outdoors. Sunscreen lotion protects the
skin from harmful rays in sunlight.
Exercise and eating a lot of fruits, vegetables,
and whole grains also can help
to prevent cancer. Seeing a doctor once a
year helps, too. Doctors can find early
warning signs of cancer.
Treatment
If cancer is caught early, it often can be
treated successfully. A doctor can remove
tumors by surgery, or cutting them out
of the body. Radiation (energy particles)
and chemotherapy (chemicals) are also
used in cancer treatment. These two
processes either kill the cancer cells or
stop them from growing.
#More to explore
Cell Disease, Human
Canyon
A canyon is a narrow, deep valley cut
by a river through rock. Canyons vary
in size. Some are narrow slits while
others are huge trenches. Canyons have
very steep sides and may be thousands
of feet deep. Smaller valleys of similar
appearance are called gorges.
Canyons are created by erosion. Over
thousands or millions of years a rivers
flowing water erodes, or wears away, soil
and rocks to form a valley. The largest
and most famous canyons have been cut
through dry areas by swift streams fed by
rain or melting snow from wetter areas.
The walls remain steep and rough
because there is little rainfall or surface
water to wear them down. An example is
the Grand Canyon, in the U.S. state of
Arizona.
Submarine canyons are deep underwater
valleys. They are found along the borders
of the continents and some ocean
islands. The Grand Bahama Canyon, in
the Atlantic Ocean near the Bahamas, is
thought to be the deepest submarine
Over many years, Deer Creek
has cut through rock to create a
beautiful canyon in Grand Canyon
National Park, Arizona.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Canyon 31
canyon. Its walls are nearly 3 miles (5
kilometers) tall.
..More to explore
Continent Erosion Grand Canyon
River
Cape Town
Population
(2005 estimate)
3,103,000
The country of South Africa has three
capitalsCape Town, Pretoria (Tshwane),
and Bloemfontein. Cape Town is
where the countrys legislature meets.
The legislature makes the countrys laws.
It is a large city in a beautiful natural setting.
Cape Town is one of South Africas most
important centers of industry. Factories
in the city process foods and make wine,
clothing, and leather goods. Other main
industries include ship repair and tourism.
Cape Town is also a seaport.
The first people to live in the region
were ancestors of the African Khoisan
people. Traders from the Netherlands
founded a settlement at the site in 1652.
It was the first European settlement in
what is now South Africa. The company
used the settlement as a supply station.
In 1806 the British took control of the
area. In the late 1800s the discovery of
gold and diamonds nearby brought
many more people to Cape Town. In
1910 the country of South Africa was
formed with Cape Town as its legislative
capital.
..More to explore
Bloemfontein Pretoria South Africa
The city of Cape Town, South Africa, looks
out onto the Atlantic Ocean.
Plants grow on the walls and
floor of a canyon in Iceland.
Many famous canyons are found
in dry regions, but canyons also
may form in cool, wet areas.
32 Cape Town BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Cape Verde
Cape Verde is an archipelago, or group
of islands, in the Atlantic Ocean. Ruled
by Portugal for 500 years, the country
gained independence in 1975. Praia, on
Sao Tiago Island, is Cape Verdes capital
and largest city.
Cape Verde lies 385 miles (620 kilometers)
west of Africa. It includes 10
islands and five rocky islets. TheWindward,
or Barlavento, Islands lie to the
north of the Leeward, or Sotavento,
Islands. The islands are mountainous.
The climate is warm and very dry.
Grasses and some pine trees grow on
mountain slopes that face the wind,
where there is more rainfall. The sheltered
slopes are desertlike, with thorny
shrubs. Many lizards, butterflies, and
birds live on the islands. Sea turtles lay
their eggs on the sandy shores. The longeared
bat is the only mammal native to
Cape Verde.
More than two thirds of Cape Verdes
population is Creole, or of mixed African
and European roots. Most of the rest
of the people are African. The official
language is Portuguese, but most people
speak a form called Crioulo. Most Cape
Verdeans are Roman Catholics. Most
live in towns or cities.
Trade and transportation bring the most
money to Cape Verdes economy. Agriculture
and manufacturing play smaller
roles. Crops include corn, sugarcane,
bananas, coconuts, and sweet potatoes.
No one lived in Cape Verde until Portuguese
settlers landed on Sao Tiago in
1462. They used the islands in their
African slave trade. In 1951 Portugal
made Cape Verde a province. All the
people of the islands gained Portuguese
citizenship in 1961. In 1975 Cape Verde
became an independent republic.
..More to explore
Praia
The town of Porto Novo, Cape Verde, is
tucked into the mountains.
Facts About
CAPE VERDE
Population
(2008 estimate)
500,000
Area
1,557 sq mi
(4,033 sq km)
Capital
Praia
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Praia, Mindelo,
Sao Filipe
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cape Verde 33
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system. That
is, it is a system for dealing with money
and wealth. In a capitalist country, citizens,
not governments, own and run
companies. These companies compete
with other companies for business. They
decide which goods and services to provide.
They also decide how much to
charge for the goods and services and
where to sell them. Companies do all
these things to make money for their
owners. People who use their money to
start or to run companies are called capitalists.
Many countries of the worldincluding
the United States, Great Britain, Japan,
and Germanypractice capitalism.
Other names for capitalism are freemarket
economy and free enterprise.
Rise of Capitalism
Capitalism has existed since ancient
timesfor as long as people have
bought and sold goods. However, it
gained importance in the 1500s with the
growth of trade, industry, and banking.
During this time governments tried to
encourage trade. To do this, countries
behaved like merchants. They tried to
sell more to foreign countries than they
bought from those countries. This idea
of profit (taking in more money than
one pays out) helped modern capitalism
to develop.
Laissez-Faire Capitalism
In the 1700s and 1800s, the Industrial
Revolution brought great changes to the
economies of many countries. Factories
were invented, and soon manufacturing
grew greatly. Manufacturers did not
want governments to control trade anymore.
They wanted to be left alone to
run their companies. This idea became
known as laissez-faire, which means
allow to do in French.
Reactions to Capitalism
During the 1800s and early 1900s companies
produced more and more goods,
and many capitalists became rich. However,
ordinary workers earned low wages
while working long hours, sometimes in
dangerous conditions. These problems
led to the growth of labor movements.
Many workers banded together to
demand better treatment from companies.
The ideas of socialism also became
popular. Under socialism, a government
controls the economy by owning companies
and property. It then tries to
spread its countrys wealth fairly among
its citizens. Many countries followed
some socialist ideas in the 1900s. Some
In a capitalist economy, many different
companies compete against one another for
business. For example, many different companies
make televisions for people to buy.
34 Capitalism BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
countries, including the Soviet Union,
adopted an extreme form of socialism
called Communism.
Capitalism Today
Laissez-faire capitalism mostly ended
during the 1930s. People throughout
the world suffered economic problems
during a period called the Great Depression.
Many peoplenot just socialists
came to believe that governments had to
help control the economy. Most governments
now pass laws to make companies
treat customers and workers fairly.
Capitalism remains the worlds most
popular economic system. Many countries
today even mix capitalism with
socialism. In these countries, the government
owns some companies and provides
many services, but individuals may
own companies, too.
#More to explore
Bank and Banking Economics
Industry Labor Socialism Trade
Capital
Punishment
Of all punishments for convicted criminals,
capital punishment is the most
severe. Because it means putting the
criminal to death, it is often called the
death penalty. In the 20th century many
nations abolished capital punishment.
However, some countries and most
states of the United States continue to
use it.
Conflicting Views
People who support capital punishment
say that justice is done when a person
who has committed murder is executed.
They also say that fear of death will make
people less likely to commit murder.
People who oppose capital punishment
say that it is not civilized. They doubt
whether it prevents crime, and they
point out that innocent people have
been wrongly executed. They also argue
that capital punishment is applied
unevenly. Most people who are executed
are poor or members of minority groups
who do not have access to good lawyers.
History
Capital punishment goes back to
ancient times. In ancient Greece and
Rome people were put to death for
many different crimes. It has been
limited over time, though in some
countries it is still used for a variety of
offenses. In the United States in 2002
A group of people in California attend a
protest against capital punishment.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Capital Punishment 35
the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against
executing anyone who is mentally
impaired. Three years later the Court
banned execution for people who were
less than 18 years old when they
committed their crimes.
..More to explore
Crime
Car
..see Automobile.
Caracas
Population
(2001
estimate), city,
1,836,000;
(2005
estimate), urban
area,
2,913,000
Caracas is the capital of Venezuela, a
country in northern South America. The
city is in a valley surrounded by mountains.
The port of Caracas lies on the
Caribbean Sea, about 20 miles (32 kilometers)
away from the city. Caracas is
the largest city in Venezuela by far. It is
the countrys center of culture, education,
business, and manufacturing.
Venezuelas largest companies all have
offices in Caracas. Many people in the
city work in banks, insurance companies,
shopping centers, and government
offices. Important products made in
Caracas include chemicals, clothing,
processed foods, paper, and medicines.
Tourism also brings money to Caracas.
The Spanish founded the city in the
1560s. In 1577 Caracas became the
capital of a Spanish province. English
pirates attacked the city in 1595. Earthquakes
almost destroyed Caracas in
1755 and 1812.
Caracas was the birthplace of Simon
Bolivar, who led several revolutions
against Spanish rule. Under his leadership
Venezuela became the first colony
to rebel against Spain. Venezuela became
an independent country in 1830 with
Caracas as its capital.
Many people moved to Caracas during
the 20th century. The city grew quickly.
In 1999 a rainstorm caused floods and
mudslides throughout northern Venezuela.
Many thousands of people in Caracas
were killed.
..More to explore
Venezuela
Mountains provide a beautiful background
for the city of Caracas, Venezuela.
36 Car BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Cardiff
Population
(2006 estimate)
317,500
Cardiff is the capital ofWales, one of the
four main parts of the country called the
United Kingdom. It is the largest city in
Wales. The city lies where the Taff River
flows into a part of the Atlantic Ocean.
The economy of Cardiff depends heavily
on government activity and service
industries such as health care, education,
and tourism. The city isWaless center
of trade, shopping, banking, and insurance.
The Romans built a fort in the Cardiff
area in ancient times. In the 1090s a
landowner from England built another
fortification on the same site. This
became Cardiff Castle. A town grew
around the castle.
Cardiff was a small town for hundreds
of years. Coal mines were developed in
the area in the late 1700s. After that
Cardiff grew into a major port for shipping
out coal. The citys coal trade
ended in the 1960s. But Cardiff
remained the most important city in
Wales.
..More to explore
United Kingdom Wales
Cardinal
Cardinals are American songbirds
known for the males bright red
feathers. Both the male and the female
sing a loud, clear whistling song yearround.
The northern cardinal is one of
the most common birds of North
America. It is related to finches,
grosbeaks, and many types of sparrows.
Other species, or types, of cardinal live
in South America.
Northern cardinals are found mainly in
the United States east of the Rocky
Mountains, in southeastern Canada, and
in Mexico. These birds do not fly south
for the winter. Instead they spend the
entire year in the same area. They live in
bushes, in gardens, and at the edges of
woodlands.
Cardiff Castle is located in the middle of the
city. The stone structure called the keep of
the castle was built in the 1100s.
The Welsh
name for
Cardiff is
Caerdydd.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cardinal 37
The northern cardinal is about 8 inches
(20 centimeters) long. It has a pointed
tuft of feathers, called a crest, on top of
its head. The males are red with black
face markings and red crests. The
females and young cardinals have graybrown
backs. Their wings, tails, and
crests are a dull red.
All cardinals have strong, cone-shaped
bills. This helps them crush the seeds
they eat. Cardinals also eat many kinds
of insects and fruits.
#More to explore
Bird Songbird Sparrow
Cardiovascular
System
Humans and many other animals
depend on blood flowing through their
bodies to keep them alive. The blood
travels through a system that includes
the heart and a network of blood vessels.
This is called a cardiovascular system.
Heart
The human heart is a pear-shaped organ
about the size of a fist. It is made up of a
special type of muscle called cardiac
muscle, which is not found anywhere
else in the body. The heart acts as a
pump to push the blood throughout the
body.
The heart is separated into four chambers,
or parts. The upper chambers are
called atria, and the lower chambers are
called ventricles. A valve, or a flap that
can open and shut, connects each
atrium to the ventricle below it. The
valves control the movement of blood
through the heart.
Blood Vessels
The blood vessels are a system of tubes
that carry the blood throughout the
body. The main vessels are arteries,
veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry
blood out from the heart. Veins return
blood to the heart. Arteries are the
thickest of all blood vessels. They
The male northern cardinal is a colorful
visitor to birdfeeders in many parts of North
America.
Blood flows from the heart through arteries
and into capillaries. It then returns to the
heart through veins.
38 Cardiovascular System BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
expand and contract to keep blood moving
away from the heart. Veins contain
valves that prevent blood from flowing
backward. Capillaries are tiny passages
that connect the arteries and the veins to
the bodys tissues.
Blood flows through the vessels in two
very specific paths. In the first path,
called pulmonary circulation, blood
travels from the heart to the lungs. In
the lungs carbon dioxide and other
waste gases leave the blood. The blood
takes in oxygen and then returns to the
heart.
In the second path, called systemic circulation,
the blood travels away from
the heart throughout the body. The
arteries carrying the blood branch out
into smaller vessels called arterioles and
finally into capillaries. In the capillaries
the blood transfers oxygen and nutrients
to cells in the bodys tissues. The blood
in the capillaries also collects waste
products from the cells. From the capillaries
the blood flows into small vessels
called venules. These unite to form
veins. The blood flows through the veins
back to the heart.
Other Organs
In addition to the lungs, many other
organs in the body interact with the
cardiovascular system. Blood carries
away nutrients from the intestines,
which are part of the digestive system.
The spleen and the liver filter, or clean,
the blood by removing old blood cells
and bacteria. The kidneys take water,
minerals, and other waste products from
the blood.
Blood continuously flows from the heart,
throughout the human body, and back to
the heart.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cardiovascular System 39
Diseases of the Cardiovascular
System
When the force of the blood against the
walls of the blood vessels is too high, a
person has hypertension, or high blood
pressure. Hypertension can weaken the
heart and damage other organs.
Sometimes fatty deposits thicken and
harden the walls of the arteries. When
this happens a person has arteriosclerosis.
Arteriosclerosis slows the flow of
blood, which can lead to a heart attack.
#More to explore
Blood Heart Lung
Carib
The Carib were American Indians who
lived in South America and on islands in
the Caribbean Sea. The sea was named
after the Carib.
The Carib first lived in small villages in
northern South America. They built
houses of pole frames covered with palm
leaves. They got their food by hunting
and farming.
After AD 1000 many Carib moved to the
Caribbean islands called the Lesser Antilles.
The island Carib were more warlike
than the South American Carib. They
drove the Arawak people off the islands.
The island Carib were fierce fighters.
After torturing and killing enemy men,
they took the women into their tribe as
wives or slaves. The Carib may have
eaten the bodies of their enemies. This
practice, called cannibalism, may have
been part of the tribes religion.
Spanish explorers began arriving in
Carib lands in the late 1400s. The South
American Carib were wiped out by
fighting and by diseases brought by the
Spanish. But the Spanish avoided the
islands where the Carib lived. There was
no gold on them, and the island Carib
were too hard to defeat in battle. Other
As blood travels through capillaries, it delivers
oxygen and nutrients to the bodys cells.
It also picks up carbon dioxide and other
wastes.
A Carib man weaves baskets on
the island of Dominica.
40 Carib BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Europeans conquered the islands in the
1600s. Only a few Carib survived.
Today their descendants live on the
islands of Saint Vincent and Dominica.
The Garifuna are another group of
people with Carib roots. The Garifuna
originated when slaves brought from
Africa mixed with island Carib. Garifuna
today live in the Central American
countries of Belize, Honduras, and
Nicaragua.
#More to explore
Arawak Caribbean Sea Native
Americans
Caribbean Sea
The Caribbean Sea sits between the
islands of theWest Indies and the coasts
of Central and South America. It is a
section of the Atlantic Ocean. The sea
was named after the Carib Indians. The
Carib lived on islands in the sea hundreds
of years ago.
The Caribbean Sea has a mainly tropical
climate. Temperatures are warm yearround.
Tropical storms are common in
summer in the northern Caribbean.
Hurricanes often strike Caribbean
islands between June and November.
The Caribbean region has mostly tropical
plants. Rain forests grow in the high
parts of Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and
other islands. Coconut palms are typical
on the sandy shores of the islands. Monkeys,
cats, sloths, parrots, and toucans
live in the forests. In the sea itself, many
fishes and other sea animals live along
coral reefs.
The Caribbean economy depends
heavily on tourism.With its sunny climate,
the Caribbean is one of the
worlds most popular vacation places.
Fishing is also important to the
economy. Tuna, sardines, and spiny lobsters
are valuable catches. Caribbean
countries ship coffee, sugar, and bananas
to the United States and Canada.
#More to explore
Atlantic Ocean Carib Coral West
Indies
Caribou
#see Reindeer.
Many visitors come to the Caribbean Sea to
look at wonders beneath the surface of the
water.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Caribou 41
Carnation
The carnation is a flower that is often
used in bouquets and corsages. People
have grown carnations in gardens for
more than 2,000 years. The scientific
name of the carnation is Dianthus caryophyllus.
Carnations originally grew wild in the
area around the Mediterranean Sea.
Today most carnations are grown in
gardens and greenhouses.
Carnation plants range from 1 to 3 feet
(30 to 90 centimeters) in height. The
stems are stiff. The flowers may be
small or large. They have fringed petals.
The first carnations had pink flowers.
