Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

The Normans, a people from France,

conquered England in 1066. They ruled

until 1154, when Henry II came to

power. Henry began a new line of

Sheep graze in a field in the Cotswolds, a hilly part of south-central England.

140 England BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

English kings and gained new territory

for the country.

The early kings struggled for power with

the Roman Catholic church and the

nobles. King John was a cruel and

unpopular ruler. The nobles joined

together to try to limit his power. In

1215 they forced King John to agree to a

document called the Magna Carta. The

Magna Carta gave rights to the English

people. Later in the 1200s Parliament,

the English lawmaking body, was

formed.

During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I

(1558–1603) England became a great

power at sea. English ships defeated a

fleet sent from Spain. The country’s

power soon spread to other parts of the

world as well. English merchants began

to set up trading posts in faraway places,

including India and North America.

In the 1600s the English kings fought

with Parliament. They did not want to

share power. This conflict led to civil

war in 1642. People who supported the

king fought people who supported Parliament.

Parliament won. From 1649 to

1660 England had no king. England

welcomed a new king in 1660. But from

then on, the power of English kings and

queens was more limited.

Over hundreds of years England gradually

took control of neighboring territory.

Wales was united with England in

1536. In 1707 Scotland merged with

England andWales to form the kingdom

of Great Britain. In 1801 Ireland

was joined to England, Scotland, and

Wales to form the United Kingdom.

Most of Ireland broke away in 1921, but

Northern Ireland remained part of the

United Kingdom.

#More to explore

Anglo-Saxon • Celt • Elizabeth I

• English Channel • London • Magna

Carta • Norman Conquest • Northern

Ireland • Parliament • Scotland • United

Kingdom •Wales

English Channel

The English Channel is a narrow arm of

the Atlantic Ocean. It separates the

southern coast of England (part of the

United Kingdom, or Great Britain) from

northern France. In French, the channel

is called La Manche (The Sleeve).

The English Channel is 350 miles (560

kilometers) long. At its widest point it is

150 miles (240 kilometers) across. At its

narrowest it is only 21 miles (34 kilometers)

across.

The channel and the North Sea are connected

at the Strait of Dover in the east.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA English Channel 141

The main islands are the Isle ofWight

and the Channel Islands (a collection of

islands including Jersey, Guernsey,

Alderney, and Sark).

Sandy beaches and a good climate have

led to the development of many tourist

resorts on the shores of the channel.

These include Deauville in France and

Brighton in England. There are many

important ports on both sides of the

channel as well. Southampton in

England and Le Havre in France are two

examples.

Historically, the English Channel has

been more than just a body of water to

sail on. It has sometimes made it difficult

for invaders from the European

mainland to reach Britain. At other

times it has served them as a travel

route. When the Roman leader Julius

Caesar invaded in 55 BC, for example,

he crossed at the Dover Strait.

As long ago as the 1800s, people

thought of building a tunnel under the

channel to connect England and France.

In 1978 the British and French national

railways reached an agreement on the

idea. The Channel Tunnel, or “Chunnel,”

as it is sometimes nicknamed,

opened in 1994.

#More to explore

Atlantic Ocean

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason,

began in Europe in the 1700s and

spread to many parts of the world. The

thinkers of the Enlightenment objected

to the absolute power of the royal rulers

and of the Roman Catholic church.

They used reason, or logical thinking,

and science to attack this power. Their

ideas helped bring about the American

Revolution and the French Revolution.

Background

For hundreds of years most European

countries were ruled by kings and

queens. The countries’ royal rulers, or

monarchs, were the sons and daughters

of earlier kings and queens. These rulers

claimed their powers to be given by

God. The monarchs, the leaders of the

church, and the wealthiest families had

always held all the power and all the

advantages.

But in the 1500s, during a period

known as the Renaissance, the number

of educated people in Europe began to

grow. Many of these scholars adopted

the ideas of the ancient Greeks and

Romans. These ideas focused on the

The first person

to swim

across the

English Channel

was Matthew

Webb in

1875. Since

then hundreds

of people have

done it.

The French Encyclopedie (Encyclopedia)

was one of the main works of the Enlightenment.

Many thinkers met to discuss this

project.

142 Enlightenment BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

importance of all people and on their

ability to reason. Scholars encouraged

the study of science. The Renaissance

led to important discoveries in the

1600s. Galileo proved that Earth moved

around the sun. Isaac Newton explained

the laws of gravity.

Ideas of the Enlightenment

The ideas that blossomed during the

1500s and 1600s influenced many

thinkers during the 1700s—the time of

the Enlightenment. Some of the most

famous Enlightenment thinkers were

Denis Diderot, John Locke, Jean-

Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, and

Voltaire.

These thinkers, called philosophers,

wrote many books, including a

35-volume encyclopedia. Some wrote

books questioning religion. They

objected to the church having power

over everyone. The philosophers criticized

the monarchs’ laws. They also

questioned the idea that God had given

the monarchs their power.

Enlightenment thinkers applied science

and reason to society’s problems. They

believed that all people were created

equal. They also saw education as something

that divided people. If education

were available to all, they reasoned, then

everyone would have a fair chance in

life.

Results

Enlightenment ideas were popular and

spread quickly. The Roman Catholic

church and the monarchs tried to censor,

or ban, the books and other works

of the philosophers. The rulers were

right to be alarmed. The Enlightenment

led many people to think about their

government and to think that they

should change the government. They

wanted to take power away from the

kings and queens and give it to the ordinary

people. This led to the American

and French revolutions, when the monarchs

lost their power.

#More to explore

American Revolution • French

Revolution • Philosophy • Renaissance

• Science

Environment

All the physical surroundings on Earth

are called the environment. The environment

includes everything living and

everything nonliving.

The nonliving part of the environment

has three main parts: the atmosphere,

the hydrosphere, and the lithosphere.

The atmosphere is the air—the layer of

nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases that

surrounds Earth. All the oceans and

Children who pick up litter are helping to

protect the environment.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Environment 143

other bodies of water on Earth make up

the hydrosphere. The lithosphere consists

of the rocks and soil on the surface

of Earth. People, animals, plants, and all

other living things rely on the nonliving

parts of the environment to survive. The

part of the environment where life happens

is called the biosphere.

The biosphere is made up of many ecosystems.

These are communities of living

things and the nonliving things that

they rely on.

Changes in the environment therefore

affect living things. Some changes are

natural. They include weather conditions;

the wearing away, or erosion, of

rocks and soil; and natural disasters such

as earthquakes.

People make changes in the environment,

too. Many of these changes are

harmful to living things. Around the

world, human activities have destroyed

animals’ habitats and polluted the air

and water. In addition, people’s use of

oil, coal, and natural gas may have led to

global warming. This is a rise in the

temperature of Earth’s surface.

Today many people are working to protect

the environment. These people try

to conserve, or save, natural resources.

They also try to recycle, or reuse, products

to avoid waste and pollution.

#More to explore

Conservation • Earth • Ecosystem

• GlobalWarming • Habitat • Pollution

• Recycling

Enzyme

Enzymes are important substances made

by the cells of plants and animals. They

are catalysts, or substances that control

how quickly chemical reactions occur.

These reactions are the processes that

keep all plants and animals functioning.

Enzymes help the body perform such

tasks as digestion and growing new cells.

Enzymes travel both inside and outside

cells. However, each enzyme is very particular

about where it will work and

what it will do. An enzyme usually does

just one task. Also, an enzyme acts on

only one type of substance, called the

substrate. The substrate fits into only

one place on an enzyme, the way a key

fits into a keyhole.

The many different types of enzyme

have many different tasks. Enzymes usually

speed up a process that otherwise

would be much slower. Some enzymes

work in the digestive system of animals

to break down food. In plants, enzymes

are used in photosynthesis. Photosynthe-

A woman

named Rachel

Carson wrote

about pollution

in a book

called Silent

Spring in

1962. It

helped start

the modern

effort to protect

the environment.

Yeast has enzymes that make dough rise.

144 Enzyme BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

sis is the process by which plants get

their food from sunlight. Other enzymes

move parts from one molecule to

another or help a cell burn fuel.

Enzymes are especially important for

controlling the speed at which things

happen in a cell. For example, the body

breaks down sugars for energy. Enzymes

make sure this happens slowly so that

too much energy is not created too

quickly.

People also use enzymes in industry and

medicine. Enzymes help to heal cuts and

to diagnose certain diseases. They are

also an important part of the process

called fermentation. This helps turn

milk to cheese and juice to wine, and it

makes bread rise before it is baked.

#More to explore

Cell • Fermentation

Eoraptor

Eoraptor may be one of the earliest dinosaurs

that ever existed. The name Eoraptor

means “dawn thief,” “early

plunderer,” or “dawn raptor.”

When and Where Eoraptor

Lived

Eoraptor lived about 231 to 223 million

years ago during the period of Earth’s

history called the Triassic. Eoraptor fossils,

or remains, have been discovered in

Argentina in South America. The dinosaur

lived on a lowland coastal plain

with many rivers and lakes.

Physical Features

Eoraptor was considerably smaller than

most of the later dinosaurs. It grew to an

average of about 3 feet (1 meter) in

length and weighed about 22 pounds

(10 kilograms). Eoraptor stood and

walked on its two back legs and had

short arms. It had hands with three long

clawed fingers at the end of each arm.

Eoraptor had different types of razorsharp

teeth. Its top teeth were jagged

like a saw and curved like those of other

meat-eating dinosaurs. The bottom

teeth were similar to those of the planteating

dinosaurs.

Eoraptor was not much larger than a modern-day chicken.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Eoraptor 145

Behavior

Eoraptor was a meat eater. It preyed on

small plant-eating dinosaurs. It also ate

mammal-like reptiles that were plentiful

at the time. Scientists believe that Eoraptor,

like other meat-eating dinosaurs,

also may have been a scavenger. This

means that it would have fed on dead

animals.

Epidemic

An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease

that quickly infects a large number of

people. When an epidemic spreads over

a wide area, it is called a pandemic. The

disease that causes an epidemic may be

passed from person to person. Or it may

be carried to people by something

nonhuman—for example, insects or

infected water.

There have been many deadly epidemics

throughout human history. In Europe

during the 1300s a disease called the

plague killed about 25 million people. It

became known as the Black Death.

Smaller outbreaks of plague struck European

cities for the next 300 years or so.

In 1918–19 there was a deadly influenza

(flu) pandemic. More than 20 million

people died throughout the world.

Epidemics are not as common as they

once were. Cleaner living conditions and

improved medicine have helped to slow

the spread of diseases. But epidemics of

diseases such as malaria and cholera still

happen in some parts of the world. The

disease called AIDS appeared in the

1980s and spread rapidly, especially in

Africa. In 2003 a flu-like illness called

SARS became an epidemic. SARS began

in Asia and spread throughout the world

within a few months.

#More to explore

AIDS • Disease, Human • Influenza

• Plague

Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a medical condition that

affects the brain. The brain’s cells communicate

with other cells by firing tiny

Women in Taiwan wear face masks to protect

themselves from getting an illness called

SARS. A SARS epidemic began in Asia in

2003.

A machine can check the electrical activity

of the brain to help determine if a person

has epilepsy.

146 Epidemic BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

electrical signals. An attack called a seizure

happens when brain cells signal

much faster than normal. People with

epilepsy suffer from such seizures.

Seizures range from mild to harsh.

Someone having a seizure may fall

down. Muscles may jerk, stiffen, or

become limp. The person may lose consciousness.

Breathing can stop temporarily.

The person may stare, blink, or

have sudden emotions.

Epilepsy may result from a brain injury

or a brain tumor. A stroke or a disease

that affects the brain can also cause epilepsy.

Sometimes epilepsy is passed

down from parent to child.

Epilepsy is hard to prevent. In about half

the cases the actual cause is not known.

People can lessen their chance of brain

injury by wearing seat belts in cars and

helmets on bikes.

There is no cure for epilepsy. Medicine

and a special diet can help control seizures.

Sometimes doctors perform brain

surgery. They may also place a small

machine under the person’s skin. The

machine sends electricity to the brain to

reduce the number of seizures.

#More to explore

Brain • Medicine

Equator

The equator is an imaginary circle

around Earth. It divides Earth into two

equal parts: the Northern Hemisphere

and the Southern Hemisphere. It runs

east and west halfway between the

North and South poles. The distance

around the equator is about 24,900

miles (40,000 kilometers).

The equator appears on maps and

globes. It is the starting point for the

measuring system called latitude. Latitude

is a system of imaginary east-west

lines, called parallels, that circle Earth

parallel to the equator. Parallels are used

to measure distances in degrees north or

south of the equator. The latitude of the

equator is zero degrees.

The equator passes through northern

South America, central Africa, the

Southeast Asian country of Indonesia,

and the islands of Oceania. These places

generally have warm climates. This is

because the equator receives more direct

sunlight throughout the year than any

other area of Earth.

#More to explore

Earth • Latitude and Longitude • Map

and Globe

An imaginary line called the equator runs

east and west around the middle of Earth. It

divides the globe into two parts, called hemispheres.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Equator 147

Equatorial Guinea

Equatorial Guinea is a country on the

west coast of Africa. It includes a mainland

region as well as several islands. The

capital, Malabo, is on Bioko Island.

Geography

The mainland region, called Rio Muni,

is bordered by Cameroon and Gabon.

The Gulf of Guinea, a part of the Atlantic

Ocean, separates Rio Muni from the

islands of Bioko, Corisco, Great Elobey,

Little Elobey, and Annobon. Bioko is

made up of three extinct volcanoes. All

of Equatorial Guinea has a warm climate

with rainy and dry seasons.

Plants and Animals

On the mainland, okume, African walnut,

and mahogany trees grow in thick

rain forests. Bioko has mangrove

swamps along the coast. Hunting has

decreased Equatorial Guinea’s wildlife,

which includes gorillas, chimpanzees,

leopards, elephants, and crocodiles.

People

The Fang people form the majority of

the population. The largest group on

Bioko is the Bubi. Spanish and French

are the official languages. Most people

are Roman Catholics. Almost half of the

population lives in cities.

Economy

Equatorial Guinea’s economy depends

on its petroleum (oil) reserves. Farming

and logging are also important. The

main crops are cassava, sweet potatoes,

palm oil, bananas, coconuts, cocoa, and

coffee. Petroleum, wood, and cocoa are

sold to other countries.

History

Portuguese explorers claimed the island

of Bioko, which they called Fernando

Po, in 1494. In 1778 Spain took over

the islands, which were a stopping

point for slave traders. From 1827 to

1858 the British occupied Fernando Po,

where it fought the slave trade. Spain

later combined the islands and the

mainland into the colony of Spanish

Guinea.

Equatorial Guinea declared its independence

from Spain in 1968. The first

president ruled harshly, and many citizens

were killed or left the country. Later

presidents allowed some elections but

kept strong control.

..More to explore

Africa • Malabo

Facts About

EQUATORIAL

GUINEA

Population

(2008 estimate)

616,000

Area

10,831 sq mi

(28,051 sq km)

Capital

Malabo

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Malabo, Bata,

Mbini, Ebebiyin,

Luba

148 Equatorial Guinea BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Erie, Lake

Lake Erie is the fourth largest of the five

Great Lakes of North America. It was

named after the Erie Indians, who once

lived on its shores.

Lake Erie forms the boundary between

the Canadian province of Ontario and

the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio,

Pennsylvania, and New York. It covers

an area of 9,910 square miles (25,667

square kilometers). It is the shallowest

and stormiest of the Great Lakes.

At its eastern end Lake Erie empties over

Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario. Its

western end contains several islands. The

largest is Pelee Island. Point Pelee

National Park is located on the northwestern

shore of the lake, in southern

Ontario.

Lake Erie has four major ports. Detroit,

Michigan, is at the western end. Buffalo,

New York, is at the eastern end. Cleveland

and Toledo, both in Ohio, are on

the lake’s southern shore. The lake is an

important link in the Saint Lawrence

Seaway. The seaway connects the Great

Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean.

Severe water pollution nearly destroyed

Lake Erie in the 1960s. It forced many

beaches and resorts to close. Scientists

and others tried to address the problem

beginning in the 1970s. By 1990 the

quality of the water in the lake had

improved greatly.

#More to explore

Great Lakes • Saint Lawrence River and

Seaway

Erie Canal

The Erie Canal is an artificial, or manmade,

waterway in the U.S. state of

Trees stand among sand dunes on the shore of Lake Erie in Erie, Pennsylvania.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Erie Canal 149

New York. It helps connect the Great

Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. The

canal runs 363 miles (584 kilometers)

between Buffalo, New York, on Lake

Erie, and Albany, New York. From

Albany, the Hudson River continues the

waterway to New York City.

Work began on the canal in 1817. The

engineers and builders who worked on

the canal faced many challenges. The

land that the canal was to pass through

was not flat. The engineers therefore had

to figure out how to move boats up and

down the natural changes in elevation.

They built 83 locks to do this. Locks are

structures that allow boats to be raised

or lowered by changing the level of the

water beneath them.

By the time the canal was finished in

1825 the engineers had learned a great

deal about building canals. They later

moved to other states to help build

canals throughout the country.

The Erie Canal was an immediate success.

It encouraged people to move west

and settle the midwestern United States.

It also helped the economies of many

cities in New York. Boats traveling west

through the canal carried settlers from

the East Coast to Michigan, Ohio, Indiana,

and Illinois. The settlers shipped

their farm produce back eastward. In

return, manufacturers in the Eastern

cities shipped their goods westward.

Shipments from New York City to the

Great Lakes took eight days using the

canal, much faster than before the canal

was built.

As the country’s railroad system was

built, the Erie Canal became less important.

However, it stayed in use and was

enlarged several times. In 1918 the Erie

Canal became the chief link in what is

now called the New York State Canal

System. Still in operation, it is now used

mostly for pleasure boating.

