to be linked historically, politically, and culturally to the Samnites. The case is different with the Sabines, the Aequi, and the Volsci, whose period of expansion (6th and 5th centuries) is closely connected with earliest Rome and who had early contact with the Etrusco-Latin civilization.

The diffusion of the Umbri toward the north and beyond the Apennines lent credence to the ancient traditions relating to the great size of their territory. The traditions, however, are more probably based on the fact that the name Umbri is derived from that of a most ancient population, probably not Indo-European and certainly not Italic, living in the Apennine region before the diffusion of the eastern Italics. The history of the Umbrian cities—Iguvium (now Gubbio), Hispellum (Spello), Spoletium (Spoleto), Tuder (Todi), and others—is known only beginning with the period of the struggle of the Etruscans and Gauls against Rome. Umbrian civilization is revealed by the Gubbio Tablets, a document unique in its kind. The Umbrian artistic and material culture derived in large part from that of Etruria.