Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

Nixon resigned over the scandal known

asWatergate.

Early Life and Career

Originally named Leslie Lynch King,

Jr., Gerald Ford was born on July 14,

1913, in Omaha, Nebraska. His parents

July 14, August 8, September December 26,

1913 1948 1973 1974 1974 1976 2006

Ford is born in

Omaha,

Nebraska.

Ford is elected

to the U.S.

House of

Representatives.

President

Richard Nixon

appoints Ford

as his new vice

president after

Agnew resigns.

Nixon resigns

and Ford

becomes

president.

Ford pardons

Nixon.

Ford loses the

presidential

election to

Jimmy Carter.

Ford dies in

California.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ford, Gerald R. 51

divorced soon after his birth. His

mother, Dorothy Gardner King, moved

to Grand Rapids, Michigan, and

married Gerald Rudolph Ford. The

elder Ford adopted the boy and gave

him his name. The younger Ford

attended the University of Michigan,

where he was a star football player. In

1941 he earned a law degree from Yale

University.

Ford joined the U.S. Navy in 1942 and

served inWorldWar II. After the war he

returned to practicing law. In 1948 Ford

married Elizabeth Anne Bloomer. They

had four children.

Congress and Vice Presidency

A Republican, Ford was elected to the

U.S. Congress in 1948. He served in the

House of Representatives for 25 years.

In 1973 Vice President Spiro T. Agnew

resigned after being charged with not

paying taxes and other crimes. President

Nixon named the popular and honest

Ford as Agnew’s replacement.

Presidency

After Nixon resigned in 1974, Ford was

sworn in as president. Ford granted

Nixon a full pardon for any crimes that

he might have committed as president.

The pardon angered many people.

Many also opposed Ford’s pardons of

men who had avoided military service

during the VietnamWar.

Ford tried to stop rising prices and

unemployment, but he could do little to

help the poor economy. Twice in September

1975 people tried to assassinate

him. Secret Service agents stopped one

shooter; the other shooter missed.

Defeat and Retirement

By the 1976 election many voters

viewed Ford as a weak president. He lost

to Democrat Jimmy Carter. In 1980

Ronald Reagan asked Ford to run as his

vice president, but Ford chose to retire

to private life. Ford died on December

26, 2006, in Rancho Mirage, California.

..More to explore

Carter, Jimmy • Nixon, Richard M.

• United States • VietnamWar

Forest

A large area filled with many trees is

called a forest. Forests grow in almost

every part of the world. The only places

bare of forests are deserts, some prairies

Gerald R. Ford

52 Forest BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

and mountaintops, and the North and

South poles.

Types of Forest

Two basic types of tree make up most

forests: hardwoods and softwoods. Many

forests contain either hardwoods or softwoods,

but some forests have both types.

Maples and oaks are examples of hardwood

trees. Hardwoods have wide leaves

and grow fruits. They are often deciduous,

meaning they drop their leaves

every fall. However, some hardwoods,

such as mahogany trees, keep their leaves

all year. Hardwood forests grow in places

with temperate (mild) or tropical (hot)

weather.

Pines and redwoods are examples of

softwood trees. Softwoods have cones

and needles rather than fruits and wide

leaves. Softwoods do not lose their

needles each year. Many softwoods are

known as evergreens because their

needles remain green year-round. Softwood

forests often grow near mountains

and in cool regions.

Thick forests that grow in wet parts of

the world are called rain forests. Rain

forests may contain hardwoods, softwoods,

or both.

Life in the Forest

Every forest is a complex living system

made up of thickly growing trees,

bushes, vines, fungi, and other plants.

Forests are also the homes of mammals,

birds, insects, and many other animals.

These living things all depend on each

other to survive.

As a forest ages or changes, it affects all

the living things in it. Diseases or insect

attacks may weaken its trees and plants.

Fire can destroy the food and shelter

that animals need to survive. Humans

can also endanger forest plants and animals

by chopping down too many trees.

After a forest changes, it may have a new

set of plants and animals.

Forest Products

Many important natural resources come

from the world’s forests. Forests provide

food, wood, fuel, natural fibers, and

other materials. These resources may be

made into furniture, shelter, paper,

clothing, medicines, and many other

products.

To save natural forests people sometimes

plant tree farms. As workers cut down

the trees grown on these farms, they

plant new trees to replace them.

Tropical rain

forests may

have trees that

are more than

150 feet (45

meters) tall.

Forests are home to many plants besides

trees.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Forest 53

Other Benefits of Forests

Forests are known as the lungs of the

planet. This is because they supply a

huge amount of Earth’s oxygen, which

animals need to breathe. The trees of a

forest give off oxygen as part of a process

called photosynthesis. Forest trees also

help to protect soil from erosion. They

block the forces of wind and water that

wear away the land. In addition, forests

offer a peaceful place for hiking, camping,

bird-watching, and exploring

nature.

Protecting Forests

For thousands of years people have been

cutting down forests for wood and to

make room for farms and cities. Now

many of the world’s forests are in danger

of disappearing. Many people work to

protect forests.

Forestry is the science of managing

forests. People who work in forestry

study the life cycles of trees and other

forest plants. Foresters usually have a

college degree in forest sciences. They

work to prevent the spread of tree

diseases, keep trees safe from harmful

insects, and control forest fires. Many

professional foresters work for the

government.

To save forests many governments also

create national forests, state parks, and

wilderness preserves. In these places forests

are left in their natural state for

people to enjoy. Sequoia National Park

in California was created in 1890 to

protect groves of giant sequoia trees.

#More to explore

Erosion • National Parks

• Photosynthesis • Rain Forest • Tree

A woman walks through a tropical forest in Seychelles, an island country in the Indian

Ocean. Hiking is a popular activity in many forests.

54 Forest BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Fossil

Fossils are the remains or traces of plants

and animals that lived long ago. Fossils

give scientists clues about the past. For

this reason, fossils are important to paleontology,

or the study of prehistoric life.

Most fossils are found in earth that once

lay underwater. They usually formed

from the hard parts—such as shells or

bones—of living things. After a living

thing died, it sank to the bottom of the

sea. Layers of earth and the remains of

other living things built up on top of it.

Over time, these layers turned into rock.

Eventually, part or all of the living

thing’s hard parts also turned into rock.

The fossil is the shape of these hard

parts in the rock.

Other fossils are imprints on soft material

that later hardened into rock. For

example, scientists have found dinosaur

footprints in rock that formed from

mud. Many plants left leaf prints, too.

Another kind of fossil can form after a

small insect or a piece of a plant gets

trapped in resin. (Resin is a sticky substance

made by pine and fir trees.)

When the resin hardens into a rocklike

material called amber, the object inside

is preserved.

#More to explore

Amber • Paleontology • Prehistoric Life

• Rock

Fossil Fuel

All the machines of modern life require

energy to make them run. About 90

percent of that energy comes from burning

fossil fuels. Fossil fuels include petroleum

(oil), coal, and natural gas. These

materials are called fossil fuels because,

like fossils, they are the remains of

organisms that lived long ago. Organisms

are plants, animals, and other living

things.

How Fossil Fuels Formed

Fossil fuels formed in the ground hundreds

of millions of years ago. Dead

organisms sank into mud and rock.

Over time many layers of rock built up.

The remains of the organisms slowly

changed in form to become different

kinds of fossil fuels. Coal came from

plants. Petroleum and natural gas came

mainly from microscopic organisms

such as algae.

Uses and Producers

Fossil fuels and their products have

many uses. Power plants use fossil fuels

to produce electricity. People heat their

A rock contains the fossilized skeleton of a

mammal-like reptile. This animal lived more

than 200 million years ago.

Fossil fuels

contain an

element (basic

substance)

called carbon.

The burning of

fossil fuels

sends carbon

into the air in

the form of a

gas called carbon

dioxide.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fossil Fuel 55

homes and other buildings by burning

fossil fuels. Gasoline, a product made

from petroleum, fuels cars and other

kinds of motorized equipment.

Many countries produce fossil fuels. The

greatest producer of petroleum is Saudi

Arabia. Russia has the largest reserves of

natural gas. Major coal-producing countries

include the United States and

China. The United States uses more

fossil fuels than any other country.

Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels

Since the late 1700s people have been

using fossil fuels at a faster rate than ever

before. But the planet’s supply of fossil

fuels is limited. Fossil fuels are called

nonrenewable resources. Once they are

used up, they will be gone forever.

The use of fossil fuels harms the environment

as well. When petroleum and

coal burn, they release harmful gases.

These gases react with moisture to create

acid rain, a dangerous form of pollution.

Burning fossil fuels also increases the

temperature of Earth’s atmosphere. This

warming, called the greenhouse effect,

may be harmful to living things.

For these reasons scientists and engineers

have developed new ways to generate

power without using fossil fuels. For

example, some cars are now powered by

electricity instead of gasoline. Homes

can be heated by sunlight. Some electric

power plants run on nuclear energy,

water power, or wind power.

#More to explore

Coal • Energy • Fossil • Gas, Natural

• Petroleum • Pollution

Fourth of July

#see Independence Day.

Fox

The Fox were a Native American tribe

that traditionally lived in the western

Great Lakes region. By the 1600s they

had settled in what is now northeastern

Wisconsin. Europeans called them the

Fox, but they called themselves

Coal is an important type of fossil fuel. It is

buried underground and must be dug up.

Five Fox men pose in about 1890.

56 Fourth of July BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Mesquakie, meaning “Red-Earth

People.”

During the spring and summer the Fox

lived along river valleys in large houses

made from poles and elm bark. They

grew corn, beans, squash, and pumpkins

and gathered wild nuts and berries for

food. After the harvest the Fox left their

villages to hunt bison (buffalo) on the

prairies. They also hunted deer and

other game. While on the hunt they

lived in small, portable dome-shaped

houses called wigwams.

During the 1600s traders from France

and England began arriving in Fox territory.

The French, with the help of the

Ojibwa tribe, drove the Fox into what

are now Illinois and Iowa. The United

States later forced the Fox to give up

their land. In the mid-1800s the tribe

moved to what is now Oklahoma, where

they shared a reservation with the Sauk.

Americans called both groups the Sauk

and Fox tribe. In 1857 some Sauk and

Fox returned to Iowa, where they

bought land. At the end of the 20th

century there were more than 4,000

Sauk and Fox. Most lived in Kansas,

Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Iowa.

#More to explore

Native Americans

Fox

Foxes are mammals that look like small,

bushy-tailed dogs. They live all over the

world. Different kinds favor different

habitats. The red fox likes farmland. The

gray fox lives in forests. The silver fox is

found in cold areas. The Arctic fox lives

around the North Pole.

Foxes have pointed ears, short legs, and

a narrow snout. They are about 32 to 57

inches (81 to 145 centimeters) long,

including the tail. Foxes usually weigh 6

to 17 pounds (3 to 8 kilograms). They

have long fur that varies in color. Red

foxes are reddish brown. Silver foxes are

black with gray-tipped hair. The Arctic

fox is brownish in the summer and

white in the winter.

Foxes usually live in dens. The den is

often a burrow that another animal dug

and left. Most foxes hide by day and

hunt by night. Foxes will eat almost

anything they can find. They like to eat

birds, including chickens, and small

mammals such as gophers and rabbits.

Foxes have few enemies except for

humans. People hunt foxes for sport and

for their fur. People also raise foxes on

farms for their fur.

#More to explore

Dog • Mammal

Long fur keeps a red fox warm in winter.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fox 57

France

France is a large country in western

Europe. France is known for its proud

history and rich culture. The capital is

Paris.

Geography

France shares borders with Belgium,

Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland,

Italy, Spain, and Andorra. The Mediterranean

Sea lies to the south, and the

Atlantic Ocean lies to the west.

In the north and west the Seine and

Loire rivers run through broad plains. In

the southeast are the French Alps.

France’s highest point—Mont Blanc,

which rises 15,771 feet (4,807

meters)—is in the Alps. In the southwest

the Pyrenees Mountains lie

between France and Spain.

The north of France has cool to cold

winters, warm summers, and moderate

rainfall. On the Mediterranean coast

winters are sunny, and it rarely rains in

summer.

Plants and Animals

Forests cover about one fourth of the

land. Pine, fir, ash, oak, beech, maple,

chestnut, and olive trees are common.

The country’s wild animals and birds

include foxes, beavers, wildcats, deer,

wild pigs, hawks, and storks.

People

Most of the people are French. The

French language is one of the world’s

most widely spoken languages. The

population also includes small groups of

North Africans and other Europeans.

Some Basque people live in southern

France. More than three fourths of the

people are Roman Catholics. Other religious

groups include Muslims, Protestants,

and Jews.

Dinan is a town on the Rance River in the

region of Brittany in western France.

58 France BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Economy

France is one of the major economic

powers of the world. Its economy is

based on services, including tourism and

banking. Manufacturing is also important.

France produces machinery, cars,

aircraft, medicines, food products, iron

and steel, cosmetics, clothing, and other

goods.

Though agriculture is a small part of the

economy, France is a top producer of

wheat, cattle, pigs, and chickens. It is

also well known for its cheeses and

wines.

History

People lived in what is now France more

than 100,000 years ago. The Gauls, a

Celtic people, migrated to the area in

about 1200 BC. By about 50 BC the

ancient Romans had conquered the

region, which they called Gaul.

As the Roman Empire weakened, German

tribes invaded Gaul. The Franks

were the strongest of those tribes, and

they gave France its name. The greatest

Frankish ruler was Charlemagne, who

came to power in AD 768. By the early

800s Charlemagne’s empire covered

most of western Europe. When Charlemagne

died, however, his empire was

divided into three parts. After 843 the

western section became known as the

kingdom of France.

Wars over Land and Religion

In 1066 the French duke of Normandy

conquered England. Because of that

connection to France, English kings

later claimed parts of France for themselves.

This led to many battles between

the two countries.

One particularly difficult period was the

Hundred Years’War, which began in

1337. France was close to defeat when a

peasant girl named Joan of Arc led the

French army to victory. By the end of

the war in 1453, the English had lost

nearly all of their land in France.

about 50 BC AD 768 1337 1789 1815 1940 1993

Ancient Rome

conquers Gaul.

Charlemagne

becomes king

of the Franks.

The Hundred

Years’ War

with England

begins.

The French

Revolution

begins.

Emperor

Napoleon I is

defeated.

Germany

invades France

during World

War II.

France joins

the European

Union.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA France 59

During the 1500s Protestantism spread

across Roman Catholic France.Wars

broke out between Protestants (known

as Huguenots) and Roman Catholics.

Peace came in 1598 when King Henry

IV signed the Edict of Nantes, which

granted Protestants some rights.

French Revolution and Napoleon

During the 1600s France became the

greatest power in Europe. Louis XIV,

who reigned from 1643 to 1715, raised

the power of the king to new heights.

In the 1700s, however, France lost a

series of costly foreign wars. At home,

political disorder and public anger

resulted in the French Revolution in

1789. This uprising by the French

people led to the end of the French

monarchy. After the revolution France

became a republic.

After a period of weak government

France fell into the hands of General

Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. He

named himself emperor of France in

1804. Napoleon set out to conquer

Europe. He was finally defeated in 1815.

Afterward the monarchy was restored,

but it fell in 1870. France once again

became a republic.

WorldWars

Germany invaded France in 1914, at the

beginning of WorldWar I. France and

its allies narrowly defeated Germany

during that war. Less than 30 years later,

however, Germany again invaded

France, during WorldWar II. While

occupied by Germany, France was led by

a French government that worked with

the Germans. But part of the French

army, called the Free French, escaped to

England under General Charles de

Gaulle. Free French, U.S., and British

forces drove the Germans out of France

in 1944.

Postwar France

In the 1950s and 1960s France lost its

colonies in Vietnam and Algeria after

fighting costly wars in those regions.

Nevertheless, France’s political and economic

power grew. In 1993 France

became one of the original members of

the European Union.

..More to explore

Alps, The • De Gaulle, Charles

• European Union • Frank • French

Revolution • Huguenots • Joan of Arc

• Napoleon • Paris • Pyrenees •World

War I •WorldWar II

A glass pyramid is a modern addition to

the Louvre, an art museum in Paris, France.

Facts About

FRANCE

Population

(2008 estimate)

62,028,000

Area

210,026 sq mi

(543,965 sq km)

Capital

Paris

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Paris, Marseille,

Lyon, Toulouse,

Nice

60 France BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Frank

The Franks were a group of people who

lived in Europe more than a thousand

years ago. The country of France was

named after them. The Franks moved

to the land that became France from a

region that is now in Germany. They

spoke a language that is related to

German.

In ancient times the Romans ruled what

is now France as part of the Roman

Empire. The land was then called Gaul.

The Roman Empire lost power in the

AD 400s. Franks and other Germanic

peoples moved into Gaul during this

time.

King Clovis I was the first important

Frankish king. He brought several

groups of Franks together under his

leadership. In the late 400s Clovis

started to follow the religion of Christianity.

His followers became Christians,

too, which helped to unite them as a

people. By the early 500s Clovis ruled

most of Gaul.

A later king named Charles became

known as Charlemagne, which means

Charles the Great. Charlemagne added

to the lands ruled by the Franks. Charlemagne

also spread Christianity. In 800

the pope (leader of the Christians in

Rome) rewarded Charlemagne by giving

him the title of emperor. Charlemagne’s

empire became known as the Holy

Roman Empire.