Growers developed white and deep red
varieties in the early 1500s. The
hundreds of kinds grown today include
purple and yellow shades. Some
carnations are striped.
Carnations often have a spicy smell. In
the past people used carnations to spice
wine. Carnations also were used to treat
fevers. In 1907 the pink carnation was
chosen as a symbol for Mothers Day.
#More to explore
Flower
Carp
Carp is the name of several fish in the
carp family. One of the best-known carp
is the common carp, a large freshwater
fish. Goldfish and minnows also belong
to the carp family.
Carp live in ponds, lakes, and rivers all
over the world. Carp prefer warm, calm
waters, but they can survive in nearly
any type of fresh water.
Carp may be brownish yellow, greenish,
or gray in color. Most types of carp have
feelers, called barbels, at the corners of
the mouth. The barbels help the carp
find food in dark, muddy water. Different
types of carp vary in size. The com-
The carnation is a pretty flower
with a pleasant smell.
Colorful carp swim in a pond in Japan. This
type of carp, called koi, is popular in backyard
and garden ponds.
42 Carnation BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
mon carp may grow longer than 40
inches (100 centimeters). But it is usually
only about 14 inches (35 centimeters)
long.
Carp eat both plants and animals. When
carp feed, they suck up everything from
the bottom and spit out the dirt. This
behavior muddies the water and can
disturb other fish.
Carp live alone or in small groups.
Female carp lay thousands of eggs each
year. The eggs hatch within several days,
and the baby carp grow quickly.
Carp is a popular food in Asia and
Europe. People also eat carp in the
United States and Australia. But many
people in these countries consider carp
to be pests.
#More to explore
Fish Goldfish
Carroll, Lewis
The English author Lewis Carroll wrote
the childrens classics Alices Adventures
inWonderland and Through the Looking-
Glass. These books are beloved for their
unusual settings, lively characters, and
clever wordplay.
Carroll was born in Daresbury, England,
on January 27, 1832. His real name was
Charles Lutwidge Dodgson. He studied
mathematics at Oxford University in
England. For most of his life he lived at
Oxford while teaching mathematics. He
wrote books on mathematics and logic.
One day in 1862 Dodgson told three
young girls tales about a child named
Alice. Later he used the tales to write
Alices Adventures inWonderland. It was
published as a book in 1865. In the
story Alice crawls into a rabbit hole and
meets all sorts of interesting creatures.
Another book about Alice, Through the
Looking-Glass, appeared in 1871. Dodgson
wrote the books under the name
Lewis Carroll.
Dodgson also used the name Lewis Carroll
to write books of poetry for children.
In 1876 he published a famous
nonsense poem, The Hunting of the
Snark. He died in Guildford, England,
on January 14, 1898.
#More to explore
Literature for Children
Carrot
Carrots are roots that people eat. They
are highly valued for their sweet flavor.
An illustration by John Tenniel shows Lewis
Carrolls most famous character, Alice, as
she grows larger and larger.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Carrot 43
Many carrots are also a good source of
vitamins.
There are several types of carrot. The
most common are orange. There are also
white, yellow, and purple carrots. Most
carrots are long. They are usually wide at
the top and smaller at the end. Carrots
are firm and crisp. The skin is mostly
smooth, but it may have wrinkles that
go from side to side.
Carrots grow where the temperature is
cool to warm. Sometimes carrots push
up above the ground. When this happens,
the sun can turn them green. They
will also taste bitter. To prevent this,
farmers make sure carrots are completely
covered with soil.
Leaves on long stalks grow out of the
top of the carrot. On the ends of the
stalks are flowers. They form an
umbrella of tiny white or pinkish
blooms. Small fruits grow from the flowers.
Each fruit holds two seeds.
Carrots are eaten both fresh and cooked.
They are used in many dishes, including
salads, stews, soups, sauces, and cakes.
The juice of the carrot can also be a
sweet drink. Orange carrots are a good
source of a substance called carotene.
The human body converts carotene into
vitamin A.
Carson, Kit
The U.S. frontiersman Kit Carson
helped make history as a fur trapper,
guide, Indian agent, and soldier in the
OldWest. Nevadas capital, Carson
City, was named for him.
Christopher Carson, nicknamed Kit,
was born in Kentucky on December 24,
1809. When he was 1 year old his family
moved west to Missouri. As a boy Kit
fished, hunted, and trapped animals.
When he was 15 his mother sent him
off to learn how to make saddles. He
soon decided that indoor work was not
for him.
Carrots are a popular garden vegetable.
The main part of the carrot that people eat
is the root of the plant.
Kit Carson
44 Carson, Kit BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
In 1826 Carson ran away to New
Mexico. There, at age 19, he joined
some hardy fur trapperscalled mountain
menon a trip to California. He
took part in several fights with Native
Americans.
In 1842 the explorer John Charles Fremont
hired Carson as a guide for his trip
to map the Oregon Trail. In 1846, on a
trip to California with Fremont, Carson
helped U.S. forces capture Los Angeles
in the MexicanWar.
In 1854 Carson became a government
agent who dealt with the Ute people.
During the American CivilWar (1861
65) he organized and led a Union Army
unit that fought Confederates and
Native Americans in the Southwest. In
1868 Carson was put in charge of
Indian affairs for Colorado Territory. He
died in Colorado on May 23, 1868.
..More to explore
Fremont, John Charles MexicanWar
Carson City
Population
(2000 census)
52,457; (2007
estimate)
54,939
Carson City is the capital of the U.S.
state of Nevada. The city is important as
a center of government and tourism. It
is also a trade center for the areas mines,
ranches, and farms.
The site of Carson City was on a route
for pioneers traveling west to California.
A trading post was established in 1851.
The city was founded in 1858. In 1859
a large deposit of silver, known as the
Comstock Lode, was discovered nearby.
Carson City soon became crowded with
miners. In 1869 the U.S. government
opened a mint, or coin factory, in the
city. The Carson City mint closed in
1893. However, the mint building later
became a museum.
Carson City became the capital of the
Nevada Territory in 1861. Nevada
became a U.S. state in 1864 with Carson
City as its capital.
..More to explore
Nevada
The state Capitol in Carson City,
Nevada, is surrounded by gardens.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Carson City 45
Carter, Jimmy
Jimmy Carter became the 39th president
of the United States in January
1977. Many people thought that he was
an unsuccessful president. However,
Carter later won the 2002 Nobel prize
for peace.
Early Life
James Earl Carter, Jr., was born on
October 1, 1924, in Plains, Georgia.
His father, Earl, was a businessman. His
mother, Lillian, was a nurse. Jimmy was
the first member of his family to
complete high school. He went on to
attend Georgia Southwestern College
and the Georgia Institute of
Technology. In 1946 he graduated from
the U.S. Naval Academy in Maryland.
That year he married Rosalynn Smith.
The couple had three sons and a
daughter. After his fathers death in
1953, Carter returned to Georgia to
manage the family peanut farm.
Political Career
Carter soon became involved in local
politics. He was elected as a Democrat
to the Georgia Senate in 1962 and
1964. In 1966 Carter ran for governor
of Georgia but lost. Feeling depressed,
he turned to Baptist Christianity. Carter
ran again for governor in 1970. This
time he won. In his inaugural address he
called for an end to racial discrimina-
October 1,
1924 1970 1976 1978 1979 1980 2002
Carter is born
in Plains,
Georgia.
Carter is
elected
governor of
Georgia.
Carter is
elected
president.
Carter helps
the leaders of
Egypt and
Israel agree to
peace.
Iranian students
take hostages
at the U.S.
embassy in
Iran.
Carter loses the
presidential
election to
Ronald
Reagan.
Carter wins the
Nobel peace
prize.
T I M E L I N E
Jimmy Carter was the 39th president of the
United States.
46 Carter, Jimmy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
tion. He appointed African Americans
and women to government offices.
Presidency
Carter next decided to run for president.
He won the Democratic nomination in
July 1976. He chose SenatorWalter F.
Mondale as his vice presidential running
mate. During the campaign, Carter
called for efficiency and honesty in government.
In November 1976 he won a
narrow victory against the Republican
president, Gerald R. Ford.
Carter took office during a severe winter
and a terrible shortage of oil. He proposed
an energy program to help the
crisis, but Congress rejected it. Carter
also tried to cut back government spending
and to encourage the nations poor
economy. Many citizens could not find
jobs, however, and prices kept rising.
In 1978 Carter persuaded the leaders of
Egypt and Israel to sign a historic peace
agreement. On January 1, 1979, Carter
opened full diplomatic relations between
the United States and China. A serious
crisis overshadowed those successes,
however. On November 4, 1979, Iranian
students invaded the U.S. Embassy
in Iran and took more than 50 people
hostage. Most of the hostages were not
freed until January 1981.
The bad economy and the hostage crisis
caused voters to question Carters skills
as president. Carter lost the 1980 election
to the Republican candidate,
Ronald Reagan.
Retirement
Carters public image improved after he
left the WhiteHouse.He and his wife
founded the Carter Center in Atlanta,
Georgia, to promote peace and human
rights.He traveled widely to help settle
international conflicts.He helped build
homes for the poor with the organization
Habitat forHumanity.He also wrote
several books on politics and religion.
#More to explore
Ford, Gerald R. Human Rights
Nobel Prize Reagan, Ronald
United States
Carthage
The ancient city of Carthage was
founded by the Phoenicians on the
north coast of Africa in about 800 BC.
Until it was overthrown by Rome in 146
BC, Carthage was the trading center of
the western Mediterranean Sea. Today
Carthage is a suburb of Tunis, the capital
of Tunisia.
A gold coin from Carthage dating from the
300s or 400s BC shows the goddess Persephone.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Carthage 47
1534, the king of France asked him to
lead an expedition to North America.
In the spring of 1534 Cartier sailed
across the Atlantic Ocean to what is now
Canada. There he and his crew explored
the land around the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence and encountered Native
Americans. When he sailed back to
France, he took with him two Native
Americans.
A second voyage came in May 1535.
This time, Cartier sailed deeper into the
Gulf of Saint Lawrence and into the
Saint Lawrence River. The two Native
Americans he had taken before had
learned French, and they served as
guides. About 260 miles (420 kilometers)
inland, Cartier reached the Native
American village of Stadacona. Today,
the city of Quebec stands near that
place.
Cartier and his men were among the
first Europeans to winter in what is now
Canada. The bitter cold surprised them,
and some of the men died. After returning
to France he reported tales told by
the native people of treasures farther
inland.
Cartier once again crossed the Atlantic
in 1541. He explored further and found
what he thought were gold and diamonds.
When he returned to France in
1542, he was told that they were just the
common minerals pyrite (fools gold)
and quartz. After his third voyage
Cartier never returned to North
America. He died near Saint-Malo, his
birthplace, on September 1, 1557.
#More to explore
Canada Saint Lawrence River and
Seaway
Cartoon
Cartoons are drawings that make a
point, tell a joke, or tell a story. Cartoons
can be about almost anything.
Many cartoons are about the things that
everyday people say and do. Others are
about the news, government leaders, or
historical events. Many cartoons try to
make people laugh.
Types of Cartoons
Comic strips are a popular type of cartoon.
A comic strip usually has four or
more drawings in a row that tell a connected
story. Comic strips feature a cast
Cartoonist Charles Schulz works
on a Peanuts comic strip. He
drew this popular cartoon for
about 50 years.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cartoon 49
of characters, such as the children in the
comic strip Peanuts.
Other types of cartoons include political
cartoons, gag panels, and animated cartoons.
Political cartoons show what is
wrong with the government or make fun
of it. They are usually single drawings,
but there are some political comic strips.
Gag panels are single drawings that
make fun of everyday life. Animated
cartoons are cartoons filmed as movies
or television shows.
Cartoons may be found in newspapers,
magazines, and books. Comic books and
graphic novels are books filled with
many comic strips or cartoons.
History
People have been using pictures to tell
stories since prehistoric times. Prehistoric
artists drew pictures of animals on
the walls of caves. In ancient Egypt,
Greece, and Rome, artists painted pictures
on vases and walls. These pictures
recorded historical events, the lives of
important people, and legends.
From the 1500s to the 1700s people got
the news through short printed works
that had many pictures. Many of these
pictures were early forms of political
cartoons. Political cartoons became
common throughout Europe and the
United States during the 1800s.
During the 1900s funny gag panels and
comic strips became more popular than
political cartoons. Popular cartoons of
the late 20th and early 21st centuries
included The Far Side, Calvin and
Hobbes, Bloom County, and Get
Fuzzy.
#More to explore
Animation Drawing
Carver, George
Washington
GeorgeWashington Carver was born in
slavery but went on to win worldwide
respect for his work as a scientist. By
finding new ways to process peanuts,
soybeans, and sweet potatoes, he helped
to make them important crops in the
southern United States.
Carver was born in about 1861 near
Diamond Grove, Missouri. At about age
12 he left home. He eventually attended
Iowa State Agricultural College in Ames,
Iowa. He received a bachelors degree in
agriculture in 1894 and a masters
degree in 1896. Carver then became
Comic strips
became a
regular feature
of U.S. newspapers
in the
early 1900s.
George Washington Carver
50 Carver, George Washington BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
head of the agriculture department at
the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama.
There he stayed for the rest of his career.
Before Carvers time, Southern farmers
grew very few crops other than cotton, a
plant that wore out the soil. Carver tried
to get them to switch to peanuts and
soybeans. These plants were legumes.
They added nitrogen, a fertilizer, to the
soil and also could be made into nutritious
foods.
With his laboratory work, Carver tried
to make sure that farmers who grew
these crops would be able to sell them.
He developed 300 products from peanuts.
He also took an interest in sweet
potatoes and developed more than 100
products based on the plant.
Carvers efforts won him numerous
honors and improved life throughout
the South. Some scientists criticized his
informal methods, however. In addition,
some African Americans were disappointed
because he did not take a strong
public stand on racial issues.
Carver died in Tuskegee on January 5,
1943. He was buried on the Tuskegee
campus.
#More to explore
Cotton Legume Peanut
Caspian Sea
The worlds largest inland body of water
is the Caspian Sea. Lying between
Europe and Asia, it is bordered by Russia
and Azerbaijan on the west, Kazakhstan
and Turkmenistan on the north and
east, and Iran on the south. The sea was
named for the Kaspi, ancient peoples
who once lived on its western shores.
The Caspian Sea is nearly the size of
Japan, covering an area of about
143,000 square miles (370,000 square
kilometers). The sea is shallowest in the
north, where the depth averages just 13
to 20 feet (4 to 6 meters). The deepest
parts are in the south. In one place the
seafloor lies 3,360 feet (1,024 meters)
below the waters surface. Three major
riversthe Volga, the Ural, and the
Terekempty into the Caspian from
the north. The sea contains as many as
50 islands, most of them quite small.
The Caspian has long been famous for
its sturgeon. These fish produce eggs
that are made into the salty delicacy
called caviar. The number of sturgeon
greatly declined, however, as the water
level of the Caspian dropped during the
1900s. Today the chief industry of the
Caspian region is the production of oil
and natural gas. Surrounding countries
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Caspian Sea 51
collect these products from the seabed
and sell them to other countries.
Caste
In some countries a persons place in
society is decided by a caste system. The
caste that they belong to is based on
their wealth, occupation, and family
background. Although the term is used
to describe groups in other countries,
the system is most well developed in
India.
In India, castes are called jatis and are
grouped into four varnas, or categories.
At the top are Hindu priests and scholars;
next are the rulers and military leaders;
then merchants, traders, and
farmers; and, last, craftspeople, workers,
and servants. A group of people who
used to be called the untouchables ranks
even below this last group. In the early
1900s the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi
renamed these people Harijans (children
of God). Gandhi did not believe in
the caste system and fought to end it.
In later years Indias caste system
became somewhat more flexible. Even
though there was pressure to end it completely,
the caste system continued into
the 21st century.
#More to explore
Gandhi, Mahatma Hinduism India
Castle
For many centuries castles provided
both protection and living quarters for
kings, nobility, and sometimes common
people. The fortifications, or military
defenses, built into a castle set it apart
from a palace. A palace is usually a grand
house for a king or noble. Most castles
were built in Europe between the 800s
and the 1400s, during the period known
as the Middle Ages. But castles were
built in North Africa, western Asia,
India, and Japan as well.
Motte and Bailey Castles
One early type of castle was the motte
and bailey castle. The motte was a high
mound of earth. A fenced-in tower, usually
made of wood, stood on the motte.
Next to the motte was a lower, larger
walled area called the bailey. The castles
other buildings, such as workshops and
stables, stood within the bailey. A ditch
called a moat protected the motte and
sometimes the bailey, too.
Later Castles
Over time castles were made stronger.
Beginning in the 1100s builders increasingly
used stone instead of wood. A
typical stone castle was surrounded by a
moat. The main walls of most castles
were very thicksometimes more than
15 feet (4.6 meters). Special defenses
blocked the entrance. A hinged drawbridge
across the moat could be pulled
up to cover the gateway. In front of the
gateway hung the portcullis, a heavy
grate that slid in stone grooves and
could be dropped into place very
quickly. Farther inside was a large gate.
Within the walls was a central structure
called the keep, or donjon. This replaced
the tower that stood on the motte of the
In India there
are thousands
of different
jatis. This is
because each
city or region
may have its
own set of
castes.
52 Caste BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
earlier castles. It was the strongest and
most secure part of the castle. Some
keeps consisted of one high building.
Others took the form of a high wall that
enclosed several buildings. In early stone
castles the keep had everything needed
to withstand a long siege. During a
siege, enemies camped outside and prevented
anyone from entering or leaving.
In castles built later, however, the keep
became a place to go for safety after all
other defenses had failed.