#More to explore

Atlantic Ocean • Canal • Great Lakes

Eriksson, Leif

#see Leif Eriksson.

A man steers two mules pulling a boat

along the Erie Canal. In the early days of

the canal this was how all boats traveled

through the canal.

150 Eriksson, Leif BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Eritrea

The country of Eritrea extends for

about 600 miles (1,000 kilometers)

along the Red Sea in northeastern

Africa. The country’s name comes from

the words Mare Erythraeum, the Latin

name for the Red Sea. The capital is

Asmara.

Geography

Eritrea borders Sudan, Ethiopia, and

Djibouti. It includes the Dahlak Archipelago,

or group of islands, in the Red

Sea. The high Ethiopian Plateau extends

into Eritrea from the south. The lowlands

along the coast are warmer and

drier than the highlands.

People

The Tigray people make up more than

half of the population. The Tigray speak

Tigrinya and are mostly Christians. The

Tigre, the next largest ethnic group, are

mostly Muslims. Their language, also

called Tigre, is similar to Tigrinya. Some

Eritreans also speak Arabic, English, or

Italian. About 80 percent of the people

live in rural areas.

Economy

Eritreans’ crops include root vegetables,

sorghum, beans, and grains. Sheep,

cattle, and goats are the main livestock.

In Asmara, factories make food products,

textiles, and leather goods. The

country’s mines provide salt.

History

Eritrea was originally part of the empire

of Aksum. The Ottoman Empire conquered

Eritrea in the 1500s. In 1889

Italy made Eritrea a colony. The British

controlled Eritrea from 1941 to 1952,

when the land passed to Ethiopia. Eritrea

gained independence from Ethiopia

in 1993. From 1998 to 2000 Eritrea and

Ethiopia fought over a strip of land

between them.

..More to explore

Aksum • Asmara • Ethiopia

Parts of Eritrea have a very dry climate.

Facts About

ERITREA

Population

(2008 estimate)

5,028,000

Area

46,774 sq mi

(121,144 sq km)

Capital

Asmara

Form of

government

Transitional

government

Major cities

Asmara, Keren,

Mendefera,

Asseb, Massawa

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Eritrea 151

Erosion

Water, wind, and other natural forces

cause rocks and earth to wear away.

These forces also move bits of rock and

earth to new places. This movement

changes the shape of the land. These

processes are called erosion.

Types of Erosion

River water picks up and moves mud,

pebbles, and larger rocks as it flows

downstream. These particles rub against

the riverbed and wear away more rock

and soil. This kind of erosion helped to

carve the Grand Canyon in the southwestern

United States. Over millions of

years the swiftly moving waters of the

Colorado River carried away bits of

earth and rock from the land. Little by

little the constant rush of water dug a

canyon out of a flat stretch of ground.

The pounding of ocean waves against

land also causes erosion. The waves constantly

move pebbles and sand on

beaches. The particles rub against each

other and against the rock along the

coast. Over time the water and the particles

wear down rock into more sand.

The water then carries the new sand

away.

Like waves, wind constantly carries sand

and other small bits of earth from one

place to another.Wind forms sand

dunes and changes their shape. As wind

throws sand and soil at rock, the shape

of the rock slowly changes.

The huge masses of ice called glaciers

also cause erosion. Glaciers scrape away

Water, wind, glaciers, and gravity all can

change the land through the process of erosion.

152 Erosion BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

parts of the rocks and the earth below as

they creep down mountain valleys. Glaciers

can even move boulders as big as

houses. When the glaciers melt, the

moved rocks and earth stay behind.

A landslide shows how gravity helps

erosion.Wind and rain can weaken the

sides of mountains and hills. Gravity

then causes soil, mud, and rocks to

tumble down.

Dangers of Erosion

Erosion can be very harmful to farmland.

Crops depend on rich soil for

healthy growth. But this top layer of soil

is thin.Wind and flowing water can

sweep it away.

Farmers use several methods to slow

down erosion. They plant trees around

farmland to block wind. They also cut

terraces, or ledges, into sloping land.

Water gathers on the terraces rather than

rushing down the slope and carrying

away the soil.

#More to explore

Canyon • Sand • Soil

Eskimo

The Eskimo are native people of the

Arctic regions. They live in Greenland,

Alaska, Canada, and eastern Russia.

Europeans and others have called them

Eskimo for hundreds of years. They have

different names for themselves. In

Canada and Greenland they prefer to be

called Inuit. In Alaska they prefer the

term Eskimo.

The Eskimo traditionally got almost all

their food by fishing and hunting. They

ate reindeer, seal, walrus, and whale

meat. On water Eskimo hunters traveled

in kayaks, which are boats covered with

animal skins. On land they rode on sleds

pulled by dogs.

The Eskimo made shelters called igloos

from blocks of snow. They also built

houses of stone or logs covered with

earth. In summer they lived in tents

made of animal skins. They wore

clothing made from animal fur and

sealskin.

In the 1800s and 1900s some Eskimo

left the Arctic to work in towns and

cities. Those who stayed began using

foreign goods such as guns, motorboats,

and snowmobiles.

At the end of the 20th century there

were about 117,000 Eskimo throughout

the region. In 1999 Canada created an

Inuit homeland called Nunavut.

#More to explore

Native Americans • Nunavut

An Eskimo family sits inside an igloo.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Eskimo 153

Estonia

Along with Latvia and Lithuania, Estonia

is one of the countries in northeastern

Europe called the Baltic states.

Estonia’s capital is Tallinn.

Geography

Estonia borders the Baltic Sea, Russia,

and Latvia. Two large islands, Saaremaa

and Hiiumaa, lie west of the mainland.

Much of the land is low-lying and

marshy. On the Russian border is the

large Lake Peipus. Estonia has cool summers

and moderately cold winters.

Plants and Animals

Forests cover almost half of Estonia.

Pines, firs, birches, and aspens are common

trees. The forests provide homes

for roe deer, elk, lynx, bears, wild boars,

and flying squirrels. Birds include various

types of eagles and black storks.

People

About two thirds of the people are

ethnic Estonians. The Estonian

language is much like Finnish. Russians

form the next largest group. There are

also small groups of Ukrainians,

Belarusians, and Finns. Christianity is

the main religion, but less than half of

the people are religious. The population

is mainly urban.

Economy

Most Estonians work in services, including

transportation, computer technology,

and telecommunications.

Manufacturers make processed food,

electronics, machinery, cotton cloth, and

wood products. A key part of Estonia’s

industry is a mineral called oil shale,

which is used for fuel.

History

The Estonians survived invasions by

Vikings, Danes, Swedes, and Russians

until the 1200s, when German knights

conquered the area. By 1629 Sweden

had won the Estonian lands. After 1721

Russia ruled Estonia for almost two centuries.

The Estonians declared their

independence in 1918. In 1940,

however, the Soviet Union made

Estonia one of its republics. In 1991

Estonia won full independence from

the Soviet Union, which was breaking

apart. Estonia joined the European

Union in 2004.

..More to explore

Baltic Sea • Tallinn

Facts About

ESTONIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

1,340,000

Area

17,462 sq mi

(45,227 sq km)

Capital

Tallinn

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Tallinn, Tartu,

Narva, Kohtla-

Jarve, Parnu

154 Estonia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a country in East Africa. It

has been a country since ancient times.

The capital is Addis Ababa.

Geography

Ethiopia is bordered by Eritrea, Djibouti,

Somalia, Kenya, and Sudan. It

has no coastline. The land is a mixture

of highlands and lowlands. The low

Great Rift Valley runs through the highlands

toward the northeast. The highest

peak in Ethiopia, Mount Ras Dejen,

rises to 15,157 feet (4,620 meters).

The climate is mild in the highlands and

hotter in the lowlands. There are two

rainy seasons, but the country can experience

devastating droughts.

Plants and Animals

Grasslands cover much of Ethiopia.

Tropical forests grow in the highlands,

but many forests have been cleared to

create fields.

National parks and reserves protect

some of Ethiopia’s unique animals.

Among them are the walia ibex (a type

of mountain goat), the Simien jackal,

and the gelada monkey. Ethiopia’s lions,

elephants, leopards, buffalo, zebras,

giraffes, and rhinoceroses are endangered,

or at risk of dying out.

People

The Oromo and the Amhara peoples

each make up about one third of the

population. Other ethnic groups include

the Somali and the Tigray. Amharic and

Oromo are the most common languages.

About half of Ethiopia’s people

belong to the Ethiopian Orthodox

Christian church. About one third of the

population is Muslim. More than three

fourths of the people live in rural areas,

mainly in the highlands.

The walia ibex lives in Ethiopia’s

Simien Mountains National Park.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ethiopia 155

Economy

Ethiopia is one of the world’s poorest

countries. The economy depends on

agriculture, but poor soil and droughts

make farming difficult. The main food

crops are corn, sugarcane, sorghum,

wheat, and barley. The country grows

coffee to sell to other countries. Cattle,

sheep, and goats provide meat and

leather.

Industry forms only a small part of the

economy. Manufacturers make food

products, beverages, textiles, leather

goods, and chemicals. Mines provide

salt, gold, and other minerals.

History

Fossils of some of the earliest human

ancestors have been found in Ethiopia.

Bones from an apelike creature known

as Lucy are between 3 and 4 million

years old.

The kingdom of Da’amat ruled the

region in the 600s BC. The kingdom of

Aksum seized control by around AD 300.

Aksum soon adopted Christianity.

When Islam started to spread from

nearby Arabia in the 600s, Ethiopia

remained Christian. In the 1500s the

Portuguese helped the Ethiopians defeat

invading Arab armies.

In the late 1800s Italy wanted to make

Ethiopia a colony. However, the Ethiopians

defeated the invading Italians.

Italians again attacked Ethiopia in 1935.

The following year they made Ethiopia a

part of a territory known as Italian East

Africa. The territory lasted until 1941,

when British troops forced the Italians

out of the area. In 1952 Ethiopia took

over Eritrea.

In 1974 Ethiopia’s military removed

Emperor Haile Selassie from power.

That ended the country’s ancient monarchy.

The military government, known

as the Derg, made Ethiopia a socialist

country. (Socialists work to spread

wealth more evenly among people.)

In the 1970s and 1980s rebel groups

fought against the military government.

Meanwhile, tens of thousands of Ethiopians

died during droughts and famines.

In 1991 rebels toppled the military government.

Ethiopia held its first democratic

elections in 1995.

From 1998 to 2000 Ethiopia fought a

border war with Eritrea, which had

gained independence in 1993. Tensions

between the two countries continued

into the 21st century.

..More to explore

Addis Ababa • Aksum • Eritrea

• Human Origins

Women in Ethiopia carry water in jugs.

Facts About

ETHIOPIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

78,254,000

Area

435,186 sq mi

(1,127,127 sq

km)

Capital

Addis Ababa

Form of

government

Federal republic

Major cities

Addis Ababa,

Dire Dawa,

Nazret, Gonder,

Dese, Mekele

156 Ethiopia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Etna, Mount

Mount Etna is the highest active volcano

in Europe. It is on the island of Sicily in

the Mediterranean Sea. (Sicily is a part

of Italy.) Mount Etna is about 11,000

feet (3,350 meters) high. It has a base

that measures about 93 miles (150 kilometers)

around.

Etna has been an active volcano for

more than 2.5 million years. The

ancient Greeks created legends about it.

According to one story, the volcano was

the workshop of Hephaestus, the god of

fire, and the Cyclops, a one-eyed giant.

Seventy-one eruptions of Etna were

recorded between 1500 BC and AD 1669.

The lava flow from a massive eruption

in 1669 destroyed a dozen villages and

buried part of the town of Catania. Etna

erupted 26 more times between 1669

and 1900 and frequently thereafter. In

1983, during an eruption that lasted

four months, authorities exploded dynamite

to change the lava flow and prevent

damage to surrounding towns. Mount

Etna also erupted violently several times

in the early 21st century.

#More to explore

Volcano

Eucalyptus

Eucalyptuses, or eucalypti, are tall trees.

In fact, some of the tallest trees in the

world are eucalypti. Eucalypti are sometimes

known as gum trees or stringybark

trees.

Eucalypti are most numerous in Australia.

They also grow in other places where

the weather is mild. Eucalypti can be

found in New Zealand, South America,

southern Europe, and northern Africa.

They also grow in California.

There are more than 500 species, or

types, of eucalyptus. Some are only

about 30 feet (9 meters) in height. But

In Australia eucalypti are sometimes

called stringybark trees.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Eucalyptus 157

many eucalypti grow much taller. The

giant gum tree of Australia is more than

300 feet (90 meters) tall. Its trunk is

about 25 feet (7.6 meters) around.

Eucalypti have long, thin leaves. They

are light or dark green. Small flowers

grow on eucalyptus trees. They come in

many colors, including white, yellow,

and shades of red. Eucalypti also have

small woody capsules. Inside the capsules

are seeds.

Some eucalyptus leaves contain an oil

that has a strong smell. The oil is used in

medicines, such as cough drops. Eucalyptus

wood is tough and durable. It is

used to build things such as furniture

and fences. The koala, a small Australian

mammal, eats eucalyptus leaves.

#More to explore

Koala • Tree

Euoplocephalus

Euoplocephalus was a plant-eating dinosaur

that walked on four legs. It was one

of a family called the ankylosaurs. The

ankylosaurs all had bony plates on their

backs and sides that acted as armor to

protect them. Euoplocephalus was different

from most other ankylosaurs because

it also had bones that protected the face,

including the eyelids.

When and Where

Euoplocephalus Lived

Euoplocephalus lived during the period of

Earth’s history called the Late Cretaceous.

This lasted from 99 to 65 million

years ago. Many Euoplocephalus remains

have been found in the Canadian province

of Alberta and in Montana in the

United States.

Physical Features

Euoplocephalus was a powerfully built

creature. It grew to about 20 feet (6

meters) in length and probably weighed

more than 2 tons. Its body was wide and

low to the ground. It walked on legs that

were short but thick and strong. Large

horns jutted out from the rear of the

head and the cheek region of the face.

Like all of the ankylosaurs, Euoplocephalus

had a powerful tail with a heavy

club at the end.

Behavior

Euoplocephalus moved very slowly. It

depended on the bony plates covering its

body to protect it from its enemies. The

Euoplocephalus

158 Euoplocephalus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

club at the end of its tail was used as a

weapon in self-defense. When attacked,

Euoplocephalus could swing its tail with a

great deal of force. Like most other

dinosaurs, Euoplocephalus reproduced by

laying eggs.

Euphrates River

Together with the Tigris River, the

Euphrates forms a great river system of

southwestern Asia. The land between

these two rivers is known as

Mesopotamia. Some of the world’s

oldest civilizations—Sumer, Akkad,

Babylonia, and Assyria—were

established there thousands of years ago.

The Euphrates is the longest river in

southwestern Asia. It is about 1,700

miles (2,700 kilometers) long. It begins

in the mountains of eastern Turkey. It

flows southeast through northern Syria

and Iraq. The Euphrates runs alongside

the Tigris until the two merge in southeastern

Iraq. Together they form a river

called the Shatt Al-!Arab. The Shatt

Al-!Arab flows into the Persian Gulf.

The Euphrates has two flood periods.

One is caused by rains from November

to March. The other is in April and May

when the snow melts in the mountains

in Turkey. But because the land it flows

through is very dry, the Euphrates loses

much water through evaporation.

The climate along the Euphrates is one

of cold in the winter and extreme heat

in the summer. Temperatures may fall

below freezing in the winter in the

higher areas. They may be as high as

140° F (60° C) during summer days in

the lower areas.

The Euphrates makes the region livable

despite the harsh climate.Water from

the river is used for irrigation (artificial

watering) of farmland along the riverbanks.

People have built many canals to

bring water from the river to the fields.

Farmers grow grapevines, olives,

tobacco, and grains. They also grow

dates and other fruits. In fact, Mesopotamia

has always been known for its

date palms. The Euphrates also provides

fish, which are another source of food

for the region.

#More to explore

Irrigation • Mesopotamia • Tigris River

A fisherman casts his net into the Euphrates

River in Iraq.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Euphrates River 159

Europe

Europe is the second smallest of the

world’s seven continents. Nevertheless

Europe has more people than any other

continent except Asia and Africa.

Land and Climate

Europe has scarcely any desert, and a

greater proportion of its land is suitable

for farming than in any other continent.

More than half the land—including

much of western and eastern Europe—

consists of fairly flat, low plains. In parts

of northern Europe glaciers have created

a rocky landscape. Southern Europe

occupies land that juts into the Mediterranean

Sea.

Europe’s highest mountains are found in

the south. The rugged Alps dominate

south-central Europe, while the Pyrenees

form a high barrier between Spain and

France. Europe’s eastern boundary is

formed by the low Ural Mountains,

which stretch through Russia from

north to south. (Western Russia is part

of Europe, while eastern Russia lies in

Asia.)

Europe has many rivers but few large

lakes. The major rivers include the

Rhine, Seine, and Rhone in the west,

the Po in the south, and the Danube,

Elbe, Oder, Vistula, Volga, and Don in

the center and east.

Most of western Europe has a moist and

moderate climate, while eastern Europe

has cold winters and hot summers, especially

in the southeast. The winter can

160 Europe BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Europe 161

be long and very cold in the far north.

The countries near the Mediterranean

Sea have hot, dry summers and mild

winters.

Plants and Animals

Evergreen forests of pine, spruce, fir, and

larch grow in parts of the north and

northeast. In the southeast lie areas of

grassland. Plants that do not need much

water, such as olive and cypress trees,

grow in the Mediterranean region. The

rest of Europe was once a vast forest, but

most of it is now gone. Over the centuries

people chopped down trees to make

room for farming and other human

activities.