Charlemagne’s sons and grandsons were

unable to hold the Frankish empire

together after Charlemagne died. The

Frankish lands in the east continued as

the Holy Roman Empire. The Frankish

lands in the west became France.

#More to explore

Charlemagne • France • Holy Roman

Empire • Rome, Ancient

Frank, Anne

DuringWorldWar II a young Jewish

girl, Anne Frank, kept a diary for two

years while hiding from the Nazis with

her family. Anne and her family were

victims of the Holocaust, which was

Nazi Germany’s campaign to destroy the

Jews. From the diary, readers have found

out what Jewish people experienced and

felt during the time of the Holocaust.

Early Life

Anne Marie Frank was born on June 12,

1929, in Frankfurt, Germany. In 1933

Adolf Hitler’s Nazi Party came to power,

A stone carving from the 600s

shows a Frankish warrior.

Anne Frank’s

diary shows

remarkable

hope in the

face of fear

and evil. She

wrote,

“In spite of

everything I

still believe

that people

are really

good at

heart.”

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Frank, Anne 61

and Germany became a dangerous place

for Jews. Anne’s family soon moved to

Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

In May 1940, during the early months

ofWorldWar II, Germany took over

The Netherlands. By 1942, Jews were

being rounded up and sent to camps

where most of them would die.

The Secret Annex

Anne’s father prepared some rooms

upstairs from his business offices. This

was to be a “secret annex” where his

family could hide. On July 6, 1942, the

Frank family and four other people went

into hiding. Some non-Jewish friends

supplied them with food.

For two years the eight people shared

the small space. They were always afraid,

but they tried to live normally. Anne

wrote in her diary about her daily life

and her hopes.

After the Annex

Somehow the Gestapo (German secret

police) found out about the annex. On

August 4, 1944, they arrested everyone.

Anne and her sister went to the Bergen-

Belsen camp in Germany. In March

1945 they both died of a disease called

typhus. Except for her father, everyone

from the secret annex died in the

camps.

After the raid, friends discovered Anne’s

diary. In 1947 Mr. Frank had it published.

The English translation was titled

The Diary of a Young Girl. The annex

building in Amsterdam is now a

museum called the Anne Frank House.

#More to explore

Holocaust

Frankfort

Population

(2000 census)

27,741

Frankfort is the capital of the U.S. state

of Kentucky. The Kentucky River flows

through the city.

Frankfort is a trade center for the area.

Its farms produce tobacco and corn.

Some farmers in Frankfort raise Thoroughbreds,

a breed of horse used in

horse racing. Factories in the city make

bourbon whiskey, candy, furniture, and

electronics.

Anne Frank

62 Frankfort BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

A U.S. general founded Frankfort in

1786. The city became the capital of

Kentucky in 1792. The Capitol burned

down twice in the 1800s. Both times the

cities of Louisville and Lexington tried

to take over as state capital. But Frankfort

remained the capital of Kentucky.

In 1937 floods greatly damaged the city.

#More to explore

Kentucky

Franklin,

Benjamin

Benjamin Franklin won fame as a writer,

a publisher, a scientist, and an inventor.

He is best remembered, however, for his

leadership in the American colonies and

the early United States.

Printer and Inventor

Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts,

on January 17, 1706. He left

school at age 10. At age 12 he went to

work in his brother’s printing shop.

In 1723 Franklin moved to Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania. He worked there as a

printer. His most popular publication

was Poor Richard’s Almanack. The almanac

featured Franklin’s witty sayings and

verses. A famous one was “Early to bed

and early to rise, makes a man healthy,

wealthy, and wise.”

Franklin started many public services in

Philadelphia. They included a fire

department, a hospital, an insurance

company, and a library. A school he

founded became the University of Pennsylvania.

Franklin was a great scientific thinker

and inventor. He invented the Franklin

stove, which was used to heat rooms,

and a type of eyeglasses called bifocals.

His experiments with electricity led to

the invention of the lightning rod. That

Benjamin Franklin

The Kentucky Capitol in Frankfort

is 210 feet (64 meters) high.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Franklin, Benjamin 63

metal rod is used to protect buildings

from lightning.

Politician

Franklin became a respected political

leader in the years leading up to the

American Revolution. In 1765 the British

Parliament passed the Stamp Act, a

tax on printing in the colonies. The act

angered the colonists. Franklin persuaded

the British to withdraw it.

In 1775, as war with Great Britain grew

closer, Franklin took part in the Second

Continental Congress. There he helped

write the Declaration of Independence.

In 1776 he went to France to seek aid

for the Revolution. In 1787 he signed

the U.S. Constitution.

In his last years Franklin wrote his autobiography.

He also worked to end slavery.

He died in Philadelphia on April

17, 1790.

#More to explore

American Revolution • Continental

Congress • United States Constitution

Frederick the

Great

Frederick II ruled Prussia, a kingdom in

what is now Germany, from 1740 to

1786. He was a great military leader

who made Prussia a major power in

Europe. Because of his military genius,

he earned the title Frederick the Great.

Frederick was born on January 24,

1712, in the city of Berlin. His father

was FrederickWilliam I, king of Prussia.

Frederick’s early life was unhappy. He

liked music, art, and literature, but his

father wanted him to become a soldier.

The king criticized and beat him. At age

18 Frederick ran away, but he was

caught. His father put him in prison as

punishment.

Frederick became king of Prussia when

his father died in 1740. As king he was

called Frederick II. He spent the first

half of his reign waging war. He took

land from Austria and conquered other

German lands. Later he added a large

part of Poland to Prussia’s territory.

Building a great army was always Frederick’s

most important goal. He used most

of the kingdom’s money to feed, equip,

and pay his soldiers. But Frederick also

encouraged industry, education, and

culture. He wrote poetry and books on

history and politics. He also composed

Frederick the Great

64 Frederick the Great BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

music. Frederick died near Berlin on

August 17, 1786.

#More to explore

Prussia

Freetown

Population

(2004 estimate),

urban area,

786,900

Freetown is the capital of theWest African

country of Sierra Leone. The city

lies on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean.

It is Sierra Leone’s main port and largest

city.

The city is named Freetown because it

began as a home for freed slaves. An

Englishman named Granville Sharp

founded Freetown in 1787. Sharp was

an abolitionist, or a person who worked

to end slavery. Africans who had been

slaves in England began settling the new

town. Freed and escaped African slaves

from other parts of the world also

moved there.

In the early 1800s Sierra Leone became

a British colony. In the middle of the

1800s Freetown was the capital of all of

Great Britain’s colonies inWest Africa.

Sierra Leone became an independent

country in 1961. Freetown became its

capital.

Rebels fought the government of Sierra

Leone from 1991 to 2002. Freetown

was often the site of terrible violence.

#More to explore

Abolitionist Movement • Sierra Leone

• Slavery

Fremont, John

Charles

John Charles Fremont was a U.S.

explorer, soldier, and politician. He

blazed many trails in the American

West. He also played a key role in the

early history of California.

Fremont was born on January 21, 1813,

in Savannah, Georgia. He attended college

in South Carolina. Then he became

a surveyor. In that job he measured land

in the wilderness.

In 1838 Fremont helped to survey the

upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers.

While in Missouri Fremont met Senator

Thomas Hart Benton.With Benton’s

support, Fremont led expeditions to

John Charles Fremont

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fremont, John Charles 65

map much of the area between the Mississippi

River valley and the Pacific

Ocean. He explored the Oregon Trail in

1842. In 1843 he reached California.

In 1845 Fremont returned to California.

California was then part of Mexico.

American settlers were rebelling against

Mexican rule. The United States went to

war with Mexico around the same time.

Fremont joined the Army and helped

the Americans take control of California.

Then he was governor for a time.

After California became a state in 1850,

Fremont was elected one of its first senators.

Later, from 1878 to 1883, Fremont

was governor of Arizona Territory. He

died on July 13, 1890.

#More to explore

California • Oregon Trail

French and

IndianWar

From 1754 to 1763 France and Great

Britain fought each other in the French

and IndianWar. The war was part of a

bigger war, called the Seven Years’War,

in Europe. However, the French and

IndianWar took place in North

America. Even though France got help

from its Native American allies, Britain

won the war. The victory gave Britain

control over most of the colonies in

North America.

Background

In the middle of the 1700s both Britain

and France controlled land in North

America. Britain controlled the 13 colonies

that later became the United States.

France’s lands were called New France.

New France included large parts of what

is now eastern Canada. It also covered

much of the Great Lakes region and

areas west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Both countries wanted the upper Ohio

River valley, in what is now northeastern

Ohio and western Pennsylvania. The

French were trading with the Native

Americans, while people from the British

colonies were starting settlements.

Both sides built forts in the area.

War

War began in 1754, when British colonial

troops under GeorgeWashington

tried to drive the French from what is

now western Pennsylvania. They failed.

British soldiers arrived in 1755. They

lost a battle for Fort Duquesne, near

what is now Pittsburgh.

The British general Edward Braddock was

badly wounded in the fight for Fort

Duquesne in 1755. He left the battlefield on

a cart and died soon afterward.

66 French and Indian War BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The next few years of the war continued

to be difficult for the British. The

French had a better army, and the

Native Americans knew how to fight in

the woodlands.

By the end of 1757, however, the British

had begun to gain ground. They had

collected more money and better supplies

than France. They also had become

experts in wilderness fighting. By 1760

the British had captured all of New

France. The war ended when Britain

and France signed the Treaty of Paris on

February 10, 1763.

#More to explore

Washington, George

French Guiana

A part of France lies on the northeastern

coast of South America. French Guiana

is an overseas department (a type of

province) of France. Cayenne is its largest

city and capital.

Geography

Suriname and Brazil border French Guiana.

The Atlantic Ocean is to the north.

About 10 miles (16 kilometers) off the

coast is Devil’s Island, once known for

housing France’s political prisoners and

wartime spies. The land is mostly lowlying.

The Tumac-Humac Mountains in

the south rise to 2,300 feet (700

meters). The climate is hot and humid.

Plants and Animals

Tropical rain forests cover much of

French Guiana. Animals of the region

include tapirs, ocelots, sloths, great anteaters,

armadillos, monkeys, and parrots.

People

Mulattoes, or people with both black

and white ancestors, form the largest

ethnic group in French Guiana. There

are smaller groups of French, Haitians,

Surinamese, Antilleans, Chinese, Brazilians,

East Indians, and others. French is

the official language, but different

groups also speak their own languages.

Most people are Roman Catholics.

French Guiana has a small population

for the amount of land it covers. Most

residents live in urban areas along the

coast.

Economy

French Guiana receives much of its

income from a European rocketlaunching

base near the town of

Kourou. Most people work for the government

or in services, including health

care, banking, and tourism. French Guiana

also produces gold, shrimp, rice,

meat, wood products, and rum.

Devil’s Island was once known for the horrible

treatment of prisoners there. Today the

island is a popular tourist destination.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA French Guiana 67

History

The original inhabitants of French Guiana

were Carib and Arawak Indians.

French traders settled there in the 1600s.

The French later brought African slaves

to work on sugar plantations. By the

mid-1800s France was sending prisoners

to the territory. French Guiana became a

department of France in 1946.

#More to explore

Rain Forest • South America

French Polynesia

French Polynesia is a group of about 130

islands in the southern Pacific Ocean. It

lies between South America and Australia.

French Polynesia is an overseas country

of France. It mostly rules itself, but

for some things it depends on the

French government. The capital of

French Polynesia is Papeete, on the

island of Tahiti.

Geography

French Polynesia is part of the region

calledOceania.Most of the islands are the

rugged tops of ancient volcanoes. Atolls

make up the rest of the land. They are

coral reefs surrounding a pool of water.

French Polynesia’s climate is tropical.

Sometimes the islands are hit by powerful

storms called typhoons. Rain forests

and coconut, breadfruit, and other fruit

trees grow on the islands.

People

Most of the people of French Polynesia

are Polynesian. They are descended from

the people who first settled the islands.

The rest of the population consists

mostly of French and Chinese. Most of

the people live in or around Papeete.

They speak Polynesian languages or

French. Most people are Christians.

Economy

Tourism is very important to French

Polynesia’s economy. Other industries

include fishing and raising shrimp and

oysters. Pearls, which are made by oysters,

are a valuable export.

History

Polynesians might have settled on the

islands as early as 200 BC. Europeans

started arriving in the 1700s. France

made Tahiti and some surrounding

islands into a colony in 1880. In 1946

France made French Polynesia an overseas

territory, which gave the islands

some power to rule themselves. In 2004

France gave French Polynesia more independence

and named it an overseas

country.

#More to explore

France • Oceania • Volcano

Volcanoes created Bora-Bora, an island in

French Polynesia.

68 French Polynesia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

French

Revolution

In 1789 the people of France began the

French Revolution. The revolution

brought down their king and made

France a republic—a country ruled by

the people. This republic did not last, but

France never returned to its old, unequal

form of society. The ideas of the French

Revolution spread to many other

countries.

Background

In the 1780s several groups in France

were pushing for change in society. One

of them was a new class of wealthy city

people called the bourgeoisie. They

wanted more power. Meanwhile, farmworkers

and other common people were

tired of working hard for the nobles, or

rich landowners. Many were angry

about paying taxes that nobles did not

have to pay. At the same time, French

thinkers called philosophers called for

new forms of society and government.

The French government was weak. It

had spent too much money on costly

wars. The most recent of its wars was the

American Revolution, in which France

had helped the colonists defeat the British.

King Louis XVI and Queen Marie-

Antoinette also spent a great deal of

money on themselves while the rest of

the country suffered.

Revolution Begins

To help him solve France’s problems,

Louis XVI called together the Estates-

General in May 1789. The Estates-

General was a group made up of

representatives from the three classes, or

estates, of French society: the church,

the nobles, and the commoners. In June

most of the commoners and some members

of the other groups broke away

from the Estates-General. They declared

that they were now a National Assembly

that represented the entire country.

On July 14 a crowd in Paris stormed an

old prison called the Bastille. The

crowd released the prisoners that the

government had held there. This event

is now considered the start of the

French Revolution.

A New Government

Other regions in France followed the

lead of Paris and formed revolutionary

There were many protests during

the French Revolution. In 1789 a

crowd marched to the royal palace

in Versailles, France. They

brought the royal family back to

Paris (the French capital) to face

the people’s demands.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA French Revolution 69

governments. Peasants in many places

burned the castles of the wealthy landowners.

After that some nobles willingly

gave up their privileges.

In August 1789 the National Assembly

approved the Declaration of the Rights

of Man and of the Citizen. This important

document stated that all people are

born free and have equal rights. The

National Assembly also made many

changes that would affect all the French

people. It said that peasants no longer

had to farm nobles’ land for no pay. The

Assembly also took property away from

the Roman Catholic church. Finally, it

gave most male citizens the right to vote.

At first the National Assembly let the

king remain on the throne. But in September

1792 France changed its form of

government from a kingdom to a republic.

In 1793 the revolutionaries put

Louis and Marie-Antoinette to death.

Reign of Terror

The French republic had a new assembly

called the National Convention. Soon

an extreme group called the Jacobins

took control of it. They feared that not

enough people supported the revolution.

They began a period called the Reign of

Terror.

The Jacobins arrested more than

300,000 people for being against the

revolution. They put at least 17,000

people to death. Many had their heads

cut off by a new machine called the guillotine.

Finally, in July 1794 other members

of the Convention arrested the

leaders of the Reign of Terror. They sent

these leaders to the guillotine.

Rise of Napoleon

In 1795 a less extreme government

called the Directory took power. However,

the Directory did not provide

strong leadership. In 1799 Napoleon

Bonaparte, a successful young general,

did away with the Directory. He made

himself the leader of a new government

called the Consulate.

Napoleon grew so powerful that in 1804

he declared himself Napoleon I,

emperor of France. Emperors and kings

then ruled France for most of the next

70 years. France finally became a republic

for good in 1871.

#More to explore

Bastille Day • France • Louis XVI

• Marie-Antoinette • Napoleon

Maximilien de Robespierre was

a leader during the Reign of Terror.

He was blamed for many of

the killings that took place. In

1794 Robespierre was arrested

and executed.

70 French Revolution BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Frog

Frogs are small animals that can jump

very well. Frogs are similar to toads.

However, a frog has smooth skin and

long legs. A toad has rough skin and

shorter legs.

Frogs are found throughout the world

except in very cold places. They are most

common in rain forests. Frogs are

amphibians, meaning that they can live

in water or on land. Most frogs spend

most of their lives in water. Some live in

underground holes or in trees.

A frog has smooth, moist skin and big,

bulging eyes. Its hind legs are more than

twice as long as its front ones. Most

frogs have webbed back feet to help

them leap and swim. Tree frogs have

sticky disks on the tips of their fingers

and toes. These disks help them climb

slippery surfaces.

Many frogs are tiny. They can be less

than an inch (2.5 centimeters) long. The

largest frogs are about a foot (30 centimeters)

long. Most frogs are green,

brown, gray, or yellow. Some are

brightly colored.

A frog catches prey by flicking out its

long, sticky tongue. Most frogs eat

insects and worms. Some also eat other

frogs, rodents, and reptiles.

Frogs have glands in their skin that

make poison. But this poison does not

protect them from snakes, birds, and

other enemies. Instead, frogs most often

protect themselves by blending in with

their surroundings.

Frogs usually lay their eggs in water.