Beginning in the late 1200s a new
design began to appear. These had walls
in the shape of a square. Round towers
were spaced along the walls. Inside was
another, larger wall with large towers
The three main types of castles are the motte and bailey castle, the stone castle and keep,
and the concentric castle.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Castle 53
and a gatehouse. These were called concentric
castles. The living quarters and
other buildings were within the inner
walls. There was no need for a keep
because the towers were used for
defense.
Decline of the Castle
Castles lost their usefulness in the late
Middle Ages. Large firearms developed
at that time could hurl cannonballs over
or through a castles walls. Beginning in
about 1500 forts replaced castles as military
defenses, and rulers lived in palaces
or mansions. Some castles still stand
today and are popular tourist attractions.
Castries
Population
(2001 census),
city, 10,634
Castries is the capital of Saint Lucia, an
island country in the Caribbean Sea.
Mount Fortune rises high above the
town and its pretty beaches. Castries is
the countrys largest town and chief
port. Tourism and banking are also
important to the towns economy.
Hundreds of years ago the Carib
Indians lived on the island. French
people settled there in the mid-1600s.
For many years the French and British
battled for control of the harbor at
Castries. The island changed hands
several times. It became a British colony
in the early 1800s. In 1979 Saint Lucia
became an independent country with
Castries as its capital.
#More to explore
Saint Lucia
Castro, Fidel
Fidel Castro ruled the country of Cuba
for many years. He established a form of
government called Communism. This
meant that he had a great deal of control
over the country and its people.
Early Life
Fidel Castro was born on August 13,
1926, in eastern Cuba. His father was a
farmer who grew sugarcane. As a boy
Locally grown produce is sold at a market
in Castries, Saint Lucia.
54 Castries BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Fidel worked in the fields. Later he went
to law school. There he became involved
in politics. He graduated in 1950. As a
lawyer Castro defended the poor.
Revolutionary
The leader of Cuba at the time was a
man named Fulgencio Batista. Many
people opposed Batista. He treated his
enemies harshly. He also stole money
from the country.
Castro and his brother Raul formed a
group to oppose Batista. On July 26,
1953, the group attacked a military
post. Most of the attackers died, and the
Castros were imprisoned. After they
were released from prison they continued
to attack the government. On January
1, 1959, Batista left Cuba. Castro
soon took control of the country.
Dictator
As leader of the country, Castro brought
changes to Cuba. He took control of
factories and farms. He permitted no
political opposition. However, he did
make some changes to help the common
people. Many Cubans left the country
when Castro took over. Some of them
later returned to try to overthrow Castro,
but they were not successful.
For many years the Soviet Union supported
Cubas economy. After the Soviet
Union broke up in 1991, Cubas economy
struggled. Castro then allowed some
economic reforms. In the early 2000s he
began to suffer health problems. When
he had surgery in 2006 he gave his
brother Raul power to rule until he
recovered. In 2008 Fidel Castro officially
stepped down as president of Cuba.
..More to explore
Communism Cuba
Cat
The domestic cat, or house cat, is a
small mammal that has lived among
people for thousands of years. People
have kept cats as pets, used them as
hunters, and even worshipped them as
gods. Domestic cats belong to the same
animal family as the lion, tiger, jaguar,
Fidel Castro
A domestic cat sits atop a fence.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cat 55
leopard, puma, and cheetah. The scientific
name of the domestic cat is Felis
catus.
Where Cats Live
Domestic cats live with people in nearly
every part of the world. Some domestic
cats have no home. These cats, called
feral cats, wander freely in many cities.
Physical Features and Breeds
The domestic cat has a long and powerfully
built body. Males are about 28
inches (71 centimeters) long. Females
are about 20 inches (51 centimeters)
long. Large, forward-facing eyes help the
cat to see well, even at night. Its triangular
ears can turn quickly toward the
source of a sound. Four rows of stiff
whiskers grow on each side of the nose.
Small groups of whiskers also grow on
other parts of the body. These give the
cat a delicate sense of touch.
A cats fur may be black, white, brown,
gray, yellow, red, or orange. It may also
be striped (tabby); a mixture of white,
black, and yellow (tortoiseshell); or
marked with patches of color (calico).
Cats use their rough tongues to comb
and to clean their fur.
There are many breeds of domestic cat.
Cats of the same breed have a similar
length of hair and other similar features.
Most breedsfor example, the Abyssinian,
the American Shorthair, and the
Siamesehave short hair. Other breeds,
including the Persian, have long, thick
coats.
Some Longhair Breeds of Cat
Name Origin Features
Himalayan United States, sapphire-blue eyes; thick body;
Europe short, full tail
Maine Coon United States large, muscular body; shaggy
coat of fur
Persian possibly Iran thick body; large head
Ragdoll United States blue eyes; heavy and powerful
build
Turkish Angora Turkey long, full tail; large, pointed
ears
56 Cat BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Behavior
Domestic cats are carnivores, or meateaters.
Many hunt and eat small animals,
including birds, mice, and rabbits.
They use their claws, which they can
draw back or in, and their strong, sharp
Some Shorthair Breeds of Cat
Name Origin Features
Abyssinian probably Egypt slim body with long legs
American Shorthair United States broad, muscular body; thick fur
Bengal United States spotted coat; hind legs shorter
than forelegs
Cornish Rex England curly, short coat; large ears
Japanese Bobtail Japan triangular head with large ears;
rabbitlike tail
Manx Isle of Man tailless or with stump; double
coat of fur
Russian Blue Russia blue coat with silver tips;
muscular
Scottish Fold Scotland folded ears; short, rounded
body
Siamese Asia sapphire-blue eyes; long, lean
body
Sphynx Canada hairless; large ears
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cat 57
teeth to catch prey. House cats eat
mainly canned or dry food made especially
for cats.
The cat is the only animal that makes a
sound called a purr. Cats produce purring
in their throat. No one knows
exactly why cats purr, but it may be a
sign of comfort. Cats also make other
sounds, including meowing, hissing,
yowling, and growling.
Life Cycle
A female cat gives birth to a litter of
kittens about two months after mating.
A female may have two to three litters a
year. The average litter is four kittens,
but there may be only one kitten or as
many as seven. A newborn kitten is
about 3 inches (8 centimeters) long. It
has no teeth, the ears lie flat, and the
eyes are closed. A kittens full development
takes about one year. Cats may live
to be about 15 years old.
Cats and Humans
About 4,500 years ago the ancient Egyptians
worshipped cats. The Egyptians
probably domesticated, or tamed, wild
cats about 3,500 years ago. They used
these cats to kill the rats and mice that
ate their stored grain. Cats were also
present in Greece, China, and India in
ancient times.
During the Middle Ages (about AD 500
1500), many Europeans feared cats
because cats were linked with witches.
Some people still think that black cats
are unlucky.
Today millions of people around the
world keep cats as pets. In the United
States there are more pet cats than pet
dogs.
#More to explore
Cheetah Jaguar Leopard Lion
Mammal Puma Tiger
Catacomb
In ancient times people in the region
surrounding the Mediterranean Sea buried
their dead in underground tunnels
and rooms. They cut these tunnels and
rooms, called catacombs, out of a layer
of soft stone below the ground.
The most famous catacombs were created
around Rome, Italy, by early Christians.
About 40 Christian catacombs
have been found in the area. Most were
built between about AD 200 and 400.
The Jews and many other peoples also
built catacombs in ancient times.
The Egyptian
goddess Bast,
or Bastet, was
represented in
pictures and
statues as a
lioness or as a
woman with a
cats head.
People were buried in stone graves on the
floor and in the walls of a catacomb in Italy.
58 Catacomb BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Stairways led from ground level to the
catacombs below. The catacombs were
long, narrow passageways with rows of
rectangular graves carved out of the rock
along the sides. Several rows of graves
were stacked from floor to ceiling. In
Christian catacombs rooms along the
passageways were used for burying martyrs
(people who were killed because of
their religion) or several members of a
family. On the walls of some of the
rooms are prayers and paintings of religious
symbols or figures.
In the centuries after the fall of the
Roman Empire in 476, invading armies
destroyed many of the Roman catacombs.
By about the 800s the catacombs
were no longer used, and over the years
people forgot about them. They were
rediscovered by accident in 1578. Since
then people have studied the catacombs
for the clues they offer about ancient
peoples.
Catapult
Catapults were important weapons of
war before guns and cannons were
invented. A catapult was a simple
machine. It was used to throw heavy
objects at the enemy with great force.
There were several different forms of
catapult. The most basic type was made
up of a long wooden arm with a large
cup on the end. Attached to the arm was
a rotating tube, called a winch. A rope
was fastened to the arm and wound
around the winch. At the base of the
arm was a set of cords.
To set the catapult, soldiers tightened
the rope by winding the winch. This
caused the cords at the base of the arm
to twist and get tighter and tighter. The
soldiers loaded the cup with a large rock
or other objects. Then they released the
rope. The cords around the base
untwisted all at once. The arm then
swung forward, flinging the load. A
large catapult could hurl a stone as far as
1,500 feet (460 meters).
Soldiers often used catapults to destroy
castle walls. They usually needed more
than one catapult for a successful attack
on a castle. Soldiers also used catapults
to fling spears at an advancing army.
Armies used large and small catapults.
They wheeled small catapults with them
to battles. Carpenters traveling with
armies often built catapults on the way
to a battle. Larger catapults usually
stayed in one place. People living in cities
and castles used such large catapults
to defend themselves.
The earliest catapults appeared during
the 1200s BC. The ancient Romans
improved the catapult and made catapults
on wheels. Todays armies use
A small catapult with wheels would have
been used in battle.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Catapult 59
devices based on the catapult to launch
missiles and airplanes.
#More to explore
Castle War
Caterpillar
#see Butterfly and Moth.
Catfish
A catfish is a fish that has one or more
pairs of whiskerlike feelers by its mouth.
These feelers, known as barbels, help the
fish to taste and to feel. There are about
2,500 species, or kinds, of catfish. They
are related to the carp, characins, and
minnows.
Catfishes live in freshwater on all the
major continents. A few types live in
oceans.
Catfishes range greatly in size. One of
the largest types is the wels. This catfish
may be more than 15 feet (4.5 meters)
long. Some of the smallest catfish species
are barely 2 inches (5 centimeters) long.
Catfishes do not have scales. Some types
have an armor of bony plates. Many
types have stiff, poisonous points on
their back and sides.
Catfishes generally live near the waters
bottom. They tend to be active at night.
They feed on almost any kind of animal
or plant material. Some kinds of catfish
build a nest for their many eggs. Other
kinds carry their eggs in their mouth.
Many people like to catch and to eat
catfishes. People often keep small catfishes
in aquariums.
#More to explore
Carp Fish
Cathedral
A Christian church that is the home
church of a bishop is known as a cathedral.
Bishops oversee many churches in a
particular region, so the cathedral is
often larger and more decorative than
the others. However, cathedrals may be
of any size and style. Especially huge and
magnificent were the cathedrals built in
the Gothic style between about the
1100s and 1400s inWestern Europe.
Gothic cathedrals are usually made of
gray stone, feature a round window
above the altar, and have tall, arched
windows along the sides. The windows
are often made of stained, or colored,
glass. Artists and craftsmen were eager to
decorate these cathedrals, which were
the center of a towns religious life.
Among Europes famous cathedrals are
A catfishs whiskers are called barbels. Notre Dame in Paris, France; Saint
60 Caterpillar BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Marks in Venice, Italy; Canterbury in
England; and Cologne in Germany.
North America is also home to a number
of notable cathedrals. They include
Saint Patricks in New York City; Notre
Dame in Montreal, Quebec; and the
national cathedral in Mexico City,
Mexico.
#More to explore
Architecture
Catholicism
#see Roman Catholicism.
Cattle
Cattle are large, hoofed mammals that
people raise for their meat, milk, or
hides. In some places cattle also pull
carts or farm equipment. Cattle belong
to the scientific family Bovidae. This
family also includes buffalo, bison, and
yaks.
Cattle have many different names.
Young cattle are called calves. A grown
female that has not had a calf is a heifer.
A female that has been a mother is a
cow. A male adult is called a bull, a steer,
or an ox.
Where Cattle Live
Cattle live almost everywhere in the
world. Domestic, or tame, cattle often
live on farms or ranches. In Asia and
Africa there are both wild and domestic
cattle. In India people let cattle roam
freely throughout the cities and the
countryside. This is because followers of
Hinduism consider cattle to be holy.
Physical Features and Breeds
There are many different breeds of
cattle. Cattle of the same breed have a
similar color and size. Their coat of hair
may be black, white, gray, yellow,
brown, or red. Cattle may also have
spots or areas of different colors.
Depending on the breed, bulls weigh
from 1,000 to 4,000 pounds (450 to
1,800 kilograms). Cows weigh from 800
to 2,400 pounds (360 to 1,000 kilo-
Saint Colmans Cathedral in Cobh, Ireland,
towers above the surrounding buildings.
Gauchos, or cowboys, herd cattle in the
Patagonia region of Argentina.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cattle 61
grams). Many breeds have horns, but
some do not.
People raise some breeds mostly for their
milk and others mostly for their meat.
Cattle raised for milk are called dairy
cattle. The most popular dairy cattle in
the United States include the Holstein-
Friesian, Brown Swiss, Jersey, and
Guernsey breeds. Cattle raised for beef
include the Angus, Shorthorn (or
Durham), Hereford, and Brahman
breeds.
Many domestic breeds originally came
from Europe. Some originally came
from Asia. For example, Brahmans originally
came from India. Brahmans look
different from other domestic cattle.
They have a hump over their shoulders
and neck, curving horns, and drooping
ears.
Behavior
Wild and domestic cattle eat grasses and
other plants. After they swallow their
food, they bring it up from the stomach
to chew and swallow it again. This process
is called chewing the cud. It helps
cattle to digest tough plants. Farmers
may also give special feed to domestic
cattle to make them fatter.
Cattle and Humans
Cattle are very important to the economies
of many countries as well as to
small farmers. Cattle provide people
throughout the world with meat, milk,
cheese, and butter. People also make
cattle hides into leather goods. In addition,
cattle help to plow farmers fields
and haul heavy loads.
#More to explore
Bison Buffalo Mammal Yak
Cave
A cave is a natural hollow space under
the ground that has an opening large
enough for a person to enter. Caves
range in size from tiny passages to huge
systems of connected rooms and tunnels.
The worlds longest cave system is
Mammoth Cave, in the U.S. state of
Kentucky. It is more than 350 miles
(560 kilometers) long. Large caves are
often called caverns.
Types of Caves
Most caves are called solution caves.
Solution caves most often form in places
where there is a type of rock called limestone.
Limestone is a soft rock that dissolves,
or breaks down, easily in water.
Cattle tear
grass out of
the ground
with a sideways
movement
because
they have no
upper front
teeth.
Huge stalagmites are a highlight
of Carlsbad Caverns in New
Mexico.
62 Cave BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
As water flows through small cracks in
the limestone, the limestone dissolves
and the cracks get bigger. Over a long
time these cracks become large enough
for people to enter.
Not all caves form in limestone. They
can form in such rock as gypsum,
marble, and dolomite. Caves may also
form when melted rock, called lava,
flows from volcanoes. The lava on the
surface may cool while the lava beneath
flows away. When this happens a cave is
sometimes created. Caves may also form
when earthquakes cause large cracks in
solid rock. Ocean waves sometimes form
sea caves along the coast. The action of
the waves removes soft rock and forms
hollow spaces.
Some caves do not form in rock. Glaciers,
or huge areas of ice that move over
land, can form ice caves. As water melts
on the glaciers surface, it flows into
cracks in the ice. The water then carves
out caves beneath the surface of the ice.
Cave Features
After a solution cave is formed, water
continues to drip into it. Minerals in the
water are slowly deposited on the ceiling
and floor of the cave. Over time those
mineral deposits, or crystals, build up
into large formations. Those that hang
down from the ceiling are called stalactites.
They look like icicles. Stalagmites
point up from the floor. They usually
grow under dripping stalactites. Sometimes
stalactites and stalagmites join
together to form columns.
Cave Exploration
Cave explorers are people who like to
find and explore caves. They are also
called cavers or spelunkers. Sometimes
they wiggle through tiny passages just
big enough to get through. Other times
they walk through passages that are tall
Water dripping into a cave contains minerals that build up on the ceiling and the floor.
Over time the minerals may form stalactites, stalagmites, and columns.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cave 63
and wide. Sometimes they need ropes
and special gear to cross or go down
deep holes.
Cave exploration can be dangerous.
Cavers are well trained to know how to
explore safely. A person should never
enter a cave without experienced cavers.
Cave-dwelling Animals
Caves are the home of many different
animals. Some, such as bats, live in caves
but come out at night to feed. Other
cave-dwelling animals live their entire
lives underground.Without light, they
are usually white or transparent (clear)
and do not have eyes. Blind animals
found in caves include many different
insects and spiders, types of shrimp, and
some salamanders.
Animals that live in caves have special
characteristics to help them survive.
Those characteristics are called adaptations.
Cave animals may not have sight,
but their other senses are highly developed.
For example, insects that live in
caves usually have very long antennae to
feel their way around. Other animals
can feel vibrations, which tell them that
something to eat is nearby.
Uses of Caves
People have been using caves for a long
time. Early humans often camped in the
entrances of caves. All over the world
there are caves that people used as a
place to live. In Europe there are caves
with drawing of animals that are more
than 15,000 years old. Scientists study
these caves and drawings to learn more
about how the people lived.
Caves are also used for recreation. There
are many caves that people can visit
without special equipment. Visitors to
other caves need special equipment and
lights. These caves require training to
explore.
#More to explore
Adaptation Bat Limestone
Cayuga
The Cayuga were one of the five original
Native American tribes of the Iroquois
Confederacy. The confederacy was an
alliance of tribes that lived in upper New
York State and spoke similar languages.