Many large animals—even lions—once

roamed Europe but have disappeared

because of human activity. The gray wolf

and beaver now survive only in a few

remote areas, and the range of the European

bison also has been much reduced.

Northern Europe is home to reindeer.

People

Most Europeans are descended from

other Europeans, though some Europeans

are of African or Asian ancestry. The

vast majority of the people speak either a

Romance language (such as French,

Spanish, and Italian), a Germanic language

(such as German, English, and the

Scandinavian languages), or a Slavic

language (such as Russian, Polish, and

Czech).

Some form of Christianity is the main

religion in almost every European country.

Most Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese,

French, Austrians, Hungarians, Poles,

and Belgians are Roman Catholic. Protestantism

is the main religion in Scandinavia,

the United Kingdom, and The

Netherlands. Eastern Orthodox Chris-

There are many fjords in Norway, which is in northern Europe. Fjords are long, narrow

arms of the sea.

Spanish girls in traditional dresses pose for

a photograph in Sevilla, Spain. Spain is on

the western edge of Europe.

162 Europe BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tians live in Greece, Russia, and other

eastern and southern countries. Jews live

throughout Europe, but their numbers

were greatly reduced in the Holocaust

carried out by Nazi Germany during

WorldWar II. Muslims live in many

European countries and form the majority

in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,

and Turkey.

Europe is a world leader in education

and health. European governments generally

provide health care to all citizens,

and on average Europeans live longer

than people in many other parts of the

world.

Economy

The economies of many European

nations are based mostly on services,

such as trade, tourism, banking, insurance,

and shipping. But producing

goods is still very important, and Europe

is one of the world’s major industrial

regions. European factories produce

machine and metal products, chemicals,

appliances, textiles, drugs, and a great

variety of other goods.Western Europe

has the most highly developed industries,

while southern Europe has less

manufacturing than the other regions.

Minerals extracted in Europe include

coal, iron, iron ore, copper, zinc, lead,

aluminum, mercury, titanium, potash,

and sulfur.

In most of Europe farming contributes

less to the economy than services and

manufacturing do. But European farms

are very productive. The continent is a

great producer of cereals, roots, edible

oils, fibers, fruit, and livestock. From

Europe comes most of the world’s rye,

more than half of the oats, and more

than a third of the potatoes and wheat.

History

European civilization first arose in

ancient Greece. The Greeks developed

ideas about government, philosophy,

and the arts and sciences that were followed

by many other later societies.

According to tradition, the city of Rome

(now part of Italy) was founded in 753

BC.Within about 700 years Rome controlled

a vast empire. The Romans con-

Facts About

EUROPE

Area

3,844,905 sq mi (9,958,258 sq km)

Population

(2008 estimate) 696,933,440

Largest Country by Area

European portion of Russia: 1,526,200 sq

mi (3,952,840 sq km)

Smallest Country by Area

Vatican City: 0.2 sq mi (0.4 sq km)

Largest Country by Population

European portion of Russia: (2008 estimate)

103,560,740

Smallest Country by Population

Vatican City: (2008 estimate) 930

Largest Cities

Moscow, Russia; London, England; Saint

Petersburg, Russia; Berlin, Germany;

Madrid, Spain

Longest River

Volga River, Russia: 2,193 mi (3,530 km)

Largest Lake

Caspian Sea (Europe/Asia): 143,000 sq mi

(370,000 sq km) [off map]

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Europe 163

quered the Greeks but spread many

aspects of Greek culture. Beginning in

the AD 300s the Romans also spread

Christianity. The empire itself spread to

the east. In the 400s the western part of

the empire, still based in Rome, fell

apart.

The Middle Ages lasted from the fall of

Rome to about 1500. In place of Roman

central government there arose a system

of local government called feudalism. A

ruler named Charlemagne created a new

empire in about 800. Later, from the

remains of his empire rose many of the

nations of modern Europe.

The Middle Ages were a time of deep

religious belief. In 1054 Christianity

split into the Roman Catholic church

and the Eastern Orthodox church.

The 1500s and 1600s saw a period of

arts and learning known as the Renaissance.

Meanwhile, many people broke

away from the Roman Catholic church

during the Protestant Reformation. In

the 1700s a period called the Enlightenment

stressed the importance of reasoning.

Its ideas helped fuel the French

Revolution of 1789. This revolution

helped spread ideas about democracy.

Further change came during the Industrial

Revolution, which began in

England in the 1700s. Machines made it

easier to produce goods. Several European

countries also set up large overseas

empires. Europe grew wealthy from its

industries and its colonies. It came to

dominate much of the world.

The first half of the 1900s brought two

world wars. Both began in Europe and

pitted Germany and its allies against

otherWestern countries. Both brought

huge destruction and loss of life.

Following the end ofWorldWar II in

1945, most European nations fell into

one of two opposing groups. These were

the Communist countries of eastern

Europe, which were led by the Soviet

Union, and the democracies of western

Europe. In the early 1990s the Soviet

Union broke apart. The countries of

eastern Europe began to change to

democratic systems.

Beginning in the mid-1900s the countries

of Europe created a variety of organizations

to help them become more

unified. In 1993 one of these organizations

became the European Union

..More to explore

Empire • Enlightenment • European

Union • Feudalism • Industrial

Revolution • Reformation • Renaissance

The Swallow’s Nest Castle perches on a cliff

above the Black Sea in the Ukrainian city of

Yalta.

164 Europe BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

European Union

The European Union (EU) was formed

to bring together the countries of

Europe. The EU helps its member countries

with issues such as trade, security,

and the rights of citizens. By 2007 the

group had 27 member countries.

Structure

The European Union has five main

parts. The European Parliament makes

laws. The voters of EU countries elect its

members. The Council of the European

Union is the EU’s main decisionmaking

body. It is made up of representatives

of the governments of the

member countries. The European Commission

puts EU policies into action.

The Court of Justice holds trials. The

Court of Auditors makes sure that the

EU’s money is managed correctly.

History

AfterWorldWar II (1939–45) the countries

of western Europe wanted to avoid

future wars. Some leaders thought that

having their countries work together

would help.

In 1952 six countries—France,West

Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands,

and Luxembourg—formed the

European Coal and Steel Community

(ECSC). The ECSC brought together

the countries’ coal and steel businesses.

It was a success.

The ECSC countries then looked for

other ways to cooperate. In 1958 they

set up the European Atomic Energy

Community (also called Euratom) to

produce nuclear power together. They

also formed the European Economic

Community (EEC). The EEC worked

to get rid of taxes and rules that limited

trade in Europe.

The ECSC, Euratom, and the EEC

merged in 1967 to form the European

Communities (EC). More countries

joined the EC in the 1970s and 1980s.

The EC was so successful in economic

matters that its members started

working together in other ways. In

1991 the members agreed to form the

European Union. The EU was officially

created in 1993. It added more

members in the years that followed.

The EU currency, or form of money, is

called the euro. It was introduced in

1999. Most member countries switched

from their own currencies to the euro.

However, the United Kingdom and

some other countries did not. Some

countries not in the EU, such as

Andorra and Monaco, also use the euro.

The euro replaced a number of national

currencies, including the peseta (Spain) and

the mark (Germany).

The EU has

many offices.

The Council

meets in Brussels,

Belgium.

The Parliament

meets in Strasbourg,

France.

The Court of

Justice meets

in Luxembourg.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA European Union 165

Eurydice

#see Orpheus and Eurydice.

Evaporation and

Condensation

Evaporation and condensation are two

processes through which matter changes

from one state to another. Matter is

anything that takes up space. It can

exist in three different states: solid,

liquid, or gas. In evaporation, matter

changes from a liquid to a gas. In

condensation, matter changes from a

gas to a liquid.

All matter is made of tiny moving particles

called molecules. Evaporation and

condensation happen when these molecules

gain or lose energy in the form of

heat.

Evaporation

As the sun heats water in a puddle, the

puddle slowly shrinks. In a similar way,

as water in a pot boils, the level of the

water falls. These are two examples of

evaporation. The water seems to disappear,

but it actually moves into the air as

a gas called water vapor.

Evaporation happens when a liquid is

heated. The heat gives the liquid’s molecules

more energy. This energy causes

the molecules to move faster. If they

gain enough energy, the molecules near

the surface break away. These molecules

escape the liquid and enter the air as gas.

Condensation

An example of condensation can be seen

when drops of water form on the outside

of a glass of ice water. The drops

seem to appear from nowhere, but they

actually form from water vapor in the

air. The dew that forms on grass overnight

is another example of condensation.

Condensation is also the reason

that clouds form. Clouds are made up of

tiny water droplets, formed from water

vapor. The droplets collect around dust

or other particles in the air.

Condensation happens when molecules

in a gas cool down. As the molecules

lose heat, they lose energy. As a result

they slow down. They move closer to

other gas molecules. Finally these molecules

collect together to form a liquid.

#More to explore

Dew • Heat • Matter • Molecule

•Water

Steam from boiling water is

actually water vapor. It forms

through evaporation.

166 Eurydice BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Everest, Mount

The highest point on Earth is Mount

Everest. Everest is one of the Himalayas

of southern Asia. The peak is on the

border between Nepal and the Chinese

region of Tibet. In Tibetan the peak is

known as Chomolungma, meaning

“Goddess Mother of theWorld.”

Mount Everest rises to a height of

29,035 feet (8,850 meters). The air at

that height is thin, the temperatures are

very cold, and the winds are extraordinarily

strong. The conditions near the

top are too harsh for any plant or animal

life to survive. Huge ice sheets called

glaciers cover the slopes down to the

base of the mountain.

Some Tibetan-speaking peoples live in

the valleys below the mountain. The

best known are the Sherpa. They live in

villages at altitudes up to about 14,000

feet (4,300 meters). The Sherpa are

known for their strength and endurance

at high altitudes. They lead climbing

trips in the Himalayas.

Mount Everest has long been a challenge

to mountaineers. Early attempts to reach

the summit began in the 1920s. They

failed largely because of the harsh conditions

on the mountain. The first successful

climb took place in 1953. Edmund

Hillary of New Zealand and Tenzing

Norgay, a Nepalese Sherpa guide, were

the first to reach the top. Since then

there have been a number of successful

climbs.

#More to explore

Hillary, Edmund • Himalayas

• Mountain

Everglades

The Everglades is a huge marsh, or wetland,

that covers much of southern

Florida. It borders the Gulf of Mexico

on the west and the Florida Bay on the

south. A narrow belt of sandy land lies

to the east. The Everglades National

Park covers the southwestern part of the

Snow and ice surround the peak of Mount

Everest, the highest point on Earth.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Everglades 167

marsh. The Everglades is popular with

fishers, boaters, and tourists.

Saw grass, which may grow 10 to 15 feet

(3 to 5 meters) tall, covers much of the

watery land. Islands called hammocks sit

in between stretches of open water.

These hammocks are home to trees and

shrubs, including palms, pines,

cypresses, oaks, and saw palmettos.

The water and the warm climate attract

many birds and animals to the Everglades.

These include herons, egrets,

alligators, snakes, and turtles. The hammocks

shelter such animals as deer, wildcats,

pumas, bears, and many reptiles.

In the past, people drained parts of the

Everglades to create farmland. They also

built levees (ridges) to prevent flooding

in the region. These human activities

destroyed much of the Everglades. Today

laws protect the marsh from further

damage.

Native Americans called the Everglades

Pa-Hay-Okee, meaning “grassy water.”

They traveled through the marsh in

canoes and hunted and fished there. The

area’s Calusa Indians disappeared by

about 1800. The Seminole Indians

moved into the region in the late 1700s.

The Seminole fought a series of wars to

keep white settlers from taking over the

land. The Seminole finally surrendered

to the United States in 1858. Most of

them moved west to the Indian Territory,

which is now Oklahoma. A small

community of Seminole remains in the

Everglades.

#More to explore

Florida • Marsh • Seminole

Evers, Medgar

Medgar Evers was devoted to the

struggle for equal rights for African

Americans. In the end he gave his life

for it. His assassination called attention

to racial hatred in the southern United

States.

MedgarWiley Evers was born in Decatur,

Mississippi, on July 2, 1925. He

The Everglades covers more than 4,300

square miles (11,100 square kilometers).

168 Evers, Medgar BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

served in the U.S. Army duringWorld

War II. After the war he studied at

Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical

College in Mississippi. At the time African

Americans were not allowed to go to

the state university in Mississippi.

In the southern United States blacks and

whites were kept apart in many ways.

This policy was known as segregation.

African Americans had fewer opportunities

than whites and were usually kept

from voting.

Evers wanted to end these injustices. In

1952 he joined the National Association

for the Advancement of Colored People

(NAACP). In 1962 he helped James

Meredith enroll at the University of

Mississippi as its first African American

student. Evers also campaigned for voting

rights for blacks.

On the night of June 12, 1963, Evers

was shot to death. The murder shocked

the entire country. Afterward, civil rights

workers strengthened their efforts.

Medgar Evers’ work was carried on by

his older brother, James Evers.

Byron de La Beckwith, a white segregationist,

was tried three times for Evers’

murder. He was found guilty in 1994.

#More to explore

African Americans • Civil Rights

Movement • National Association for

the Advancement of Colored People

Evolution

Evolution is the theory that all the kinds

of living things that exist today developed

from earlier types. The differences

between them resulted from changes

that happened over many years. The

simplest forms of life arose at least 3.5

billion years ago. Over time they evolved

into the more than 2 million species, or

types, of living things alive today.

Some people do not accept evolution

because of their religious beliefs. The

people who are opposed to evolution

believe that God or another being created

each species in more or less its

present form. Instead of evolution, they

accept ideas called creationism or intelligent

design.

Nearly all scientists accept evolution.

This theory is central to the modern

science of biology. As a scientific theory,

evolution is testable. Scientists have performed

many experiments and examined

Medgar Evers

Evers was buried

in Arlington

National

Cemetery near

Washington,

D.C.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Evolution 169

huge amounts of evidence from a variety

of scientific fields. The evidence very

strongly supports evolution.

Evidence

One type of evidence comes from fossils,

or the remains of living things preserved

in the ground or underwater. Fossils

show that many species that once existed

were quite different from any kinds alive

today. Dinosaurs are an example of this.

Many fossils also show how certain living

things changed over time. For

example, the bones of horses from more

than 50 million years ago show that

early horses were about the size of modern

dogs. Bones from several later stages

of the horse show that they got bigger

over time.

Very strong evidence for evolution

comes from the study of DNA—the

material that carries a living thing’s

genes. Genes pass along traits, or characteristics,

from one generation to the

next. The DNA of different species

shows that they developed from common

ancestors.

Natural Selection

Evolution results from a process called

natural selection. This process can happen

when an individual’s genes differ in

some way from the genes of others of its

kind. Variations, or differences, in genes

cause differences in an individual’s

traits—such as how it looks, its structure,

or its behavior.

These variations occur mostly by chance

as genes copy themselves to make new

Over millions of years horses grew in size.

At the same time they lost all but one of

their toes.

170 Evolution BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

cells. Mistakes, called mutations, sometimes

occur during the copying process.

Most changes in genes either harm the

individual or do not matter much. But

some changes help an individual to survive

and reproduce. For instance, an

animal may have better vision or faster

legs. These traits may help it find food

and avoid its enemies. A tree may have a

gene that causes it to make more seeds.

Such useful traits give the individual an

advantage over others of its kind. It will

be more likely to reproduce and pass its

genes along to the next generation. Over

time, more and more individuals will

have the helpful trait. In this way, living

things change over time.

Through natural selection species

become adapted, or better fit, to their

environments. For instance, a sandcolored

gerbil living in a sandy desert

blends in with its surroundings. Snakes

will be more likely to see and eat gerbils

of other colors. Over time the gerbils of

other colors will die out, leaving only

sand-colored ones.

History

The English scientist Charles Darwin

was the founder of the modern theory of

evolution. During a trip around the

world, he collected fossils and observed

the many variations among living things

on a group of islands. From these and

other studies, he came to believe that

new species developed from earlier

forms. In 1859 Darwin published his

theory of evolution in an important

book called On the Origin of Species. He

later wrote a book about the evolution

of humans.

In the early 1900s scientists used ideas

from the new science of genetics to

explain in detail how evolution happens.

Later advances have allowed scientists to

study DNA. These studies help scientists

determine how closely related various

species of living thing are to one

another.

#More to explore

Adaptation • Biology • Darwin, Charles

• DNA • Genetics • Human Origins

• Living Thing

Exercise

Exercise is a way of keeping the body

healthy through being active. Another

name for exercise is physical fitness.

Most people exercise in their spare time.

Others have jobs that involve exercise.

Sports are some of the most popular

ways to get exercise.

Longnose hawkfish have evolved to look

similar to the coral in their habitats. Their

color and shape help them to blend into

their surroundings.

Since Darwin’s

time many

more fossils

have been

collected,

including

ancestors of

modern

humans.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Exercise 171

Kinds of Exercise

The two main kinds of exercise are aerobic

exercise and anaerobic exercise.

Sports such as football and basketball are

great forms of exercise because they

combine both of these types.

Aerobic exercise is energetic movement

that lasts for a certain period of time.

During aerobic exercise the body combines

oxygen with sugar to get more

energy. The lungs and the heart work

harder to bring in extra oxygen. Swimming,

cycling, running, and rapid walking

are good examples of aerobic

exercise.

Anaerobic exercise is a powerful burst of

movement followed by a period of rest.

During anaerobic exercise the muscles

need more energy than the body can

make with its supply of oxygen. After

the exercise a person feels out of breath

because the muscles have worked without

oxygen.Weight lifting, jumping,

and sprinting are all types of anaerobic

exercise.

Health Benefits

Exercise affects every part of the body in

positive ways. It improves balance and

coordination. It also improves posture,

or the resting position of the body. Exercise

strengthens the heart and increases

the lungs’ ability to take in oxygen.