Within a few weeks the eggs hatch into

tadpoles. Tadpoles are fishlike creatures

that breathe through gills instead of

lungs. To become an adult frog, a tadpole

loses its tail and develops lungs and

limbs.

#More to explore

Amphibian • Toad

The red-eyed tree frog is a

brightly colored frog that lives in

rain forests of Central and South

America.

The bullfrog is the largest North American

frog. It can be 8 inches (20 centimeters) long.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Frog 71

Fruit

A fruit is the part of a flowering plant

that contains the seeds. The skin of a

fruit may be thin, tough, or hard. Its

insides are often sweet and juicy. But

some fruits, including nuts, are dry.

Fruits develop from a plant’s flowers.

Some foods that people call vegetables

are actually fruits. For example, cucumbers,

squashes, and tomatoes are all

fruits. They contain seeds, while true

vegetables do not. True vegetables are

the stems, leaves, or roots of plants.

There are two main types of fruit:

fleshy fruits and dry fruits. In fleshy

fruits, the part of the fruit around the

seeds is juicy and soft. Apples, berries,

oranges, and other fleshy fruits contain

many seeds. Some fleshy fruits—for

example, cherries and peaches—contain

only one seed, or pit. These are called

stone fruits. Dry fruits are not as juicy

as fleshy fruits. Dry fruits include beans

and nuts.

People and many wild animals eat fresh

fruits. Fruits are important sources of

fiber and vitamins, especially vitamin C.

They contain minerals and a large

amount of water.

People also eat frozen, canned, and dried

fruits. They make fruits into jams and

jellies. They add fruits to a variety of

desserts and main dishes. People also

drink the juice of fruits.

#More to explore

Flower • Nut • Seed • Vegetable

Fuchsia

Fuchsias are flowering plants. They are

known for their brightly colored, hanging

flowers. Many people grow fuchsias

in gardens and window boxes. Hummingbirds

also like fuchsias.

Fuchsias can be found in Central

America, South America, Europe, and

Fruits are an important part of a healthy

diet. They contain fiber as well as many

minerals and vitamins.

Fuchsia plants are prized for

their drooping flowers.

72 Fruit BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the United States. They grow best in

sheltered areas. Fuchsias need to be kept

away from strong winds. They also need

to be protected from heat.

There are about 100 species, or kinds, of

fuchsia. They can be small plants,

shrubs, or trees. Fuchsia flowers can be

many colors, including white, red, pink,

and purple. The color fuchsia, a bright

reddish purple, got its name from these

plants. Fuchsias also come in many sizes.

Some are 6 inches (15 centimeters) tall.

Others grow to 18 feet (5.5 meters).

The main part of a fuchsia flower is

shaped like a tube or a bell. At the end

are four brightly colored petals. The

colors attract hummingbirds and insects.

These animals drink the flowers’ nectar,

which is a sweet liquid. When they do

this, pollen sticks to their bodies. The

animals then carry the pollen to other

flowers. This is how fuchsias reproduce,

or create new plants.

#More to explore

Flower • Pollen

Fuel

#see Fossil Fuel.

Fugitive Slave

Acts

In the United States before the American

CivilWar many people in the

Southern states owned slaves. The

Northern states did not allow slavery.

Slaves therefore often tried to escape

from the South to the North. To stop

this, Congress passed two laws called the

Fugitive Slave Acts, in 1793 and 1850.

The laws stated that escaped, or fugitive,

slaves must be returned to their owners.

These laws applied even if an escaped

slave was captured in a free state (state

with no slavery). The second act was so

harsh that it became a major problem

between the North and the South.

Fugitive Slave Act of 1793

The U.S. Constitution of 1789 stated

that escaped slaves had to be returned to

their owners. Congress passed the Fugitive

Slave Act of 1793 to enforce this

part of the Constitution. The act

allowed any slaveholder to capture a

suspected runaway slave and bring the

slave before a judge. The judge alone

then decided whether the slave was a

runaway.

A notice warned African Americans

in Boston, Massachusetts, a

city in the North, about the Fugitive

Slave Act of 1850.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fugitive Slave Acts 73

The act angered abolitionists, or people

who opposed slavery. Northern states

voted to give some legal rights to

escaped slaves. Abolitionists formed a

secret network called the Underground

Railroad to help slaves escape.

Fugitive Slave Act of 1850

Southern states soon demanded stronger

laws to protect slavery. In 1850 Congress

passed the second Fugitive Slave

Act. The new act set severe penalties for

anyone who helped a slave to escape.

The main effect of this act was to

strengthen the abolitionist movement.

Eventually the disagreement over slavery

led to the American CivilWar. During

the war, the government sometimes

enforced the Fugitive Slave Acts. In 1864

Congress finally did away with the acts.

#More to explore

Abolitionist Movement • American Civil

War • Slavery • Underground Railroad

Fuji, Mount

The highest mountain in Japan is

Mount Fuji, or Fujiyama. It rises to a

height of 12,388 feet (3,776 meters). A

volcano, Mount Fuji last erupted in

1707. It lies near the Pacific Ocean on

the island of Honshu. Tokyo, Japan’s

capital, lies 60 miles (100 kilometers) to

the east.

Many Japanese consider Mount Fuji to

be sacred. Its name means “everlasting

life.” Temples and shrines surround the

mountain. The Sengen (Asama) Shrine,

at the western foot, has been the main

shrine for worship of Mount Fuji since

the 800s. The city of Fujinomiya has

developed around the shrine.

Climbing Mount Fuji has long been a

religious practice. Today huge crowds

flock there, mostly during the climbing

season from July 1 to August 26. Cities

such as Fuji and Gotemba, at the foot of

the mountain, serve as bases for thousands

of climbers.

#More to explore

Japan • Mountain • Volcano

Mount Fuji is considered the sacred symbol

of Japan.

74 Fuji, Mount BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Funafuti Atoll

Funafuti Atoll is a group of about 30

small islands in the Pacific Ocean. They

are part of the country of Tuvalu. The

capital of Tuvalu, named Vaiaku, is on

one of the islands in Funafuti Atoll. The

islands are made of coral. They form a

ring around a pool of water.

About half the people of Tuvalu live on

Funafuti Atoll. Most of them make a

living by fishing and farming.

Great Britain took over all the islands of

Tuvalu in 1892. The United States built

military bases on Funafuti Atoll in 1943,

duringWorldWar II. Tuvalu became an

independent country in 1978. Vaiaku

became its center of government.

#More to explore

Coral • Tuvalu

Fungus

A fungus is a simple organism, or living

thing, that is neither a plant nor an animal.

When there is more than one fungus

they are called fungi. Some familiar

fungi are mushrooms, molds, mildews,

truffles, and yeasts.

Fungi are found all over the world. They

grow especially well in mild, moist

regions and in the tropics. Fungi can be

found in the water, soil, and air. Some

live on or inside plants and animals.

A fungus is usually a mass of threadlike

strands. A fungus usually reproduces by

forming tiny cells called spores. Some

fungi have a special part that makes

spores. This is usually the part of a fungus

that can be seen. For example, a

mushroom is the spore-producing part

of a fungus that is mostly underground.

Wind, water, and insects carry spores

away from the fungus that made them.

If a spore lands in a damp place, it can

grow into a new fungus.

A fungus grows by feeding on other

organisms. Most fungi feed on dead

plant and animal material. They are

called saprophytes. These fungi help the

environment by breaking down fallen

trees, animal droppings, and other dead

matter. But saprophytes can also ruin

foods such as bread, cheese, and fruits

and vegetables. Some saprophytes

destroy timber, textiles, paper, and

leather. Other fungi get their food from

living plants and animals. These fungi

are called parasites. Parasitic fungi often

sicken or kill the organisms they attack.

Some fungi are useful. Many mushrooms

and truffles can be eaten. Some

yeasts are used to bake bread. In addition,

penicillin and many other drugs

Bracket fungi sometimes look like shelves

growing on trees.

Some fungi

are so tiny that

they cannot be

seen with the

naked eye.

Others can be

quite large.

Some mushrooms

can be

10 inches (25

centimeters) in

diameter.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Fungus 75

called antibiotics come from fungi. Antibiotics

are used to treat certain infections

in people.

#More to explore

Antibiotic • Living Thing • Parasite

Fur Trade

The fur trade was a booming business in

North America from the 1500s through

the 1800s. When Europeans first settled

in North America, they traded with

Native Americans. The Native Americans

often gave the settlers animal furs

in exchange for weapons, metal goods,

and other supplies. The settlers then sold

many of the furs back to Europe. There,

wealthy people had a high demand for

furs. They used beaver, fox, mink, and

other types of fur for hats and clothing.

Eventually several fur-trading companies

in North America grew rich by selling

furs to Europe.

Two important figures in the early history

of fur trading were Pierre Esprit de

Radisson and Medart Chouart, sieur de

Groseilliers. These two Frenchmen

become successful fur traders in the

middle of the 1600s. This brought them

to the attention of King Charles II of

England. In 1670 King Charles set up

the Hudson’s Bay Company to trade for

fur in what is now Canada. He put

Radisson and Groseilliers in charge of

the company.

Over the next 150 years the successful

Hudson’s Bay Company faced many

competitors. One of these was the

NorthWest Company, set up by French

adventurers in 1783. In 1808 a German

American businessman named John

Jacob Astor opened the American Fur

Company. Sometimes the companies

traded with Native Americans for furs.

Sometimes they bought furs from white

men, called trappers.

Their search for furs led trappers to

explore large areas of the continent.

Because of their knowledge of the land

they were able to serve as guides for later

settlers.

North American fur-trading companies

supplied many furs into the 1900s. But

since then, furs have become much less

popular. Today many people think that

killing animals for their fur is wrong.

#More to explore

Americas, Exploration and Settlement of

the • Hudson’s Bay Company • Native

Americans

Native Americans traded furs for

supplies at places called trading

posts.

76 Fur Trade BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Geronimo was a warrior and

leader of the Apache Native

Americans.

(See Geronimo.)

Some giant sequoias are more

than 280 feet (85 meters) tall.

(See Giant Sequoia.)

The Strait of Gibraltar is a

waterway located between

Spain and Africa.

(See Gibraltar.)

Glaciers, or large areas of thick

ice, store about three fourths of

all the freshwater in the world.

(See Glacier.)

Silica, or sand, is the main

ingredient of glass.

(See Glass.)

Gymnasts compete in three

types of gymnastic events at

the Summer Olympics.

(See Gymnastics.)

Gg

Gabon

The small nation of Gabon is one of the

richest countries in Africa, thanks to its

large petroleum (oil) deposits. Gabon’s

capital and largest city is Libreville.

Geography

Gabon lies along the equator on Africa’s

west coast. It is bordered by Equatorial

Guinea, Cameroon, the Republic of the

Congo, and the Atlantic Ocean. A lowlying

plain along the coast rises to plateaus

and mountains in the interior. The

Ogooue River flows through the center

of Gabon. The weather is hot and

humid.

Plants and Animals

Dense rain forests cover much of

Gabon. Its wild animals include antelope,

monkeys, gorillas, and elephants.

People

There are more than 40 ethnic groups in

Gabon. The Fang people form the largest

group. Small groups of Pygmies live

in the rain forests. The people of Gabon

speak many different Bantu languages,

but French is the official language. The

majority of the population is Christian.

Economy

Gabon’s economy is based on its natural

resources, especially petroleum. Gabon

also produces wood products and the

metal manganese. Most farmers grow

enough to feed only their families.

Crops include plantains and sugarcane.

History

Pygmies and Bantu-speaking peoples

lived in Gabon when Portuguese explorers

arrived in 1472. The Portuguese and

other Europeans used the coast for the

slave trade. In 1849 France established

Libreville (meaning “free town”) as a

settlement for freed slaves. In 1886

Gabon became a French colony. Gabon

gained independence in 1960.

..More to explore

Libreville • Petroleum

Gabon has created a number of parks and

reserves to protect its rain forests.

Facts About

GABON

Population

(2008 estimate)

1,486,000

Area

103,347 sq mi

(267,667 sq km)

Capital

Libreville

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Libreville, Port-

Gentil,

Franceville,

Oyem, Moanda

78 Gabon BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Gaborone

Population

(2004 estimate)

199,600

Gaborone is the capital of Botswana, a

country in southern Africa. It is the largest

city in Botswana. Gaborone is also

the country’s center of education, business,

and banking. The city’s economy is

based on services and trade. Several businesses

in Gaborone deal with diamonds.

Gaborone is a fairly new city. The British

built a fort near the city site in 1887.

At that time Great Britain controlled the

Botswana area. The area was then called

Bechuanaland. In 1964 a city was built

near the fort to be the new capital of

Bechuanaland. Bechuanaland became

the independent country of Botswana in

1966. Gaborone was its capital. The

city’s population grew rapidly in the late

20th century.

..More to explore

Botswana

Gadsden

Purchase

In 1853 the United States bought a large

piece of land from Mexico. That sale is

known as the Gadsden Purchase. It

moved the border between the two

countries south, to where it lies today.

The Gadsden Purchase is named for

James Gadsden, a U.S. businessman

who helped to bring about the purchase.

Background

At the end of the MexicanWar in 1848,

the United States took more than

525,000 square miles (1,360,000 square

kilometers) of land from Mexico. That

land later became the states of California,

Colorado, Nevada, Texas, and Utah.

The land also included the northern

parts of what are now Arizona and New

Mexico.

At that time, James Gadsden was president

of the South Carolina Railroad

Company. He wanted to create the first

transcontinental railroad—a railroad

across the entire continent. He believed

the best route for this new railroad was

through part of northern Mexico. U.S.

president Franklin Pierce agreed with

Gadsden’s idea. Pierce sent Gadsden to

Mexico to buy land for the railroad.

A worker’s hands sort rough diamonds in

Gaborone, Botswana. Diamonds are

Botswana’s most valuable product.

Completed in

1869, the first

transcontinental

railroad went

through the

Rocky Mountains,

not

across the

land Gadsden

had purchased.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gadsden Purchase 79

The Purchase

Gadsden met with Mexico’s president,

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, in 1853.

Mexico badly needed money, so Santa

Anna agreed to sell the land that Gadsden

wanted. The United States paid 10

million dollars for almost 30,000 square

miles (78,000 square kilometers) of

land. The land would become the southern

parts of Arizona and New Mexico.

#More to explore

MexicanWar • Railroad

Galapagos

Islands

The Galapagos Islands are famous

because of the scientist Charles Darwin.

After studying the plants and animals on

the islands in the 1800s, Darwin developed

his theory of evolution. The theory

explains how living things change over

time. It changed the science of biology

forever. Darwin was not the first person

to see the Galapagos Islands, but they

were not a common destination before

his visit. They are so far from other land

that they are sometimes called “world’s

end.”

The Galapagos consist of 13 major

islands, 6 smaller islands, and many very

small islands called islets. They lie along

the equator in the eastern Pacific Ocean,

600 miles (1,000 kilometers) west of

Ecuador.

The Galapagos were formed by volcanoes.

Some of the volcanoes are still

active. The landscape includes many

mountains, craters, and cliffs. The

islands receive little rainfall, and temperatures

are fairly low.

Because the Galapagos are so isolated,

the plants and animals found there are

very unusual. Cactus forests grow in the

dry lowlands, while the uplands are covered

with thick, moist vegetation, such

as ferns and mosses. Giant tortoises were

once so abundant that Spanish explorers

named the islands for them. The Spanish

word galapago means “tortoise.” The

islands also have rare marine iguanas.

The United States issued a postage stamp

100 years after the Gadsden Purchase. The

stamp honored the pioneers who settled on

the land that was purchased from Mexico.

80 Galapagos Islands BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Galapagos Islands belong to Ecuador,

and most of the people living there

are Ecuadorans. They live on the larger

islands. Many of the islands have no

people. The island of Baltra has a military

base. Tourism, fishing, and agriculture

are the main parts of the economy.

#More to explore

Darwin, Charles • Ecuador • Evolution

Galaxy

A galaxy is a group of stars, clouds of

gas, and dust particles that move

together through the universe. There are

billions of galaxies in the universe. They

probably formed billions of years ago,

soon after the universe began.

The sun, Earth, and the other planets of

the solar system are part of the Milky

Way galaxy. Most galaxies move through

the universe as part of clusters, or

groups, of galaxies. The MilkyWay is at

one end of a cluster called the Local

Group. It includes about 40 galaxies.

Size

Even the smaller galaxies are made up of

millions of stars. These galaxies may be

5,000 light-years across. (A light-year is

the distance light travels in a year—

about 5.8 trillion miles, or 9.5 trillion

kilometers.) The MilkyWay is roughly

20 times larger than that. It includes

hundreds of billions of stars. The largest

galaxies are even more huge and contain

trillions of stars.

Shape

Galaxies are divided into three main

categories based on their shape: spiral,

elliptical, and irregular. Spiral galaxies

look like pinwheels. They have a central

disk and two or more curved arms winding

outward. The disk consists mainly of

older stars, while the arms have younger

stars. The arms contain much dust and

gas, from which new stars can form. The

MilkyWay is a spiral galaxy.

An elliptical galaxy may be shaped like a

round ball or may be more stretched

out, like an American football. It has

more stars near its center and fewer stars

Isabela Island is the largest of the Galapagos

Islands. Giant tortoises can be found

there.

The Whirlpool Galaxy is a large spiral galaxy.

To the right is a smaller galaxy.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Galaxy 81

in its outer regions. Elliptical galaxies

vary widely in size. Small elliptical galaxies

are the most common kind of galaxy

in the universe.