The Cayuga originally lived around
Cayuga Lake.
Like the other Iroquois, the Cayuga
lived in longhouses. They made longhouses
by covering a wooden frame with
wood and bark. Longhouses were large
The Big Room
in Carlsbad
Cavern in the
U.S. state of
New Mexico is
about 2,000
feet (610
meters) long
and 255 feet
(78 meters)
high.
Red Cloud was a chief of the Cayuga tribe.
64 Cayuga BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
enough to house several families.
Cayuga men hunted animals and birds
and also fished.Women grew corn,
squash, and beans.
Throughout the late 1600s the Iroquois
fought and won many wars with other
Indian tribes. The Cayuga took into
their tribe many people from the tribes
they defeated, including the Erie and the
Huron. Like most of the other Iroquois,
the Cayuga sided with the British in the
American Revolution (177583). After
the Americans won, settlers gradually
took over the Cayuga homeland. Many
Cayuga moved to Canada, Oklahoma,
or western New York. At the end of the
20th century there were about 2,000
Cayuga. Half of them lived in the
United States, and half lived in Canada.
#More to explore
Iroquois Native Americans
Cedar
Cedars are evergreen trees that belong to
the pine family. Their wood is highly
valued because it does not rot easily. It
also has a beautiful reddish color and a
pleasant smell.
There are four species, or types, of cedar.
Three of them originally grew only in
the mountains around the Mediterranean
Sea. They later spread to other
areas. The other species grows in the
Himalaya Mountains of southern Asia.
Cedars are tall trees with spreading
branches. They can grow to a height of
more than 100 feet (30 meters). Cedars
have leaves that are like needles. They
grow in clusters along the branches.
Cedars also produce large cones that
hold their seeds.
Many other trees that have fragrant,
reddish wood are called cedars. But most
of them are actually cypress or juniper
trees. Their wood is used to make clothing
chests, closets, and pencils. Oil taken
from the eastern red cedar, a juniper, is
used in perfumes.
#More to explore
Cypress Juniper Pine Tree
Cell
Every organism, or living thing, is made
up of structures called cells. The cell is
the smallest unit with the basic properties
of life. Some tiny organisms, such as
bacteria and yeast, consist of only one
cell. Large plants and animals have many
billions of cells. Human beings are made
up of more than 75 trillion cells. The
study of cells is a branch of biology.
A group of cedars grows tall in Lebanon.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cell 65
The Celts were one of the first peoples
in Europe to work with iron. They made
swords, shields, helmets, and gold and
silver jewelry.
The Celts practiced a religion called
Druidism. Their priests were called Druids.
The Druids taught that souls lived
forever by passing from one person to
another at the time of death.
Celtic power in western Europe lasted
for only a few hundred years. Then
Romans, Carthaginians (a people from
North Africa), and German tribes took
over. The Celts kept their unique culture
only in parts of the British Isles and in
the Brittany region of northwestern
France. Some people in Ireland, the
highlands of Scotland, the Isle of Man,
Wales, and Brittany still speak Celtic
languages.
#More to explore
Europe Iron
Cement
The fine powder called cement is one of
the main ingredients of concrete. When
cement combines with water it becomes
a paste. This paste is used to hold
together all of the other materials that
make up concrete.
In ancient times people used clay or a
paste made of ground-up stone and
other ingredients to hold their buildings
together. Over the years people tried
other combinations of materials. In the
1800s they came up with the combination
that is still used today.
To make cement, large blocks of a type
of stone called limestone are crushed or
ground into small stones. The stones
are then mixed with other minerals and
ground some more. The result is then
sent to an oven that is shaped like a
giant tube. The materials are heated to
a very high temperature as they flow
down the tube. Some of the materials
A beautiful gold bowl displays the skill of
Celtic artists.
A construction worker pours concrete.
Cement is one of the main ingredients of
concrete.
68 Cement BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
melt. This liquid mixes with the solid
materials to form cement chunks about
the size of marbles. The chunks are
called clinker.
After the clinker leaves the oven it is
allowed to cool. It is then mixed with
another mineral called gypsum and
ground to a fine powder. That powder is
the finished cement.
#More to explore
Concrete
Censorship
Sometimes governments or other powerful
groups set limits on peoples freedom
to speak or publish. This is called censorship.
People who practice censorship
are called censors.
Censors may examine books, newspapers,
magazines, and speeches. They
may also review paintings, photographs,
films, television shows, songs, e-mails, or
other materials. If censors find information
they do not want people to see or
hear, they may ban the material, or keep
it from being passed around. They may
cut the information out of the material.
Sometimes they may even punish the
person who created the material.
Types of Censorship
Many types of censorship exist. People
fight to ban books they do not like
from school libraries. School boards try
to get teachers not to teach certain
subjects in the classroom. Sometimes
advertisers do not like the television
shows on the channels where their
advertisements appear. They may refuse
to advertise on those channels if the
shows are not changed. Filmmakers
sometimes change the language or the
action in a movie to make it suitable
for a wider audience.
People agree that some forms of censorship
are necessary. A person is not free to
shout Fire! in a crowded theater when
there is no fire. Such an action would
cause a panic and endanger lives. Also,
governments can refuse to tell the public
certain information if the safety of the
nation is at stake. For this reason, many
countries accept a greater level of censorship
during wartime.
History
Governments and religious leaders have
practiced censorship since ancient times.
In ancient Rome, someone who criticized
the government might be fined,
removed from society, or put to death.
Until 1966 the
Roman Catholic
church kept
a list of books
that Roman
Catholics were
not supposed
to read.
A poster in New York City calls
for an end to censorship in the
arts.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Censorship 69
The early Roman Catholic church censored
anything that went against the
churchs teachings. The Inquisition, a
court of the church, could punish
people who spoke against the church.
Until modern times, printers in many
countries had to let government censors
read any work before it was published. If
the censor disapproved, the work was
not printed.
During the 1700s, people began to protest
more strongly against censorship. In
1791 the U.S. Bill of Rights limited
government censorship by guaranteeing
the freedom of speech. Since then, many
democratic nations have adopted similar
laws. However, in countries with Communist
governments or dictatorships,
censorship is still strong. The people in
these countries may do and say only
what the government approves.
#More to explore
Bill of Rights Dictatorship
Inquisition Printing
Census
A census is a count of the people who
live in a country. It also tells things
about those peopletheir backgrounds,
what they own, and how they live. Governments
and businesses use censuses to
guide important decisions. There are
also censuses that focus on topics other
than population, such as housing, farming,
or industry.
Taking a Population Census
Censuses are expensive and take a long
time. Governments in many countries,
including the United States, take a census
only once every 10 years. Other
countries take a census every five years.
Census workers use a combination of
methods to try to reach every person.
During World War II (193945)
the U.S. government asked citizens
to censor their own letters
and conversations. The government
did not want people to discuss
war plans that enemies
might read or overhear.
Census workers sometimes go to peoples
homes to interview them.
70 Census BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
They mail question forms to homes.
They also interview people face-to-face
or over the phone. Most people have to
answer only a few basic questions. But
some people are asked for more information.
The questions cover such topics
as where the person lives, how old they
are, whether or not they are married,
and how many children they have. The
questions also ask about a persons job,
religion, ethnic background, language,
and education.
After the information has been collected,
census workers sort and study it.
They put the information into reports
that show different characteristics of the
population. For example, census workers
can report how many people live in rural
areas compared to how many live in
cities. Or they might report the size of
the average family in a particular state.
Using the Information
Many governments use census results to
make sure that different parts of the
country are represented fairly in government.
States with more people get to
send more representatives to the
national legislature (lawmaking body).
Governments also use census information
as a guide for providing money and
services. For example, a government
might send more money for schools to
areas that have a lot of children.
History
The rulers of ancient Babylonia, China,
Egypt, and Rome all took censuses.
These rulers used censuses to find out
how people could serve the
government. For example, they wanted
to know how many men they could
force to serve as soldiers. They also
wanted to know who the wealthy
people were so they could tax them.
The people often gave incorrect
information in these censuses. They
were not honest because they did not
want to fight in wars or to be taxed.
Censuses as they are known today did
not begin until the 1600s. Leaders
stopped using censuses only as a way to
identify people for their own purposes.
Countries started thinking of censuses as
a way to understand the people and
society. Then people were more willing
to give correct information. Censuses
became more accurate.
In 1790 the United States made history
with its first census. This census was the
first taken to decide how many representatives
each state would have in Congress.
It became a model for other
countries to follow. England took its
first census in 1801. France took its first
reliable census in 1836. Canadas first
census was in 1871, and Indias was in
1872. China did not take its first accurate
census until 1953.
The amount of information collected by
censuses has grown over the years. And
the technology used to process and publish
the information has advanced. Census
takers in the United States first used
mechanical adding machines in 1870.
They started using electric machines in
1890. A giant computer called
UNIVAC processed the 1950 census.
In ancient
times the Inca
of South
America took
censuses. They
recorded their
findings by
tying knots in
cords called
quipus.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Census 71
Now census results are published on the
Internet.
#More to explore
Government
Centipede and
Millipede
The crawling creatures called centipedes
and millipedes belong to the same animal
groupthe arthropodsas insects
and spiders. But centipedes and millipedes
have many more legs than other
arthropods. There are more than 2,500
species, or kinds, of centipede. There are
about 10,000 species of millipede.
Where Centipedes and
Millipedes Live
Centipedes and millipedes live all over
the world, but they are most common in
the tropics. Most types like dark, moist
places. The house centipede of North
America and Europe lives in buildings.
Physical Features
Centipedes and millipedes have long,
thin bodies that are divided into segments,
or sections. They range in length
from just 0.08 inch (2 millimeters) to 12
inches (30 centimeters). Millipedes are
generally smaller.
In a centipede, every body segment
except the head and the rear has one
pair of legs. Centipedes may have from
14 to 177 pairs of legs. In a millipede,
the three segments behind the head
have only one pair of legs. Every other
segment has two pairs of legs. No
millipede has more than about 200
pairs of legs.
Most kinds of centipedes and millipedes
have only a few body segments when
they hatch. They add segments each
time they go through a process called
molting, when they shed their hard
outer covering.
Behavior
Centipedes hide during the day and
come out at night to hunt. They kill
their prey with poisonous claws. Centipedes
usually eat insects, spiders, and
other centipedes.
Most types of millipedes eat rotting
plant material. They are equipped to
protect themselves rather than to attack.
Some types have special glands that produce
a smelly or poisonous liquid or gas.
Others curl up into a ball for protection.
#More to explore
Insect Spider
The name centipede means hundredfooted,
but only some centipedes have that
many legs. Others have fewer, and some
have as many as 354.
72 Centipede and Millipede BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Central African Republic
The country of the Central African
Republic is located in the heart of
Africa. Bangui is the capital.
The Central African Republic is surrounded
by Chad, Sudan, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, the
Republic of the Congo, and Cameroon.
Most of the country occupies a plateau,
or flat raised area. Mountains rise in the
north and the west. The country has a
tropical climate with rainy and dry seasons
each year.
Savanna, or grassland with scattered
trees, covers much of the north. Antelope,
baboons, buffalo, elephants, and
black rhinoceroses live in the savanna.
Dense rain forests in the south are home
to gorillas, chimpanzees, leopards, and
bongos (striped antelope). Crocodiles
and hippopotamuses live in the rivers.
There are more than 80 ethnic groups in
the Central African Republic. Major
groups include the Gbaya, the Banda,
and the Mandjia. Sango is the most
commonly spoken language. Both Sango
and French are official languages. Most
of the people live in the south and the
west. Most people follow Christianity,
though many practice traditional African
religions or Islam.
Farming is the major economic activity
of the Central African Republic. Crops
include cassava, yams, peanuts, bananas,
and corn. The country also produces
wood, cotton, and coffee to sell to other
countries. Diamonds and gold are the
only minerals that the Central African
Republic produces.
Many peoples lived in this region for
thousands of years before Europeans
arrived. France gained control of the
area in the 1800s. In 1906 France
united the region with Chad to form a
colony named Ubangi-Shari-Chad. In
1910 the region became part of French
Equatorial Africa, which also included
Chad, Congo, and Gabon.
In 1960 the Central African Republic
declared independence from France.
Harsh dictators and the military ruled
until 1993, when the country held its
first democratic elections. Political
troubles continued into the 21st century,
however.
..More to explore
Bangui
Facts About
CENTRAL AFRICAN
REPUBLIC
Population
(2008 estimate)
4,424,000
Area
240,324 sq mi
(622,436 sq km)
Capital
Bangui
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Bangui, Bimbo,
Berberati, Carnot,
Bambari, Bouar
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Central African Republic 73
Central America
Central America is a narrow strip of land
that lies at the southern end of North
America. It connects that continent with
South America. The region consists of
seven countries: Belize, Guatemala, El
Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa
Rica, and Panama.
Land and Climate
No place in Central America is more
than 125 miles (200 kilometers) from
the sea. The Pacific Ocean lies to the
southwest, and the Caribbean Sea lies to
the northeast.
The land is mostly mountainous and
rugged. The highest point in Central
America is the volcano Tajumulco in
Guatemala, near the border with
Mexico. It reaches 13,845 feet (4,220
meters).
Low-lying plains are found in the north,
along the coasts, and near Lake Nicaragua.
This lake is the largest body of
water in Central America.
Central America lies within the tropics,
or the warm areas near the equator. The
lowlands generally have hot weather.
The highlands are mild or cool. More
rain falls during the summer than in
winter. The Caribbean side is wetter
than the Pacific side.
Plants and Animals
Tropical rain forests grow in the lowlands
of eastern Central America. In the
highlands the forests include pines and
oaks. Cloud forests grow at elevations of
about 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). These
forests, which are nearly always dripping
wet, include evergreen oaks, laurels, and
orchids. Shrubs and low trees grow in
higher places.
Central Americas wild animals include
the jaguar, the ocelot, the puma, the
coyote, and the gray fox. A variety of
monkeys live in the forests. Among the
regions birds are colorful parrots, bigbilled
toucans, and long-tailed quetzals.
People
About three fifths of the people have a
mixture of Amerindian (Native Ameri-
Capuchin monkeys live in some of the rain
forests of Central America.
74 Central America BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
can) and European ancestors. About one
fifth of Central Americans are fully
Amerindian. Smaller numbers of people
have mainly European, African, or Asian
roots.
Spanish is the official language of all
Central American countries except Belize.
In Belize English is the official language.
Many people speak Mayan and
other Amerindian languages, especially
in Guatemala.
Roman Catholic Christianity is the
main religion in Central America. Some
groups mix Christianity with Amerindian
religions.
Education is better in Panama and
Costa Rica than in Guatemala and other
northern countries. Medical care also
tends to be poorer in the north.
Economy
Central American countries grow several
crops to sell to outside countries. The
three most important crops are coffee,
bananas, and sugarcane. Many small
farmers grow corn, beans, and squash
for local markets.
Central American industries process
food, beverages, and tobacco. They also
produce clothing, shoes, drugs, chemicals,
cement, paper, and wood products.
Tourism and other services are also
important to the economies of Central
America.
History
Humans have lived in Central America
for thousands of years. Between 4000
and 1000 BC, groups of Amerindians
began to settle in certain places and farm
the land. Some of these people, called
the Maya, eventually built a great civilization.
Mayan culture reached its peak
between about AD 250 and 900.
European explorers arrived in Central
America in the 1500s. Spanish conquistadors,
or conquerors, soon took control
of the region. The Amerindian population,
weakened by new European diseases,
fell quickly.
Women in traditional dress gather in a busy
market in Guatemala.
Tourists climb the ruins of a Mayan temple
in present-day Guatemala.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Central America 75
The Spanish ruled most of Central
America as provinces of the Kingdom of
Guatemala. This colony also included
parts of southern Mexico. It did not
include Panama. The Spanish ruled
Panama first from Peru and later from
Colombia. The only other European
rulers in the region were the British. The
British claimed Belize (at first called
British Honduras) in the 1700s.
Central America gained its independence
from Spain in 1821. Guatemala,
Honduras, El Salvador, Costa Rica, and
Nicaragua briefly joined Mexico. In
1823 they again declared independence
and formed the United Provinces of
Central America. Guatemala City was
the capital. By 1840, however, each
member state had gone its separate way.
Panama remained part of Colombia
until it gained independence in 1903.
(Belize did not gain independence from
Great Britain until 1981.)
The new countries experienced political
troubles from the 1800s into the 1900s.
They disagreed about where their borders
should be. Civil wars broke out.
Many dictators (leaders with unlimited
power) ruled harshly. The United States
sent in troops several times. By the end
of the 1900s, however, democratic governments
had begun to develop in Central
America.
#More to explore
Belize Conquistador Costa Rica El
Salvador Guatemala Honduras
Maya Nicaragua North America
Panama
Ceramics
Ceramics are hard objects that people
make from inorganic materials, or materials
that did not come from plants or
animals. Ceramics have many useful
characteristics. In general they are
strong, although they may be brittle, or
easily breakable. Heat, water, air, and
chemicals do not easily damage them. In
addition, they usually do not conduct,
or pass along, electricity.
Traditional ceramic objects are made
from clay or other minerals that come
from the ground. This type of ceramics
includes pottery and bricks. People have
been making these types of objects for
thousands of years.
Today scientists and engineers make
ceramics out of many different materials.
These modern ceramics have many
uses. Computer chips, cars, pens, and
faucets may have ceramic parts. Dentists
use ceramics to fix teeth. Special ceramic
tiles protect space shuttles from the tre-
Central
America has
about 20
active volcanoes.
They
form the most
active volcanic
belt in the
Americas.
Ceramic plates and tiles are made from clay.