Through exercise the bones and muscles

get stronger, and the whole body

becomes trim and toned.

Exercise also gives people a greater feeling

of well-being. People who exercise

generally have a more positive, happy

attitude.

#More to explore

Sports

Exoskeleton

An exoskeleton is a hard covering that

supports and protects the bodies of

some types of animals. The word

exoskeleton means “outside skeleton.”

Many invertebrates, or animals without

backbones, have exoskeletons. Insects

are the largest group of invertebrates

that have exoskeletons.

Insects have exoskeletons made of a substance

called chitin. The exoskeletons of

crabs, lobsters, shrimp, spiders, ticks,

mites, scorpions, and related animals are

also made of chitin.

While exoskeletons are hard and stiff,

they also have joints, or bendable sec-

Hiking in the mountains is a

good way to get exercise.

172 Exoskeleton BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tions. These joints allow the animals to

move easily. The exoskeletons of land

animals also have small breathing holes,

which are called spiracles.

As animals with exoskeletons age, their

soft inside parts grow. But their

exoskeletons do not grow. When an

animal’s soft body gets too big for the

exoskeleton, the exoskeleton splits open

and falls away. This process is called

molting. The animal’s body then forms

a new exoskeleton. The animal has no

protection while the new exoskeleton is

forming.

Many of the invertebrates known as

mollusks have a type of exoskeleton

called a shell. Mollusks include clams,

oysters, scallops, conchs, mussels, and

snails. Their shells are made of a substance

called calcium carbonate. Mollusks

with shells do not molt. As the

animals grow, the shells grow, too, along

the edges.

#More to explore

Insect • Shell

Exploration

People throughout history have gone

exploring to learn about unknown

places. By the beginning of the 21st

century most of Earth’s surface had been

explored. Exploration, however, continues

in new directions—thousands of feet

below sea level and many miles into

space.

Exploration of Earth’s Surface

The first known explorer was Hannu, an

Egyptian who lived in 2750 BC. He

brought riches back from what are now

Ethiopia and Somalia. Many other great

explorers followed. In the 300s BC Alexander

the Great of Macedonia (near

Greece) made colonies of the lands he

A cicada breaks free from the exoskeleton it

has outgrown.

A monument in Lisbon, Portugal, honors

Portuguese discoverers. Throughout history,

explorers have been admired for their

courage and spirit.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Exploration 173

explored, as far away as India. In the AD

1200s Marco Polo traveled from Italy to

China.

A great age of European exploration by

sea began in the 1400s. Portuguese

explorers sailed along the coasts of

Africa, Arabia, and India. In 1492

Christopher Columbus sailed west and

landed in the Americas. In 1522 Ferdinand

Magellan’s ship completed the first

voyage around the world. In the 1700s

the British explorer James Cook reached

Australia, Hawaii, and other islands in

the Pacific Ocean.

Many explorers traveled inland from the

coasts to seek riches, to build settlements,

or to spread Christianity. In the

process, they met—and often fought

with—native peoples. In the 1500s

Spanish explorers called conquistadors

conquered much of Mexico and South

America. Between 1804 and 1806 the

Lewis and Clark Expedition explored

the western parts of North America.

Later in the 1800s David Livingstone

and Sir Henry Morton Stanley explored

parts of Africa that Europeans had never

seen.

Explorers first reached Earth’s poles in

the 1900s. Robert E. Peary and Matthew

Henson were the first people at the

North Pole, in 1909. The first explorer

at the South Pole was Roald Amundsen,

in 1911.

Undersea and Underground

Exploration

In 1960 DonaldWalsh and Jacques Piccard

reached the deepest part of the

ocean, 35,800 feet (10,912 meters)

down. They were in a craft called a

bathyscaphe. Even now, much of the

ocean remains unknown. Scientists are

still discovering new forms of undersea

life.

A huge unexplored region lies beneath

the ground as well. Russian scientists

drilled the deepest hole into Earth

between 1970 and 1989. It was 7.6

miles (12.2 kilometers) deep.

Space Exploration

A human traveler first explored space in

1961. In that year the Soviet cosmonaut

Yuri Gagarin orbited, or traveled

around, Earth in a spacecraft. On July

20, 1969, the U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong

and Edwin Aldrin became the

first humans on the Moon.

Thanks to modern technology, places

where no people have gone can still be

Most of Earth’s

surface has

been

explored. But

there are

many caves

just below the

surface that

are still unexplored.

A crane lowers a craft called a bathyscaphe

into the water in 1959. Auguste

Piccard and his son Jacques invented the

craft to explore the deep sea.

174 Exploration BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

explored. Unmanned spacecraft are

operated by radio. These space probes

can travel deep into space without having

to return to Earth. Space probes

have sent back pictures and other information

about the planets and other parts

of the solar system.

#More to explore

Americas, Exploration and Settlement of

the • Polar Exploration • Space

Exploration

Extinction

#see Animals, Extinct.

Eye

Humans and other animals use their

eyes to see. When people see an object,

they actually see light reflecting, or

bouncing, off that object. This light

enters the eye. The eye changes the light

into electrical signals, which travel

through the optic nerve to the brain.

The brain interprets, or reads, these signals

as an image, or picture, of the

object.

The Human Eye

Humans have two eyes. Each eyeball sits

in a socket, or opening, in the skull. The

skull bone protects the eye on the sides

and back. The eyelid protects the front

of the eye. By blinking, eyelids also

move tears across the eye. Tears keep

eyes moist. Eyelashes catch dust and

other particles that could enter the eye.

Six muscles hold the eyeball in place and

move it up, down, and sideways.

The eyeball is filled with a clear jelly.

Three coats, or layers, surround this

jelly. The outer coat consists of the

sclera, or white part of the eye, and the

cornea. The cornea is the window of the

eye, through which light passes.

The middle coat holds the eye’s main

blood supply. The iris, or colored part of

the eye, makes up the front part of this

In 1971 U.S. astronauts spent almost three

days on the Moon. They traveled on the

Moon’s surface using the Lunar Roving

Vehicle.

The lens of a human eye focuses light on the

retina.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Eye 175

coat. Light passes through an opening,

called the pupil, in the center of the iris.

The iris opens and closes to allow more

or less light through the pupil. Behind

the iris sits the lens. The lens focuses

light onto the inner coat of the eye. The

muscle that holds the lens in place also

adjusts its shape. To focus on objects that

are near, the lens thickens. To focus on

objects that are far away, the lens flattens.

The inner coat of the eye is called the

retina. Cells called rods and cones are

built into the retina. These cells collect

light. As the cells collect light, they trigger

electrical signals. These signals travel

through the optic nerve to the brain.

Problems with the Eye

When the eyeball is too long from front

to back, a person cannot see faraway

objects clearly. This condition is called

nearsightedness. Similarly, farsighted

people have trouble seeing nearby

objects. Their eyeballs are too short.

Glasses, contact lenses, or surgery can

correct these problems. Blindness happens

when the eye’s lens becomes cloudy

or when the retina is damaged.

Eyes of Other Animals

Vertebrates, or animals with a backbone,

each have two eyes similar to human

eyes. But there are differences, which

depend on the animal’s habitat and

behavior. For example, the pupils of

animals active at night are often shaped

like slits. This allows the pupils to close

almost completely to protect the eyes

from bright light.

Invertebrates, or animals without a

backbone, have various other kinds of

eyes. Some mollusks, including octopuses,

have large eyes that are similar to

vertebrate eyes. Other mollusks and

spiders have simple eyes called ocelli.

Insects have compound eyes. These are

made up of many lenslike parts.Worms

and some protozoans merely have eyespots

that are sensitive to light.

#More to explore

Blindness • Brain • Lens • Light

Many animals

have two eyes

that look in

different directions.

This

makes it

harder for

enemies to

sneak up on

them.

A gecko narrows its pupils to protect its

eyes from bright light. Geckos and other

animals that are active at night often have

slit-shaped pupils.

The eye of a giant Pacific octopus is large

and complex. It gives the octopus a sharp

sense of sight.

176 Eye BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Britannica

Student

Encyclopedia

Chicago • London • New Delhi • Paris • Seoul • Sydney • Taipei • Tokyo

Volume 5

2010 Britannica Student Encyclopedia

Copyright © 2010 by Encyclop.dia Britannica, Inc.

Britannica, Encyclop.dia Britannica, and the thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclop.dia Britannica, Inc.

All rights reserved. Copyright under International Copyright Union

No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009904642

Britannica may be accessed at http://www.britannica.com on the Internet.

International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7

eBook edition January, 2010

Figs are called fruits, but they

are actually inside-out flowers.

(See Fig.)

Fireflies make light by mixing

chemicals in their body with

oxygen from the air.

(See Firefly.)

The flower of a plant is where

the plant’s seeds are produced.

(See Flower.)

A substance called cholesterol

can build up in blood vessels

and block the flow of blood.

(See Food and Nutrition.)

Fossil fuels, such as petroleum,

are the remains of plants and

animals that lived long ago.

(See Fossil Fuel.)

Benjamin Franklin said, “Early

to bed and early to rise, makes

a man healthy, wealthy, and

wise.”

(See Franklin, Benjamin.)

Fff

Fable

A fable is a kind of story that teaches a

lesson. Fables are usually entertaining

tales featuring animals that talk and

behave as people do. Because they have

humanlike qualities, the animals show

how foolish or wise people can be. For

example, “The Three Little Pigs” teaches

that hard work is important: The house

built by the hardest-working pig is the

only one that survives the wolf’s attacks.

Some of the oldest fables came from

India and Greece thousands of years ago.

Many fables that are familiar in English

today—including “The Hare and the

Tortoise” and “TheWolf in Sheep’s

Clothing”—are said to have been written

in ancient Greece by a man named

Aesop. These tales have been translated

into many different languages. Another

famous fable writer was Jean de La Fontaine.

His books of fables were published

in the 1600s in France. They were

admired as literature. Today new fables

are still written or adapted from older

ones for children’s books and movies.

#More to explore

Aesop • Literature for Children

• Storytelling

Falcon

Falcons are birds of prey, meaning that

they hunt and eat animals for food.

They are swift, powerful fliers. A sport

called falconry dates back to ancient

times. It involves training falcons to

hunt animals in cooperation with

humans. Some common kinds of falcons

include the peregrine falcon, the merlin,

and several types of kestrels.

“The Three Little Pigs” is a well-known fable.

A wolf destroys the houses of two pigs, but

he cannot destroy a third house. The third

pig worked hard to make a sturdy house.

Many fables

feature a sly

fox or a cruel

wolf. They

teach children

to beware of

people who

are sly or

cruel.

4 Fable BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Falcons are found nearly all over the

world. They live in many habitats,

including forests, deserts, grasslands, and

even cities.

Usually the female falcon is larger and

bolder than the male. Falcons range in

size from about 6 to 24 inches (15 to 61

centimeters). The gyrfalcon is the largest

of the falcons.

A falcon has sharp claws and a short

hooked beak. The beak usually has a

small notch called a tooth. These features

help it catch and kill prey animals.

A falcon’s shape helps it fly quickly. Its

body is shaped like a bullet, while its

wings are long and pointed. Unlike

hawks and eagles, falcons rarely soar and

glide. They dive down fast to catch prey.

Some falcons capture other birds in

midair. Other falcons kill hares, mice,

lizards, and insects on the ground.

#More to explore

Bird • Bird of Prey • Eagle • Hawk

Falkland Islands

The rocky and nearly treeless Falkland

Islands lie 300 miles (480 kilometers)

northeast of the southern tip of South

America. The islands are an overseas

territory of the United Kingdom. Argentina

also claims the islands. It calls them

the Malvinas Islands. The capital of the

Falklands is Stanley.

Geography

The Falklands include two main

islands—East Falkland andWest

Falkland—and about 200 smaller

islands in the South Atlantic Ocean.

Hills stretch across the northern parts of

A kestrel with a grasshopper in its beak

perches on a fence post.

Many penguins live on the Falkland Islands

and nearby islands.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Falkland Islands 5

both main islands. The climate is chilly,

rainy, and windy.

Plants and Animals

Grasses cover much of the land. Seals

and sea lions bask on the beaches, while

dolphins and whales swim offshore.

Black-browed albatrosses and other seabirds

soar overhead. Millions of penguins

breed on the islands.

People and Economy

Only about 3,000 people live on the

islands. Most of them speak English and

have British ancestors. Most live in Stanley,

which is the only town of any size.

The main jobs are fishing and sheep

raising. Tourism is also important to the

economy.

History

The known history of the Falkland

Islands begins with visits by European

explorers in the 1600s. The French

founded the islands’ first settlement on

East Falkland in 1764. In 1765 the British

settledWest Falkland. The Spanish

soon took over these settlements. The

British returned in 1771 but left in

1774.

Argentina—the South American country

closest to the Falklands—claimed the

islands in 1820. In 1833, however, the

British took over the islands. Argentina

never accepted British rule of the Falklands.

On April 2, 1982, the Argentines

invaded the Falklands. This started the

Falkland IslandsWar. The British

defeated the Argentines 10 weeks later.

Despite its defeat, Argentina continued

to claim the islands.

#More to explore

Argentina • United Kingdom

Famine

A famine exists when large numbers of

people cannot get enough food for long

periods of time. People in a famine may

die from starvation or disease. There

have been famines throughout history

and in all parts of the world.

Natural disasters, including drought,

earthquakes, and floods, can cause famines

by destroying crops or by making it

difficult to distribute food. Other causes

include insects that destroy crops, very

cold weather, too much rainfall, and

diseases that harm crops or livestock.

Sheep

outnumber

people on the

Falklands

by about

200 to 1. Donations of food from the

United States have helped to

protect many countries from famine.

6 Famine BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Wars also may cause famines. Armies

may call farmers away. Stored food may

go to soldiers. Blocked roads may make

it hard to transport food easily.

Some countries have too many people

for the amount of available food. These

countries tend to be poor. This makes it

even harder to deal with famine because

they do not have the money to buy food

from other countries for their people.

Depending too much on one kind of

food can also lead to famine. Ireland

used to depend heavily on potatoes.

When that crop failed during 1845–49,

more than 1 million people died. Producing

a variety of foods can help countries

avoid famine.

Famines rarely start suddenly. There is

usually a warning time during which

steps can be taken. Government leaders

can store extra food and later give it to

hungry people. They can also ask other

countries for help.

Fascism

In ancient Rome, the fasces—a bundle

of rods strapped together around an

ax—was a symbol of power. In 1919 the

Italian leader Benito Mussolini named

his forces fasci, after this symbol. Later,

Mussolini’s style of government became

known as fascism. Fascist leaders believe

that the strength of the country is more

important than the well-being of the

people. They rule as dictators, or rulers

with unlimited power. They often use

violence.

Characteristics of Fascism

Experts disagree about the exact meaning

of the term fascism. However, the

governments that have been called fascist

in the past had certain characteristics

in common. Under these governments,

the people had few freedoms. They had

no voice in the government. Instead, a

strong leader controlled everything and

became a symbol of the country. The

leader built up the police force to punish

people who disobeyed. The leader also

built up the army and threatened other

countries. The leader blamed minority

groups for the country’s problems.

History

European writers began to introduce

fascist ideas in the 1800s. AfterWorld

The fasces of ancient Rome consisted of a

bundle of rods and an ax strapped

together. The Italian leader Benito Mussolini

compared his followers to the rods of the

fasces. Each rod by itself may be weak, but

when many rods are bound together they

are strong.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fascism 7

War I (1914–18) many countries faced

economic problems. In some, the people

were unhappy with the results of the

war. Fascists came to power by promising

the people power and glory. Mussolini

took power in Italy. Adolf Hitler led

Nazi Germany. These countries began to

build up strong armies. They used the

armies to take over other countries.

These actions resulted in WorldWar II

(1939–45). Italy and Germany fought

on the same side during the war. They

lost the war, however, and their fascist

governments fell.

After the war, the major fascist

movement was dead. However, rulers in

such countries as Spain and Portugal

continued to follow some fascist ideas.

Some political groups in other

countries—for example, Austria,

France, Argentina, South Africa, Libya,

and Iraq—also used some fascist ideas.

This development was called

neofascism, or new fascism.

#More to explore

Dictatorship • Hitler, Adolf • Nazi Party

Feather

Feathers are lightweight growths that

cover a bird’s body. All birds have feathers,

but no other animals have them.

According to many scientists, birds

developed from reptiles millions of years

ago. As the reptiles became birds, their

scales became feathers.

Feathers are important to survival, so

birds spend a lot of time cleaning and

taking care of them. At least once a year

birds shed their feathers through a process

called molting. Then new feathers

grow in.

Structure

Like hair, fingernails, and claws, feathers

are made of a substance called keratin.

Keratin is both lightweight and strong.

All feathers have a stiff stalk, called a

shaft, in the center. One end of the

shaft, called the quill, sticks into the

bird’s skin. The rest of the shaft is called

the rachis.

One hundred

years ago

women decorated

their

hats with large

feathers. Some

kinds of birds

were almost

wiped out by

hunters collecting

such

feathers.

Tiny hooks hold together the feathers on a

bird’s body.

8 Feather BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pairs of stiff branches, called barbs, stick

out in both directions all along the

rachis. From these barbs grow smaller

barbs, called barbules. The barbules have

hooks on them. The hooks attach themselves

to other nearby barbules so that

the feathers hold together on the bird’s

body.

Some birds do not have these barbules

and hooks holding the feathers in place.

The feathers of these birds look more

like hair.

Types and Uses

Different kinds of feathers have different

purposes. Straight, stiff feathers give

birds their ability to fly. Tail feathers

help with steering, balance, and braking.

Small, fluffy feathers, called down, keep

a bird’s body from getting too cold and

its skin from getting wet.

People in many cultures also use feathers.