Unusually shaped galaxies are called

irregular galaxies. They are not very

common. Many of them have no obvious

center point. Some of them appear

to be the result of a crash between several

galaxies.

#More to explore

MilkyWay • Star • Universe

Galileo

Galileo has been called the founder of

modern science. He was one of the first

people to examine the heavens with a

telescope. He also made breakthrough

discoveries in the study of motion.

Galileo Galilei, who is generally known

by his first name, was born in Pisa, Italy,

on February 15, 1564. He entered the

University of Pisa to study medicine but

later switched to mathematics.

EarlyWork

Galileo was interested in studying the

effect of forces on the motion of bodies.

In the Cathedral of Pisa he observed a

chandelier swaying back and forth. He

realized that it took the same time for

each swing, whether the swings were

large or small. This discovery became

known as the law of the pendulum. It

led to the use of the pendulum to keep

track of time.

Use of the Telescope

In about 1609 Galileo learned of the

invention of the telescope in the Netherlands.

He later built his own version.

The telescope allowed Galileo to make

discoveries about space. On January 7,

1610, he discovered four moons revolving

around the planet Jupiter. In his

honor, these bodies are known as the

Galilean satellites.

Discoveries Galileo made provided evidence

that the sun is the center of the

solar system. Nicolaus Copernicus,

another famous astronomer, had put

forth this theory in 1530.

Punishment and Death

Galileo’s studies brought him into conflict

with the Roman Catholic church.

The church still taught that Earth was

the center of the universe. Galileo was

ordered not to teach or defend the ideas

of Copernicus. He continued to do so,

however.

In 1633 Galileo was brought before the

Inquisition, a Roman Catholic institu-

Galileo tion that held power then. He was pun-

82 Galileo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ished by being told he could not leave

his house.

Galileo became blind in 1637 but continued

to work. He died on January 8,

1642.

#More to explore

Pendulum • Telescope

Gama, Vasco da

The Portuguese navigator Vasco da

Gama made three sea voyages to India

between 1497 and 1524. His voyages

opened a sea route fromWestern Europe

to the East and made Portugal a world

power.

Early Life

Little is known about Vasco da Gama’s

early life. He was born in the Alentejo

province in southwestern Portugal in

about 1460. His father, Estevao da

Gama, was the commander of a fortress

there. Vasco’s studies probably included

mathematics and navigation.

Voyages

In 1495 the Portuguese king asked da

Gama to lead an expedition eastward to

India. In da Gama’s time, Europeans

wanted many goods from the East, particularly

spices. Muslim traders controlled

the land routes to the East. The

Portuguese and Spanish monarchs knew

that if they could control another trade

route to the East, they would gain great

wealth and power. They were eager to

find a sea route to India. Another Portuguese

explorer, Bartolomeu Dias, had

earlier discovered that there was a passage

around the bottom of Africa called

the Cape of Good Hope. But he had not

made it to India.

Da Gama made three voyages to India.

On the first voyage, from 1497 to 1499,

he and his fleet reached Calicut, an

important trading center in southern

India. However, da Gama was unable to

make a trade agreement with the ruler of

the city. Da Gama returned to Portugal

with samples of spices and precious

stones.

On his second trip, in 1502–03, da

Gama returned to Calicut but also went

on to Cochin, where he made an agreement

with the ruler of that city. In 1524

da Gama was sent back to India as the

Portuguese viceroy, or governor. His task

was to improve the administration of the

Portuguese colony at Goa, on the west

coast of India. Da Gama reached Goa in

September 1524. He soon fell ill, possibly

because of overwork. Da Gama died

in Cochin on December 24, 1524.

On his first trip

to India, da

Gama

offended

Calicut’s ruler

by offering

him trade

goods of poor

quality.

Vasco da Gama

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gama, Vasco da 83

Gambia, The

The Gambia is the smallest selfgoverning

country in Africa. It is located

on the continent’s west coast. The capital

is Banjul.

Geography

The Gambia is a narrow strip of land. It

is 295 miles (475 kilometers) long but

only 15 to 30 miles (24 to 48 kilometers)

wide. Except for a short coastline

on the Atlantic Ocean, The Gambia is

surrounded by Senegal. The Gambia

River flows westward through the country

into the Atlantic. The Gambia has

warm weather and a long dry season.

Plants and Animals

Savanna, or grassland with scattered

trees, covers most of the country. Mangroves,

oil palms, cedars, mahogany

trees, and rubber vines grow near the

river. The Gambia is home to leopards,

wild boars, monkeys, antelope, crocodiles,

and hippopotamuses.

People

The Malinke (or Mandingo) people

make up more than one third of the

population. The Fulani, theWolof, the

Diola, and the Soninke are other important

ethnic groups. The official language

is English, butWolof and Mandingo are

widely spoken. Nearly all the people are

Muslims. Most people live in rural areas.

Economy

The majority of Gambians are farmers

who grow food for themselves. Crops

include millet, peanuts, rice, corn, sorghum,

and vegetables. The Gambia’s

most important export is peanuts. Tourism

and shipping also contribute greatly

to the economy.

History

The Malinke and theWolof developed

kingdoms in the region before the Portuguese

arrived in the mid-1400s. Great

Britain took control in the late 1700s.

The region was a major source of slaves

until the early 1800s.

The Gambia gained independence in

1965. From 1982 to 1989 The Gambia

and Senegal were united as the confederation

of Senegambia. In 1994 the military

overthrew The Gambia’s

government, but presidential elections

resumed two years later.

..More to explore

Banjul • Senegal

Facts About

THE GAMBIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

1,754,000

Area

4,127 sq mi

(10,689 sq km)

Capital

Banjul

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Kanifing,

Brikama, Banjul

84 Gambia, The BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Gandhi, Indira

As a child Indira Gandhi had an interest

in politics. These early years foretold her

future. As an adult Gandhi became the

prime minister, or leader, of India.

Early Life

Indira Nehru was born on November

19, 1917, in Allahabad, India. At that

time Great Britain ruled India. Many

Indians disliked this rule by outsiders

and fought against it. They created a

political party called the Indian National

Congress.

Children also joined the fight for independence.

They formed their own organization:

the Monkey Brigade. At only

12 years old Indira became the leader of

the Monkey Brigade. As she grew up

Indira stayed active in politics. She

joined the Indian National Congress.

She married Feroze Gandhi, a journalist,

in 1942.

Career

In 1947 India won independence from

Great Britain. Indira Gandhi’s father,

Jawaharlal Nehru, became prime minister.

Gandhi worked closely with her

father. She became president of the

Indian National Congress in 1959.

In 1967 Gandhi was elected prime minister

of India. She served until 1977,

when she lost a national election. But in

1980 she became prime minister again.

By that time some followers of the Sikh

religion had begun to fight for complete

independence from the Indian government.

Gandhi considered these Sikhs

terrorists. In June 1984 she ordered an

attack on the Golden Temple, the Sikhs’

holiest place. More than 450 Sikhs died.

On October 31, 1984, two Sikhs got

revenge. While working as Gandhi’s

bodyguards, the Sikhs assassinated Gandhi

in her garden.

#More to explore

India • Nehru, Jawaharlal • Sikhism

Gandhi,

Mahatma

Mohandas Gandhi was a leader of

India’s independence movement. When

India was a colony of Great Britain,

Gandhi used nonviolent methods to

protest against British rule. His efforts

earned him the title Mahatma.

Mahatma means “great soul.”

Before

becoming

prime minister,

Gandhi served

as the minister

of information

and broadcasting,

an

important job

in Indian

government.

Indira Gandhi addresses a crowd in Delhi,

India, in 1971.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gandhi, Mahatma 85

Early Life

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was

born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar,

India. In his youth he learned the religions

of Hinduism and Jainism. Nonviolence

is one of Jainism’s main ideas.

Politics in South Africa

In 1893 Gandhi took a job in South

Africa. At the time it was also a British

colony. There he saw Europeans mistreating

Indian settlers. He got into politics

to fight for Indian rights.

Gandhi first used his method of nonviolent

protest in 1906. He told Indians

that they should not obey the British

laws that they thought were wrong. He

also said they should stay peaceful no

matter how they were punished for their

actions.

Protests in India

Gandhi returned to India in 1915.

Within a few years he became India’s

most powerful political leader. He led

several major protests against the British.

He was sometimes jailed for his actions.

Independence

India won its independence in 1947. It

was a great victory for Gandhi. But he

was disappointed because Hindus and

Muslims fought each other. He tried to

make peace. On January 30, 1948, in

the city of Delhi, Gandhi was shot and

killed by a Hindu man.

#More to explore

India

Ganges River

Followers of Hinduism believe that

dying on the banks of the Ganges River

and having one’s ashes cast on its waters

is the way to a happy afterlife. One of

the world’s great rivers, the Ganges flows

across the plains of northern India for

most of its course. In India the river is

called the Ganga.

The Ganges is 1,560 miles (2,510 kilometers)

long. It begins in the southern

Himalayas, near India’s border with the

Chinese region of Tibet. After emerging

from the mountains, the river flows onto

the plains. Midway in its course, the

Mahatma Gandhi shares a laugh with his

granddaughters.

86 Ganges River BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ganges merges with the Yamuna River.

It then flows into Bangladesh, where it is

joined by the mighty Brahmaputra

River. The combined stream empties

into the Bay of Bengal.

Hindus make religious pilgrimages to

many places along the Ganges. They

believe that bathing in its waters washes

away sin. Hindus also have built many

temples for cremating, or burning, the

dead along the Ganges. They scatter the

ashes on the river, believing that the

dead will go straight to heaven.

Water from the Ganges has been used

for irrigation for more than 2,000 years.

Rice and other crops grown in the

Ganges region feed most of India and

Bangladesh.

#More to explore

Delta • Hinduism • India • Irrigation

• Pilgrimage

Garden

People have been growing plants in special

areas of land, called gardens, since

ancient times. Early gardens led to the

many different kinds of gardens that

people enjoy today.

Types of Gardens

The first gardens had useful purposes.

They provided food and herbs. Herbs

are plants that are used as medicines or

for adding flavor to food. Vegetable and

herb gardens remain popular today for

the same reasons.

People grow flower gardens, such as rose

gardens, for their beauty. Cottage gardens

are a well-known kind of flower

garden, especially in England. They have

showy flowers bunched tightly together.

An indoor garden is called a conservatory.

Gardens can be large areas set aside

by a city or they can be a small plot in a

backyard.

Botanical gardens are large gardens that

are usually open to the public. Botanists,

A path of purple flowers blooms between

rows of trees at Keukenhof Gardens near

Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

A mother and a daughter work in their garden.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Garden 87

or scientists who study plants, help to

grow botanical gardens. These gardens

are organized in a scientific way. Groups

of plants from similar climates grow in

different sections of a botanical garden.

History

People began growing plants about

10,000 years ago. This was the earliest

form of agriculture, or growing plants

for food and other uses. People in

ancient China, Egypt, and the Middle

East later grew gardens for their beauty.

In the 1600s the Dutch sold many tulip

bulbs to Europeans who wanted to grow

the flowers in their gardens. Today’s

gardens may contain plants from almost

anywhere in the world.

#More to explore

Agriculture • Flower • Herb

Garfield, James

A.

James A. Garfield, the 20th president of

the United States, held office for less

than a year. Garfield was shot four

months after taking office and died

slightly more than two months later, in

September 1881.

Early Life and Career

James Abram Garfield was born in a log

cabin near Orange, Ohio, on November

19, 1831. He grew up on his family’s

farm. Garfield graduated fromWilliams

College in Massachusetts in 1856. In

1858 Garfield married Lucretia

Rudolph. They had seven children.

Military and Political Career

After studying law and becoming a minister,

Garfield turned to politics. He

joined the Republican Party and was

elected to the Ohio legislature in 1859.

When the American CivilWar started in

1861, Garfield fought in several battles

for the North. In 1862 Ohio elected

Garfield to the U.S. House of Representatives.

Serving until 1880, Garfield

supported strict policies toward the

defeated South. In 1880 the Ohio legislature

elected him to the U.S. Senate.

That year Republicans chose Garfield to

run for president. He defeated General

Winfield Scott Hancock, another Civil

War veteran.

Presidency

President Garfield soon angered the

conservative Republicans known as the

Stalwarts. The leader of the Stalwarts,

Senator Roscoe Conkling, gave out gov-

James A. Garfield

Tulips became

so popular in

Europe in the

1600s that the

price of some

bulbs rose to

thousands of

dollars each.

88 Garfield, James A. BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ernment jobs as rewards. Garfield

wanted more control over that process.

When he gave a job to one of Conkling’s

enemies, Conkling resigned from

the Senate. Garfield’s actions strengthened

the power of the presidency.

A Stalwart supporter, Charles J. Guiteau,

became angry when Garfield

refused to give him a job. On July 2,

1881, Guiteau shot Garfield in the back

at a railroad station inWashington,

D.C. The president lay ill for 80 days

before dying on September 19, 1881, in

New Jersey. Vice President Chester A.

Arthur became president the next day.

#More to explore

American CivilWar • Arthur, Chester A.

• United States

Gargoyle

Gargoyles are waterspouts set high on a

building that direct rainwater away from

the building’s walls. Most gargoyles are

carved from a block of solid stone. They

are made to look like animals, monsters,

laughing or scowling humans, dragons,

or demons. A channel, or groove, cut

along the top of the statue directs rainwater

away from the building through

November 19, May July 2, September 19,

1831 1861–63 1862 1880 1881 1881 1881

Garfield is

born near

Orange, Ohio.

Garfield fights

for the North in

the American

Civil War.

Garfield is

elected to the

U.S. House of

Representatives.

Garfield is

elected

president.

Senator

Roscoe

Conkling

resigns.

Garfield is shot

in the back.

Garfield dies.

T I M E L I N E

Gargoyles sit on top of Notre Dame Cathedral

in Paris, France.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gargoyle 89

the gargoyle’s open mouth and onto the

streets below. Today people often call

any stone carving of a strange creature a

gargoyle. However, if such carvings are

not waterspouts they are not technically

gargoyles.

Gargoyles have been used for more than

2,000 years. They were most popular in

parts of Europe during the later Middle

Ages, from about AD 1000 to 1500.

During that time the largest and most

important building in any town was the

church or cathedral. Those buildings

were costly to build. Rainwater running

down the walls would eventually ruin

the building. Therefore, workers carved

decorative statues to act as waterspouts.

At the end of the Middle Ages people

began using lead drainpipes, so true

gargoyles became less common.

#More to explore

Cathedral • Middle Ages

Garlic

Garlic is a plant that is closely related to

the onion. Its bulbs are a very popular

cooking ingredient. The garlic plant

belongs to the lily family. Its scientific

name is Allium sativum.

Garlic first grew in central Asia. Today it

also grows wild in Italy and southern

France. In the United States garlic is

grown mostly in California.

There are dozens of varieties of the garlic

plant. The top of the stalk usually produces

flowers and bulblets, or tiny bulbs.

The useful garlic bulbs are in the soil.

Each bulb contains up to 20 sections,

called cloves. The cloves are covered by a

thin, papery skin. The garlic plant does

not produce seeds. New plants grow

from planted bulblets or cloves.

Garlic has a powerful, onionlike smell

and a strong taste. Peeled cloves may be

chopped up or crushed to flavor sauces,

stews, and salad dressings. Since ancient

times garlic has also been used in medicine.

In addition, people once carried

garlic as a charm to keep away vampires

and other supposed evils.

#More to explore

Lily • Onion

Garvey, Marcus

Marcus Garvey was a black leader of the

early 1900s. He encouraged blacks to be

proud of their African heritage. His goal

was to start a new black country in

Carvings of

strange creatures

that are

not waterspouts

are

called grotesques,

not

gargoyles.

The useful part of a garlic plant

is the bulb that grows underground.

90 Garlic BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Africa. Garvey had so many followers

that he was known as the Black Moses.

Marcus Moziah Garvey was born on

August 17, 1887, in Saint Ann’s Bay,

Jamaica. As a young man he worked to

improve conditions for black workers in

Jamaica and elsewhere. In 1912 he

moved to London, England. There he

met blacks from many countries. He

became very interested in African history

and culture.

Garvey returned to Jamaica in 1914. He

founded a group known as the Universal

Negro Improvement Association

(UNIA). In 1916 Garvey went to the

United States to start UNIA offices

there.

Garvey taught that blacks would be

respected only when they were successful

in business. He started a newspaper and

several companies. He also promised to

create a black-governed country in

Africa. At that time European countries

ruled nearly all of Africa as colonies.

In the early 1920s Garvey was found

guilty of fraud (cheating people out of

money). He lost many of his supporters

and spent two years in jail. After being

released in 1927, Garvey was forced to

leave the United States. Garvey died in

London on June 10, 1940.

#More to explore

Jamaica

Gas, Natural

Many stoves and home furnaces burn a

fuel called natural gas. Natural gas is

really a mixture of several different gases

that formed slowly beneath Earth’s surface.

How Natural Gas Formed

Natural gas often formed along with

petroleum (oil) hundreds of millions of

years ago. As plants and tiny animals

died, their remains built up in many

layers. Underground pressure and heat

gradually changed the remains into gas

and petroleum.

Types of Gas

The gases that make up natural gas

include methane, ethane, propane,

butane, and other substances. Because

these gases burn very easily, they are

valuable as fuels.