76 Ceramics BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
mendous heat created by their passage
through Earths atmosphere when they
return to Earth.
#More to explore
Brick and Tile Pottery
Cereal
#see Grain.
Cerebral Palsy
Cerebral palsy is a disability caused by a
certain kind of brain damage. The word
cerebral refers to a part of the brain
called the cerebrum. This part of the
brain controls the movement of muscles.
The word palsy means a kind of paralysis,
or loss of movement. Thus, people
with cerebral palsy have trouble controlling
the movements of their muscles.
The muscles of people with cerebral
palsy may be weak, or they may twitch.
Some muscles may also freeze in a
certain position. This lack of muscle
control can make standing, walking, and
talking difficult. Some children with
cerebral palsy have mental disabilities,
but many do not.
There is no single cause of cerebral palsy.
In most cases the exact cause is
unknown. The brain damage that leads
to the disability most often happens
while a baby is developing inside the
mother. The damage may occur because
the brain is deformed or because it does
not get enough oxygen. An infection in
the mother, such as rubella, is another
possible cause.
Babies can also develop cerebral palsy
after they are born. Severe head injuries
sometimes lead to cerebral palsy. Such
infections as meningitis may also cause
cerebral palsy.
There is no cure for cerebral palsy.
Medicines can help to control unwanted
muscle movements. Leg braces and
physical therapy (special exercises) can
improve a persons balance and movement.
Speech training can sometimes
develop a persons speaking abilities.
#More to explore
Brain Muscle
Ceres
#see Demeter.
The first signs
of cerebral
palsy usually
appear before
age 3.
A boy with cerebral palsy has a guide dog
to help him with everyday activities.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ceres 77
Chad
Located in north-central Africa, the
Republic of Chad links Arab North
Africa with the cultures south of the
Sahara Desert. The capital is
NDjamena.
Chad is surrounded by Libya, Sudan,
the Central African Republic, Cameroon,
Nigeria, and Niger. Lake Chad
lies in the west. Mountains rise in the
north, east, and south. The Sahara runs
across the north. Central Chad is part of
the semidry Sahel region. The southern
plains are tropical. Most of Chad is hot,
with rainy and dry seasons.
The Sahara has little vegetation and
wildlifemainly antelope, gazelles, and
ostriches. In the Sahel thorny shrubs,
acacia trees, and grasses grow. Elephants,
hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, warthogs,
giraffes, antelope, lions, leopards,
and cheetahs live in the Sahel. Tropical
grasses and scattered trees grow in the
south.
Chad has more than 200 ethnic groups.
The largest group is the Sara, followed
by Arabs. Most of the people live in
rural areas. The official languages are
French and Arabic, but more than 100
different languages are spoken. More
than half of the people are Muslims, and
about one third are Christians.
Agriculture is Chads main economic
activity. Farmers grow peanuts, sorghum,
millet, cassava, and yams. They
raise cattle, goats, and sheep. Trade is
also important to the economy. Chad
produces and sells cotton, textiles, and
petroleum (oil).
Various peoples lived around Lake Chad
beginning in prehistoric times. In the
700s people known as Berbers from
North Africa began to arrive. They
founded an empire called Kanem-
Bornu, which controlled the region until
the 1800s. In 1910 France made the
region part of French Equatorial Africa.
In 1946 Chad became an overseas territory
of France.
Chad gained independence in 1960.
Civil war soon broke out between different
political groups. Chad held presidential
elections in the 1990s, but
political fighting continued.
..More to explore
Kanem-Bornu Empire NDjamena
Sahara
Facts About
CHAD
Population
(2008 estimate)
10,111,000
Area
495,755 sq mi
(1,284,000 sq
km)
Capital
NDjamena
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
NDjamena,
Moundou, Bongor,
Sarh,
Abeche, Doba
78 Chad BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Chalk
Chalk is a soft, whitish rock. It is a type of
limestone. Like other forms of limestone,
it is made from animal shells and takes
many years to form. It has many uses.
Chalk is found throughout much of
northwestern Europe. Englands famous
white cliffs of Dover are made from
chalk. In the United States, chalk deposits
are found in Arkansas, Louisiana,
Texas, andWyoming.
Chalk is made from the shells of tiny sea
creatures. When these animals die, their
shells sink to the sea floor. Mud covers
the shells. Layers of shells and mud
slowly build up. A chalk deposit forms
when this material hardens. The whole
process can take millions of years. Sometimes
the water level drops. When this
happens, the chalk can rise above the
waters surface. This is how chalk cliffs
are formed.
Chalk is white or gray. It is also porous.
This means that rain and other water
can get into it. After many years, lots of
rain can collect in an area of chalk.
Some cities get their drinking water
from these collections of water. Oil and
natural gas also collect in chalk.
Chalk is very useful. Powdered chalk is
used in toothpaste and stomach medicines.
Chalk is also used to make such
products as paint, rubber, and cement.
Artists draw with chalk. Teachers write
on blackboards with chalk. However, the
chalk used by artists and teachers is
sometimes not true chalk. It is often
mixed with other ingredients or it is
made from a mineral called gypsum.
..More to explore
Limestone Rock
Chameleon
The lizards called chameleons are wellknown
for being able to change the
color of their skin. Chameleons live in
Africa, Asia, and Europe. The lizards
that are commonly sold as chameleons
in North American pet shops are actually
anoles. Anoles also change color but
not as strikingly as true chameleons do.
Most chameleons live in trees. Their toes
are divided into two groups to help
them grasp branches. They do not move
well on the ground. They spend as little
time as possible there.
Chameleons range in length from about
1.5 inches (4 centimeters) to 24 inches
(60 centimeters). Most chameleons are
710 inches (1725 centimeters) long.
Cliffs made of chalk, a type of limestone,
line the southeastern coast of England.
A chameleon
can look in
two directions
at once
because it can
move each eye
separately.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chameleon 79
Chameleons can change color because
they have special cells under their skin.
Inside these cells color particles move
around. The chameleon takes on the
color of whichever particles are packed
together most closely. Green, yellow, and
brown are common chameleon colors.
Many people think that chameleons
change color to blend in with their surroundings,
but this is not true. Instead,
color changes depend on such factors as
temperature, light, and emotions such as
fear and anger. Chameleons also use
color changes to communicate with each
other.
Like most lizards, chameleons eat
insects. They use their long, sticky
tongues for catching prey. Large
chameleons also eat young birds.
#More to explore
Lizard
Champlain,
Samuel de
The French explorer Samuel de Champlain
traveled along the seacoasts, lakes,
and rivers of North America in the early
1600s. Known as the Father of New
France, he founded the city of Quebec
and encouraged French settlement in
what is now Canada.
Champlain was born in 1567 in
Brouage, a small French port. His father
was a sea captain. Young Samuel learned
navigation from him and led voyages to
theWest Indies and Central America.
In 1603 Champlain made his first visit
to New France, the lands the French
claimed in North America. He returned
in 1604 with a group of settlers who
started a colony in what is now Nova
Scotia. Though the colony failed,
Champlain used his time there to
explore the Atlantic coast as far south as
what is now Rhode Island.
A panther chameleons
V-shaped toes help it grasp tree
branches.
Samuel de Champlain
80 Champlain, Samuel de BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Champlain sailed to Canada again in
1608 and foundedQuebec as a trading
post on the Saint Lawrence River. It was
the first lasting French settlement in
North America. Champlain made friends
with theHuron people of the region. In
1609 he traveled south with theHuron
to fight the Iroquois in what is now New
York. There he came upon the lake that is
now called Lake Champlain. In 1615, on
yet another trip, he reached LakeHuron.
He was the first European known to
reach the Great Lakes.
In 1628 the English seized Quebec during
a war with the French. Champlain
was captured and taken to England.
After the war he returned to Quebec. He
died there on December 25, 1635.
..More to explore
Canada Saint Lawrence River and
Seaway
Charlemagne
As leader of the kingdom of the Franks,
Charlemagne united many of the Christian
lands of western Europe during the
Middle Ages. He was declared the
emperor of this collection of states,
which eventually came to be called the
Holy Roman Empire. He was a great
warrior, but he also respected and preserved
learning. His name means
Charles the Great.
Early Life
Charles was born in about AD 742. He
was the elder son of Pippin III. Unlike
most people of his day, Charles learned
to read. He also formed a lifelong devotion
to the Christian church.
Charless father became king of the
Franks in 751. At that time Europe
consisted of many independent
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Charlemagne 81
kingdoms that had grown up after the
Roman Empire collapsed in the 400s.
The Franks occupied what is now France
and some surrounding regions. Pippins
army aided the pope, who was the head of
the church, in several campaigns against a
tribe called the Lombards. Young Charles
learned from his fathers efforts.
Conquests
Pippin died in 768 and Charlemagnes
brother died in 771. After that, Charlemagne
ruled the Franks. He also began
to conquer the other tribes around him.
Charlemagne met defeat in northern
Spain against the Muslims in 778, but
he defeated the Lombards in Italy and
eventually the Saxons of central Germany.
Charlemagne made his capital in western
Germany at Aachen (known to the
French as Aix-la-Chapelle). On Christmas
day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned
him emperor of theWest. Charlemagne
then attempted to restore much of the
unity of the old Roman Empire.
Influence
Charlemagne was a great reformer. He
set up a money system to promote trade,
built roads and bridges, and encouraged
better farming methods. He invited
scholars to his court, collected books,
and founded a school.
Charlemagne died in 814 and was succeeded
by his son Louis. Louis died in
840 and his three sons split up the
empire. Even so, the Holy Roman
Empire survivedin one form or
anotherfor nearly 1,000 years.
#More to explore
Frank Holy Roman Empire
Charles, Ray
Music lovers call Ray Charles the Genius.
Charles was a gifted singer and piano
player who also wrote music.He blended
gospel, rhythm and blues, and jazz to
create a new form of music called soul.
A picture from the 1400s shows Emperor
Charlemagne.
Ray Charles
82 Charles, Ray BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ray Charles Robinson was born on September
23, 1930, in Albany, Georgia.
(He later dropped his last name, Robinson.)
He grew up in Florida. Ray began
losing his sight at a young age. By age 7
he was blind. He studied music at the
School for the Deaf and Blind in Saint
Augustine, Florida.
In the late 1940s Charles played piano
for blues and jazz bands. In the 1950s he
started making records. His hit songs
included Whatd I Say; Georgia on
My Mind; Hit the Road, Jack; and I
Cant Stop Loving You. Beginning in
1955 Charles toured throughout the
United States and in other countries.
Charles won 13 Grammy awards for his
recordings. In 1986 he was voted into
the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Charles
died on June 10, 2004, in Beverly Hills,
California.
..More to explore
Popular Music
Charleston
Population
(2000 census)
53,421; (2007
estimate)
50,478
Charleston is the capital of the U.S.
state ofWest Virginia. It is the states
largest city. Charleston lies on the
Kanawha River.
Charleston is the economic center of a
region rich in minerals. Coal, oil, and
natural gas are shipped out from the
city. Services, such as government and
health care, and manufacturing are
important to the economy.
A town was established at the site in the
late 1700s. The town grew because it
was on a popular river route to the Ohio
Valley. For many years Charleston was
an important center for salt mining. In
1862 Charleston was the site of a battle
during the American CivilWar. The
following yearWest Virginia became a
separate state from Virginia. In 1877
Charleston was named the permanent
capital ofWest Virginia.
..More to explore
West Virginia
Chavez, Cesar
As a child Cesar Chavez was a migrant
worker, moving from place to place to
work on farms. As an adult he helped
improve the lives of migrant farmwork-
The state Capitol in Charleston, West Virginia,
faces the Kanawha River.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chavez, Cesar 83
ers in the United States by organizing
them into a labor union.
Cesar Estrada Chavez was born on
March 31, 1927, near Yuma, Arizona.
During the Great Depression of the
1930s his family became migrant farmworkers
in California. By age 15 Cesar
was working full-time in the fields. DuringWorldWar
II he served in the U.S.
Navy.
In 1952 Chavez joined a group that
helped Hispanic people in California
and encouraged them to vote. In 1962
Chavez and Dolores Huerta founded a
labor union called the National Farm
Workers Association. In 1971 the union
became known as the United Farm
Workers of America (UFW).
Chavez led protests to call attention to
the problems of migrant workers. In the
mid-1960s he launched a strike by California
grape pickers that lasted five
years. During the strike Chavez got
people across the country to stop buying
California grapes. By 1970 most grape
growers had signed contracts that
improved wages and benefits for their
workers. Chavez also led battles against
lettuce growers and other farm businesses.
Chavez served as president of the
UFW until his death on April 23, 1993.
#More to explore
Hispanic Americans Labor
Cheetah
The cheetah is the fastest land animal on
Earth. This spotted member of the cat
family can sprint faster than 70 miles
(112 kilometers) per hour. The cheetahs
scientific name is Acinonyx jubatus.
Where Cheetahs Live
Cheetahs live in the wild in scattered
parts of central, eastern, and southern
Africa. A small number of wild cheetahs
live in Iran. Most cheetahs live in grasslands
and dry, open areas.
Physical Features
Small black spots cover most of the
cheetahs sandy yellow fur. The belly is
white, and the tail is marked with dark
Cesar Chavez
A cheetah sprints through the grass in Kenya.
84 Cheetah BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
rings. Black lines run from the eyes to
the corners of the mouth.
The cheetah measures about 6.5 feet (2
meters) long, from the head to the tip of
the tail. It is a slender mammal that
weighs about 75 to 120 pounds (34 to
54 kilograms). Males tend to be larger
than females.
A cheetahs body is built for speed. Long
legs allow the cheetah to take big strides.
Hard paws and exposed claws help it to
grip the ground. The cheetah is the only
kind of cat that cannot pull its claws
completely back.
Behavior
Cheetahs live alone or in small groups.
They hunt small animals, mainly
during the day. After creeping up on an
animal, a cheetah sprints at it from a
few hundred feet away. The cheetah can
keep up the chase for only a short time
before tiring. When the cheetah does
catch its prey, it trips the animal and
bites into it.
Life Cycle
About three months after mating, a
female cheetah gives birth to two to
eight cubs. Cheetah cubs stay with their
mother for more than a year while they
learn to hunt. Some cheetahs in zoos
have reached the age of 19, but most do
not live that long.
Cheetahs and Humans
The ancient Egyptians and some rulers of
India and Europe tamed cheetahs. They
used the animals for hunting.Other
peoples hunted cheetahs for their fur.
Eventually, wild cheetahs disappeared
from India and many other places.Today
cheetahs are in danger of dying out
completely.Human settlements have
taken over much of their land.
#More to explore
Cat Endangered Species Mammal
Chemical
Element
A chemical element is a basic substance.
It cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by ordinary chemical processes.
Chemical elements are the building
blocks for all matterthat is,
everything that takes up space in the
universe. They are sometimes just called
elements.
There are 92 chemical elements found
in nature. Scientists have created more
than 20 additional elements. Some
elements are much more common than
others. One common element is
nitrogen. It is the major element in air.
The elements combine to form
substances called chemical compounds.
For example, water is a chemical
compound. It is formed by the
combination of the elements hydrogen
and oxygen.
Element Symbols
Every element has a symbol. The symbol
for some elements is the first letter of its
name. For example, H is the symbol for
hydrogen and O is the symbol for oxygen.
Other elements have a symbol with
Only two
chemical elements
are
liquid at room
temperature.
They are
bromine (Br)
and mercury
(Hg).
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chemical Element 85
two letters. For example, He is the symbol
for helium and Cl is the symbol for
chlorine.
Elements and Atoms
The smallest unit of an element is called
an atom. Each element is made up of
only one type of atom. Atoms, in turn,
are made up of tiny particles, or bits,
called protons, neutrons, and electrons.
All atoms of an element have the same
number of protons. This number is
called the atomic number of the element.
For example, the atomic number
of hydrogen is 1 because a hydrogen
atom has one proton.
Periodic Table
In 1869 a Russian scientist named
Dmitry Mendeleyev grouped the elements
in a table. It is called the periodic
table. The periodic table arranges the
elements in rows and columns. In the
rows, the elements are placed in order of
their atomic number. The columns form
groups of elements that have similar
chemical properties. The periodic table
helps chemists think about the elements
and their properties.
..More to explore
Atom Matter
Chemistry
Chemistry is one of the major branches
of science. People who work in chemistry
are called chemists. Chemists study
the substances that make up matter
everything that takes up space in the
universe. They also study the changes
that take place when substances are
combined. These changes are called
chemical reactions.
In addition, chemists create new substances.
They have made plastics, fibers,
The periodic table groups elements by their properties.
86 Chemistry BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
building materials, medicines, and many
other substances that are useful in everyday
life.
Elements and Compounds
The basic substances that chemists study
are called chemical elements. Each element
is made up of tiny particles, or
bits, called atoms. Chemical reactions
involve atoms or groups of atoms. When
two or more atoms combine, they form
a molecule.
Each element has certain properties, or
characteristics. When elements are
combined, they form a new substance
with its own properties. A substance
formed in this way is called a
compound. There are a little more than
100 elements. But there are millions of
compounds.
Fields of Study
Chemistry is a complex subject with
many fields of study. For example,
organic chemists deal only with compounds
of the element carbon. Physical
chemists measure the way that substances
change during chemical reactions.
Biochemists study chemical
processes that happen in living things.
History
People first studied chemistry as a science
in the 1600s. In 1661 a British
scientist named Robert Boyle described
chemical elements as simple, basic substances.
In the 1770s a French chemist
named Antoine Lavoisier helped to
explain chemical reactions.
In the early 1800s a British chemist
named John Dalton found that each
element has its own kind of atom. Other
chemists discovered many new elements
during the 1800s.
Later chemists continued to make discoveries
about atoms. For example, they
learned that atoms are made up of even
simpler particles.