They decorate hats, clothing, and

jewelry with colorful feathers. They fill

clothing, pillows, and comforters with

down for softness and warmth. Some

governments protect rare birds from

hunters who would kill them for their

feathers.

#More to explore

Bird • Hair

Federalist Papers

The Federalist papers are a series of 85

essays published in 1787 and 1788.

Alexander Hamilton, James Madison,

and John Jay wrote the essays to explain

why the new Constitution would be

good for the United States. Scholars still

recommend the Federalist papers to

anyone who wants to understand the

Constitution.

A group of men wrote the Constitution

in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1787.

The Constitution set up a federal system

of government. In a federal system the

national government and the state governments

share power. People who supported

the federal system were called

Federalists. Other people feared that the

new national government would be too

strong. They were called Anti-

Federalists.

Anti-Federalists were powerful in New

York. To get the people of New York to

approve the Constitution, Hamilton

began writing articles in New York

newspapers. Madison and Jay soon

joined him.

Most scholars believe that Alexander Hamilton

wrote most of the Federalist papers.

There is some uncertainty because the

authors signed their essays with a made-up

name, Publius.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Federalist Papers 9

The Federalist papers argued that the

new federal government would not be

too strong. They explained how the

national government would share power

with the states. They also explained that

the Constitution divided the power of

the federal government into three

branches. The system called checks and

balances would prevent any of the

branches from becoming too powerful.

#More to explore

Hamilton, Alexander • Madison, James

• United States Constitution

Federated States

of Micronesia

#see Micronesia, Federated States

of.

Ferdinand and

Isabella

Ferdinand and Isabella were the first

king and queen of Spain. They were

called the Catholic Monarchs because

they strongly supported the Roman

Catholic church. They are also known

for sending Christopher Columbus to

explore the NewWorld.

Background

Isabella was born on April 22, 1451.

Ferdinand was born on March 10, 1452.

At that time the land that is now Spain

was divided into several kingdoms. Isabella’s

father was the king of Castile, a

kingdom in central Spain. Ferdinand’s

father was the king of Aragon, in northeastern

Spain. Princess Isabella married

Prince Ferdinand in 1469.

Isabella became queen of Castile in

1474, but the king of Portugal also

wanted to rule there. Isabella defeated

him in war in 1479. In the same year

Ferdinand became king of Aragon.

Castile and Aragon were then joined

under the rule of King Ferdinand and

Queen Isabella. The combined kingdom

was the beginning of Spain.

Reign

Ferdinand and Isabella banned all religions

other than Roman Catholicism. In

1478 they established a court that

treated non-Catholics very harshly. The

court was called the Spanish Inquisition.

In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella forced

all Jews who would not become Catholics

to leave Spain.

Ferdinand and Isabella also fought to

drive Muslims from Spain. Muslims

from North Africa had controlled much

of the area since the 700s. Over

hundreds of years Christians gradually

took land back from the Muslims. In

Ferdinand and Isabella 1482 Ferdinand and Isabella went to

10 Federated States of Micronesia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

war with Granada, the last Muslim

kingdom in Spain. They defeated

Granada in 1492. Spain was then a

united Christian country.

Later in 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella

supported Columbus’ first voyage across

the Atlantic Ocean. The places where

Columbus landed became colonies of

Spain. Isabella died on November 26,

1504. Ferdinand died on January 23,

1516.

#More to explore

Columbus, Christopher • Inquisition

• Spain

Fermentation

Fermentation is a chemical change that

happens in vegetable and animal substances.

For thousands of years people

have used fermentation to make bread,

wine, beer, cheese, and other foods.

Fermentation often happens through the

work of tiny living things called yeasts,

bacteria, and mold. These living things

create substances called enzymes. The

enzymes break down food into

chemicals.

When bakers add yeast to bread dough,

the yeast breaks down the sugars in the

dough. While this happens, carbon

dioxide gas is released. The escaping

carbon dioxide makes the bread rise.

When winemakers add yeast to grape

juice, the yeast changes the juice’s sugar

into alcohol. Beer is another drink made

through the fermentation caused by

yeast.

People eat many other fermented foods.

Cheese comes from milk or cream that

has been fermented by bacteria. Soy

sauce is made from fermented soybeans.

As meat ages it becomes more tender.

This is also due to fermentation.

In addition, scientists use fermentation

to make certain drugs and vitamins. The

drug penicillin is made through fermentation

caused by mold.

#More to explore

Enzyme

Fern

Ferns are flowerless green plants. They

are usually easy to recognize by the

featherlike shape of their leaves, which

are called fronds. Ferns reproduce by

spores rather than by seeds. Some plants

that are called ferns, such as asparagus

At a soy sauce factory in Japan, soybeans

ferment in huge containers called vats.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fern 11

ferns, reproduce by seeds and are not

true ferns.

There are about 12,000 different species,

or types, of fern throughout the world.

Some types first appeared on Earth more

than 360 million years ago. Ferns commonly

grow in tropical rain forests.

They also grow in other warm, moist

places where there is plenty of shade.

Very few species of fern are found in dry,

cold places.

Many fern species grow on the trunks

and branches of trees. Others grow in

bogs and marshes or float on the surface

of ponds. Some types of fern, called

bracken, spread like a weed through

fields and pastures.

Ferns come in a wide variety of sizes

and shapes. The smallest ferns are only

a fraction of an inch tall. The largest

ferns measure from 30 to 80 feet (10 to

25 meters) tall. Young fern leaves are

tightly curled. When they grow and

begin to unfurl, they resemble the neck

of a violin.

Ferns grow millions of cells called spores

on the underside of their leaves. These

spores scatter into the air. A small number

of them fall on damp surfaces and

soils. They grow into tiny, kidneyshaped

structures. These structures produce

male and female cells, which

together produce a new fern.

People often use ferns to decorate their

homes and gardens. Such animals as

deer eat ferns, and some birds use them

to line their nests.

#More to explore

Plant

Fertile Crescent

The Fertile Crescent is a part of the

Middle East where some of the world’s

first civilizations began. In ancient times

the land there was fertile, or good for

growing crops. On a map, the land

forms the shape of a crescent moon. The

Fertile Crescent extends from the Persian

Gulf to the Nile River valley. It

A type of fern known as a shield fern grows

in a rocky crevice.

12 Fertile Crescent BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

includes the areas known as Mesopotamia

and Palestine.

The people of Mesopotamia (now Iraq)

may have settled in villages as long ago

as 8000 BC. They farmed the land near

the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. By about

3500 BC they may have built cities. They

also developed governments, laws, and

writing. Historians describe such a society

as civilized.

Another early civilization arose in

ancient Egypt. Soon after 5000 BC

people were raising crops using water

from the Nile.

#More to explore

Civilization • Egypt, Ancient

• Mesopotamia • Middle East

Festival and

Holiday

People everywhere celebrate special days

known as festivals or holidays. Although

each festival and holiday has a different

purpose, they tend to have some things

in common. Many are associated with

traditions. These include decorating a

tree at Christmas or lighting menorah

candles during Hanukkah. Festivals and

holidays also bring people together in a

variety of ways. For some holidays

people join together for solemn

ceremonies—such as honoring the war

dead on Memorial Day. Other holidays,

such as Mardi Gras, are occasions for

joyous celebrations.

The word festival comes from the word

feast (an elaborate meal). Many festivals

were originally connected with the

planting or harvesting of crops. Food

still plays a major role in many of

today’s festivals and holidays. The

Thanksgiving turkey is an example of a

traditional food linked to a holiday.

The word holiday originally meant

“holy day.” Many holidays are still religious

occasions—for example, the Muslim

holy month of Ramadan. Other

holidays are not religious. For instance,

national holidays, such as the Fourth of

July in the United States, help citizens to

remember their country’s history.

Feudalism

Feudalism was a social system that developed

during the period called the

Middle Ages in Europe. It probably

began after the rule of Charlemagne, the

leader of a mighty European empire.

After Charlemagne’s death in 814 his

During the Harbin Ice Festival in China,

people visit huge ice structures that are lit

up with colored lights.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Feudalism 13

empire broke into several pieces. No one

central government replaced it. Instead

people lived in smaller local units or

kingdoms. The individual kingdoms

faced attacks by Vikings and other

people, including nearby kingdoms. The

people established relationships within

their units that allowed them to live in

relative peace.

How FeudalismWorked

To protect themselves, local warlords

built castles. They also depended on

warriors on horseback called knights.

A lord and his knights formed a bond by

swearing oaths of loyalty. The lord gave

each knight, also called a vassal, land

that was known as a fief. In exchange,

the knights vowed to perform military

service whenever the lord asked. Eventually

the lords themselves became vassals

of a king.

Common people, called peasants, were

at the bottom of the feudal society. They

farmed the land and did the other work

that supported the lords and vassals.

Peasants called serfs lived in a village

near the lord’s castle. They were not

slaves, but they were not free to move

away. They owed the lord work and payments

of food. In return they got protection

from outside attackers.

The End of Feudalism

Feudalism developed in times of violence

and disorder. The new system

brought safety and order. This allowed

people to travel and to establish trade.

People became more wealthy, and

money was used more frequently. Eventually

vassals started to pay rent to their

lords instead of giving military service.

Many lords used the money to hire professional

soldiers instead of depending

on knights.

By the 1300s feudalism had disappeared

almost completely. Europeans created

new forms of government that were not

based on the fief. Monarchies, or rule by

kings, grew stronger.

However, traces of feudalism stayed on

in Europe for hundreds of years. Peasants

in France owed duties to large landowners

until the French Revolution,

which started in 1789. In Russia the

serfs did not gain freedom until 1861.

#More to explore

Knight • Middle Ages

Fiber Optics

Fiber optics is a way of sending information

through thin fibers, or threads. The

information may be sound, pictures, or

A painting shows serfs giving animals to

their lord.

14 Fiber Optics BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

computer codes. This information travels

through the fibers in the form of

light.

The fibers, known as optical fibers, can

be made of glass or plastic. They are

about as big around as a human hair.

Many fibers are bundled together to

form a fiber-optic cable. Fiber-optic

cables link some telephones and computers.

Doctors also use fiber-optic

instruments to see inside the human

body.

In a fiber-optic system, a machine

called a transmitter turns information

into light. Then the transmitter sends

the light through optical fibers. The

inner part of each fiber is called the

core. A reflective material surrounds the

core. This material is known as

cladding.

The cladding keeps the light moving

through the fiber. Light will move in a

straight line easily, but it will not turn a

corner without help. As the light moves

at a high speed through the core, it

bounces off the cladding. If the fiber has

a bend in it, the light can bounce off the

cladding and turn the corner to follow

the bend. The cladding also keeps the

light from losing its strength. The light

can travel quickly over long distances.

At the end of the fibers is a machine

called a receiver. It accepts the light. The

receiver turns the light back into sound,

pictures, or computer codes.

Most telephone cables used to be made

of copper wires. Fiber-optic cables are

better than old-fashioned copper wires

in many ways. Fiber-optic cables are

small and light. They can carry a lot of

information with little interference.

Fiber-optic cables are also less likely to

catch fire than copper wires. However,

Optical fibers are as thin as a human hair.

They are usually bundled together.

A layer called cladding keeps light from

escaping out of the core of an optical fiber.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fiber Optics 15

fiber-optic cables are expensive. They

also break more easily than copper wires.

#More to explore

Computer • Light • Telephone

Fibers

Fibers are long, thin strands of material

made by plants, animals, or humans.

People use fibers to make many useful

products. Some examples are brushes,

rope, paper, carpets, and textiles (cloth).

There are two types of fibers: natural

and artificial.

Natural Fibers

Natural plant fibers include rubber and

cellulose. Cellulose is the tough part of

plants and trees. Natural animal fibers

include hair or fur and silk, which caterpillars

make to build their cocoons.

Preparing Natural Fibers

Whole natural fibers may be braided, or

crossed over and under each other, to

make things. For example, people make

baskets by braiding grasses, reeds, or

twigs. However, many natural fibers are

thin or break easily. They must be made

thicker and stronger before they can be

used to make things. This is done by

combining single fibers together.

The most common way of combining

fibers is to twist several fibers into

thicker threads. People then weave or

knit the threads into cloth. People may

also form bundles of fibers into yarn,

cord, or rope. Felt and paper are made

by tangling fibers into a sheet.

Properties and Uses

A natural fiber can be wide and thick or

long and thin. It may feel smooth or

rough. Some natural fibers are easy to

bend, while others are stiff. Silk and

cotton fibers are lightweight and soft.

Cloth made from these fibers is perfect

for clothes, bed linens, and towels. On

the other hand, wool can feel rough and

itchy. Since wool is very warm, however,

it is often used to make sweaters and

blankets.

People use natural fibers that are

bumpy, rough, and scaly to make

heavier objects. For example, straw,

jute, and hemp can be woven into

mats, hats, rope, and baskets. Bristles

(short, stiff animal hairs) work well in

hair brushes.

Artificial Fibers

Artificial fibers do not grow in nature.

Scientists design them in laboratories,

and factories make them out of special

chemicals.

Bundles of vegetable fibers from ancient

Egypt are displayed in a museum.

16 Fibers BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Making Artificial Fibers

A French inventor made the first artificial

fiber, called rayon, in the late 1800s.

Rayon is made from plant cellulose that

has been changed into liquid form. The

liquid cellulose is forced through tiny

holes to make long, thin fibers. Acetate

and lyocell are other artificial fibers

made from plant cellulose.

Scientists later discovered how to make

artificial fibers from liquid chemicals.

These chemicals mainly come from

petroleum (oil) and natural gas. In the

1930s scientists used these chemicals to

create nylon. Other artificial fibers made

in this way include acrylic, spandex, and

polyester.

Properties and Uses

Artificial fibers are strong and tough.

Some, especially nylon and spandex, can

be stretched like a rubber band. People

use them to make clothing, carpets, furniture

coverings, rope, and many other

products.

Clothing made of artificial fibers became

very popular in the 1900s because it was

cheaper than clothing made of silk or

some other natural fibers. Also, cloth

made of artificial fibers does not wrinkle

or shrink as cotton does. But cloth made

of artificial fibers does not “breathe,” or

let air pass through, as much as natural

cloth does. This can make such cloth as

polyester uncomfortable to wear in hot

weather. Many clothes today contain a

mixture of artificial and natural fibers.

For instance, many cotton jeans and

shirts include some spandex so that they

stretch better.

#More to explore

Clothing • Cotton • Paper • Silk

• Textile

Fiction

Writers use their imagination to create a

kind of literature called fiction. They

invent characters, put them in a setting,

and give them feelings, words, and

An athlete wears clothing made

from stretchy artificial fibers.

Reading stories can be fun.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fiction 17

adventures. Drama and poetry are also

based on imagination, but people usually

think of them as separate from fiction.

Writing that is based on facts is

called nonfiction. Examples of nonfiction

include biographies, histories, and

cookbooks.

Modern fiction comes in two main

forms: the novel and the short story. A

novel can tell a long and complicated

story. It can have many parts—called

chapters—and many characters. A novel

is usually published in the form of a

book. In the past, however, many novels

were first published chapter by chapter

in issues of a magazine. A short novel is

sometimes called a novella.

Short stories are shorter than novels.

They usually have fewer characters and

only a few important scenes. Short stories

often appear in magazines. Sometimes

groups of short stories are

collected in books.

#More to explore

Drama • Literature • Poetry

Fig

Fig trees are grown for their small, pearshaped

fruits, called figs. Figs have a

sweet, nutty taste. They also have a

chewy texture. The fig tree belongs to

the mulberry family. Its scientific name

is Ficus carica.

Figs grow in hot, dry climates. They are

commonly found in the region around

the Mediterranean Sea. Turkey is the

leading producer of figs. Other important

fig-growing countries are Egypt,

Greece, Iran, and Morocco. Farmers also

grow figs in the United States, mainly in

California.

The fig tree has broad, rough leaves. The

tree may be from about 3 feet (1 meter)

to 39 feet (12 meters) tall.

The figs that grow on the tree are called

fruits, but they are actually inside-out

flowers. Each fig is hollow and filled

with tiny buds. Seeds sometimes develop

from these buds. The skin of a fig may

be brown, purple, yellow, or green.

People have been growing figs since at

least 5000 BC. They were an important

source of food for the ancient Greeks

and Romans. Today people eat figs fresh

or dried. Most figs sold in stores are

dried because the fruit spoils very easily.

They also may be canned or used as an

ingredient in cookies, pies, or breads.

Figs are very nutritious. They contain

many important minerals.

Figs ripen on a fig tree.

18 Fig BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Fiji

The country of Fiji is a group of about

300 islands in the South Pacific Ocean.

People live on only about 100 of the

islands. The capital is Suva.

Geography

Fiji’s islands are scattered over about 1

million square miles (3 million square

kilometers). Mountains rise sharply

from the coasts of the largest islands.

Coral reefs surround many of the

islands. Each year, Fiji has a hot, wet

season and a cooler, drier period.

Plants and Animals

The larger islands have thick tropical

forests and mangrove swamps on their

eastern sides. Dry grasslands cover the

western sides. Most of Fiji’s animals,

including pigs, dogs, cattle, and horses,

are domesticated, or owned by people.

People

Native Fijians make up about half of the

population. They are mostly Christians.

Most of the rest of the people’s ancestors

came from India. Most of Fiji’s Indians

are Hindus. English, Fijian, and Hindustani

are the official languages.

Economy

Fiji’s main economic activity is tourism.

Fiji also produces clothing, sugar, and

gold. Agriculture employs the most

people, however. Fiji’s main crops are

sugarcane, coconuts, taro, cassava, rice,

bananas, and sweet potatoes.

History

Fiji’s first settlers arrived from other

Pacific islands at least 3,500 years ago.

Great Britain made Fiji a colony in

1874. The British brought thousands of

people from India to work on their

sugar estates.