Gas may also be made from coal and

petroleum. This type of gas is called

manufactured gas.

Marcus Garvey was named

Jamaica’s first national hero in

1964.

Russia has the

largest group

of natural gas

reservoirs in

the world.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gas, Natural 91

Mining and Transportation

Natural gas may be trapped in an underground

pocket, or reservoir, above a

deposit of petroleum. Natural gas may

also be trapped in its own reservoir.

To get natural gas out of the ground,

workers drill a well into the gas reservoir.

The gas rises through a pipe to the surface.

Special equipment then purifies, or

cleans, the gas.

The clean gas may be stored underground

or sent through pipelines to

where it is needed. Gas pipelines can be

hundreds of miles long. Natural gas may

also be cooled into a liquid form and

then shipped in tanks.

#More to explore

Fossil Fuel • Petroleum

Gecko

Geckos are small lizards known for their

incredible climbing ability. There are

about 750 species, or kinds, of gecko.

They live in warm areas of the world in

a variety of habitats, from rain forests to

deserts.

Geckos are among the world’s smallest

lizards. Most species are 1 to 6 inches (3

to 15 centimeters) long, including the

tail. Geckos have a short, stout body and

soft skin. Most are gray, brown, or dirty

white, but a few kinds are green.

A gecko can climb very well because of

the way its feet are designed. Each of its

toes has thousands of tiny hairs on the

bottom. At the end of each hair are hundreds

of even tinier pads. As a gecko

climbs, these pads spread out to create a

strong sticking power. They allow a

gecko to climb up polished glass walls

and even run across ceilings.

Geckos usually are active at night, when

they feed on insects. Unlike other rep-

A pumping station in Russia moves natural

gas through a pipeline.

Geckos are great climbers

because their feet stick to many

surfaces.

92 Gecko BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tiles, most geckos have a voice. Their

sounds range from soft clicks or chirps

to sharp cackles or barks.

#More to explore

Lizard • Reptile

Gems

#see Jewelry and Gems.

Genetics

Genetics is the study of heredity, or how

certain features pass from parents to their

offspring, or young. Every kind of plant

and animal produces young of its own

species, or type. The young resemble

their parents. But offspring are not

usually exactly the same as their parents.

For example, their hair color or height

may be different. Genetics explains how

offspring get some of their parents’

features, or traits, but not others.

Genes, Chromosomes, and

Reproduction

Genes are the basic units of heredity.

They carry information about a living

thing, including its traits. Genes exist

inside the cells that make up living

things. Threadlike structures called chromosomes

carry the genes. Each chromosome

is made up mainly of a substance

called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.

The genes are short sections of DNA.

In human beings most cells have 23

pairs of chromosomes, or 46 in all. The

sex cells—sperm cells and egg cells—

each have only one set of 23 chromosomes.

This is because of the way

reproduction works. Every human baby

begins as an egg cell from the mother.

First, though, a sperm cell from the

father must enter the egg. When this

happens, the sperm’s chromosomes

unite with the chromosomes from the

egg. Together they form 23 pairs of

chromosomes. The egg then begins to

divide over and over to grow into a baby.

As the baby grows, each of its cells gets a

copy of the original chromosomes.

A Boy or a Girl?

One pair of chromosomes in a baby

causes it to be a boy or a girl. This pair

consists of chromosomes labeled X or Y.

Sperm cells have either an X or a Y chromosome.

But an egg cell always has an X

chromosome. Therefore, when a sperm

unites with an egg, the new cell has

either one X and one Y chromosome or

two X chromosomes. A cell with one X

and one Y chromosome produces a boy.

A cell with two X chromosomes produces

a girl.

If a sperm with an X chromosome unites

with an egg cell, the result is a baby girl. If

a sperm carrying a Y chromosome unites

with an egg cell, the result is a baby boy.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Genetics 93

How Traits Are Inherited

A baby’s chromosomes carry a set of

genes from the father and another set

from the mother. These genes work

together to produce the baby’s traits.

Each gene has a special task—for

example, giving color to the baby’s eyes.

Some genes are dominant, or stronger

than others. A child may get a browneye

gene from the father and a blue-eye

gene from the mother. Because the

brown-eye gene is dominant, it takes

over the job of coloring the child’s eyes.

A child has blue eyes only if he or she

receives two blue-eye genes, one from

each parent.

Children of the same parents can end up

with different traits. This is because each

parent carries two genes for every task

but gives each child only one of these.

The father, for example, may have one

gene for brown eyes and one gene for

blue eyes. His first child may get the

brown-eye gene. His second child may

get the blue-eye gene.

There are two kinds of twins: identical

twins and fraternal twins. Identical twins

have exactly the same traits because they

have exactly the same genes. Identical

twins form from one egg that has united

with a sperm. This egg splits in half, and

each half grows into a separate baby.

Fraternal twins have different sets of

genes. This is because they form from

two separate eggs that united with two

different sperm.

Genetic Problems

Sometimes a gene does not work as it

should, or it works in a harmful way.

The result may be a defect in a part of

the body or a disease. A condition called

albinism is an example. It occurs when

the gene that controls the body’s production

of coloring substances does not

work properly. People with this condition

are born without color in their eyes,

hair, or skin. Muscular dystrophy is a

disease caused by a defective gene. The

disease causes the muscles to weaken

over time.

Every human has two genes to control traits

such as eye color. They get one gene from

each parent. This is how traits get passed

from one generation to the next.

Identical twins can be hard to tell apart.

94 Genetics BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

History of Genetics

In the 1850s and 1860s an Austrian

monk named Gregor Mendel studied

pea plants in his garden. He found that

there were rules for how traits passed

from one generation of pea plants to the

next. The rules are the same for every

plant and animal. During his lifetime no

one understood how important these

findings were.

In 1900 people rediscovered Mendel’s

work. From then on, the new science of

genetics grew rapidly. In 1953 James

Watson of the United States and Francis

Crick of England discovered the structure

of DNA. Their studies helped scientists

understand how genes work and

how they make copies of themselves.

By the mid-1970s, scientists had learned

how to locate, remove, and insert specific

genes in DNA. This work is called

genetic engineering. By the 1990s scientists

could clone animals, or produce

animals that have exactly the same DNA

as another animal. In 1996 researchers

in Scotland produced the first clone of

an adult mammal—a sheep. Some scientists

worked toward cloning human

beings. But others saw this work as dangerous

and wrong.

In 2003 a team of researchers finished a

project to identify and locate all the

genes in all human DNA. The results

will help scientists in the study of

human biology and medicine.

#More to explore

Chromosome • DNA • Evolution

Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan was a conqueror who

brought together the wandering peoples

of central Asia more than 800 years ago.

He made their lands into the state of

Mongolia. Then he took his armies

beyond Mongolia. They built up a huge

empire. They also killed many people

and destroyed many cities.

Genghis Khan was born in about 1162

in northern Mongolia. His name at first

was Temujin. At that time Mongolia was

home to a number of related, but separate,

peoples called Mongols. Temujin’s

father was Yesugei, the chief of one

Mongol group. When Temujin was 9

years old, his father was killed by

enemies from another Mongol group,

the Tatars. Temujin then became chief.

Though he was young, Temujin won

many followers.

Genghis Khan

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Genghis Khan 95

Temujin gradually built up a large army.

He used it to conquer neighboring

groups, including theTatars.He unified

those groups into a singleMongol nation.

In 1206 the people named him Genghis

Khan, which means “universal ruler.”

Genghis Khan then set out to conquer

other lands. First he invaded northern

China. In less than 10 years he and his

generals took over most of China. Genghis

Khan next conquered the land that

now makes up Turkmenistan and

Uzbekistan. His generals raided Iran and

Russia.

Genghis Khan began his last battle

against China in 1226. He died on

August 18, 1227. Mongols then controlled

land from the China Sea to the

European part of Russia. Genghis

Khan’s sons and grandsons expanded

the Mongol Empire even more.

#More to explore

Mongol Empire • Mongolia

Geography

Geography is a science that deals with

Earth’s surface. People who study geography

are called geographers. Geographers

are interested in Earth’s physical

features, such as mountains, deserts,

rivers, and oceans. They are also interested

in the ways that people affect and

are affected by the natural world.

Branches of Geography

Geography can be divided into two

branches: physical geography and

human geography. Physical geographers

observe, measure, and describe Earth’s

surface. They study how landforms

develop and how they change. They

look at how different landforms affect

climate. They also study how people

change the land through such activities

as building cities, digging mines, and

clearing forests.

Human geography focuses on where

people live, what they do, and how they

use the land. Human geographers might

study why cities and towns develop in

certain places. Others study the cultures

of different peoples, including their customs,

languages, and religions.

How GeographersWork

Geographers use a number of methods

and tools in their work. The simplest

method is going out to a place to

observe and gather information. This is

called fieldwork. Geographers use photographs

taken from the air to see things

that they cannot see from the ground.

They also depend on spacecraft called

satellites to take photographs and collect

information from far above Earth.

A map is a helpful tool in the study of geography.

Temujin was

named after

an enemy his

father had

defeated.

96 Geography BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Geographers use computers to help

them make sense of the information

they receive.

The main tool used by geographers is

the map. People who make maps are

called cartographers. Geographers use

maps to display the information they

have gathered. Topographic maps show

natural land formations, such as the

huge landmasses called continents.

Geographers also use maps to show how

people have divided the land. Political

maps show the boundaries of countries

and other divisions.

#More to explore

Climate • Continent • Earth • Map and

Globe

Geology

Geology is the study of the physical

features and history of Earth. Scientists

who work in geology are called

geologists.

Geology is an important science for

many reasons. It answers questions

about how Earth came to have its

present shape and form. It is useful for

finding important materials in Earth’s

crust, such as oil. Geology is also helpful

for predicting earthquakes and other

natural hazards.

Branches of Geology

Geologists work in many different

branches of geology. Some geologists

study rocks and minerals and how they

formed. Some study the structure of

Earth and the different forces and

actions inside it. Some study how landforms,

such as mountains, on Earth’s

surface develop and change. Some

geologists, called paleontologists, study

fossils. (Fossils are the traces of prehistoric

plants and animals.) Still other

geologists work out how humans can use

Earth’s resources without harming the

environment.

Geologic Time

Most geologists agree that Earth started

forming about 4.6 billion years ago.

After about 700 million years it had

developed a solid crust. Geologists use

the words geologic time to describe the

vast amount of time that has passed

since then. They divide this time into

three broad periods, called eons. The

two oldest eons are part of what is called

Precambrian time. The third eon, which

includes present time, is called the Phanerozoic

eon. It is divided into three periods

called eras—the Paleozoic, Mesozoic,

and Cenozoic eras.

Geologists learn about these different

periods by studying the many layers of

rock in Earth’s crust. The deepest layers

Geologists set up equipment at Mount Saint

Helens in Washington State.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Geology 97

are the oldest. More recent layers are

closer to the surface. Each layer contains

unique types of rocks and fossils. These

give geologists many clues about Earth’s

history.

#More to explore

Earth • Fossil • Mineral • Prehistoric

Life • Rock

Geometry

Geometry is a kind of mathematics that

deals with shapes and figures. Geometry

explains how to build or draw shapes,

measure them, and compare them.

People use geometry in many kinds of

work, from building houses and bridges

to planning space travel.

Points, Lines, and Angles

Points, lines, and angles are basic terms

of geometry. A point is an object that

has no length or width. It is usually represented

by a dot. A line is an object that

extends without end in both directions.

It is usually drawn with arrowheads to

show that it goes on forever. A line segment

is a part of a line with two end

points. A ray is half of a line, with one

end point.

Two rays with the same end point form

an angle. If the rays are the two halves of

a single line, the angle is called a straight

angle. A straight angle can be thought of

like a book opened flat on a desk. An

angle opened half that far is called a

right angle.

Angles are measured in degrees. A right

angle measures 90 degrees. Angles that

are smaller than a right angle are called

acute. Angles that are larger than a right

angle but smaller than a straight angle

are called obtuse.

Polygons

A polygon is a closed figure formed by

joining together line segments. A polygon

with three sides is a triangle. Some

kinds of triangles have special names. If

all three sides of a triangle are equal, it is

an equilateral triangle. A triangle with

one right angle is a right triangle.

A polygon with four sides is called a

quadrilateral. A rectangle is a quadrilateral

with sides that form four right

angles. A square is a special kind of rectangle

with four sides of equal length.

Polygons with more than four sides are

named by combining Greek words for

numbers with the letters “-gon.” For

example, a pentagon is a five-sided fig-

Petrology and

petrography

are branches

of geology

that deal with

the study of

rocks.

98 Geometry BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ure. A hexagon has six sides, and an

octagon has eight.

Circles

Some geometric shapes have curves

instead of straight lines. The most familiar

of these shapes is the circle. All the

points on the edge of a circle are the

same distance from the center. This distance

is called the radius. The diameter

is the distance across a circle through the

center. It is twice the length of the

radius. The length around the outside of

the circle is called the circumference.

Solid Figures

Triangles, squares, and circles are flat.

Other geometric shapes are solid figures.

A cube is a solid figure with flat surfaces.

A square box is an example of a cube. A

sphere, such as a baseball, is a solid figure

with a curved surface. Cones, cylinders,

and pyramids are other solid

figures.

#More to explore

Mathematics

George III

King George III ruled Great Britain

during the time of the American Revolution.

Problems with the colonies had

started before George became king.

Even so, people remember George III as

the king who lost the American colonies.

Early Life

GeorgeWilliam Frederick was born in

London, England, on May 24, 1738. He

became king when his grandfather, King

George II, died in 1760. George III’s

father had died earlier.

Losing the Colonies

By the time George became king, British

monarchs (kings and queens) had lost

much of their power to Parliament. Parliament

was the group of lawmakers in

Britain. Beginning in the 1760s Parlia-

In 1761

George married

Charlotte

Sophia of

Mecklenburg-

Strelitz. They

had 15

children.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA George III 99

ment tried to raise money by taxing the

American colonies. The colonists complained

that Parliament had no right to

tax them because they had no representatives

in it.

In 1775 George announced that the

colonists were committing treason, the

crime of betraying one’s country. In the

same year, the colonists began fighting

for independence. In the U.S. Declaration

of Independence, Thomas Jefferson

attacked George and called him a tyrant

(a cruel, lawless ruler). The colonies won

independence from Britain in 1783.

Illness and Death

After the American Revolution, George

became very ill. Modern doctors think

that he may have suffered from a disease

called porphyria. His disease made him

hallucinate (see things that were not

there). At the time, people called his

condition madness.

In 1811 his son Prince George took over

the throne as regent, or substitute king.

George III died on January 29, 1820.

Prince George became King George IV.

#More to explore

American Revolution

Georgetown

Population

(2002 estimate)

137,330

Georgetown is the capital of Guyana, a

country on the northern coast of South

America. The city lies on the Atlantic

Ocean. It is Guyana’s only large city.

Georgetown is the country’s center of

business and manufacturing. It is also

the main port. Sugar processing is a

major industry in the city.

The British founded Georgetown in

1781. They named the settlement after

King George III of England. French and

later Dutch settlers took over the town.

The British regained control in 1812. In

1831 they made all of Guyana into a

British colony. Guyana became an independent

country in 1966. Georgetown

was made its capital.

#More to explore

Guyana

King George III wears his military

uniform in a portrait from

about 1800.

100 Georgetown BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Georgia

The U.S. state of Georgia is called the

Empire State of the South. This nickname

reflects Georgia’s large size and

economic strength. Georgia is as important

to the South as New York (the

Empire State) is to the Northeast. The

state was named for King George II of

England. In 1732 the king granted permission

for the area to become a colony.

It is the only United States state with a

name honoring an English king. The

capital is Atlanta.

Geography

Georgia is bordered on the south by

Florida, on the east by the Atlantic

Ocean and South Carolina, on the north

by North Carolina and Tennessee, and

on the west by Alabama. The Savannah

River runs along the eastern edge of the

state and the Chattahoochee

River runs along the western

edge. The Sea Islands lie off Georgia’s

Atlantic coast.

The southern part of Georgia is a coastal

plain that covers about three fifths of the

state. A belt of hills separates the upper

edge of this region from a raised flat area

that contains most of the state’s important

cities and farms. The Appalachian

Mountains are in the north. In general,

Georgia has mild winters and hot and

humid summers.

People

The majority of Georgians are of European

heritage. Many are of Irish, British,

or German descent in particular. African

Americans make up about 30 percent of

the population.

Almost three quarters of Georgia’s

people live in urban areas. More than

half of the state’s entire population lives

in and around Atlanta. The city is an

important commercial and financial

center of the Southeast as well as the

region’s transportation hub.

Economy

The service sector is the largest part of

Georgia’s economy. The state’s valuable

tourism industry provides service jobs in

hotels, restaurants, and transportation

businesses. Major farm products are

broiler chickens, chicken eggs, cotton,

and peanuts. Georgia is sometimes

called the Peach State because of the

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Georgia 101

large number of peaches it grows.

Manufacturing in the state includes the

production of textiles, foodstuffs, chemicals,

and paper. One Georgia product,

the soft drink Coca-Cola, is famous

worldwide.

History

When the first Europeans arrived in the

area they encountered mostly Cherokee

and Creek Indians. In about 1540 the

Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto

passed through the region. As a result of

de Soto’s travels, the territory was

claimed by Spain. By the second half of

the 1600s, however, the British were also

in the area. The English colony of Georgia

was founded at Savannah in 1733 by

General James Oglethorpe.