#More to explore
Atom Chemical Element Matter
Molecule
Cherokee
The Cherokee are the largest Native
American group in the United States.
They once lived around the Great Lakes.
After battles with other tribes, they
moved to what is now the southeastern
People called
alchemists
worked with
chemicals
before chemistry
became a
science. They
tried to
change lead
into gold. They
failed, but they
learned about
elements in the
process.
Students of chemistry learn about the substances
that make up matter. They also
study the changes that take place during
chemical reactions.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cherokee 87
United States. Today they live mostly in
Oklahoma.
The Cherokee traditionally grew corn,
beans, and squash. They hunted deer,
bear, and elk. They lived in log cabins
with roofs made of bark.
Europeans arrived in Cherokee territory
in the middle of the 1500s. By that time
the Cherokee lived in the Southeast.
Over the next 200 years the Cherokee
lost much of their land and power to
white settlers.
After 1800 the Cherokee took on some
parts of white culture. They formed a
government based on that of the United
States. A man named Sequoyah created
a writing system for the Cherokee language.
Most Cherokee learned to read
and write. Whites called the Cherokee
one of the Five Civilized Tribes, along
with the Choctaw, the Seminole, the
Chickasaw, and the Creek.
In the 1830s gold was discovered on
Cherokee land in Georgia. Georgia officials
and the U.S. government forced the
Cherokee to leave their land and march
west. About 4,000 Cherokee died on the
journey, which is called the Trail of
Tears.
Most Cherokee settled in what is now
northeastern Oklahoma. Their descendants
still live there. Some Cherokee live
in western North Carolina. They are
descendants of Cherokee who escaped
into the mountains in the 1830s. In the
late 20th century there were more than
280,000 Cherokee living in the United
States.
#More to explore
Chickasaw Choctaw Creek Native
Americans Seminole Sequoyah Trail
of Tears
Cherry
Cherries are small, round fruits that can
be sweet or sour. They grow on trees
Cherokee dancers perform at a Native
American celebration.
Cherries grow on stems that
hang from tree branches.
88 Cherry BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
that are common in North America,
Europe, and eastern Asia.
Different types of cherry tree produce
sweet cherries and sour cherries. Sweetcherry
trees are large, reaching heights
up to 36 feet (11 meters). Their fruit is
usually round or heart-shaped. Sweet
cherries vary in color from yellow to red
to nearly black. People eat sweet cherries
fresh or canned.
Sour-cherry trees are smaller than sweetcherry
trees. They are usually less than
16 feet (5 meters) tall. Sour cherries are
round and smaller than sweet cherries.
They are usually dark red. Sour cherries
are not eaten fresh because of their sour
taste. They are frozen or canned and
used in sauces and pastries, such as
cherry pie.
Some kinds of cherry tree do not bear
fruit. But people like these trees for the
beautiful pink and white flowers they
bear. Many cherry trees are planted in
gardens and parks, especially in Japan.
The wood of cherry trees is valued for its
rich red color. People use cherry wood to
make cabinets, furniture, and other
products.
#More to explore
Fruit
Chestnut
Chestnuts are tall trees that produce
sweet-tasting nuts and useful wood.
There are four species, or types, of chestnut
tree: American, European, Chinese,
and Japanese. They are related to oak
and beech trees.
Chestnut trees can grow to a height of
about 100 feet (30 meters). The bark has
deep grooves. The leaves are shiny green
and oval-shaped with pointed edges.
The nuts are found inside green, cupshaped
structures with a spiky shell.
Each holds two or three nuts.
The American chestnut tree was once
common in eastern North America.
However, in the 1900s a disease called
chestnut blight killed almost all the
American chestnuts. The blight also
attacks the European chestnut. It does
not affect Chinese or Japanese chestnuts.
Some of the trees called chinquapins are
closely related to the chestnuts. But their
fruits contain only one nut. Other
plants that are called chestnuts are not
related to the true chestnuts. These
include horse chestnut trees, which bear
nuts that are not usually eaten.Water
Tall chestnut trees provide welcome shade to
an avenue.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chestnut 89
chestnuts are water plants that produce a
nutlike fruit.
..More to explore
Nut Oak Tree
Cheyenne
The Native American people known as
the Cheyenne originally were farmers.
Later, however, they became traveling
bison (buffalo) hunters. They spoke an
Algonquian language.
Before 1700 the Cheyenne lived in the
upper Mississippi River valley, in what
is now Minnesota. There they farmed,
gathered wild rice, and made pottery.
They later moved west to what is now
North Dakota. It was probably there
that they first got horses, which
changed their way of life. The
Cheyenne began to hunt bison on
horseback. They ate bison meat, used
the bones for tools, and made clothing
and tepees from the skins. To follow the
herds, the Cheyenne gradually
abandoned their villages and gave up
farming.
The Cheyenne eventually spread across
much of the Great Plains. In the 1830s
many Cheyenne moved south to what is
now Colorado. The tribe divided into
northern and southern branches. The
Northern Cheyenne continued to roam
the plains, but the Southern Cheyenne
chose a more settled lifestyle. From the
1850s through the 1870s the Cheyenne
fought with U.S. soldiers and settlers
heading west. At the end of the 20th
century the Cheyenne population was
about 11,000, mostly in Oklahoma and
Montana.
..More to explore
Algonquian Native Americans
Cheyenne
Population
(2000 census)
53,011; (2007
estimate)
55,641
Cheyenne is the capital of the U.S. state
ofWyoming. Many people in the city
work for the government. Many others
work in health care, banking, and tourism.
Factories in Cheyenne process oil
and make chemicals.
Cheyenne was founded in 1867. It was
named after the Cheyenne Indians, who
lived in the area. The site was a station
on the first railroad to cross the United
Members of the Cheyenne tribe of Native
Americans perform at a festival in Washington,
D.C.
90 Cheyenne BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
States. Many of the first residents of
Cheyenne went there to help build the
railroad. Cheyenne became the capital of
theWyoming territory in 1869. The
territory became a state in 1890.
Cheyenne was an outpost of theWild
West. Cowboys drove cattle north from
Texas to the railroad at Cheyenne.
Cattle were also raised on nearby
ranches. In the 1870s Cheyenne became
a supply center for the areas gold miners.
Gunfighters, gamblers, and other
colorful characters roamed the city.
Today Cheyenne takes pride in its Old
West heritage. Every July the city holds a
famous rodeo.
#More to explore
Cheyenne Wyoming
Chiang Kai-shek
The Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek
helped to overthrow the last emperor of
China. He later fought for control of the
country as head of the Nationalist Party.
Chiang Kai-shek was born on October
31, 1887. He studied military science in
Tokyo. There he became a follower of
the Chinese revolutionary leader Sun
Yat-sen.
Chiang returned to China in 1911. He
took part in a revolution that overthrew
the ruling Qing, or Manchu, Dynasty
and made China a republic. However,
for several years after that there was no
stable government as military warlords
struggled for power.
After a period of study in the Soviet
Union, Chiang returned to China in
1923. Two years later he followed Sun as
head of the Kuomintang (Nationalist
Party). During this period Communists
were part of the Nationalist Party, but in
1927 Chiang forced the Communists to
leave. He also moved against the warlords
and in 1928 established a new
government. The warlords as well as the
The state Capitol in Cheyenne, Wyoming,
stands in a grassy park.
Chiang Kai-shek
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chiang Kai-shek 91
Communists continued to oppose him,
however.
When Japan invaded China in 1937,
Chiang formed a temporary alliance
with the Communists to fight the invaders.
Their fight became part of the larger
conflict ofWorldWar II. After the Japanese
surrendered in 1945 the Communists
moved against Chiang again. By
1949 they had defeated him and established
the Peoples Republic of China.
Chiang moved his Nationalist government
to the island of Taiwan. He died
on April 5, 1975.
..More to explore
China Sun Yat-sen Taiwan
Chicago
Population
(2000 census),
city, 2,896,016;
(2007 estimate)
2,836,658
Chicago, Illinois, is the third largest city
in the United States. Only New York
City and Los Angeles, California, have
more residents. Chicago is a center of
industry, transportation, culture, and
education. The modern skyscraper was
born in Chicago. The city has some of
the worlds tallest buildings, including
theWillis Tower (formerly called the
Sears Tower) and the John Hancock
Building.
Chicago is in the Midwest region of the
United States. The city lies on Lake
Michigan, one of the five Great Lakes.
Beaches and parks line the lakefront.
Culture
The arts are a significant part of life in
Chicago. The city has many museums
and theater companies. The Chicago
Symphony Orchestra and the Art Institute
of Chicago are world famous. Outdoor
concerts, including large blues and
jazz festivals, are held at Grant Park and
Millennium Park.
Sports are also important to city life.
Chicagos devoted fans cheer on the
Cubs and White Sox (baseball), the
Bulls (basketball), the Blackhawks
(hockey), and the Bears (football).
Visitors to Chicagos Millennium Park can
see a giant reflecting sculpture by Anish
Kapoor. The pieces of curled metal in the
background are part of a music pavilion
designed by the architect Frank Gehry.
92 Chicago BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Economy
Chicagos economy is based on many
different industries and services. Many
people in the city work for the government
or in banking, trade, or tourism.
The major industries include food processing,
publishing, and making paper
products, electronics, and chemicals.
History
Native Americans were the first people
to live in the Chicago area. A black
trader named Jean-Baptist-Point du
Sable settled in the area in the 1770s. A
U.S. fort and a settlement were later
established there.
Chicagos industries and population
grew rapidly in the 1800s. Its location
on Lake Michigan and in the middle of
the country helped it become a center of
trade and transportation.
In 1871 a terrible fire destroyed about a
third of Chicago. The city rebuilt
quickly, however. Many skyscrapers soon
sprang up downtown. In 1893 Chicago
hosted a huge fair called theWorlds
Columbian Exposition. More than 21
million people visited the fair.
In the 1900s many Chicago residents
moved to the suburbs. Starting in the
1990s, however, building projects
brought new life to the city.
#More to explore
Du Sable, Jean-Baptist-Point
Michigan, Lake Skyscraper
Chickasaw
The Chickasaw are a Native American
tribe that originally lived in what is
now the southeastern United States.
Their traditional homeland was
centered in what is now northern
Mississippi, but it also included parts of
what are now Alabama, Tennessee, and
Kentucky.
Chicago has some of the worlds tallest buildings. They are close to the shoreline of Lake
Michigan.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chickasaw 93
The Chickasaw built their houses by
covering a pole frame with grass, bark,
or hides. They spread the houses out
along riverbanks instead of clustering
them in villages. They got their food by
farming and hunting.
In the 1540s the Spanish explorer
Hernando de Soto and his men met the
Chickasaw. The Chickasaw drove the
explorers from their territory. The tribe
was more welcoming to English traders
who arrived in the 1700s. The
Chickasaw often sided with the English
in their battles with French traders and
settlers.
The relationship between the Chickasaw
and the United States became strained
when Americans began moving into
their territory. In the 1830s the U.S.
government forced the Chickasaw to
move to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma)
along with the Creek, the Cherokee,
the Choctaw, and the Seminole.
Because they adopted certain European
customs, these tribes came to be known
as the Five Civilized Tribes. In 1855 the
Chickasaw established a separate nation.
In 1907 the Chickasaw Nation became
part of Oklahoma. There are now about
20,000 Chickasaw in the United States.
About half still live in Oklahoma.
#More to explore
Cherokee Choctaw Creek Native
Americans Seminole
Chicken
The chicken is a bird that people all
over the world raise for its meat, eggs,
and feathers. It belongs to the group of
domesticated, or tame, birds called
poultry.
Chickens have short wings and a heavy
body. This makes it hard for them to fly
very far. Male chickens are called roosters.
Roosters often have brightly colored
feathers. They can be red, green, brown,
The Chickasaw made rattles for religious
purposes. They used such natural materials
as turtles shells, cows horns, and gourds.
Male chickens are called roosters. They do
not lay eggs.
94 Chicken BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
black, or other colors. Female chickens
are called hens. Hens are usually brown
or white. Both males and females have
one or two wattles. A wattle is skin that
hangs from the throat. Male and female
chickens also have a comb, which is skin
that sticks up from the top of the head.
Farmers usually keep chickens inside
large, modern buildings. They feed the
birds corn and other grains. Some farmers
allow their chickens to roam free
outdoors. These chickens usually roost,
or sleep, inside at night.
Hens can lay more than 200 eggs a year.
If a hen mates with a rooster before laying
eggs, the eggs will be fertilized. This
means that they will develop into chicks.
But hens can lay eggs without mating.
These unfertilized eggs are the eggs that
people eat.
Wild birds called jungle fowl are the
ancestors of chickens. Jungle fowl
belong to the pheasant family. They live
in parts of Asia, including India. Jungle
fowl eat seeds, fruit, and insects. They
fly into trees to escape from predators.
#More to explore
Bird Egg Poultry
Chicken Pox
One of the most common diseases of
childhood is chicken pox. Although
most people contract it between the ages
of 2 and 6, chicken pox can strike at any
age. It is a fairly mild illness in children,
but it can be serious in adults.
The first symptoms, or signs of the disease,
include a slight fever, runny nose,
and mild cough. The person will not feel
hungry and may also have headaches
and feel tired.
Roughly two weeks after being exposed
to the virus that causes the disease, red
spots appear on the face and body. These
spots are filled with fluid, and they itch
terribly. Eventually the spots form scabs,
which soon fall off.
People with chicken pox should try not
to scratch the spots. The itching can be
relieved by using medications such as
calamine lotion. It is important to keep
the spots clean.
It is extremely important to never use
aspirin to treat the headaches and body
aches that accompany chicken pox.
Using aspirin to treat chicken pox has
been connected to the development of a
severe disease called Reyes syndrome.
A case of chicken pox generally lasts
from a week to 10 days. Because chicken
The virus that
causes chicken
pox stays in
the body after
the disease
goes away. It
can break out
years later as
a disease
called
shingles.
Itchy, red spots on the face and body are a
sign of chicken pox.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chicken Pox 95
pox is easily passed from one person to
another, it is important for a person
with the disease to remain in bed until
the scabs have fallen off. Scientists developed
a chicken pox vaccine, or substance
that protects people from getting the
disease, in the late 20th century.
#More to explore
Reyes Syndrome Vaccine
Child
Development
People live much longer than most other
animals, so human childhood also lasts a
long time. Unlike baby animals, human
children need many years to learn how
to live on their own as adults. As childrens
bodies grow, so do their minds.
This growth is called child development.
People who study child development
learn how children change, from the
time they are infants until they become
teenagers, or adolescents.
There are several stages of child development.
Babies go from being infants to
toddlers to preschoolers. Then they
enter school at 5 or 6 years old. At
around 9, children are called preadolescents,
or preteens. This last stage continues
until a child becomes a teenager.
Infancy
Infancy is the most helpless stage of a
human beings life. It takes an infant
about three months just to grow strong
enough to hold up its head. As their
muscle strength increases, babies can do
more. Over their first year infants gradually
learn to roll over, sit up, crawl, and
take their first steps with someone helping
them. They become better at using
their hands to grasp and hold things. As
they grow out of infancy, babies begin to
make sounds similar to words.
Infants enjoy holding and looking at toys
and other objects.
Children learning to walk need support to
help them keep their balance.
96 Child Development BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Toddlerhood
The toddler stage begins when a baby
starts to walk, usually at about age 1.
Most children also start saying words at
about this time. As toddlers grow they
become stronger and have more control
of their bodies. Their thinking skills also
improve. They slowly start putting
words together to make sentences. They
like to copy what other people say and
do.
Preschool Age
Between ages 3 and 5, children are in
the preschool stage. Children learn
many important skills during this stage.
They learn to share and to take turns.
They learn how to play simple games
with rules, such as tag. Playing with
others helps them learn how to get along
with all kinds of people.
School Age
Starting school marks a new stage. Childrens
minds develop quickly as they
learn reading, writing, and arithmetic.
They also learn more about cooperating
with others. As their bodies grow stronger
and more coordinated, many schoolage
children try sports or other difficult
physical activities.
Preteen Years
Between 9 and 12 years old, children are
preteens, or preadolescents. During this
stage they grow much more independent.
They become better at controlling
their behavior. Preteens also understand
how to be helpful to others.
During the preteen years children form
close friendships. Their group of friends
becomes very important to them. Family
is no longer a central part of their life.
Preteens also become more aware of the
world beyond their home, school, and
community.
The end of the preadolescent years
marks the end of childhood. As preteens
become teenagers, they move one step
closer to becoming adults and living on
their own.
#More to explore
Adolescence
Play is an important part of preschool childrens
development.
Preteen children learn how to work together
in activities such as music and sports.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Child Development 97
Chile
The Republic of Chile stretches for
nearly 2,700 miles (4,350 kilometers)
along the west coast of South America.
Though long, it has an average width of
only 110 miles (180 kilometers). Its
capital and largest city is Santiago.
Geography
The Pacific Ocean forms Chiles western
border. Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina lie
to the north and east. Chile claims a
piece of Antarctica. It also controls several
islands in the South Pacific, including
Easter Island.
The Andes Mountains are in the east.
Smaller mountain ranges are in the west.
Flat plains lie between the two mountain
systems. The mountains and plains
run from north to south for nearly the
entire length of the country.
The northern part of Chile is a very dry
desert with moderate temperatures. The
center of the country has hot, dry summers
and cool, moist winters. Southern
Chile is cold and wet.
Plants and Animals
Cacti and prickly shrubs grow on the
northern coast. Hardwood trees, shrubs,
cacti, and green grass grow in central
Chile, though farmland has replaced
many of the native plants there. Dense
forests of beeches, evergreens, and monkey
puzzle trees (Chile pines) cover the
south.