Fiji gained independence in 1970. Since

then, tensions between native Fijians

and Indians have led to several changes

in the government.

..More to explore

Oceania • Suva

Fiji is an archipelago, or group of islands.

No people live on most of its islands.

Facts About

FIJI

Population

(2008 estimate)

839,000

Area

7,055 sq mi

(18,272 sq km)

Capital

Suva

Form of

government

Republic

Major towns

Suva, Lautoka,

Nadi, Labasa,

Nausori

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fiji 19

Fillmore, Millard

After the death of President Zachary

Taylor in 1850, Vice President Millard

Fillmore became the 13th president of

the United States. Fillmore worked to

make a compromise between antislavery

Northerners and proslavery Southerners.

His efforts led to the breakup of his

political party, the Whigs.

Early Life

Millard Fillmore was born in a log cabin

in Locke Township, New York, on January

7, 1800. His family was poor. Millard

did not attend school regularly

because he had to work. After working

in a law office, he became a lawyer in

1823. In 1826 Fillmore married Abigail

Powers. They had two children.

Political Career

In 1828 Fillmore was elected to the New

York legislature. He later served several

terms in the U.S. House of Representatives.

In 1834 he joined the Whigs, a

new political party.

In 1848 the Whigs nominated Fillmore

as a candidate for vice president. He and

presidential candidate Taylor won the

election.

Presidency

Fillmore became president when Taylor

died in 1850. The country was close to

civil war over the slavery issue. Fillmore

January 7, July 9, March 8,

1800 1850 1850 1852 1852 1856 1874

Fillmore is born

in New York

State.

Fillmore

becomes

president after

Taylor dies.

Fillmore angers

Northern states

by supporting

proslavery

laws.

Fillmore

appoints

Matthew Perry

to head an

expedition to

Japan.

Fillmore fails to

win a second

term.

Fillmore loses

election for

president as a

member of the

Know-Nothing

Party.

Fillmore dies in

Buffalo, New

York.

T I M E L I N E

Millard Fillmore

20 Fillmore, Millard BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

personally opposed slavery, but he

wanted to preserve the Union. He supported

the Compromise of 1850, a

series of laws that tried to satisfy the

North and the South. One of those laws,

the Fugitive Slave Act, said that the federal

government must help return runaway

slaves to their owners. Fillmore’s

support of that law angered many Whigs

in the North.

In foreign affairs, Fillmore helped world

trade by sending an expedition to Japan.

The trip led to a treaty that opened

Japanese ports to U.S. ships.

Defeat and Retirement

The Compromise of 1850 postponed

the American CivilWar for 10 years. It

also ended Fillmore’s political career. In

the 1852 presidential election Fillmore

and two other Whig candidates lost. In

1856 Fillmore unsuccessfully ran for

president as a member of the American,

or Know-Nothing, Party.

Fillmore retired to Buffalo, New York.

He died there on March 8, 1874.

#More to explore

Slavery • Taylor, Zachary • United States

Finch

Finches are a family of small songbirds.

There are several hundred species, or

kinds, of finch. They include the canary,

the cardinal, goldfinches, and sparrows.

Most finches are excellent singers, and

many kinds are kept as pets.

Finches live in mild areas in the northern

half of the world. They also are

found in South America and Africa. In

many places finches outnumber all other

birds.

Finches are small birds. They range in

length from 4 to 11 inches (10 to 28

centimeters). Many have bright colors,

often with different shades of red and

yellow. Males are usually more colorful

than females.

Finches eat the seeds of grasses and

weeds. Most use their cone-shaped bills

to crack the seeds. Many finches eat

insects as well.

Female finches build a nest of twigs,

grasses, and roots on the ground or in

bushes. Then they lay four or five eggs.

Usually the male helps to raise the

young birds, called nestlings.

#More to explore

Canary • Cardinal • Songbird • Sparrow

The American goldfinch is also called a

wild canary. It lives in North America.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Finch 21

Finland

Finland is a country of northern Europe.

For much of its history it was controlled

by the neighboring countries of Sweden

and Russia. It won its independence in

1917. Today Finland has close ties to its

European neighbors. The capital and

largest city is Helsinki.

Geography

Finland is bordered by Sweden, Norway,

and Russia. The Baltic Sea forms its long

coastline. Finland also includes the

Aland Islands, which lie off the southwestern

coast.

Most of Finland is composed of lowlands,

but the northwest is mountainous.

Forests cover about three fourths of

the land. Finland also has more than

50,000 lakes and numerous rivers.Winters

are long and very cold, especially in

the north.

Plants and Animals

Pines, spruces, and other evergreens fill

Finland’s vast forests. The trees of the

northern forests are often small in size

because of the poor growing conditions.

Lichens, moss, and cloudberries grow in

the northern swamps. Broad-leaved

birch, hazel, and aspen trees grow in the

extreme south.

Finland’s forests are home to bears, elk,

wolves, wolverines, and lynx. The Sami

people raise herds of reindeer in the

north. The country’s birds include Siberian

jays, pied wagtails, eagles, and seabirds.

Salmon, trout, whitefish, herring,

perch, and pike swim in Finland’s

waters.

People

More than 90 percent of the country’s

people are ethnic Finns who speak Finnish.

Ethnic Swedes form the largest

minority group. There are also a few

thousand Sami, or Lapps. Their terri-

The Sami people of Finland have used reindeer

to pull their sleds for many years.

22 Finland BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tory, called Lapland, stretches across

northern Finland, Sweden, Norway, and

Russia. More than 85 percent of the

people are Christians, mainly Lutherans.

Most people live in cities in the southern

third of the country.

Economy

Finland has a diverse economy centered

around manufacturing and services,

which include banking, communications,

education, and health care. Manufacturers

produce electronics, paper and

wood products, machinery, metals, processed

food, and chemicals. Finland’s

forests provide timber. Its mines provide

chromite, zinc, and gold.

Agriculture plays a small role in the

economy.Major crops include barley,

oats, sugar beets, potatoes, and wheat.

Pigs and cattle are the main livestock.

Reindeer herding is important in the

north. Finland’s waters offer good fishing.

History

The first settlement of Finland began

about 10,000 years ago. The settlers

included the ancestors of the Sami. In

the 1100s the Swedes began to convert

the Finns to Christianity. Sweden and

Russia fought for political and religious

control of the region for many years.

The Swedes took over Finland in 1323.

Russia defeated the Swedes in 1721, but

Sweden did not officially surrender Finland

to Russia until 1809. In 1917 the

Russian Empire collapsed as a result of

the Russian Revolution. Finland

declared itself independent that year. It

became a republic in 1919.

WorldWar II (1939–45) was disastrous

for Finland. The country lost large

pieces of territory to the Soviet Union at

the beginning of the war. In 1941 Finland

sided with Germany against the

Soviet Union and won back its lost territory.

However, Soviet forces again

defeated Finland in 1944. Finland was

forced to give up more territory.

After the war, the economy grew and

social conditions improved. Finland

joined the European Union in 1995. In

2000 Tarja Halonen was elected Finland’s

first woman president.

..More to explore

European Union • Helsinki

Olavinlinna Castle in Finland is on an island near the border with Russia.

Facts About

FINLAND

Population

(2008 estimate)

5,310,000

Area

130,559 sq mi

(338,145 sq km)

Capital

Helsinki

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Helsinki, Espoo,

Tampere, Vantaa,

Turku, Oulu

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Finland 23

Fir

Firs are evergreen trees of the pine family.

They are valued for their wood and

are popular as Christmas trees. There are

more than 40 species, or types, of fir.

They belong to the group that scientists

call Abies.

Firs grow in moist, cool areas of North

and Central America, Europe, Asia, and

northern Africa. In North America

many firs grow in the mountains of the

West. The balsam fir is a well-known

type in eastern North America.

Fir trees can be anywhere from 17 feet

(5 meters) to 200 feet (60 meters) tall

when fully grown. The leaves are like

needles. Each needle grows singly from

the branch. This makes firs different

from pines, which have needles that

grow in bundles. Fir needles are bright

green to blue-green on the top and

white or silvery green on the bottom.

They are flat and usually have rounded

tips.

Firs belong to the group of plants called

conifers. Conifers have cones that hold

their seeds. Fir cones stand up on the

branches like candles. They may be

purple, brown, or green.

Many evergreen trees that do not belong

to the group Abies are also called firs. For

example, Douglas firs belong to the

group Pseudotsuga. Unlike the true firs,

Douglas firs have cones that hang down.

These trees are common in North

America along the coast of the Pacific

Ocean. They are a valuable timber tree.

#More to explore

Conifer • Pine • Tree

Fire

Humans have controlled and used fire

for more than 1 million years. Civilization

would not be possible without fire.

Firs have needlelike leaves that

grow directly from the branch.

Many people have fireplaces in their

homes. They enjoy looking at the fire as

well as the warmth that it provides.

24 Fir BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

However, fire is dangerous. It always

must be used very carefully.

How Fire Happens

Fire comes about when oxygen combines

in a certain way with some other

substance. Oxygen is a gas that is a part

of air. The other substance is called the

fuel. For the fuel to combust, or burn, it

must be heated to a temperature called

the ignition point. Every kind of fuel has

its own ignition point.

A flame is created when heat forces gases

from a burning substance. When the gas

from a candle’s hot wax meets the air,

for example, a flame is made. A substance

that does not release gas when

heated will burn without flames. When

the oxygen is used up, the fire will go

out. For example, when a candle’s flame

is covered, the flame will go out after it

has used the remaining oxygen in the

space beneath the cover.

History

Human beings have known how to control

fire for almost 1.5 million years. But

for many thousands of years after that,

people still found it difficult to start a

fire. One method they used was to strike

one hard mineral against another to

make sparks. A second method was to

twirl one piece of wood against another

until the wood heated up to its ignition

point.

Early humans had many uses for fire.

Campfires kept people warm and scared

off wild animals. Fire lit the way at night

and in caves. Fire also cooked food.

Eventually, people used fire in new ways.

They set fires to clear land for farming.

They used fire to make pottery from

clay. By about 3500 BC people were

using fire to shape metals. As the centuries

passed, people learned to use fire to

make such things as steam, rubber, and

bricks.

#More to explore

Civilization • Combustion

Firefighting

Fire is useful to humans, but it is dangerous

as well. Fires kill thousands of

people each year and destroy much

property. The people who put out fires

are called firefighters. Firefighters also

work to prevent fires and teach fire

safety.

A fire must have fuel, oxygen, and heat

in order to burn. Firefighters put out

fires by removing at least one of those

Fire is used in many factories to operate

furnaces or heat boilers. In a steel mill it is

used to melt the materials that go into making

steel.

Early humans

did not know

how to start a

fire. They had

to get fire from

trees struck by

lightning or

from volcanic

eruptions.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Firefighting 25

three ingredients. For example, they take

fuel away from a forest or brush fire by

clearing away trees and bushes in the

path of the fire. They take oxygen away

from a grease fire by smothering it with

foam from a fire extinguisher. They

reduce the heat of a burning building by

spraying water over it.

Fire departments (also called fire brigades)

date back to ancient Rome.

Today almost all large and mediumsized

cities have full-time fire departments.

Volunteers staff many small fire

departments.

Firefighters use several kinds of equipment

at a fire. Pumper trucks carry powerful

pumps and long hoses to shoot

water at the fire. Ladder trucks and

elevating platforms are equipped to rescue

people and fight fires in tall buildings.

Tanker trucks carry water to places

that have no water pipes nearby. Airplanes

and helicopters are used to drop

water or chemicals on forest fires. Many

fire departments also provide ambulance

service for fire victims.

Deaths from fires have dropped in

recent years. More buildings now use

construction materials that do not burn

easily. And more buildings now have

automatic water sprinklers. However, in

case a fire does break out, people should

know how to contact their fire department.

They also should know where

emergency exits are and how to escape a

burning building safely. Plus, every

home should have fire extinguishers.

#More to explore

Ambulance • Combustion • Fire

Firefly

In many places the insects called fireflies

are a familiar sight on summer nights.

They are noticeable because they can

produce flashes of light. Fireflies belong

to the beetle family. They are also called

lightning bugs.

There are about 1,900 species, or types,

of firefly. They live in tropical and mild

parts of the world. They generally like

warm, humid areas, but some live in dry

places.

Firefighters wear protective clothing

because their work is sometimes dangerous.

A firefly lights up.

26 Firefly BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Adult fireflies range in size from 0.2 to 1

inch (5 to 25 millimeters) long. They

have a soft, flattened body that is dark

brown or black, sometimes with orange

or yellow marks. Males have wings and

are good fliers. Females either have short

wings or no wings. The females without

wings are often called glowworms.

Young fireflies, which also have no

wings, are also called glowworms.

Fireflies produce light with special

organs, or body parts, on the underside

of the body. These organs make light by

mixing chemicals with oxygen from the

air. Fireflies make a certain series of

flashes to attract a mate. When a possible

mate sees the flashes, it returns the

signal.

#More to explore

Beetle • Insect

Fish

Fish are a kind of animal that lives in

water. Fish have lived on Earth for more

than 450 million years. There are more

than 24,000 species, or kinds, of fish.

New ones are discovered every year.

Where Fish Live

Fish live in lakes, rivers, seas, and oceans

around the world. They live in all kinds

of water, from warm springs to cold

Arctic seas. Fish can even be found in

the dark pools of underground caves.

Physical Features

The many different kinds of fish have

some things in common. They are all

vertebrates, which means that they have

a backbone. They are cold-blooded,

which means that their body temperature

changes along with the temperature

of their surroundings. Fish generally

breathe through organs called gills. They

usually have pairs of fins in place of

arms and legs. Most fish are covered

with scales.

But fish also show great variety. Gobies,

the smallest fish, can be less than half an

inch (13 millimeters) long. The whale

shark, the largest fish, can be 50 feet (15

meters) long and weigh 20 tons. A typical

fish is wider in the middle than at

the ends. But a flounder is as flat as a

dinner plate. A sea horse looks something

like a horse standing on its tail.

Eels look like snakes.

Over millions of years, some fish have

developed unique features to help them

survive. These features are called adaptations.

For example, the anglerfish carries

its own “fishing rod” to catch other fish.

An extended part of the back fin has

wormlike pieces of flesh at the tip,

Yellowspot emperor fish swim in a group

called a school.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fish 27

which are the “bait.” Anglerfish of the

deep sea have bait that lights up to

attract victims.

Behavior

Fish swim mainly by sideways movements

of the body and tail. They use

their fins for balancing, steering, and

braking. To move quickly from a resting

position, some fish shoot a stream of

water out of the gills, which causes them

to lunge forward. The fastest swimmers,

such as the tuna, can travel 30 miles (48

kilometers) per hour.

Many fish have adaptations to help protect

them from enemies. For example,

some fish have spots near their tail that

look like eyes. When an enemy strikes at

what it thinks is the head, the fish can

escape quickly. Other fish can change

color and pattern to match their surroundings

and hide themselves from

enemies.

Most fish eat other, smaller fish. The

smallest fish eat tiny water plants and

animals called plankton. Plankton also

includes fish eggs. It drifts with the currents

in large numbers.

Reproduction

All fish hatch from eggs. Usually the

females release eggs and the males release

sperm into the water. When the eggs

and sperm meet, the eggs are fertilized.

Many of the eggs, and the young that

hatch from them, are eaten by other

fish. To increase the chance that some

young will survive, some females release

as many as a million eggs.

Some kinds of fish try to protect their

eggs. The female might dig a nest in the

sandy bottom and lay her eggs there.

The female sea horse lays her eggs in a

pouch on the belly of the male, where

they stay until they hatch. Some male

catfish carry the eggs in their mouth.

Sometimes the eggs are fertilized in the

female’s body and hatch there. Then the

young are born live from the female.

Fish born this way have a better chance

A diver swims with a whale shark, the largest

of all living fish. The whale shark is

harmless to humans.

An anemone fish shelters in the tentacles of

a poisonous sea anemone. The poison does

not hurt the fish.

28 Fish BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

of survival. Guppies and some sharks

have live births.

Fish and Humans

Fish are valuable to people in a number

of ways. In many places fish are a major

source of food. Also, people keep fish as

pets in home aquariums. Some people

enjoy fishing as a sport. However, too

much fishing by commercial boats has

greatly reduced the number of certain

fish. Fish are also harmed by pollution.

#More to explore

Adaptation • Catfish • Eel • Plankton

• Protective Coloration • Sea Horse

• Shark • Tuna

Flag

A flag is a piece of cloth or other material

that carries a design. A flag is often

attached on one side to a pole or a stick,

called a staff. Every country and state

has its own flag. Some cities, groups,

and people have flags as well.

A flag is a powerful symbol. People

show a flag the same respect that they

show to the country or group it

represents. Many governments have

laws about flag use.

Flags of Countries

Betsy Ross may have sewn the first U.S.

flag in 1776. Since then the U.S. flag

has changed many times. The flag now

in use has 50 stars that stand for the 50

states. Its 13 stripes stand for the 13

original states. However, no state has its

own particular star or stripe.

The flags of other countries also have

meanings. Most flags of Islamic countries

use the crescent moon, the color

green, or both. These are symbols of

The earliest U.S. flags had the 13 stars arranged in different patterns. A new star was

added for each new state that joined the country. Since 1960 U.S. flags always have the

same pattern of 50 stars.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Flag 29

Islam. Many of the traditionally Christian

countries of Europe have a cross

(the symbol of Christianity) on their

flags.

Special Flags

Flags may serve special purposes. A flag

honors the dead when it flies halfway

down the pole. A yellow flag is a

warning of contagious, or catching,

disease. A white flag in a battle is a call

to stop the fighting. An upside-down

flag on a ship is a call for help. Some

flags have designs that stand for

numbers or letters. People use sets of

these flags to send messages over a

distance.