Georgia was a major battlefield during

the American Revolution. After the

revolution it entered the Union in 1788

as the nation’s fourth state. Georgia’s

economy in the 1800s depended heavily

on slave labor. The state therefore joined

other slave states in forming the Confederacy

during the American CivilWar. In

1864 Union Army troops under General

William T. Sherman left a path of

destruction in their “march to the sea”

from Atlanta to Savannah. Georgia’s

economy suffered as a result of the war.

Many factories were built duringWorld

War II, in the 1940s, and that helped

Georgia recover.

One of Georgia’s most famous political

figures is Jimmy Carter. After serving as

the state’s governor in the early 1970s,

he served a term as U.S. president from

1977 to 1981. Georgia’s population

grew by more than 25 percent between

1990 and 2000. This increase made

Georgia one of the fastest-growing U.S.

states during that period.

..More to explore

American CivilWar • Atlanta • Carter,

Jimmy • Cherokee • Confederate States

of America • Creek

A granite carving of Confederate leaders

on horseback draws tourists to Stone Mountain

Park in northern Georgia.

Huge old oak trees line a park in

Savannah, Georgia. The Spanish

moss hanging from the trees

thrives in the humid climate of

the state.

Facts About

GEORGIA

Flag

Population

(2000 census),

8,186,453—

rank, 10th state;

(2008 estimate)

9,685,744—

rank, 9th state

Capital

Atlanta

Area

59,425 sq mi

(153,909 sq

km)—rank, 24th

state

Statehood

January 2, 1788

Motto

Wisdom, Justice,

and Moderation

State bird

Brown thrasher

State flower

Cherokee rose

102 Georgia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Georgia, Republic of

The Republic of Georgia is a small

country in the Caucasus Mountains of

Asia. Georgia’s name in the Georgian

language is Sakartvelo. The capital is

Tbilisi.

Geography

Georgia borders Russia, Azerbaijan,

Armenia, and Turkey. The Black Sea lies

to the west. The Caucasus Mountains

run through the north and the south.

Near the Black Sea are fertile lowlands.

Most of Georgia has a mild climate.

Plants and Animals

Forests of oak, beech, alder, and fir trees

cover more than one third of the land.

The mountains are home to goats and

Caucasian antelope.Wild boars, deer,

brown bears, lynx, wolves, and foxes live

in the forests.

People

Ethnic Georgians make up most of the

country’s population. Armenians, Russians,

and Azerbaijanis are the largest

minority groups. Most people follow

Georgian Orthodox Christianity or no

religion at all. Muslims form a significant

religious minority. More than half

of the population lives in cities.

Economy

Manufacturing, mining, agriculture, and

tourism are all key parts of Georgia’s

economy. Factories manufacture food

products, iron and steel, and transportation

equipment. Farms produce mainly

potatoes, wheat, and corn.Wine made

from local grapes, tea, and citrus fruits

are important exports. The Black Sea

coast has many tourist resorts.

History

Ancient Romans, the Byzantine Empire,

Persians, and Arabs controlled parts of

Georgia at different times until the

1100s. Then a united kingdom of Georgia

was formed. It lasted until 1220,

when Mongols invaded. Ottoman Turks

and Persians later ruled the region. Russia

took over in the 1800s. In 1921

Georgia became a republic of the Soviet

Union.

Georgia declared its independence in

1991. The country soon faced rebellions

in several of its regions that continued

into the 21st century.

..More to explore

Tbilisi • Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics

Facts About

GEORGIA

Population

(2006 estimate)

4,651,300

Area

27,086 sq mi

(70,152 sq km)

Capital

Tbilisi

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Tbilisi, K’ut’aisi,

Bat’umi, Rust’avi,

Sokhumi

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Georgia, Republic of 103

Geranium

Geraniums are flowering plants that

grow in the wild as well as in gardens.

There are many different types of geranium.

Most have strong fragrances, or

smells. Geraniums are common in mild,

somewhat moist climates in North

America, Europe, and Africa.

Geraniums’ flowers may be round,

ragged, or frilled. The flowers occur in

clusters and come in shades of pink,

deep red, violet, and white.

Many of these plants have been developed

for their pleasant fragrances. When

their leaves are rubbed, they may smell

like mint, fruit, flowers, spice, or even

chocolate. The leaves tend to be thick,

though the leaf shapes vary.

Gerbil

Gerbils are small rodents that are

similar to mice and rats. There are

almost 100 species, or kinds, of gerbil.

They live in Africa and Asia, mainly in

deserts and other dry, sandy areas. For

this reason, gerbils are sometimes called

sand rats. Some kinds also live in

grasslands, farm fields, or forests. The

Mongolian gerbil is a popular

household pet.

Gerbils have soft fur that is usually pale

brown or gray. Their eyes and ears are

large. Most gerbils are about 4 to 6

inches (10 to 15 centimeters) long, not

including the tail. The tail is usually

long and hairy. Many species have long

hind legs used for leaping.

Gerbils live in burrows, which are

underground holes and tunnels that they

dig. Most species come out of their burrows

at night to collect food. A few

kinds are active during the day. Gerbils

mainly eat seeds, roots, nuts, and

insects.

#More to explore

Pet • Rodent

German Measles

#see Rubella.

The geranium is a popular

flower-garden plant.

A hairy-footed pygmy gerbil rests on the

sand of an African desert.

104 Geranium BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Germany

For 45 years afterWorldWar II, the

European country of Germany was

divided into two republics. East Germany

was a Communist country, while

West Germany was a democracy. The

collapse of Communism led to the

reunification of Germany in 1990. Germany’s

capital is Berlin.

Geography

Germany shares borders with Denmark,

Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria,

Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium,

and The Netherlands. Its northern

coasts touch the North and Baltic

seas.

The south contains the Bavarian Alps.

The vast Black Forest, so called for its

thick, dark groves of trees, covers the

southwest. Central Germany is hilly and

forested. The north is a wide, sandy

plain. Germany’s longest river is the

Rhine, which runs along the western

border. Much of Germany has a temperate

climate, with warm summers and

cool, overcast winters.

Plants and Animals

Germany’s main type of tree is pine,

followed by beech and oak. Millions of

trees have been damaged by a form of

pollution known as acid rain. Germany’s

animals include deer, wildcats, hares,

wild boars, badgers, beavers, and foxes.

Birds include thrushes, starlings, sparrows,

owls, woodpeckers, herons, and

falcons.

People

Almost 90 percent of the population is

German. There are small groups of

Turks and other Europeans. German is

the official language. Most Germans are

Christians. The north and east are

largely Protestant, while the south and

A farmhouse stands in the mountains of

Germany’s Black Forest.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Germany 105

west have more Roman Catholics. Many

people follow no religion. Nearly 90

percent of the population lives in urban

areas.

Economy

Services, including health care, education,

and tourism, form the largest part

of Germany’s economy. However, Germany

is one of the top industrial countries

in the world. It produces

automobiles, machinery, chemicals, food

products, electrical equipment, metals,

and other goods. Germany also has

deposits of coal and natural gas.

Although agriculture is a small part of

the economy, German farms generally

produce more grains, milk, and meat

than the country needs. One major crop

is hops, which is used in Germany’s

famous beer industry.

History

During ancient and medieval times hundreds

of Germanic, Celtic, and Slavic

tribes lived in what is now Germany.

The Franks unified the tribes in the

500s. After the death of the Frankish

king Charlemagne in 814, the eastern

part of his empire became Germany.

Germany was made up of loosely connected

states. Many kings of Germany

also ruled the Holy Roman Empire,

which covered much of central Europe.

In the 1500s the German priest Martin

Luther led the Reformation. The movement

criticized Roman Catholicism and

led to the formation of Protestant forms

of Christianity.

The German Empire

The Holy Roman Empire weakened in

the mid-1600s, and the German state of

Prussia rose in importance. In the late

1800s Prussia united many of Germany’s

states to form the German Empire,

or the Second Reich. Germany became

Europe’s leading power. It also acquired

colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific

Ocean.

During WorldWar I (1914–18) Germany

and its allies, Austria-Hungary

and Turkey, battled Great Britain,

France, Russia, Italy, and the United

States. The war ended with a disastrous

defeat for the German Empire. Germany

lost land to surrounding countries.

It also lost its colonies.

The Third Reich

AfterWorldWar I a democratic government

known as the Weimar Republic

took power in Germany. It collapsed,

however, as the country struggled with a

poor economy. Adolf Hitler and his

Nazi Party gained control in 1933. Hit-

People sit in an outdoor restaurant in

Munich. The city is one of the largest in

Germany. It attracts many tourists.

Facts About

GERMANY

Population

(2008 estimate)

82,143,000

Area

137,847 sq mi

(357,023 sq km)

Capital

Berlin

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Berlin, Hamburg,

Munich, Cologne,

Frankfurt am

Main

106 Germany BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ler wanted to create a new German

Empire, called the Third Reich.

Hitler’s plans led to WorldWar II. Germany,

allied with Italy and Japan,

formed the Axis Powers. They fought

the Allies—Britain, the Soviet Union,

and the United States. By the time the

Allies defeated the Axis in 1945, the

Nazis had killed millions of people,

including about 6 million Jews, in a

massacre called the Holocaust.

Division of Germany

FollowingWorldWar II the Allies

divided Germany into four zones. The

United States, Britain, France, and the

Soviet Union each controlled a zone. In

1949 the United States, Britain, and

France merged their zones to create the

Federal Republic of Germany, or West

Germany.West Germany had a democratic

government.

The Soviet zone became the German

Democratic Republic, or East Germany.

Like the Soviet Union, East Germany

had a Communist government.Within

East Germany was the city of Berlin,

which was also divided into eastern and

western sections. Millions of East Germans

fled toWest Germany through

Berlin. In 1961 East Germany built the

BerlinWall, which kept western Berlin

separate from the rest of East Germany.

Reunification

In 1989 the Communist government of

East Germany collapsed. People began

tearing down the BerlinWall. Tens of

thousands of East Germans crossed into

West Berlin to celebrate their new freedom.

East andWest Germany were officially

reunited in 1990. The country

then began modernizing eastern Germany’s

economy. Germany also joined the

European Union.

#More to explore

Berlin • Communism • European

Union • Holy Roman Empire • Nazi

Party • Reformation

500s 1517 1871 1933 1945 1949 1990

The Franks

unify the tribes

of ancient

Germany.

Martin Luther

begins the

Reformation.

The German

Empire is

formed.

The Nazis take

power.

Germany is

defeated in

World War II.

Germany splits

into West and

East Germany.

Germany is

reunited.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Germany 107

Geronimo

The legendary warrior Geronimo was a

leader of the Chiricahua band of the

Apache people. The Apache lived in

northern Mexico and what is now the

southwestern United States. Geronimo

spent most of his life fighting Mexican

and U.S. settlers and soldiers who

wanted to take the tribe’s land.

Geronimo was born in June 1829 in a

part of southeastern Arizona that was

then part of Mexico. At the age of 17 he

became a member of his tribe’s warrior

council and took part in fights between

the Apache and the Mexicans. In 1858

the Mexicans killed his mother, wife,

and children.Wanting revenge,

Geronimo fought even more fiercely.

His skill and courage in battle made him

an Apache leader.

In 1874 the U.S. government forced

Geronimo and some 4,000 other

Apache to move to a reservation in Arizona.

There they were often short of

food and denied their traditional customs.

Geronimo and his followers left

the reservation and led violent raids

against settlers in Arizona for more than

10 years. He surrendered in 1886, and

he and his followers were sent to Florida

as prisoners and forced to do hard labor.

In 1894 Geronimo was moved to Fort

Sill in Oklahoma Territory. He died

there on February 17, 1909.

#More to explore

Apache

Gestation

Gestation is the period of time that a

mammal carries her offspring, or babies,

inside her body before giving birth. The

length of gestation is different for each

type of mammal. Larger animals usually

have longer gestations than smaller animals.

Human gestation, or pregnancy,

lasts about nine months. An elephant’s

gestation lasts about 22 months. In

squirrels, gestation lasts only about six

weeks.

Before birth, mammals grow inside an

organ called the uterus in the mother’s

belly. The uterus is a part of the body’s

reproductive system. A structure called a

placenta usually connects the developing

baby to the uterus. The placenta brings

nutrients from the mother’s body to the

developing baby, or fetus.

Geronimo’s

Apache name

was Goyathlay,

which

means “one

who yawns.”

The Mexicans

were the first

to call him

Geronimo.

Geronimo

108 Geronimo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Gestation in Marsupials

Marsupials are mammals whose babies

usually develop in a pouch after birth.

Some examples are kangaroos, koalas,

and opossums. Marsupials do not have

true placentas. For this reason, marsupial

gestation is relatively short. Even the

largest type of kangaroo is born after

about 40 days.

Marsupial babies are born tiny and

undeveloped. Right after they are born

they crawl inside a pouchlike flap of skin

at the front of their mother’s body.

There they continue to develop until

they are ready to leave the pouch.

Gestation in Placentals

Placentals are mammals that have placentas

during gestation. Humans, cats,

dogs, deer, whales, and most other

mammals are placentals. The gestation

of placentals is usually longer than the

gestation of marsupials. This means that

the babies of placentals are born more

developed than marsupial babies.

However, the babies of different placentals

are born at different levels of development.

Placentals also have different

lengths of gestation. Horses have a gestation

of about 11 months. Their babies

can walk hours after birth. Chimpanzees

have a gestation of about eight months.

Their babies are helpless for a few

months after birth.

Human Gestation

Human gestation, or pregnancy, is

divided into three periods called trimesters.

Each lasts about three months.

In the first trimester, the fetus develops a

heartbeat and the beginnings of all the

other body parts. The fetus also grows

an umbilical cord, which connects it to

the placenta. At three months, the fetus

weighs less than 1 ounce (28 grams). In

the second trimester, the fetus starts to

move around in the uterus. At six

months, it weighs up to 2 pounds (900

grams). In the third trimester, the baby

continues to grow bigger and stronger.

By the time of birth, the baby weighs

about 7.5 pounds (3.5 kilograms).

#More to explore

Mammal • Reproductive System

The Virginia

opossum has

the shortest

known

gestation—

about 12

days.

All animals go through a period of development

before they are born. For mammals

this takes place inside the mother’s body

during gestation. For other animals this may

take place inside an egg. The developing

animal is called an embryo. The embryos of

many animals look alike in the earliest

stages. But they soon start to develop into

their different forms.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gestation 109

Ghana

Ghana is a country in western Africa. In

1957 it became the first African colony

south of the Sahara Desert to win independence.

Ghana then led the way in

establishing industries and a modern

educational system. It also produced

important leaders, including Kofi

Annan, a secretary-general of the United

Nations. Ghana’s capital and largest city

is Accra.

Geography

Ghana is bordered by Cote d’Ivoire on

the west, Burkina Faso on the northwest

and north, and Togo on the east. On the

south Ghana has a coastline on the Gulf

of Guinea, which is part of the Atlantic

Ocean. Ghana’s climate is warm yearround,

with dry and rainy seasons.

Ghana’s land is mainly flat. The southwest,

northwest, and north contain

higher plateaus and some hills and valleys.

Low mountain peaks rise in the

east. The Black Volta and White Volta

rivers flow southward from Burkina

Faso. The two rivers feed Lake Volta,

one of the largest artificial lakes in the

world. It was formed behind the Akosombo

Dam, which produces electricity

for Ghana.

Plants and Animals

Tall grasses and scattered trees cover the

northern two thirds of the country. Forests

cover most of the southern third.

Ghana’s trees include the silk cotton

tree, the wawa tree, and the African

mahogany.

Ghana’s large mammals include lions,

leopards, hyenas, antelope, elephants,

buffalo, wild hogs, chimpanzees, and

monkeys. Crocodiles and hippopotamuses

live in the rivers. Ghana also has

numerous birds, including parrots,

hornbills, and kingfishers. Among its

snakes are cobras, pythons, puff adders,

and horned adders.

Women paint the walls of a village in Ghana.

110 Ghana BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People

The people of Ghana belong to one

broad group divided into about 75 different

tribes. The largest tribe is the

Akan. Other large tribes include the

Mole-Dagbani, the Ewe, the

Ga-Adangme, and the Gurma. English

is the official language, but each tribe

has its own language. More than half of

the people are Christian. Many others

practice traditional religions or Islam.

Economy

Ghana’s economy is based on farming

and mining. More than half of its workers

are involved in agriculture. The

country’s main exports are gold and

cocoa. Other crops include cassava,

yams, bananas, corn, sorghum, rice, and

millet. Ghana also mines diamonds,

manganese, and bauxite, which is used

to make aluminum. Logging, fishing,

and manufacturing are also important.

History

Most of Ghana’s present ethnic groups

lived in the region when Portuguese

explorers arrived in 1471. Because of its

gold mines, the area became known as

the Gold Coast. In 1482 the Portuguese

began building forts on the coast as

headquarters for the gold trade. In the

1600s traders from other European

countries set up their own forts.

Soon the Europeans began trading slaves

as well as gold. In the 1700s the Ashanti,

an Akan people, developed a kingdom

in the south. They supplied slaves to the

Europeans.

The British defeated the Ashanti and

made the Gold Coast a colony in 1874.

Beginning in 1949 Kwame Nkrumah

led a movement for independence. The

people held protests and set up their

own government. In 1957 Britain gave

Ghana its independence. Ghana was a

model for other colonies to follow in

their independence movements.