Guanacos, llamas, alpacas, and vicunas
live in the northern Andes. Other
mountain animals include deer, wolves,
pumas, wildcats, rodents, and condors.
The southern forests are home to foxes,
small deer, and marsupials.
People
Most Chileans are mestizos, or people
with both Spanish and American Indian
roots. There are smaller groups of whites
and Araucanian Indians. Most of the
people speak Spanish and are Roman
Catholic. Most Chileans live in cities in
the central part of the country.
98 Chile BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Economy
Banking and other services, manufacturing,
mining, fishing, and trade are
Chiles most important economic activities.
The country produces and sells
food products, metals, chemicals, and
paper. Chile is the worlds leading producer
of copper. Chilean farmers grow
wheat, grapes, apples, vegetables, and
other crops.
History
Before the Spanish arrived in 1536, at
least 500,000 American Indians lived in
what is now Chile. The Araucanian
Indians fought against the settlers for
about 350 years. Meanwhile, the Spanish
set up huge farming estates. A small
class of people controlled most of the
land, the wealth, and the political life of
the country.
In the early 1800s Chile began fighting
Spain for independence. Chile defeated
Spain in 1817 and became independent
in 1818. But Chiles wealthy landowners
continued to dominate politics.
In the early 1900s many people
demanded changes in government and
society. A new constitution in 1925 gave
Chile democratic elections and social
programs. After a shaky start, Chiles
government remained stable until the
1970s.
In 1973 the military overthrew President
Salvador Allende. General Augusto
Pinochet took power. Pinochets government
jailed, tortured, and killed many
people who opposed it. In 1988
Pinochet allowed the people to vote on
whether he should stay in office. They
rejected him by a small majority. Elections
in 1989 returned Chile to civilian
(nonmilitary) rule.
..More to explore
Andes Santiago
Laguna Miscanti and the Atacama Desert lie in the northern part of Chile.
Folk music and dance are popular in Chile.
Facts About
CHILE
Population
(2008 estimate)
16,454,000
Area
291,930 sq mi
(756,096 sq km)
Capital
Santiago
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Greater Santiago,
Puente Alto, Concepcion,
Vina del
Mar, Antofagasta,
Valparaiso
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chile 99
Chimpanzee
Chimpanzees are apes that are closely
related to bonobosand to human
beings. In fact, chimpanzees and bonobos
are the closest living relatives of
humans. Chimpanzees are very smart
and social animals. They belong to the
group of mammals called primates.
Where Chimpanzees Live
Chimpanzees are found in western, central,
and eastern Africa. Most of them
live in rain forests. But some chimpanzees
live in drier grasslands and other
areas.
Physical Features
Chimpanzees are usually about 3 to 5.5
feet (1 to 1.7 meters) tall. They generally
weigh about 70 to 130 pounds (32 to 60
kilograms). The males are somewhat
larger than the females. Chimpanzees
arms are longer than their legs. They
have coats of brown or black hair. But
their faces, large ears, hands, and feet are
bare.
Behavior
Chimpanzees eat mainly plants, including
fruits, leaves, and seeds. They also
eat insects and birds eggs. Sometimes
chimpanzees hunt and eat monkeys and
other mammals.
On the ground chimpanzees can walk
upright on two legs. But more often
they lean on their knuckles and walk on
all fours. Chimpanzees spend time both
in trees and on the ground.
Chimpanzees make and use a variety of
simple tools. For instance, some chimpanzees
chew certain leaves to make
them spongy. Next, they push the leaves
into tree hollows filled with water. They
use sticks to get their leaf-sponges back
out. Finally, they drink the water from
the leaves. Young chimpanzees probably
learn how to use tools by watching and
imitating adults.
Chimpanzees live in groups of about 15
to 120 individuals, led by a male. They
communicate with each other using
facial expressions, gestures, and sounds.
Members of a group are generally
friendly toward each other but
unfriendly to other groups. Sometimes
one group will attack a smaller group
and try to take its land.
#More to explore
Ape Bonobo Primate
The West African, or masked, chimpanzee
is an endangered species. This means that it
is in danger of dying out.
100 Chimpanzee BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
China
More than one fifth of all the people in
the world live in China. The country is
also the largest in Asia. Chinas capital is
Beijing.
Geography
China shares borders with Mongolia,
Russia, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos,
Myanmar, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan,
and Kazakhstan. The Yellow,
East China, and South China seas lie to
the east. The Himalayan, Karakoram,
and Altai mountain ranges separate
China from its neighbors to the west.
The Plateau of Tibet in the southwest is
a cold, mountainous region. The northwest
is a highland with large desert
basins. The east holds almost all of Chinas
lowlands. Chinas major rivers are
the Huang He, the Yangtze, and the Xi.
Plants and Animals
Forests cover about 15 percent of Chinas
land. Among the many trees are
tung, camphor, lacquer, and star anise
trees. Mangrove swamps are found along
the South China Sea. Rain forests grow
in parts of southern China.
Giant pandas, Chinese paddlefish, and
giant salamanders live in the wild only
in China. Other animals and birds
include tigers, monkeys, alligators,
pheasants, and laughing thrushes.
People
The Han, or the ethnic Chinese, make
up more than 90 percent of the population.
Mandarin, a type of Han Chinese,
is the official language. China has about
55 minority groups. For many years the
government discouraged religion, but
that began to change in the late 20th
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA China 101
century. Today many people follow traditional
Chinese beliefs. Growing numbers
practice Buddhism, Christianity,
and Islam.
About 38 percent of the people live in
cities.More than 40 cities have at least
1 million residents. The government has
tried to control the growing population
by asking families to have only one child.
Economy
Chinas Communist government once
owned most of the businesses and farms
in the country. Today individuals are
allowed to own businesses. As a result
the economy is growing steadily.
Mining and manufacturing are the most
important economic activities. Mines
produce zinc, lead, copper, iron ore,
coal, and other minerals. Factories make
cement, steel, iron, paper, chemicals,
fabrics, electronic products, household
appliances, and cars. Service industries,
including finance and health care, are
becoming increasingly important.
Agriculture is a smaller part of the
economy. However, it employs the
largest number of workers. China is the
worlds top producer of rice. It also
produces corn, wheat, soybeans,
peanuts, fruits, vegetables, tobacco,
cotton, pigs, and chickens.
History
Human ancestors lived in what is now
China at least 400,000 years ago. By
about 2000 BC people began living in
settled groups and farming. Eventually
those groups formed communities and
then dynasties, or royal families, to rule
over the communities.
Dynasties
The first dynasty for which there are
written records was the Shang. It took
Xiling Gorge is a part of the Three Gorges region of Chinas Yangtze River. A huge dam in
the area has caused the water in the gorge to rise greatly.
Facts About
CHINA
Population
(2008 estimate)
1,324,681,000
Area
3,696,100 sq mi
(9,572,900 sq
km)
Capital
Beijing
Form of
government
Peoples republic
Major cities
Shanghai,
Beijing, Tianjin,
Guangzhou,Wuhan,
Chongqing,
Shenyang
102 China BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
power over part of China in the 1700s
BC. The Shang created bronze tools and
written documents. Their neighbors, the
Zhou, took over their territory in about
1050 BC. The Zhou Dynasty ruled a
loose collection of states. The leaders of
one of those states, the Qin, unified
China in 221 BC. The Qin began to
construct the GreatWall of China,
which was more than 4,000 miles long.
From 202 BC to AD 1279, the Han, Sui,
Tang, and Song dynasties ruled China.
During that time the Chinese made
advances in science, literature, and the
arts. China also expanded its territory to
include parts of Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia,
and Tibet.
Foreign Invasions
The Mongols of Central Asia conquered
all of China in 1279. It was the first
time in history that foreign invaders had
controlled the Chinese empire. The
Ming Dynasty overthrew the Mongols
in 1368. Another group, the Manchus,
took over as the Qing Dynasty in 1644.
The Qing Dynasty continued until
1912. It was Chinas last dynasty.
Meanwhile, conflict with theWest
began with the first OpiumWar (1839
42). The British ran a profitable opium
(a type of drug) trade in China. Many
Chinese citizens became addicted to
opium, and China wished to halt the
trade. However, the British won the war
as well as other battles. In the late 1800s
1700s BC 221 BC AD 1279 1368 1912 1949 1966
The Shang
Dynasty takes
power over
part of China.
The Qin
Dynasty unites
China.
The Mongols
conquer China.
The native
Ming Dynasty
defeats the
Mongols.
The
Nationalists
make China a
republic.
The
Communists
form the
Peoples
Republic of
China.
Mao Zedong
begins the
Cultural
Revolution.
T I M E L I N E
Lanterns and flags decorate the old city wall
of Xian, China.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA China 103
China also had disputes with France,
Russia, and Japan.
Many in China disliked the growing
foreign involvement. Many were also
angry about poverty in the countryside.
People around the country began to
rebel. In the Boxer Rebellion of 1900,
bands of Chinese attacked and killed at
least 250 foreigners. After European,
Russian, U.S., and Japanese forces put
down the rebellion, those foreign powers
gained even more control over China.
Chinese Revolution
Several Chinese groups continued to
fight for change in the Qing Dynastys
weak government. They finally succeeded
with a revolution that began in
1911. The last Qing emperor stepped
down in 1912. Sun Yat-sen and his Kuomintang
(Nationalist Party) declared
China a republic. For several years, however,
different leaders fought for control
of China.
Communism
In 1928 the Nationalists, a group led by
Chiang Kai-shek, took control of China.
During invasions by Japan in the 1930s
andWorldWar II (193945), however,
the Chinese Communist Party grew
strong. Civil war broke out between the
Nationalists and the Communists, led
by Mao Zedong. In 1949 the Communists
defeated the Nationalists.
The Communists renamed the country
the Peoples Republic of China. They set
up a Communist government with Mao
Zedong as its leader. In 1958 Mao
started a program, called the Great Leap
Forward, to modernize Chinas
economy. The plan failed, however, and
many people died of starvation. In 1966
Mao began the Cultural Revolution. Its
goal was to strengthen peoples belief in
Communism. Instead it led to disorder
and violence. Mao closed Chinas
schools and encouraged young people to
attack those who disagreed with him.
Recent Events
After Mao died in 1976, the Communist
government began to relax its tight
hold on Chinese society. Later leaders
allowed private businesses and some
freedom of speech. China also tried to
improve relations with other countries.
One sign of the countrys success came
in 2001. In that year the International
Olympic Committee chose Beijing to
host the 2008 Summer Olympic games.
#More to explore
Beijing Chiang Kai-shek
Communism GreatWall of China
Huang He Mao Zedong
The Forbidden City in Chinas capital city of
Beijing contains the palaces of several
former emperors. It is now a museum that is
open to the public.
Archaeologists
have found
decorated pottery
that was
created in
China about
12,000 years
ago.
104 China BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Chinese New
Year
Chinese New Year is a major holiday in
China and Chinese communities
throughout the world. Unlike inWestern
nations, the starting date of the Chinese
New Year is not the same each year.
It begins in late January or early February.
The 15-day celebration begins with
the new moon and lasts until the full
moon.
Firecrackers are often shot off on New
Years Eve. Fireworks celebrate the end
of the old year and the beginning of the
new year. Chinese New Year is a time to
feast and to visit family members. Many
traditions of the season honor relatives
who have died.
The last event of the 15-day celebration
is the Lantern Festival. People often
hang glowing lanterns in temples or
carry them during a nighttime parade.
The dragon dance highlights festival
celebrations in many areas. A long, colorful
dragon is carried through streets by
numerous dancers.
Chinese years are named after 12 animals:
rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, snake,
horse, sheep, monkey, fowl, dog, and
pig. Chinese New Year marks the start of
the next animals yearfor example, the
Year of the Pig. After 12 years, the cycle
of animals repeats itself.
Chipewyan
The Chipewyan are a tribe of Native
Americans who once survived by hunting
caribou in Canada. They ranged
through the southern parts of what are
now Nunavut and the Northwest Territories.
Their range also included the
northern parts of Alberta, Saskatchewan,
and Manitoba.
The Chipewyan traveled in small bands
and followed the caribous migrations.
Caribou were their main source of food.
They also made clothing, tents, and nets
from caribou skins. The Chipewyan did
not farm but gathered food from plants
that were growing wild.
Following the arrival of European fur
traders in the late 1600s, the Chipewyan
began to hunt for fur animals to
exchange for European goods. The
Europeans also introduced the
Chipewyan to new diseases such as
Dancers in a Chinese New Year parade
carry a bright and festive dragon.
The
Chipewyan
religion
included belief
in dreams,
visions, and
guardian
spirits.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chipewyan 105
smallpox. In 1781 an epidemic of smallpox
killed most of the Chipewyan population.
The Chipewyan were further hurt by the
decline of the fur trade in the 1800s.
They eventually surrendered much of
their land to the Canadian government
and settled onto several small reserves in
Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and
the Northwest Territories. By the end of
the 20th century, there were about
5,000 Chipewyan living in Canada.
#More to explore
Americas, Exploration and Settlement of
the Native Americans
Chipmunk
Chipmunks are rodents that are closely
related to squirrels. They look like squirrels
but are smaller. Plus, chipmunks
have stripes on their back, while squirrels
do not.
There are 25 species, or types, of chipmunk.
All species live in North America
except for the Asiatic chipmunk. It is
found in northern Asia and eastern
Europe. Chipmunks live in many places,
including woodlands, mountains, and
plains.
Chipmunks are small. The eastern chipmunk
is 5.5 to 7.5 inches (14 to 19 centimeters)
long. Its bushy tail is more
than half as long as its body. It weighs
only about 2.5 to 5 ounces (71 to 142
grams). The western and Asiatic chipmunks
are even smaller.
Chipmunks have different colors and
stripes. The eastern chipmunk is reddish
brown. It has five dark stripes on its
back. Between the dark stripes are two
brown and two white stripes. The gray
western chipmunk has five dark stripes
and four light stripes.
Most chipmunks are good tree climbers
and swimmers. They eat nuts, seeds,
wild fruits, and berries. Inside their
cheeks are pouches. Chipmunks stuff
these pouches with food to carry home.
A photograph from the 1920s
shows a group of Chipewyan in
front of a tepee.
The reddish brown eastern chipmunk lives
in the forests of eastern North America.
106 Chipmunk BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Each chipmunk has its own burrow, or
hole. It contains at least two rooms. One
is a storeroom for nuts. The other is a
leaf-lined nest. Chipmunks sleep during
most of the winter.
..More to explore
Rodent Squirrel
Chippewa
..see Ojibwa.
Chisinau
Population
(2006 estimate)
593,800
Chisinau is the capital of Moldova, a
country in eastern Europe. It is Moldovas
largest city and cultural center. The
city lies on the Bac River.
The industries in Chisinau are very
important to Moldovas economy. Factories
in the city make machinery, electrical
appliances, processed foods, and
clothing. Chisinau is also the countrys
center of trade, banking, and communications.
Several different powers have controlled
Chisinau during its history. In the 1400s
it was part of a region that is now mostly
in Romania. Troops of the Turkish Ottoman
Empire captured the city in the
1500s.
Russia took over the Moldova region in
1812. After that Chisinau was known by
its Russian name, Kishinyov. Romania
ruled the city in the early 1900s. The
Soviet Union took control of Kishinyov
in the 1940s.
DuringWorldWar II (193945) many
Jews in Kishinyov were killed. German
forces also badly damaged the city. The
city was rebuilt after the war.
Moldova became an independent country
in 1991. The citys name was
changed back to Chisinau. It was made
the new countrys capital.
..More to explore
Moldova
A park in Chisinau, Moldova,
was built to honor Moldovan
soldiers who fought in World
War I.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chisinau 107
Chocolate
Chocolate is a food and a flavoring that
is popular throughout the world. Many
candies, baked goods, and drinks contain
chocolate.
How Chocolate Is Made
Chocolate begins with the seeds of the
cacao tree. The cacao tree grows in
warm areas of North and South
America, Africa, and Asia. The seeds
form in long, cucumber-shaped fruits
called pods. When the pods are ripe,
workers cut them from the tree and
remove the seeds. The seeds sit for
several days before being dried, either
by the sun or in an oven. The dry
seeds, called cocoa beans, are then
shipped to processing plants or
chocolate factories.
At the plant or factory, workers roast the
beans in giant ovens to bring out their
flavor. Machines then remove the hard
skin surrounding the beans. Next,
machines grind the beans into a paste,
called chocolate liquor. Chocolate liquor
is made up of chocolate solids and a
kind of fat called cocoa butter.
A dry powder called cocoa can be made
by pressing some of the cocoa butter out
of the chocolate liquor. Cocoa powder is
sold unsweetened for use in baking and
as a flavoring ingredient. It may also be
mixed with sugar and milk to make hot
chocolate drinks.
Chocolate for eating is made by adding
extra cocoa butter to chocolate liquor.
To make dark chocolate, workers add
sugar to this mixture. Adding both sugar
and milk makes milk chocolate. Mixing
cocoa butter, sugar, and milk makes
white chocolate. These mixtures may be
poured into molds to make different
shapes of candy.
Chocolate bars contain cocoa butter and
cocoa liquor made from the seeds of the
cacao tree.
The seeds from cacao trees are dried to
make cocoa beans (left). Cocoa powder is
made from crushed cocoa beans.
108 Chocolate BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
History
Chocolates popularity began in ancient
Mexico and Central America, where the
cacao tree grew wild. The Maya and
Aztec peoples prepared a hot, bitter
drink with cocoa beans. In 1519 the
Aztec emperor Montezuma II served the
Spanish explorer Hernan Cortes a
chocolate drink called xocoatl.