Flag History

The people of ancient China and India

used some of the first flags. These early

flags often flew over armies in battles. If

a flag fell, it meant that the commander

had been captured or killed.

Ancient Roman soldiers on horseback

carried a square piece of fringed cloth at

the end of a spear. Later, European

The modern flag of the United Kingdom combines symbols of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

Most flags are rectangular. But some flags are squares, triangles, or other unusual shapes.

The shape of the flag of the U.S. state of Ohio is called swallow-tailed.

30 Flag BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

countries used flags to represent themselves.

By the end of the Middle Ages in

about 1500, cities and guilds (groups of

skilled workers) also had flags.

#More to explore

Ross, Betsy

Flamingo

Flamingos are tall, mostly pink birds

with long legs. A flamingo often stands

with its long, thin neck curved into an S

shape. Flamingos fly and feed in large

flocks of hundreds to even millions of

birds.

Like storks, herons, and ibises, flamingos

are wading birds. This means that they

feed while standing or walking in shallow

water. Flamingos live in warm

regions near lakes and bodies of water

called lagoons.

There are five species, or types, of flamingo.

The most common type is the

lesser flamingo. It is found mainly in

eastern and southern Africa and India.

Other types of flamingo come from

Central and South America, Caribbean

islands, southern Europe, Africa, the

Middle East, and southern Asia.

A flamingo has webbed feet, a slender

body, large wings, and a short tail. Its

head is small, and its bill curves

downward. It stands between about 3

feet (almost 1 meter) and 5 feet (1.5

meters) tall.

Flamingos eat tiny living things such as

algae and small animals such as shrimp,

snails, crabs, and mollusks. A flamingo

gets its food by plunging its head down

into shallow water or mud. It twists its

head upside down and sucks water into

its bill. The bill has a series of hairlike

plates inside that act as a filter. The bird

uses its bill to strain food from the

water.

#More to explore

Bird • Heron • Ibis • Stork

Flathead

The Native Americans known as the

Flatheads traditionally lived in what are

now western Montana and eastern

An illustration shows many flags on a ship

from Venice, Italy, in the year 1298.

Flamingos are known for their pink color

and curved necks.

When first

hatched, a

flamingo has

white and

gray feathers.

Its color

changes to

pink because

of the food it

eats.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Flathead 31

Idaho. They called themselves the Salish.

This name is now used for a group of

tribes that speak similar languages. Outsiders

called them Flatheads even though

they did not flatten the foreheads of

their babies with boards, as some related

tribes did.

The Flatheads got most of their food by

hunting and fishing. By the early 1700s

they obtained horses. They then traveled

long distances on horseback looking for

bison (buffalo).

Flathead families lived in long houses or

tepees. They made their long houses by

covering wooden poles with bark or

woven mats. They covered their tepees

with grass, bark, or earth.

In the 1700s many Flatheads died of

smallpox, a disease that European

explorers passed on to the tribe. Many

other Flatheads were killed in wars with

other tribes. In 1855 the U.S. government

forced the surviving Flatheads to

move to two small reservations. Later

the tribe was forced to give up one reservation.

This left them with only the

Flathead Indian Reservation near Missoula,

Montana. Today they share its

land with several related tribes. At the

end of the 20th century there were

about 3,500 Flatheads.

#More to explore

Native Americans • Smallpox

Flea

Fleas are insects that live as parasites on

birds and mammals, including humans.

Like other parasites, fleas depend on the

animal they live on for food. Fleas bite

the animal to feed on its blood. They

can spread diseases by biting an infected

animal and then biting a healthy animal.

Fleas live throughout the world, in

polar, mild, and tropical regions. There

are about 1,600 species, or kinds, of flea.

Fleas are tiny. The largest are only about

0.4 inch (1 centimeter) long. Fleas have

a thin, flattened body that is dark reddish

brown. They use their long, sharp

beak to pierce an animal’s skin and suck

its blood. Fleas do not have wings, but

they have strong legs and are excellent

jumpers.

Charlot was a great chief of the Flatheads

in the 1800s.

A flea settles into the fur of a dog.

32 Flea BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

A flea has four stages of life: egg, larva,

pupa, and adult. A female flea can lay

more than 20 eggs every day. An egg

develops into a larva, which looks like a

legless caterpillar. The larva molts (sheds

its outside covering) two or three times.

Then it spins a cocoon to begin the

pupa stage. The pupa develops into an

adult a few days or months later,

depending on the species. Adult fleas

live for a few weeks to about a year.

#More to explore

Insect • Parasite

Flood

When water overflows onto dry land, a

flood takes place. Floods have always

been a part of life on Earth. Almost

every culture has a legend about a great

flood. Since ancient times people have

built their cities along rivers because

they use the water for drinking and for

farming. River floods therefore affect

many people. In some places people

have built dams or levees to protect

lands from river flooding.

Floods can be dangerous and destructive.

However, floods are not always bad.

When muddy floodwaters go down, they

sometimes leave a layer of rich, moist

soil. People in ancient Egypt depended

on the flooding of the Nile River every

year to help them grow their crops.

Causes

Most often flooding is caused by heavy

rains over a long period of time. After a

lot of rain, the ground becomes full of

water, and new rainwater runs off, or

flows downhill. That runoff goes directly

into streams and rivers. In springtime

the rain may be combined with melting

snow. Because of the extra water flowing

into the streams and rivers, their water

level rises. If the level rises so much that

the water overflows the banks, a flood

occurs.

Flooding can be worse if there is not

much vegetation (trees, grass, and other

plants) on the land around rivers. In

general, land that has little vegetation is

less able to absorb water. The result is a

larger amount of water entering a river

system.

Flash Floods

Flash floods are the deadliest kind of

flood. They are caused by sudden heavy

rainfall or a broken dam. They happen

very quickly and can catch people before

they have a chance to escape. Flash

floods often occur in hilly country or

around dry riverbeds. In a flash flood a

completely dry riverbed can fill up in

minutes.

#More to explore

Dam • Levee and Dike

Cars are useless in a flooded street.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Flood 33

Florida

The U.S. state of Florida is nicknamed

the Sunshine State

because it has so many sunny days.

Other nicknames include the Orange

State, the Peninsula State, the Alligator

State, the Southernmost State, and the

Everglades State. Its actual name is the

Spanish word for “flowery.” The capital

is Tallahassee.

Geography

Florida is on the southeast coast of the

United States. Georgia and Alabama

border the state on the north, above the

area of Florida known as the Panhandle.

The Atlantic Ocean is on the east. On

the west are Alabama and the Gulf of

Mexico.

The Straits of Florida connect the Gulf

of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. This

body of water also separates Florida

from Cuba. The Florida Keys are a chain

of tiny coral and limestone islands. Key

West, on the Florida Keys, is the country’s

southernmost city (outside

Hawaii).

Flat plains border the entire coast. In the

center of the state broad plains, rolling

hills, and thousands of lakes stretch

from the Georgia border south through

the center of the state. A low plateau

rises in the northwest. Forests once covered

most of Florida’s land area, but

many trees were cut down to build cities.

In the south lies Everglades National

Park. The park is a vast wilderness area

of swamps and forests. The state’s largest

rivers are all in the north. The Saint

Johns River is the longest, stretching for

285 miles (459 kilometers).

Florida is known for its warm, sunny

climate. While cold spells sometimes

occur in the winter, they rarely last more

than three or four days. The heaviest

rainfall occurs between May and October.

Hurricanes can be a problem.

People

Florida has a diverse population. Many

senior citizens move to Florida after

their retirement to enjoy the weather.

Lake

Okeechobee

An alligator lies near a tram full of tourists

in Everglades National Park, Florida.

34 Florida BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People from nearby island countries

such as Cuba and Haiti sometimes go to

Florida to escape political or economic

problems. Hispanic Americans make up

more than 15 percent of Florida’s residents.

About the same percentage of

people are African Americans. Some

Seminole Indians live on reservations in

southern Florida. The rest of the population

is primarily of European descent.

Jacksonville is the largest city in the

state. It is a seaport and business center.

Miami, the second largest city, is a winter

resort and a manufacturing center.

Tampa is a port on the Gulf of Mexico.

Orlando is a popular vacation spot. It

has many theme parks, includingWalt

DisneyWorld and SeaWorld. Many

cities, including KeyWest, Palm Beach,

Fort Lauderdale, and Daytona Beach,

attract visitors with their beaches.

Economy

Trade and tourism bring a great deal of

money into Florida’s economy. Many

people hold service jobs, including at

hotels and restaurants, as well as at

finance and insurance companies. Companies

in Florida manufacture food and

paper products, electronics, and chemicals.

Florida is also a leader in the aerospace

industry. The John F. Kennedy

Space Center at Cape Canaveral

employs thousands of people.

Crops grow year-round in Florida.

Florida is a leading grower of citrus

fruits, including oranges and grapefruits.

Farmers also grow other fruits, vegetables,

tobacco, cotton, and sugarcane.

They raise cattle, poultry, and horses.

Fishers catch fish and shellfish in Florida’s

many waters.

History

When the explorer Juan Ponce de Leon

arrived in Florida in 1513, he claimed

the land for Spain. In 1528 another

Many people gather at sidewalk

cafes in the South Beach section

of Miami, Florida.

A group of children examine starfish in the

clear waters near Honeymoon Island. The

island is one of the many popular recreational

areas in the U.S. state of Florida.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Florida 35

Spanish explorer named Panfilo de

Narvaez reached Tampa Bay. Hernando

de Soto sailed into Tampa Bay in 1539.

In 1562 French Protestants called

Huguenots went to Florida so that they

could freely practice their religion. More

French colonists followed, but many of

them were killed when Spanish explorer

Pedro Menendez de Aviles captured

their fort. In 1565 Menendez founded

Saint Augustine, the first permanent

European settlement in what is now the

United States.

Spain gave Florida to Great Britain in

1763. Spain regained control after the

American Revolution ended in 1783.

Then the United States and Spain disagreed

on land boundaries in Florida. In

1819 Spain finally agreed to give up

Florida. Meanwhile, the United States

began fighting the Seminole Indians of

Florida. By 1858 most of the Seminole

had been forced to move west.

Florida entered the Union in 1845 as

the 27th state. In 1861, at the beginning

of the American CivilWar, it left the

Union to join the Confederacy because

many of its citizens supported the right

to own slaves. Florida was readmitted to

the Union in 1868.

In the 1880s railroad building opened

the state to settlers and a new tourist

trade. Better transportation made

Florida the winter vegetable and citrus

center of the East. In the 1900s many

more people moved to Florida. The state

prospered as the economy grew.

..More to explore

• Seminole • Tallahassee

The space shuttle Discovery launches from the John F. Kennedy Space Center at Cape

Canaveral, Florida, in July 2006.

Facts About

FLORIDA

Flag

Population

(2000 census),

15,982,378—

rank, 4th state;

(2008 estimate)

18,328,340—

rank, 4th state

Capital

Tallahassee

Area

65,755 sq mi

(170,305 sq

km)—rank, 22nd

state

Statehood

March 3, 1845

Motto

In God We Trust

State bird

Mockingbird

State flower

Orange blossom

36 Florida BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Florida Keys

The Florida Keys are a chain of about

60 islands off the coast of southern

Florida. The chain begins in the Atlantic

Ocean just south of Miami Beach. From

there it curves southwestward into the

Gulf of Mexico. The chain is about 220

miles (355 kilometers) long.

The largest of the keys is Key Largo. It is

about 30 miles (48 kilometers) long and

less than 2 miles (3 kilometers) wide.

KeyWest is a small island at the western

end of the chain. The city of KeyWest

spreads over the island. It is the southernmost

city in the United States outside

of Hawaii.

Mangrove trees line the shores of the

keys. Tropical hardwood trees and palms

grow on higher ground. More than 600

types of fish live in the waters around

the keys. John Pennekamp Coral Reef

State Park, off Key Largo, contains the

largest living coral formations in North

America.

Tourism and fishing are the most important

economic activities of the keys. A

road called the Overseas Highway connects

all of the main islands.

#More to explore

Florida • Mexico, Gulf of

Flower

A flower is the part of a plant that blossoms.

Flowers produce the seeds that

can become new plants. Most plants,

including many trees, grow some kind

of flower.

Physical Features

Flowers vary widely in their shape, size,

color, and scent. Many types are small

and barely noticeable. The blossoms that

most people think of as flowers are those

that are colorful and showy.

A flower usually has four main parts.

These are the calyx, the corolla, the stamens,

and the pistils. All of these parts

are usually bunched together at the tip,

or receptacle, of the flower stem.

The western keys of Key West, Florida, are

made of limestone. The eastern keys are

made of an old coral reef.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Flower 37

The calyx is the outermost part of a

flower. It is made up of sepals. The

sepals are usually green and look like

small leaves. The sepals enclose and protect

the flower bud while it is developing

into a flower.

The flower’s petals form the corolla.

Within the corolla are the stamens and

the pistils. The stamens are the male parts

of a flower. They produce tiny grains

called pollen. Pollen grains contain

sperm cells. The pistils are the female

parts of a flower. The pistils contain egg

cells that can develop into seeds. Some

flowers have both stamens and pistils.

Others have either stamens or pistils.

Pollination

Pollination is the process by which flowers

form seeds. This is how plants reproduce.

There are two main kinds of pollination:

self-pollination and cross-pollination.

Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen

from a stamen to a pistil on the same

plant. This can happen within one

flower or between different flowers on

the plant. Cross-pollination is the transfer

of pollen from a flower on one plant

to a flower on another plant.

Flowers depend on carriers for crosspollination.

Carriers are things that

carry pollen from one plant to another.

They include the wind, insects, birds,

and other animals.

After a grain of pollen lands on a flower’s

pistil, fertilization occurs. That is, a

sperm cell from the pollen enters the egg

cell in the pistil. The fertilized egg then

grows into a seed.

Uses

Flowers are symbols of beauty in most

cultures of the world. Many people give

A garden in The Netherlands features flowers

of many shapes and colors.

The main parts of a flower are the calyx,

the corolla, the stamens (male parts), and

the pistils (female parts). Some flowers have

only stamens. Others have only pistils.

38 Flower BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

flowers as gifts. People also use flowers as

decorations during holidays and at weddings

and other ceremonies. Flowers

with a lovely scent may be made into

perfume.

#More to explore

Plant • Pollen • Seed

Fly

Many kinds of small flying insects are

commonly called flies. But scientists use

the term fly only for the insects in a

group they call Diptera. These “true”

flies usually have a single pair of wings.

Most other insects, including some that

are called flies, have two pairs of wings.

Instead of a second set of wings, true

flies have knoblike structures that help

them balance while flying.

There are about 85,000 species, or

kinds, of fly. They include houseflies,

horseflies, fruit flies, gnats, and mosquitoes.

Flies live everywhere in the world

except near the ice caps of the North

and South poles.

Flies range in size from just 0.05 inch (1

millimeter) to 3 inches (8 centimeters)

long. The common housefly is about

0.25 inch (0.64 centimeter) long. It has

three pairs of legs and five eyes. Two of

the eyes cover most of the head.

Flies eat a variety of things. Most get

food from flowers. This food includes

the dustlike substance called pollen and

the syrupy liquid called nectar. Flies feed

on living plants as well as rotting plants

and animals. Flies that can bite, such as

mosquitoes, suck blood from animals.

Flies also eat dung.

Flies can be very harmful. They can

spread diseases by carrying germs on

their hairy bodies. Some flies can spread

disease through their bites. Flies can also

damage crops.

#More to explore

Disease, Human • Insect • Mosquito

Flying Fish

The unique fishes called flying fish

appear to soar above the water. But they

do not actually fly by flapping wings,

like birds do. Instead, they jump from

the water and use their fins to glide

through the air.

Flying fishes live in warm seas throughout

the world. There are about 40 different

species, or types.

Flying fishes are usually less than 18

inches (45 centimeters) long. The typical

flying fish is deep blue on the back

and sides and silvery underneath. It has

A housefly feeds on a doughnut.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Flying Fish 39

a long, narrow body with large, winglike

fins attached to the sides. Some species

also have fins on the underside of the

body.

Scientists believe that flying fishes “fly”

to escape predators. To do so, the fish

first builds up speed underwater. It folds

its fins against its body while swimming

toward the surface. As the fish breaks the

surface it spreads its fins, which act as

wings. It also rapidly beats its tail, which

is still underwater. This lifts the fish out

of the water and lets it glide above the

surface. Some fish can go as far as 600

feet (180 meters) in a single glide.

#More to explore

Fish

Fog

Tiny water drops hovering in the air are

called fog. Fog is like a cloud, but it is

near the ground, not high in the sky.

Thick fog makes it difficult to see the

surrounding landscape.

Fog forms from water vapor, which is

water in the form of a gas.Water vapor

in the air condenses, or turns back into

liquid, when the air cools. Fog appears

when this liquid gathers around bits of

dust in the air. A gentle wind helps fog

to form and to stay in the air. If the

water vapor condenses on the ground

instead, it is called dew.

Fog is very common in valleys and near

bodies of water. It usually forms at

night, when the air cools down. As the

air warms in the morning, the fog

evaporates, or dries up. In colder places

fog may last all day.Wind and tall

objects, such as trees and buildings, can

break fog into patches.

Fog also forms when warm air blows

slowly over a cool ocean or a lake. This

kind of fog can also develop over snow

or ice. Cold air passing over warm land

or water may also form fog, as can rain

falling from warm air to cool air near the

ground.

#More to explore

Cloud • Dew •Water

A flying fish shows the fins that it uses to

soar in the air.

Fog forms in a valley.

40 Fog BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Folk Music

The music and songs of common people

are called folk music, or traditional

music. Folk music exists around the

world, often in rural areas.

Most folk music includes singing and

instrument playing. There are many

forms of folk songs. A ballad tells a

story. A lullaby is a child’s bedtime song.