Independent Ghana was ruled at first by

a prime minister. In 1960 the country

became a republic with a president.

Nkrumah was elected the first president.

He took away some freedoms for groups

that opposed his rule. In addition, the

country became poorer.

The army and the police seized control

of Ghana in 1966. Many different

groups tried to take control for the next

26 years. In 1981 one government

banned political parties. In 1992 the

country gained a new constitution that

restored democracy and political parties.

..More to explore

Accra • Ashanti

Local fishermen in Ghana use a small boat

to search for fish.

Facts About

GHANA

Population

(2008 estimate)

23,383,000

Area

92,098 sq mi

(238,533 sq km)

Capital

Accra

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Accra, Kumasi,

Tamale, Tema,

Obuasi

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ghana 111

Ghana Empire

Ghana was a powerful trading empire in

western Africa. The empire was most

active from the 700s to the 1200s. It

grew rich and strong by controlling large

amounts of gold. The empire’s lands are

now partly in Mauritania and partly in

Mali. It was not related to the current

country called the Republic of Ghana.

Ghana was founded by the Soninke

people. To their north lived Arab and

Berber peoples who had salt and wanted

gold. To their south lived African tribes

who had gold on their lands and wanted

salt. The Soninke handled trade between

the two groups.

By 800 the Soninke had become highly

organized. They conquered other tribes

to form a mighty empire. They called

their empireWagadu, but other people

called it Ghana because ghana was the

king’s title.

Several times in its history Ghana

moved its capital. The last capital city

was Kumbi. It was located about 200

miles (320 kilometers) north of modern

Bamako, Mali. At its peak, before 1240,

Kumbi was western Africa’s largest city,

with more than 15,000 people.

In 1076 a northwestern African Muslim

group called the Almoravids took control

of Kumbi. The Almoravids ruled for

only a short time but did lasting damage

to the empire. They disrupted trade

routes and destroyed croplands with

their flocks of grazing animals.

In 1203 the various groups living under

Ghana’s rule began to break away. One

of these, the Susu, occupied Kumbi. In

1240 a chief named Sundiata destroyed

the city. Sundiata then incorporated

what was left of the Ghana Empire into

his new Mali Empire.

#More to explore

Mali Empire

Giant Sequoia

The giant sequoia is a huge evergreen

tree. It grows only on the western slopes

of the Sierra Nevada mountains in the

U.S. state of California. Its scientific

name is Sequoiadendron giganteum. It is

related to the redwood.

The giant sequoia is so large that it is

sometimes called simply the big tree.

Some giant sequoias are more than 280

feet (85 meters) tall. They have huge

trunks that are sometimes more than

100 feet (30 meters) around at the bot-

112 Ghana Empire BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tom. The reddish brown bark can grow

to more than 12 inches (30 centimeters)

thick. Giant sequoias usually have

branches only near the top because the

lower branches fall away as the tree

grows. The leaves are blue-green.

The giant sequoia is a conifer, which

means that it produces cones that hold

its seeds. At 3.5 inches (9 centimeters)

long, the cones are tiny compared to the

tree.

Giant sequoias can live to a very old age.

Some are more than 3,500 years old.

The wood is rich in chemicals that keep

away insect pests and prevent rotting.

The thick bark does not burn easily and

helps to protect the giant sequoia from

fire.

#More to explore

Conifer • Redwood • Tree

Gibbon

Gibbons are small apes of the rain forests

of southeastern Asia. They spend

most of their time in trees. They use

their long arms to swing quickly from

branch to branch. A gibbon can travel

an amazing 10 feet (3 meters) in a single

swing. On the ground, gibbons walk

upright on two legs.

All apes belong to the group of mammals

called primates, along with monkeys,

humans, and some other animals.

Gorillas, orangutans, chimpanzees, and

bonobos are called great apes. Gibbons

are called lesser apes. They are smaller

and less intelligent than the other apes.

There are 14 species, or types, of gibbon.

They vary in length from about 16

to 35 inches (40 to 90 centimeters). The

Gibbons live high up near the

tops of the trees in rain forests.

They have long, thin hands and

feet that help them climb and

hold onto branches.

Giant sequoias tower above

tourists in Sequoia National Park

in California.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gibbon 113

siamang is the largest of the gibbons.

Like all apes, gibbons lack tails. But gibbons

have longer arms and thicker hair

than the great apes do. Most gibbons are

mainly shades of cream, brown, black,

or gray. Some kinds have white hands

and feet. In many species the males and

females are different colors.

Gibbons eat mostly fruit. They may also

eat leaves, insects, birds’ eggs, and young

birds.

Gibbons usually have only one mate

during their lives. They live in small

family groups. These families defend

their home range with loud calls. These

sounds warn other gibbons to stay away.

#More to explore

Ape • Primate • Rain Forest

Gibraltar

As a fortress and colony, Gibraltar has

been a symbol of British military

strength since the 1700s. Commonly

referred to as the Rock, it is the site of a

British air and naval base that guards the

Strait of Gibraltar. This important

waterway between Spain and Africa connects

the Mediterranean Sea to the east

with the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

Gibraltar is a peninsula that is about 3

miles (5 kilometers) long and less than a

mile wide. It consists of a limestone

mountain that rises sharply to a height

of 1,396 feet (426 meters). A low, sandy

strip of land connects it to Spain, 1 mile

(1.6 kilometers) to the north. The Strait

of Gibraltar is to the south. Across the

strait is the African country of Morocco.

Two thirds of the residents of Gibraltar

are Gibraltarians—people born in

Gibraltar before 1925 and their descendants.

Most Gibraltarians are of mixed

British, Italian, Spanish, Maltese, and

Portuguese descent. Many of the rest of

the people are British.

Shipping, banking, and tourism are

major sources of income in Gibraltar.

The British military post and naval shipyard

are also important to the economy.

The leading manufacturing industries

are shipbuilding and ship repair.

People have lived on Gibraltar since

prehistoric times. Muslims held Gibraltar

from 711 to 1462, when they lost it

to Spain. In 1501 Gibraltar became part

of Spain. Captured by the British in

1704, it became a British colony in

1830. It was an important port inWorld

Wars I and II. Control of the territory

has remained a source of dispute

between Great Britain and Spain.

#More to explore

Spain • United Kingdom

114 Gibraltar BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ginkgo

More than 200 million years ago several

types of ginkgo trees grew throughout

the world. Today only one type of

ginkgo still exists. Its scientific name is

Ginkgo biloba.

The ginkgo trees of today came from

China, where they grew in the wild.

People in ancient China and Japan also

grew them in the gardens of temples and

palaces. Today ginkgos grow in cities,

parks, and gardens on every continent

but Antarctica. Some plant experts

believe that groups of ginkgos no longer

grow in the wild.

Ginkgos are very hardy trees. They resist

damage from insects and fungi, plantlike

living things that sometimes grow on

trees. City pollution also does not harm

ginkgos.

Ginkgo trees have the shape of a pyramid.

They sometimes grow to be 100

feet (30 meters) tall. Their trunks may

measure as much as 8 feet (2.5 meters)

across. Ginkgo leaves are a dull graygreen

color. They have a tough, almost

rubbery texture. They are shaped like

fans with a split in the middle.

Ginkgo trees are either male or female.

Winds carry pollen from male trees to

female trees. Female trees then produce

large seeds. The seeds are round, silvery

nuts surrounded by a smelly, yellowish

covering.

People grow ginkgo trees for their

beauty and the shade they provide.

Roasted ginkgo nuts are considered special

foods in China and Japan. Ginkgo

leaves are used in some medicines.

#More to explore

Seed • Tree

Giraffe

The giraffe is the tallest living animal. It

reaches a height of 18 feet (5.5 meters)

or more. Giraffes live on the plains of

eastern Africa. The scientific name of

the giraffe is Giraffa camelopardalis.

Giraffes have a short body, but their legs

and neck are very long. The coat is light

brown with reddish brown spots. Many

giraffes have two short horns between

the ears. Giraffes have large nostrils and

a good sense of smell. Their tongues are

over 18 inches (45 centimeters) long.

Giraffes are plant eaters. They can reach

leaves at the top of trees. But they do

not eat grass. It is very hard for them to

The ginkgo is

also known as

the maidenhair

tree.

Ginkgo leaves turn golden yellow

in autumn.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Giraffe 115

reach the ground because the neck is

stiff. To drink, a giraffe must spread its

legs far apart to reach down.

Giraffes live in herds of up to 20 animals.

They use their good eyesight to

watch for danger. Lions are the giraffe’s

main enemy. Giraffes try to gallop away

from enemies, but they will fight if necessary.

They can run more than 30 miles

(48 kilometers) an hour.

A female giraffe gives birth to one calf at

a time. The newborn can usually follow

its mother around within hours. Giraffes

live about 20 to 25 years.

Giraffes are still common in eastern

Africa. They are protected there inside

national parks. In other places, however,

hunting has reduced the number of

giraffes. People use giraffe skin to make

leather.

Girl Scouts and

Girl Guides

#see Scouting.

Glacier

A glacier is a large area of thick ice that

remains frozen from one year to the

next. Glaciers also slowly flow over the

land. Thousands of years ago, large parts

of the world were covered with glaciers.

At times glaciers covered about 30 percent

of Earth’s surface. At other times

there were fewer glaciers than there are

today.

Where Glaciers Are Found

Glaciers exist all over the world today.

Most of Greenland is covered by thick

sheets of glacier ice, as is Antarctica.

There are smaller glaciers in the Rocky

Mountains of North America, in the

European Alps, in the Andes of South

America, and even at mountainous

points along the equator.

The giraffe is built for reaching the treetops.

Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earth’s

surface.

116 Girl Scouts and Girl Guides BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

How Glaciers Form

Glaciers are formed when snow is

packed down into ice. Snow crystals

accumulate year by year in areas where

the temperatures never become high

enough to completely melt the snow

and ice. When a large amount has

accumulated, the snow is under great

pressure from the weight. Eventually

the snow becomes packed so tightly

together that it turns into ice. It usually

takes several years for glacier ice to

form. In some cases, however, it may

take thousands of years.

Effect on the Environment

Glacier ice today stores about three

fourths of all the freshwater in the

world. Many people believe that if temperatures

around the world increased

enough that the glaciers melted, sea

levels would increase greatly and flood

coastal areas. The world’s sea levels are

already rising about 0.08 inch (2 millimeters)

every year. Scientists believe

that melting glaciers cause much of

this rise.

Despite this activity, it is unclear how

much sea levels might eventually rise

because of melting glaciers. Some scientists

believe that if temperatures on

Earth were to rise dramatically, the

warming of the air would cause moisture

to form in the atmosphere. This moisture

would fall as rain and snow, which

could balance out any melting that

might occur.

#More to explore

Antarctica • Greenland

Gladiator

Gladiators were professional fighters in

ancient Rome. Their fierce battles—

sometimes to the death—thrilled stadium

crowds.

Gladiators were usually slaves and criminals.

They trained at special schools.

They used many kinds of weapons.

Some fought with swords, while others

used knives or tridents (three-pointed

spears). Some had to battle wild animals.

The shows were held in huge arenas

called amphitheaters. A fight usually

went on until one gladiator was

wounded. The crowd then decided

whether the loser had fought bravely

enough to be allowed to live.

The winner received palm branches and

sometimes also money. A champion

might be allowed to retire. Sometimes

he gained his freedom.

A gladiator spears a leopard in a Roman

artwork.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gladiator 117

The first known gladiator show in Rome

took place in 264 BC. Some later shows

went on for weeks and used thousands

of gladiators. Shows were held throughout

the Roman Empire.

Gladiator shows gradually became

unpopular. Constantine I outlawed

them in AD 325. But they may have

continued for at least 100 years after

that.

#More to explore

Rome, Ancient

Glass

Glass is a useful and unique material. It

usually lets light shine through, but it

blocks liquids and air. Glass is easily

breakable, but it can also be made very

strong. And glass can be formed into all

kinds of shapes.

Glass feels hard like a solid, but it is

built more like a liquid. The tiny particles

that make up true solids are

arranged in a specific order. The particles

in glass are arranged randomly, as

in a liquid.

How Glass Is Made

The main ingredient for glass is pure

silica, or sand. It takes very high temperatures

to make glass from sand. By

adding certain chemicals to the silica,

the process needs much less heat.

Chemicals can also make the glass stronger

or add colors to it.

The silica and chemicals are called the

batch. To begin, glassmakers add to the

batch some glass that has already been

made. This scrap glass helps the silica to

melt.

Once the batch is melted, glassmakers

remove any bubbles or streaks. Then the

melted glass can be molded into shapes

or rolled into sheets and allowed to

harden.

Modern machines can quickly and easily

create huge numbers of glass items. But

artists still create unique items through a

method called glassblowing. Glassblowers

blow air through a tube into melted

glass to create different shapes.

Uses

People use glass in countless ways. Glass

windows allow light to pass through but

keep out cold and rain. Electric lightbulbs

are made of glass. Glass containers

store all kinds of things, including food,

drinks, and chemicals. Glass mirrors

Onion-shaped pieces of blown

glass float on a pond. They are

part of an art display.

118 Glass BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

reflect images. Lenses made of highquality

glass are used in microscopes and

telescopes. Fiber-optic cables are bundles

of tiny glass threads that carry information

in the form of light. These cables

are used to link telephones and computers

over long distances.

History

The oldest known glass is more than

4,000 years old. Ancient Egyptians

made glass beads and jars in about 2500

BC. Glassblowing probably began in

Syria more than 2,000 years ago.

Glassmaking became important in

Europe after the 1100s. Many European

churches were decorated with stainedglass

windows. In stained-glass windows,

strips of lead hold pieces of colored glass

together.

People in the American colonies started

making glass in 1608. In 1825 a company

in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,

invented a glass-pressing machine. The

machine helped to make glass in huge

amounts.

In the 1900s glass became easier to

make, less expensive, and stronger. Glass

windows and containers became everyday

features of most homes.

#More to explore

Fiber Optics • Lens • Mirror • Sand

Glider

A glider is an aircraft that soars through

the air without the help of a motor.

Some gliders look very much like airplanes.

They have wings, a tail, a cockpit,

an instrument panel, and a fuselage,

or body. Some are even called sailplanes.

How GlidersWork

Gliders and airplanes with engines work

in a similar way. A pilot controls both

kinds of aircraft. Unlike airplanes with

engines, however, gliders must be towed,

or pulled, into the air to begin their

flight. People may tow gliders using an

automobile or a winch, which is a reel

attached to a motor. A rope called a tow-

Glassblowing was invented more than

2,000 years ago. Today most people who

blow glass are artists.

Sailplanes are the most advanced type of

glider. They can soar for hours.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Glider 119

line connects the glider to the automobile

or winch. The automobile or winch

pulls the glider forward along the

ground and into the wind. As the glider’s

speed increases, air flows over its

wings at a faster and faster rate. This

produces an upward force, called lift, on

the wings. When this force becomes

greater than the downward force of gravity,

the glider can stay in the air. Then

the glider pilot releases the towline. An

airplane with an engine may also tow a

glider into the air.

Once the glider is flying, its pilot uses

controls to move it higher, lower, and to

the right or left. Glider pilots search for

upward-moving air currents, called

updrafts. The updrafts push the glider

higher into the sky.

History

Gliders were developed in the late 1800s

in Germany. By experimenting with

gliders theWright brothers were able to

develop the first airplane in the early

1900s. Gliders were later used in warfare.

For example, gliders carried many

soldiers into enemy lands duringWorld

War II. Today gliders are used mostly for

sport.

#More to explore

Airplane

GlobalWarming

The average surface temperature on

Earth is slowly increasing. This trend is

known as global warming.

Greenhouse Effect

To understand global warming, it helps

to understand the greenhouse effect. A

greenhouse is a glass house where plants

grow. Glass lets light in and keeps heat

from escaping. This trapped heat keeps

the plants warm even when it is cold

outside.

Likewise, Earth’s atmosphere traps

energy from the sun. Carbon dioxide

and other gases—called greenhouse

gases—in the air do this trapping.Without

these gases too much heat would go

back into space, and living things could

not survive. However, as more greenhouse

gases get into the air, they also

trap more heat. This leads to global

warming.

Causes

For much of Earth’s history, greenhouse

gases were not a problem. This situation

changed as people came to depend on

fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal). People

burn fossil fuels to power factories, run

cars, produce electricity, and heat

A glider’s

wings are long

and narrow.

The shape

helps the

glider soar

through the

air.

Factories that burn fossil fuels help to cause

global warming.

120 Global Warming BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

houses. As fossil fuels burn, they release

carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Also, people have cut down many forests.

Trees use carbon dioxide when they

make their own food. Fewer trees mean

that less carbon dioxide is being taken

out of the atmosphere.

Reasons for Concern

Scientists cannot tell how warm Earth

may get over time. Some guess an

increase between 2.5° F and 10.4° F

(1.4° C and 5.8° C) by the year 2100.

The warmer weather could harm living

things. It also could cause polar ice caps

to melt. This would cause sea levels to

rise. Plants, animals, and buildings along

coastlines would be in danger.

Stopping GlobalWarming

Global warming is a worldwide concern.

Governments are trying to find ways to

limit the amount of greenhouse gases

put into the air. Individual people can

help by driving less. They also can save

energy by turning off unneeded lights

and other electrical devices.