Cortes brought this beverage back to
Spain.With sugar, vanilla, and cinnamon
added, it became a favorite with
the Spanish kings and queens. In the
1600s the drink became popular among
rich people in France and England.
In the 1800s people discovered how to
make smooth, tasty chocolate for eating.
Today the top chocolate-producing
countries include the United States, the
United Kingdom, Switzerland, Germany,
The Netherlands, and France.
#More to explore
Aztec Food and Nutrition
Choctaw
The Choctaw are a large Native American
tribe that once lived in what is now
southern Mississippi. They were probably
descended from earlier peoples
known as mound builders.
Choctaw villages were clusters of houses
made from wood frames covered with
mud. The roofs were made from grass or
cane reeds. Choctaw women tended
fields of corn, beans, and pumpkins.
They also gathered wild fruits and nuts.
Men fished and hunted for deer and bear.
A painting from the 1800s shows Choctaw men playing a traditional ball game on a large
field with tall goalposts.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Choctaw 109
In the 1540s the Choctaw drove
Spanish explorers out of their territory.
The tribe was friendlier to the French,
who became valued trading partners. In
the American Revolution (177583)
the Choctaw sided with the Americans
against the British. They adopted
enough American customs to be
regarded as one of the Five Civilized
Tribes (along with the Chickasaw, the
Seminole, the Cherokee, and the
Creek).
In 1830 a small group of Choctaw
agreed to give the United States their
territory in the Southeast in exchange
for land in Indian Territory (later
Oklahoma). Most Choctaw did not
want to leave, but U.S. troops forced
them to make the trip. Thousands died
on the march. By the late 1800s settlers
had taken over much of the new
Choctaw territory. In 1907 the land
became part of Oklahoma. At the end
of the 20th century there were about
87,000 Choctaw, mostly in Oklahoma
and Mississippi.
#More to explore
Cherokee Chickasaw Creek Mound
Builder Native Americans Seminole
Cholera
The disease called cholera is an infection
of the small intestine. It causes the body
to lose important fluids and minerals.
Outbreaks of cholera have quickly killed
many thousands of people.
Cholera is caused by a certain kind of
bacteria. A person gets the disease by
eating food or drinking water that has
been contaminated, or infected, with the
bacteria.
Diarrhea is usually the first symptom, or
sign, of cholera. Vomiting follows the
diarrhea. The body rapidly loses large
amounts of water and other fluids. The
result is a condition called dehydration.
The person has a strong thirst and painful
muscle cramps. If the dehydration is
not treated, the patient may die within a
few hours.
Doctors treat cholera mainly by
replacing the bodys lost fluids. The
person may be given fluids to drink.
The fluids contain both water and
minerals. The doctor also may give the
person fluids through a tube that is
inserted into a blood vessel. Sometimes
the person is given a medicine called an
antibiotic.
Cholera often occurs in countries that
do not have good sanitation equipment.
Since 1817
cholera has
swept from
country to
country seven
times, killing
millions of
people.
A health worker shows a family in Afghanistan
how to use tablets to make water safe
to drink. Cholera can spread through contaminated
water.
110 Cholera BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
The best prevention for cholera is making
sure that the water supply is clean.
Sometimes people are given a vaccine to
protect them from the disease.
#More to explore
Antibiotic Bacteria Intestines
Vaccine
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a waxy material that forms
in the human body. The body needs
cholesterol in order to work. It helps
form vitamin D and other products. But
too much cholesterol can hurt the body.
Most cholesterol is made in the liver.
Certain chemicals called proteins carry it
through the bloodstream. Two such proteins
are called low-density lipoproteins
(LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins
(HDLs).
LDLs bring cholesterol from the liver to
other cells. After arriving where it is
needed, the cholesterol leaves the LDL.
The role of HDLs is not as clear. HDLs
may bring unused cholesterol back to
the liver to be broken down before it is
removed from the body.
The liver makes most of the cholesterol
the body needs. However, because cholesterol
is in animal cells, when people
eat animal products they are getting
extra cholesterol. When extra cholesterol
hardens, blood vessels become narrower.
It then becomes harder for the heart to
pump blood through the vessels. This
can cause such problems as heart attacks
or strokes.
People can lower their cholesterol levels
by exercising, maintaining a healthy
weight, and eating healthy foods.
Doctors may recommend that people
with high cholesterol eat less red meat,
egg yolks, cheese, butter, and liver.
These are major sources of cholesterol.
Because fruits and vegetables do not
contain any cholesterol, doctors often
advise people to eat more of these types
of foods.
When there is no cholesterol built up in
blood vessels, blood can easily flow
through the vessels openings.
Plants, and
foods that
come from
plants, such as
olive oil,
canola oil, or
corn oil, do
not contain
cholesterol.
When cholesterol builds up in blood vessels,
it is difficult for blood to flow through
the narrow openings in the vessels.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cholesterol 111
Christianity
With some 2 billion followers, Christianity
is the worlds most widespread
religion. Christianity is based on the life,
death, and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
The religion has three main
branchesRoman Catholicism, Eastern
Orthodoxy, and Protestantism.
Beliefs
Central to Christianity is the belief that
Jesus is the Christ, or chosen one, whom
God sent to the world to save humans.
Christians maintain that Jesus had to
suffer, die, and be resurrected (raised
from the dead) to make up for peoples
sins. Christians view Jesus new life after
death as hope that they too may be
granted everlasting life.
Christians also believe in the Trinity.
The Trinity (meaning the three) is the
idea that three figures are united in one
God: God the Father, God the Son
(Jesus), and God the Holy Spirit. The
Holy Spirit is thought of as a helper sent
to guide and teach humans.
The sacred scripture of Christianity is
the Bible. It has two booksthe Old
Testament (or Hebrew Bible) and the
New Testament, which tells the story of
Jesus.
Practices
At the core of Christian living is love for
God above all things. Christianity also
tells people to love one another and to
be forgiving, humble, and kind.
Some Important Christian Holidays
Holiday Meaning Date
Advent period of preparation for Christmas begins on the Sunday nearest to
November 30
Christmas celebration of Jesus birth December 25
Epiphany celebration of the visit by the Magi, January 6
or Wise Men, to the infant Jesus
Lent period of preparation for Easter begins 40 days, not including Sundays,
before Easter
Easter celebration of Jesus rise from the first Sunday after the first full moon
dead after the spring equinox (March 21)
Worshippers in a Roman Catholic
church face the altar, which is
heavily decorated. Roman
Catholic churches often have
more statues and other decorations
than Protestant churches.
112 Christianity BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Many Christians regularly attend church
services, with Sunday being the most
common day of worship. Services usually
involve singing, Bible readings, and
a sermon, or a talk by a priest or minister.
In many churches, services include a
ceremony called Communion. In this
ceremony, members eat bread and drink
wine in memory of the final meal Jesus
had with his followers.
History
Jesus and Followers
Christianity grew out of Judaism in the
Middle East. In about AD 29 a Jew
named Jesus began to preach in Galilee.
He attracted many followers because of
his healing powers and his religious
teachings. But people in power feared
that he might lead an uprising, and they
put him to death. The Bible holds that
Jesus rose from the dead three days after
being put to death, spent 40 days on
Earth, and then was taken up to heaven.
For many years, Jesus followers continued
to practice religion in the same way
as Jews, except they believed that Jesus
was a savior sent from God. In the 1st
century AD a missionary named Paul
helped separate Christianity and Judaism
into two distinct religions.
Spread of Christianity
To help spread Jesus teachings, some
early Christians wrote about him. Writings
by four menMatthew, Mark,
Luke, and Johnwere chosen as the
standard account of Jesus life and teaching.
These four narratives now form part
of the New Testament.
In the early days of the church, the
Roman Empire controlled most of the
Mediterranean region. Life was difficult
and dangerous for Christians living
within the empire. They were treated
harshly for their beliefs. In AD 312, however,
the Roman emperor converted to
Christianity. By the end of the 300s,
Christianity was the empires official
religion. This power helped secure
Christianitys place in the world.
Some Protestant Christian churches attract
large numbers of people.
Greek Orthodox Christian priests and worshippers
gather for a service in Bethlehem.
Bethlehem is the Middle Eastern city where
Jesus was born.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Christianity 113
Christianity in the Middle Ages
Christianity continued to gain strength
during the Middle Ages, a period from
about 500 to 1500. Its leaders became
powerful and wealthy, and the church
was the chief cultural institution in
Europe.
But as Christianity expanded, it did not
remain unified. In 1054 the Eastern
church at Constantinople separated
from theWestern church in Rome
because of differences in beliefs and
practices. This split created the Eastern
Orthodox churches and the Roman
Catholic church.
Another major development was the
Crusades. In the 11th century a Muslim
Turkish empire conquered southwestern
Asia, including many places associated
with Jesus. Over the next two centuries,
armies of European Christians fought
Muslim forces in the Middle East, partly
in an attempt to recapture the Holy
Land.
Modern Period
In the 1500s a German priest named
Martin Luther began to question
certain practices and teachings of the
Roman Catholic church. Luthers
criticism helped bring about the
religious revolution known as the
Reformation. As a result, various
reformers eventually founded the first
Protestant churches.
As Christianity flourished in Europe,
Christians came to believe that their
religion should be taught to people in
other lands. Beginning in the 1500s and
continuing into the 21st century, Christian
missionaries brought their faith to
parts of Africa, Asia, and North and
South America. These efforts helped
make Christianity the most widespread
religion in the world.
#More to explore
Bible Church Crusades Eastern
Orthodox Churches Jesus Christ
Judaism Protestantism Reformation
Roman Catholicism
Christmas
Marking the birth of Jesus, Christmas is
a major religious holiday for Christians.
For many people it is no longer only a
religious festival. It has become a season
of gift giving and celebration. The date
of Christmas is December 25. But
Christmas celebrations often take place
over several days or weeks.
In addition
to teaching
about their
religion, missionaries
often
set up schools
and medical
clinics.
Girls carry candles and sing in
front of a festive Christmas tree
in Seoul, South Korea.
114 Christmas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Several traditional customs are part of
the Christmas holiday in the United
States. Decorating a Christmas tree with
strings of lights and ornaments is one
beloved custom. Another common custom
is gift giving. This is frequently
associated with a figure named Santa
Claus.
In many European countries families
exchange gifts on Christmas Eve,
December 24. Like Santa Claus, Father
Christmas and Pere Noel are said to
deliver presents to children in the
United Kingdom and France, respectively.
In Spain and Italy children receive
presents on the night of January 5.
As part of the religious holiday, many
Christians attend church services on
Christmas Eve or Christmas Day. The
word Christmas comes from the Old
English term Cristes maesse, meaning
Christs mass. That was the name of
the Christian worship service held on
December 25 to honor the birth of
Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was
born in Bethlehem. The actual day and
year of his birth are not certain.
#More to explore
Bethlehem Christianity Jesus Christ
Chromosome
Chromosomes are tiny, threadlike structures
inside every cell of every organism,
or living thing. Chromosomes carry
information about the organism in units
called genes. When living things reproduce,
they pass their genes along to their
offspring.
General Features
In animals and plants, chromosomes are
located inside the nucleus, or central
structure, of each cell. A material called
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) makes up
most of each chromosome. Plant and
animal chromosomes also contain a
material called ribonucleic acid (RNA)
and some proteins.
Some organisms, including bacteria, do
not have a nucleus. Their chromosomes
float freely within the cell. In these
organisms, chromosomes are made up of
only DNA.
Chromosome Numbers
Every living thing has a specific number
of chromosomes in most of its cells. In
most plants and animals, chromosomes
come in pairs. Potato cells have 24 pairs,
for a total of 48 chromosomes. Mosquito
cells have three pairs, for a total of
six chromosomes. Human cells have 23
pairs, for a total of 46 chromosomes.
Damage to
chromosomes
can cause
birth defects
and such
diseases as
cancer.
Chromosomes are inside the cells of every
living thing. They are so small that they can
only be seen through a powerful microscope.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Chromosome 115
Humans and most other animals have
the same number of chromosomes in
every type of cell except onethe sex
cells. These are the egg cells produced by
females and the sperm cells produced by
males. The sex cells have only one half
of each pair of chromosomes.
During reproduction, the fathers sperm
cell and the mothers egg cell combine
to form a new cell. This cell is the beginning
of an embryo, or developing baby.
Each sex cell brings its half set of chromosomes
to the embryo. In this way, the
embryo gets a full set of chromosomes.
#More to explore
Cell DNA Genetics
Chumash
The Chumash are Native Americans
who originally lived along the coast of
southern California. They were known
for the high quality of their crafts.
Most Chumash lived in villages made up
of dome-shaped homes big enough to
house several families. Chumash who
lived on the coast or on nearby islands
fished in the Pacific Ocean. They also
hunted seals and sea otters. Farther
inland, the Chumash hunted large game
animals. Both groups relied on acorns as
a source of food. They ground up the
acorns to make flour.
Chumash women made baskets that
were woven so tightly they held water.
Chumash men made objects of stone
and whalebone. They also crafted canoes
from wooden planks.
The Chumash first met European
explorers in 1542. Their first lasting
contact with outsiders came in the early
1770s, when Catholic priests began
establishing missions in the area. Soon
most of the Chumash lived and worked
in the missions, sometimes against their
will.
The Chumash were freed from the missions
in 1834. By that time many had
died from diseases caught from the
Europeans. After 1849 the survivors
struggled as American settlers and gold
seekers invaded their lands. By the end
of the 1800s only a few Chumash were
left. The Santa Ynez Reservation was set
aside for them in 1901. At the end of
the 20th century there were about 3,000
Chumash. Most lived on the reservation
or in nearby towns and cities.
#More to explore
Missions, Spanish Native Americans
Long ago, Chumash people painted pictures
on cave walls.
116 Chumash BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Church
A church is a public place of worship,
usually for people of the Christian religion.
Some Christian denominations, or
groups, also have buildings called cathedrals.
A cathedral serves as the central,
or main, church for a geographical area.
The layout and design of churches can
vary greatly. Still, many churches share
some common features.
Most churches include an altar, or a
raised platform. The people who perform
the religious services are called the
clergy. They stand at the altar during the
services.
All churches have a seating area for the
congregation, or people attending services
in the church. Usually people sit in
long wooden benches called pews. Some
churches have separate seating areas for
the choir, or people who sing at church.
Many churches have a bell tower containing
one or more bells. The bells ring
before and after services, to celebrate
religious holidays, and sometimes to
mark the time of day. Many churches
also have stained glass windows. These
colorful windows often show stories
from the Bible.
Protestant churches tend to be more
simple in their design than Roman
Catholic churches and cathedrals. Protestant
churches usually have fewer religious
statues and other decorations as
well.
#More to explore
Cathedral Christianity
Churchill,
Winston
Winston Churchill was the government
leader who led the United Kingdom
(Great Britain) to victory during World
War II. He was one of the greatest public
speakers of his time. He was also a
bold soldier and a gifted writer.
Early Life
Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill was
born on November 30, 1874, in
Oxfordshire, England. His father was a
wealthy politician. His mother was from
the United States.Winston went to private
schools and then to Sandhurst, the
British military academy.
In 1895 Churchill entered the British
Army. In 1899 he joined the Conserva-
Many churches have a tall bell tower. tives, a British political party. He was
Many
Christian
churches have
been built in
the shape
of a cross.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Churchill, Winston 117
elected to Parliament (the British legislature)
in 1900.
Cabinet Member
In 1908 Churchill joined the top rank
of government leaders, called the Cabinet.
In 1911 he took control of the British
Navy. He made sure that the navy
was ready for war. DuringWorldWar I
(191418), however, he planned some
attacks that failed. For a time he went
back into the army. After the war
Churchill held several important government
jobs.
Wartime Leader
In 1939WorldWar II began. The British
knew that they needed a strong
leader. Churchill became prime minister
(head of government) in May 1940.
Soon after Churchill took office, the
Germans bombed Britain. Churchill
stayed strong through the attacks. He
made speeches that gave hope to the
British people. In 1945 Britain and its
alliesthe United States, France, and
the Soviet Unionwon the war.
Later Life
Churchill lost his position as prime minister
after the war. In 1951 he became
prime minister again. In 1953 he
received the Nobel prize for literature.
The prize honored his speech making as
well as his writing.
Churchill retired as prime minister in
1955. But he stayed in Parliament and
continued to write. In 1963 the United
States made him its first honorary citizen.
Churchill died in London, Britains
capital, on January 24, 1965.
#More to explore
Parliament United Kingdom World
War II
Cinco de Mayo
Cinco de Mayo (5th of May) is a
national holiday in Mexico. On that
date in 1862 Mexican troops defeated
Winston Churchill
When
Churchill
became prime
minister, he
said, I have
nothing to
offer but
blood, toil,
tears, and
sweat.
Many Cinco de Mayo celebrations include
traditional Mexican dancing.
118 Cinco de Mayo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
invading French forces in a battle at
Puebla, Mexico.
The Mexican people remember the
event by listening to political speeches
and watching parades. Reenactments of
the battle are often part of the celebration
as well. In the United States, Cinco
de Mayo is observed by people of Mexican
descent. The holiday is a festive celebration
of the heritage of Mexican
Americans. In many cities there are
parades and events featuring Mexican
culture and music, dancing, and food.
In the mid-1800s the French leader
Emperor Napoleon III tried to take control
of Mexico. The victorious battle
celebrated on Cinco de Mayo was an
important blow against the French.
During the battle of Puebla a small army
of Mexican soldiers defeated a much
stronger French army.
Circulatory
System
All animals need to move important
fluids through their body. The fluids
move through what is called a circulatory
system. The fluids carry nutrients
and gases, like oxygen, that keep the
animals alive. The fluids also remove
wastes from the body. In humans and
some other animals they also carry substances
that help the body fight infection.
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