A spiritual is a religious song. Folk musicians

use many kinds of instruments.

Some are simple, such as rattles and

whistles. Others, such as fiddles and

guitars, are also used to play classical

music.

Once a person makes up a folk song,

people in the community learn it. No

one writes down the song at first, so

people often change it as they perform

it. The song may spread to nearby towns

and even other countries, where it

changes further. Regions in Europe, for

example, all have their own styles of folk

music, but many of the tunes are similar.

European immigrants and African slaves

brought folk music to the Americas. In

colonial America and the early United

States, folk music was an important part

of daily life. Pioneers sang as they traveled

west. Slaves sang in the cotton fields

of the South.Workers sang as they laid

railroad tracks. Cowboys sang as they

herded cattle.

In the 1960s a new kind of folksinger

developed. Popular musicians, such as

Bob Dylan, sang traditional folk songs

and mixed folk music with rock and

roll. These singers made folk music

popular with young people.

#More to explore

Music • Musical Instruments

Folktale

Folktales are a kind of story that gets

passed on from generation to generation.

True folktales do not have a single

author. They develop as different people

tell them over time. As such, they are

creations of “the folk,” or the people.

Many folktales are very old. For generations

the tales were spoken aloud and

never written down. Storytellers would

memorize the stories and keep them

alive.

Modern authors may write their own

versions of popular kinds of traditional

tales, such as fables and fairy tales. Also,

folktales that began as ancient spoken

stories may now be written down in

books. For example, the stories called

the Arabian Nights were told aloud long

ago in many places in the Middle East

European art

music, also

known as

classical

music, often

borrows tunes

from folk

music.

Young folk musicians perform in Budapest,

Hungary.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Folktale 41

and elsewhere. A variety of entertaining

stories in the group tell of characters

such as Aladdin, Ali Baba, and Sinbad

the Sailor. People began collecting and

writing down these colorful tales more

than 1,000 years ago.

Subjects

Folktales tell about many different parts

of life. They may tell about joys and

sorrows, animals and magic beings, and

heroes and villains. They can be scary,

funny, or exciting. Different types of

folktales may entertain or teach a lesson.

They may also try to explain things that

people do not understand. Myths are

similar to folktales. They are traditional

stories about a culture’s beliefs about

life.

Different cultures tell different stories.

However, some similar themes appear in

folktales told in many different places

and cultures. For example, folktales

about clever “tricksters” are common in

western Africa, the Americas, and other

places. Trickster tales usually involve a

weaker animal using its wits to get the

better of a stronger one.

Stories of heroes are also common in

many cultures. Heroic tales help bind a

people together and help them remember

their history. For example, King

Arthur and the Knights of the Round

Table are the heroes of many French and

English legends.

Fables

A fable is a type of folktale that teaches a

lesson. Fables are usually entertaining

tales featuring animals that talk and

behave as people do. Because they have

humanlike qualities, the animals show

how foolish or wise people can be. For

A collection of

Indian folktales

about

animals

called the

Panchatantra

was written

perhaps

2,000 years

ago.

Anansi the spider is a trickster character

that appears in many western African folktales.

In one story he lures a swarm of hornets

into a gourd, where he will trap them.

42 Folktale BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

example, “The Three Little Pigs” teaches

that hard work is important: The house

built by the hardest-working pig is the

only one that survives the wolf’s attacks.

Some of the oldest fables came from

India and Greece thousands of years ago.

Many fables that are familiar in English

today are said to have been written in

ancient Greece by a man named Aesop.

Fairy Tales

Fairy tales are a kind of folk story about

magical events and creatures. They often

tell about a young person meeting fantastic

beings such as fairies, witches,

giants, or dragons. Stories such as “Cinderella,”

“Little Red Riding Hood,” and

“Sleeping Beauty” began as spoken folktales

with no one author. Two German

brothers called the Brothers Grimm

collected and wrote down many fairy

tales in the 1800s. Some modern writers,

such as Hans Christian Andersen,

invented their own fairy tales.

#More to explore

Aesop • Andersen, Hans Christian

• Arthurian Legend • Grimm Brothers

• Mythology • Storytelling

Food and

Nutrition

Plants make their own food with the

sun’s help. Animals, including humans,

do not. Instead they eat food—plants

or other animals—to get what their

bodies need to live and grow. Nutrition

is the science of how the body uses

food.

Calories

Food gives the body the energy it needs

for everything it does, from repairing

damaged cells to sleeping. The amount

of energy a food can produce is measured

in calories.

Nutrients

Food also provides the nutrients that the

body needs to function and maintain

itself. These nutrients are proteins, carbohydrates,

fats and oils, minerals, vitamins,

and water.

Proteins are needed for body tissue to

grow and repair itself. Carbohydrates

give the body most of the energy it

needs. Starches and sugars are carbohydrates.

If a person

takes in more

food than the

body needs,

the extra

calories are

changed into

fat—a stored

form of

energy.

In the story of “Little Red Riding

Hood” a wolf tries to trick a

young girl by dressing up as the

girl’s grandmother.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Food and Nutrition 43

The body uses fats to maintain its temperature

and to cushion organs. Fats also

help the body use certain vitamins. But

fats can also be harmful. For example,

some kinds of fats can raise the level of

cholesterol in the blood. Cholesterol is

an important substance in the body.

However, when the body has too much

cholesterol, the extra begins to build up

in the walls of the blood vessels. This

gradually narrows the blood vessels so

that blood cannot flow freely through

them. This may lead to a heart attack or

stroke.

Minerals serve a variety of purposes.

Calcium, for example, builds bones and

teeth and helps to clot blood. Iron is

needed to build red blood cells and

carry oxygen from the lungs to other

body cells. Other minerals important to

the human body include iodine,

magnesium, sodium, potassium, and

zinc.

The body also needs vitamins. Vitamin

C keeps gums healthy and helps the

body absorb iron. Vitamin D works

with calcium and phosphorus to make

strong bones and teeth. Other vitamins

are A, E, K, and the B-complex vitamins.

Water is important in many chemical

reactions in the body. In fact, every cell

in the body must be bathed in water.

Water also helps the body get rid of

wastes and maintain its temperature.

Water makes up about 60 percent of an

adult’s body weight.

Food Pyramid

Different foods contain different

nutrients. Some foods are better sources

of nutrients than others are. Scientists

have created a chart called the food

pyramid to show how much of different

groups of food a person should eat in

order to be healthy. In general they

recommend that people eat more

grains, vegetables, fruits, and milk and

fewer fats and oils.

#More to explore

Cholesterol

Food Chain

The term food chain describes the order

in which organisms, or living things,

depend on each other for food. Every

People should try to eat several servings of

grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy products,

and meat or beans every day. They should

eat only a small amount of fats and oils.

44 Food Chain BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ecosystem, or community of living

things, has a food chain. Some have

more than one food chain.

Most food chains start with organisms

that make their own food, such as

plants. Scientists call them producers.

Organisms that eat other living things

are known as consumers. A squirrel that

feeds on plants is called a primary consumer.

A hawk that eats the squirrel and

other primary consumers is called a secondary

consumer.

Decomposers are often the final link in a

food chain. Decomposers are bacteria

and other organisms that cause decay.

When plants and animals die, decomposers

break down their tissues. This

adds nutrients to the soil so that new

plants may grow. Then the food chain

begins again.

A food web is a group of food chains

within an ecosystem. Most living things

eat more than one type of animal or

plant. So their food chains overlap and

connect. For example, the hawk that ate

the squirrel also may eat fish. This

makes the hawk a part of two food

chains, or a food web.

#More to explore

Ecosystem • Living Thing

Food Poisoning

Food sometimes gets contaminated or

infected with harmful things. A person

who eats such food can get an illness

A food chain in the ocean begins with tiny one-celled organisms called diatoms. They

make their own food from sunlight. Shrimplike creatures eat the diatoms. Small fish then

eat the shrimplike creatures, and bigger fish eat the small fish.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Food Poisoning 45

called food poisoning. Food poisoning is

usually not serious, but some types are

deadly.

Symptoms

The symptoms of food poisoning usually

begin within hours of eating the

contaminated food. The most common

symptoms are fever, stomach cramps,

nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Causes

Certain microorganisms (tiny living

things) cause most types of food poisoning.

Bacteria and other microorganisms

can infect eggs, meat, vegetables, and

many other foods. After entering the

body these microorganisms release poisons

that make people sick.

Some chemicals can also cause food poisoning.

These chemicals are often added

to food while it is being grown, processed,

or prepared. For example, many

farmers spray chemicals on crops to kill

weeds and insects. Some people may

have a bad reaction to those chemicals

when they eat the crops.

Some plants and animals contain natural

poisons that are harmful to people.

These include certain kinds of seafood,

grains, nuts, seeds, beans, and fungi

(mushrooms). Molds called mycotoxins

may also cause food poisoning.

Prevention

When people handle food properly, the

risk of food poisoning is very small.

Microorganisms multiply rapidly in

dirty places and in warm temperatures.

This means that people should never

touch food with dirty hands or put food

on unwashed surfaces. Food should be

refrigerated to stop microorganisms

from growing. Meat needs to be cooked

thoroughly to kill any dangerous microorganisms.

People should also wash food covered

with chemicals before eating it. Finally,

people should not eat wild mushrooms

or other foods that grow in the wild.

Some of these foods may contain natural

substances that are poisonous to

humans. In addition, some types of fish,

such as the moray eel, and certain shellfish

can be poisonous.

Treatment

Most people recover from food poisoning

after a few days of resting and drinking

extra fluids. People who cannot

drink enough may need to have fluids

pumped into their veins. If people eat

natural poisons, they must go to the

Salmonella bacteria that cause illness are

seen through a microscope.

46 Food Poisoning BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

hospital right away to have their stomachs

emptied.

#More to explore

Bacteria • Food and Nutrition

Foot

All animals with a backbone and legs

have a foot attached to the end of each

leg. Feet are made up of bones,

muscles, and connective tissue. At the

front, feet are divided into digits, or

toes. Hardened skin—in the form of

claws, nails, or hooves—covers the ends

of the digits.

While an animal is standing, its feet

touch the ground and support its

weight. The structure of feet also allows

animals to walk, run, and jump.

The Human Foot

The human foot has a heel, a middle

portion called an instep, and toes. The

bottom of the foot is called the sole. The

ball of the foot is the part of the sole

behind the toes.

Each foot has 26 bones. The bones form

two arches that allow humans to stand

and walk upright. One arch extends

from heel to toes. It absorbs the shock of

walking. The other arch reaches across

the ball of the foot. It helps to spread the

weight of the body over the foot. The

joints, or places where the bones meet,

let the foot bend easily.

Feet of Other Animals

Some animals—including raccoons,

monkeys, and apes—can use their feet

to grasp things. But like other animals,

they also use their feet to get around.

While walking, some animals, such as

bears and baboons, put the whole foot

on the ground. Others, including cats

and dogs, never put their heels down.

Still other animals, such as horses and

deer, walk on their hooves, which are at

the tip of one or two toes. Running on

tiptoe allows these animals to move very

quickly.

Mollusks, including snails and clams,

have a muscle called a foot that allows

them to move. What are called feet in

insects are just the lower parts of their

legs.

#More to explore

Hoof • Leg • Nail and Claw

A podiatrist is

a doctor who

specializes in

the care of

human feet.

Humans place their whole foot on the

ground while walking. Dogs keep their

heels off the ground.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Foot 47

Football

Millions of people in the United States

consider autumn to be football season.

Football is a very popular sport that is

played on high school fields, college

campuses, and in professional stadiums.

Football involves running, passing, kicking,

and body contact. A football game

is played between two teams of 11 players

each. A team scores points by moving

a ball across the other team’s goal

line. The team that scores more points

wins.

This game is sometimes called

American football. It is played mainly

in the United States. Canadian football

is very similar to the U.S. game. But in

most countries around the world the

word football refers to the sport also

known as soccer.

Playing Field and Equipment

American football is played on a grassy,

rectangular field. The field is 120 yards

(110 meters) long and 160 feet (49

meters) wide. White lines called end

lines and sidelines mark the edges of the

field.

Each end of the field has a goal line. The

goal lines are 100 yards (91 meters)

apart. The 10-yard areas between the

goal lines and the end lines are called the

end zones. A pair of goalposts connected

by a crossbar stands at the back of each

end zone.

Most of the action in a football game

takes place between the goal lines. White

lines run across this part of the field

every 5 yards (4.6 meters). These lines

help to show how far a team has moved

the football. Two sets of short lines,

called hash marks, cross these lines.

Officials use the hash marks to place the

ball on the field after play is stopped.

Because football is a rough game, players

wear equipment to protect themselves.

They wear padding on their shoulders,

hips, thighs, and knees. They also wear a

mouth guard and a helmet with a face

mask.

A football is an oval with pointed ends.

It is filled with air and usually covered

with leather.

Playing the Game

A football game begins with a kickoff.

One team, called the kicking team, kicks

the football to the other team, called the

receiving team. A player on the receiving

A football player carries the ball

while a player for the other team

tries to stop him.

48 Football BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

team catches the ball. The player then

runs toward the kicking team’s goal line.

The kicking team tries to stop him. Its

players can tackle, or throw down, the

ballcarrier. They can also push him out

of the playing area. This is called being

out of bounds.

The game continues from the spot

where the ballcarrier was stopped. An

official places the ball on the field. The

teams line up facing each other on

opposite sides of the ball. An imaginary

line called the line of scrimmage runs

through the football to each sideline. It

separates the two teams.

A football team has some players who

play offense and others who play

defense. The two teams take turns playing

offense and defense.

The team with the ball plays offense. It

tries to move the ball down the field for

a score. The offense can move the ball

either by running with it or by throwing,

or passing, it. The different types of

running or throwing tactics that the

offense uses are called plays. The offense

designs plays to move forward by overpowering

or fooling the defense. The

offensive player called the quarterback

begins most plays. The quarterback usually

hands or passes the ball to a teammate.

The defense tries to prevent the other

team from scoring. Defensive players

can tackle the quarterback or any other

player who has the ball. They can also

catch a pass that the quarterback meant

to throw to a teammate. This is called an

interception. The team that makes the

interception then switches to offense.

The offense has four tries, called downs,

to move the ball at least 10 yards. If the

offense fails to do this, the other team

gets the ball. If the offense does move

the ball 10 yards or more, it gets another

four downs. This continues until the

offense scores, the defense takes away

the ball, or time runs out.

The offense can score touchdowns or

field goals. Running or passing the ball

across the goal line scores a touchdown.

A touchdown is worth six points. After a

touchdown the scoring team has a

chance to earn extra points. Kicking the

ball between the goalposts is worth one

point. Getting the ball into the end zone

An American professional football field is almost the same as a college football field.

American

football is also

called gridiron

football.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Football 49

by running or passing earns two points.

When the offense does not score a

touchdown, it can score three points by

kicking the ball between the goalposts.

This is a field goal.

Sometimes the defense scores, too. If an

offensive player drops the ball, a defensive

player can pick it up and carry it for

a touchdown. Also, a defensive player

can run with the ball after intercepting a

pass. The defense scores two points by

trapping the offense in its own end zone.

This is called a safety.

History

Football started in the late 1800s in the

United States as a college sport. Princeton

and Rutgers played the first college

football game in 1869. This game was

similar to soccer. In 1871 students at

Harvard University invented their own

game. It combined soccer and the

English game called rugby. In 1876 representatives

from Harvard, Princeton,

Yale, and Columbia universities wrote a

set of football rules based on rugby.

Walter Camp, a coach at Yale, helped to

separate the game of American football

from rugby. Camp introduced the

11-man team and the line of scrimmage.

He also began the system of downs.

The first professional football game was

played in 1895. In 1920 professional

football teams formed the organization

that would later be called the National

Football League (NFL). In 1970 the

rival American Football League became

part of the NFL. Since 1967 the two

best teams at the end of each season

have competed for the Super Bowl

championship. This game is one of the

most watched shows on television.

#More to explore

Rugby • Soccer

Force

A force is a push or a pull on an object.

A force happens when two objects

interact—that is, when one object does

something to the other object. When

the interaction stops, the force stops,

too.

Contact Forces

and Field Forces

There are two types of forces: contact

forces and field forces. Contact forces

happen when objects touch each other.

For example, contact forces happen

when a person kicks a ball or pulls a

wagon. Other examples of contact forces

are sandpaper rubbing on a piece of

wood and wind blowing against a moving

car.

Touch football

and flag football

are versions

of

football that

are often

played in U.S.

elementary

schools. They

are not as

rough as

tackle football.

Each side in a tug-of-war game uses force

to try to pull down the other side.

50 Force BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Field forces happen when two objects

interact without touching each other.

Field forces can create a push or a pull

even at a distance. Gravity is a field

force. When an apple falls from a tree,

the force of gravity pulls the apple

toward the ground. Another field force

is magnetism. Paper clips stick to a magnet

because its magnetic force is pulling

on the paper clips.

Measuring Force

Most scientists measure force using a

unit called the newton. Newtons measure

the force needed to accelerate, or

speed up, objects. Force may also be

measured in pounds.

Forces and the Laws of Motion

In the late 1600s, the English scientist

Isaac Newton came up with three laws

that deal with forces and motion. The

first law says that the motion of an

object will not change unless a force

pushes or pulls it. The second law says

that a force on an object will make the

object speed up in the same direction as

the force. Also, a strong force will make

the object speed up faster than a weak

force on the same object. The third law

says that whenever a force pushes on an

object, the object pushes back with an

equal and opposite force.

..More to explore

Gravity • Magnet and Magnetism

• Motion

Ford, Gerald R.

Gerald Ford was the 38th president of

the United States. He was not elected to

office. President Richard M. Nixon

appointed him vice president in 1973.

Ford became president in 1974 after