#More to explore

Atmosphere • Fossil Fuel • Greenhouse

Effect

Globe

#see Map and Globe.

Goat

Goats are horned mammals that can be

either wild or tame. People keep goats

for their meat, milk, and wool. They are

hardy animals that can live on coarse,

thin grass. Goats can be raised on land

that does not have enough plants for

cows or sheep.

Goats are closely related to sheep, but

they are not as solidly built. A domestic

(tame) goat usually weighs about 100 to

120 pounds (45 to 54 kilograms). Goats

also have straighter hair and a shorter

tail than sheep. Both male and female

goats may have horns. Some male wild

goats grow horns up to 4 feet (1.2

meters) long. Most males also grow

beards.

Goats eat grass and shrubs. A goat

digests its food by swallowing and then

regurgitating it, or bringing it back up

from the stomach. The goat then chews

it again in a form called cud.

Wild goats are animals of the mountains.

They live in rugged parts of

Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. They

People cut the long hair of Angora goats to

use as a fiber called mohair. Mohair can be

made into sweaters, scarves, and other

types of clothing.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Goat 121

can climb on cliffs and rocks without

losing their footing. Most wild goats live

in herds of 5 to 20 animals. Males and

females usually come together only to

mate.

Goats have been kept by people for

about 9,000 years. People eat goat meat

and drink goat milk. They also use goat

milk to make cheese. Angora and cashmere

goats are prized for their wool,

which is made into clothing and rugs.

Goatskins are used to make gloves,

shoes, and other leather items.

#More to explore

Mammal • Sheep

Gobi

The Gobi is a vast desert in central Asia.

It covers parts of Mongolia and China.

The word gobi means “waterless place”

in the Mongolian language.

The Gobi is surrounded by mountain

ranges. Its land is mostly rocky plains

with some hills. Summer in the Gobi is

very hot, and winter is cold and harsh.

Temperatures range from .40° F

(.40° C) in January to 113° F (45° C)

in July. The Gobi gets very little rain or

snow. There are few rivers that flow

year-round. Most of the water is underground.

Because of the dry climate, few plants

grow in the Gobi. Rough grasses and

low bushes are most common. Animals

of the Gobi include wild camels and

horses, gazelles, and antelope. There are

also rodents, such as gophers.

The Gobi has a small population spread

out over its huge area. Most of the

people are Mongols, but some are Chinese.

The people are mostly nomads

who raise sheep, goats, cattle, and camels.

They move around the desert with

their animals.

#More to explore

Desert • Mongolia • Nomad

Gold Coast

#see Ghana.

The Gobi is bordered by several mountain

ranges, including the Altai Mountains.

122 Gobi BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Goldfish

The goldfish is a popular fish to keep as

a pet in aquariums and ponds. It also

lives in the wild, in rivers and lakes. The

goldfish is a member of the carp family.

Its scientific name is Carassius auratus.

Goldfish are naturally greenish brown or

gray. But about 1,000 years ago people

in China began breeding goldfish to

create more colorful varieties. There are

now more than 125 breeds of goldfish

found throughout the world. They can

be gold, red, orange, white, black, or a

combination of colors.

Some breeds of goldfish have unusual

features. For example, the celestial goldfish

has eyes that jut out and always look

upward. The lionhead has a growth on

its head that looks something like a

lion’s mane.

Wild goldfish eat mostly plants and

small animals. They grow to a size suitable

for their environment. For example,

aquarium goldfish are only 2 to 4 inches

(5 to 10 centimeters) long. But goldfish

living in bigger spaces can reach a length

of 2 feet (0.6 meter).

Goldfish breed during spring or summer.

A female goldfish can produce

thousands of eggs during each breeding

season. The eggs usually hatch in less

than a week. Goldfish have an average

life span of 7 to 10 years. Some live as

long as 25 years.

#More to explore

Carp • Fish • Pet

Gold Rush

The metal gold has been considered

valuable for centuries. At times people

have discovered places where gold can be

dug out of the ground. This has created

a gold rush, when many other people go

to the same place hoping to find gold of

their own.

The biggest North American gold rush

took place in the U.S. state of California.

It started in 1848 when a carpenter

found gold at Sutter’s Mill, near the

Sacramento River. By 1849 there were

80,000 gold seekers—called “fortyniners”—

in the area.

A gold rush in 1851 brought people to

the Ballarat and Bendigo regions of Victoria,

Australia. People found nuggets,

or chunks, of gold as heavy as 200

pounds (75 kilograms).

Another major gold strike took place

along the Klondike River in the Yukon

Territory of Canada. Despite cold

Aquarium goldfish eat flake or pellet food.

They also like to eat plants.

U.S. author

Jack London

set his stories

Call of the

Wild and

White Fang

during the

Klondike gold

rush.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gold Rush 123

weather, about 30,000 people came

between 1896 and 1899. Some gold was

found in Alaska also.

In 1886 a diamond digger discovered

gold in the Transvaal region of South

Africa. Today, South Africa is the world’s

largest producer of gold.

Gold is often discovered in isolated areas

with few people or towns. But because

so many people are attracted by the

gold, several major cities have grown up

around such areas. These include San

Francisco, California; Melbourne, Australia;

and Johannesburg, South Africa.

#More to explore

Metal

Golf

Golf is an outdoor sport played with

clubs and a small ball. It is played on a

large, grassy area called a course. Golfers

hit the ball into a series of holes on the

course. The goal is to finish playing the

course with as few hits, or strokes, as

possible.

Playing Area and Equipment

A standard golf course has 18 holes. The

playing area for each hole varies in

length from about 100 to 600 yards (90

to 550 meters). Play begins at a spot

called the teeing area. It is a flat, rectangular

patch of short grass. In front of the

During the 1890s some people in Alaska

looked for bits of gold in panfuls of river

gravel. This was called panning for gold.

124 Golf BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

teeing area is a mowed strip called the

fairway. The fairway is the longest section

of each hole. The fairway extends to

an area of closely mowed grass called the

green. Each green has a hole, called the

cup, that measures about 4 inches (10

centimeters) across.

Many golf holes have features that make

play more difficult. These include

obstacles called hazards. One type of

hazard is a sand-filled pit called a bunker,

or sand trap. Holes may also have

water hazards, such as streams or ponds.

An area called the rough runs along both

sides of the fairway. The rough is made

up of long grass, bushes, and trees.

Golfers use a variety of clubs to hit the

ball. Each club has a small hitting area at

the end of a shaft. Golfers may choose a

different club for each swing at the ball.

They choose a club based on how far

they want to hit the ball.

A golf ball is small and hard. It is made

mostly of rubber. It is usually white.

Playing the Game

Golfers start playing in the teeing area.

From there, they hit the ball toward the

hole. They try to keep the ball on the

fairway and the green. They try to avoid

hitting the ball into bunkers, water hazards,

or the rough. When the ball

reaches the green, a golfer uses a club

called a putter for the final hits toward

the cup. Every time the ball is hit, one

stroke is counted.

U.S. golfer Michelle Wie putts

during a tournament in 2005.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Golf 125

The most common type of golf competition

is called stroke (or medal) play. In

stroke play, the player with the lowest

total number of strokes is the winner.

Individual golfers have another way of

judging how well they are doing. They

measure their play against a standard

score known as par. Par is the number of

strokes an expert player would need to

complete a hole.

History

Historians believe that early forms of

golf were played in the Netherlands first

and then in Scotland. The modern game

developed in Scotland. The first golf

courses were fields of grass that sheep

had clipped short while grazing. The

world’s oldest golf organization was

formed in Scotland in 1744. It created

the earliest-known rules of the game.

Golf balls were originally made of wood.

Wood was replaced in the 1600s by

boiled feathers stuffed in a leather cover.

In the 1800s people started making balls

with gutta-percha, a leathery material

that comes from certain trees. Balls

made of hard rubber appeared in the

1900s.

Golf started to gain some world attention

in the second half of the 1800s. At

that time British golfers were generally

considered to be the best in the world.

John Henry Taylor, Harry Vardon, and

James Braid were famous British golfers

of the period. In the 1920s golfers from

the United States began to excel. Bobby

Jones,Walter Hagen, and Gene Sarazen

were outstanding U.S. golfers from that

time. Arnold Palmer, Jack Nicklaus, and

TigerWoods were later stars. Great

women golfers included Patty Berg,

MickeyWright, and Annika Sorenstam.

#More to explore

Woods, Tiger

Goodall, Jane

The British scientist Jane Goodall is

known for her research on chimpanzees.

She studied the animals for many years

in the East African country of Tanzania.

Her discoveries changed the way chimpanzees

are studied and understood.

Jane Goodall was born on April 3, 1934,

in London, England. At a young age she

became interested in animals. By age 11

she dreamed of living among Africa’s

wildlife.

To earn money to travel to Africa,

Goodall left school at age 18 and began

working. At age 23 she arrived by boat

in Kenya. She soon became an assistant

to Louis Leakey, a famous scientist.

A water hazard surrounds a green at the

Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta,

Georgia, in the United States.

126 Goodall, Jane BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1960 Goodall set up camp on the

shores of Tanzania’s Lake Tanganyika.

She studied chimpanzees close-up in

their natural setting. It took months for

Goodall to gain the chimps’ trust, but

her patience paid off.

Through her observations, Goodall

changed many ideas about chimpanzees.

She saw a chimpanzee make a tool,

which it used to get food. Scientists had

believed only humans were toolmakers.

She also found that chimpanzees eat

both meat and plants. Finally, Goodall

observed that each chimpanzee had a

distinct personality and emotions.

Goodall stayed in Tanzania until 1975.

She wrote several books about her work.

#More to explore

Chimpanzee

Goose

Geese are large birds with loud,

honking calls. Along with ducks and

swans, they belong to a group of birds

called waterfowl in North America and

wildfowl in Europe. These birds are

equally at home on the water, on the

land, or in the air. Common species, or

types, of goose include the Canada

goose, the greylag, the barnacle goose,

and the snow goose.

People have kept and bred geese for at

least 4,000 years. People eat goose meat

and use goose feathers to stuff pillows

and quilts. In addition, hunters shoot

wild geese for sport.

Where Geese Live

Geese live near water, mostly in the

northern half of the world. Many geese

migrate, or fly long distances between

their summer and winter homes. They

nest in cold northern regions during the

summer and fly south for the winter.

However, some Canada geese live in the

same parts of the United States or

Canada year-round.

Physical Features

Geese are generally larger than ducks but

smaller than swans. For instance, the

Jane Goodall watches chimpanzees in

Kenya.

The Canada goose is the most common

wild goose in North America.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Goose 127

Canada goose is about 36 inches (91

centimeters) long. But geese have many

features in common with ducks and

swans. They have webbed feet, which

help them paddle through water. They

also have a gland near the tail that makes

oil. This oil helps protect the feathers

from water. An inner layer of soft feathers

called down helps to keep waterfowl

warm.

Most geese are black, brown, gray, or

white. They have heavier bodies and

longer necks than ducks do. Geese are

also better at walking than other waterfowl

are. This is because their legs are

farther forward on their bodies.

Geese have humped bills that become

narrower toward the tip. Their bills are

good for grasping grasses, which is their

main food.

#More to explore

Bird • Duck • Migration, Animal

• Swan

Gorbachev,

Mikhail

Mikhail Gorbachev was the last leader of

the country called the Soviet Union.

Gorbachev’s efforts to change his country

helped to lead to the breakup of the

Soviet Union in 1991.

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev was

born on March 2, 1931, at Privolye, in

southwestern Russia. At that time, Russia

was a part of the Soviet Union. A

group called the Communist Party ruled

the Soviet Union. Gorbachev joined the

Communist Party in 1952. He received

his law degree from Moscow State University

in 1955.

Gorbachev rose steadily in the Communist

Party. In 1985 he became the party’s

general secretary. This made him the

leader of the Soviet Union.

When Gorbachev came to power the

Soviet Union was a very strict country.

The people were not allowed to voice

their opinions openly. The country was

often in conflict with other countries,

especially the United States. Over time

Gorbachev began to make changes. He

allowed greater freedom of speech. He

also developed better relations between

the Soviet Union and other nations.

Gorbachev’s changes led to an unexpected

result—the end of Communism

in Europe. Communists ruled several

countries around the Soviet Union. The

people in those countries began to

demand change as well. Eventually the

governments collapsed. In the Soviet

Union itself, Gorbachev allowed real

elections for the first time.

Mikhail Gorbachev

A male

goose is called

a gander.

Young geese

are called

goslings.

128 Gorbachev, Mikhail BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Many people praised Gorbachev for the

changes he made. However, some Communists

opposed Gorbachev’s rule. In

August 1991 a group of them tried to

take control of the government by force.

The takeover failed, but Gorbachev’s

position had weakened. On December

25, 1991, Gorbachev quit the presidency.

By the end of the year the Soviet

Union had officially ceased to exist.

#More to explore

ColdWar • Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics

Gorilla

Gorillas are the largest apes. They are

also the largest animals of the group

called primates, which also includes the

other apes, humans, and monkeys. After

chimpanzees and bonobos, gorillas are

the closest living relatives to humans.

Movies often show gorillas as fierce creatures.

But they are actually peaceful and

gentle animals.

Gorillas live in rain forests in Africa.

There are three kinds of gorilla. The

western lowland gorilla is found in western

Africa. The eastern lowland gorilla

and the mountain gorilla are found in

east-central Africa. All gorillas are

endangered, or at risk of dying out completely.

The mountain gorilla has

become especially rare.

Adult male gorillas may be 5.5 feet (1.7

meters) tall and weigh 300 to 600

pounds (140 to 270 kilograms). The

females weigh about half as much as the

males. Adult gorillas have long, strong

arms and short, stocky legs. The chest is

very thick and strong. The males have a

bony crest on top of the head. Gorillas

have a coat of black hair except on their

faces, hands, and feet.

Gorillas live in family groups of about 6

to 30 animals. One or two older males

lead the group. Gorillas use their arms

and legs to walk. They support part of

their weight on the knuckles of the

hands. They rarely stand up straight.

Gorillas spend most of their time on the

ground. But they may also climb trees to

sleep and feed. Gorillas eat plants,

including fruits, leaves, stalks, and

shoots.

#More to explore

Ape • Endangered Species • Primate

If threatened,

a male gorilla

may beat his

chest and

make loud

sounds to

scare away

intruders.

Adult male gorillas are called silverbacks

because they have gray or silver hairs on

their lower back.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gorilla 129

Gospel Music

Gospel music is a form of African

American religious music.Worshippers

play and sing gospel music at some Protestant

Christian church services. The

word gospel means “good news,” and

gospel songs often praise God or Jesus.

Many gospel songs also describe

struggles and hard times.

Small groups of singers, choirs, and soloists

(single singers) perform gospel

music. Singers are usually very emotional

and expressive. A wide range of

instruments—for example, organ, guitars,

banjos, or brass instruments—may

provide background music.

Many gospel songs have parts known as

call and response. In this type of singing,

the leader sings a phrase and then the

group responds with a repeated line.

The roots of gospel music can be traced

back to African slaves in North America

in the 1700s. At that time slave owners

made slaves attend church services. At

these services the slaves learned Christian

hymns. They made up work songs

and religious songs, called spirituals,

based on these hymns.

After the end of slavery African American

preachers used music during their

sermons. During the early 1900s recordings

of these sermons became available.

In this way gospel music spread to a

wider audience. Popular singers began

using the forms and sound of gospel

music. In turn, popular music, such as

the blues, also influenced gospel music.

Some of the best-known gospel singers

and songwriters were Thomas A.

Dorsey, C.A. Tindley, C.L. Franklin,

and Mahalia Jackson.

#More to explore

Blues • Christianity • Music

Gourd

Gourds are hard-shelled fruits. They are

generally used as decorations or in crafts.

Gourds come in a wide variety of shapes

and are often very colorful. They are

related to pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers,

and melons.

Gourds first grew in the Americas and in

tropical Africa and Asia. They were

among the first plants grown by people.

Today gourds are grown throughout the

world in the tropics and in mild areas.

Many gospel singers are very expressive

when they sing.

130 Gospel Music BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Gourds grow on vine plants. The vines

are sticky and covered with rough,

prickly hairs. The leaves are large, and

the flowers are white or yellow. The

smallest gourds are the size of a marble.

The largest are more than 7 feet (2

meters) long. Some gourds are white,

but many others have bands, stripes, or

spots in shades of yellow and green.

Some have smooth skin, while others

have bumps or spines.

In some countries people eat gourds.

But mostly people use gourds to make

musical instruments, pipes, masks, and

containers such as water jugs. The inside

of one type of gourd is dried and used as

a sponge called a loofah.

#More to explore

Fruit • Pumpkin • Squash

Government

The government of a modern nation, or

country, is an organization that does

many things. It defends the country from

outside enemies. It keeps order within the

country. And it does services for its

people. In return, the people of the

country must pay money called taxes to

the government. They also must obey the

government’s rules, which are called laws.

States and cities have governments, too.

Powers of Government

There are three kinds of government

power: legislative, executive, and judicial.

The legislative branch of the government

makes laws. The executive

branch enforces the laws and runs most

government departments. The judicial

part settles disagreements about the law

and runs the courts.

Forms of Government

Governments can be set up in many

ways. Most modern governments fit into

a few types.

Democracy

Democracy is government of the people,

by the people, and for the people. In

direct democracy all citizens vote on

everything. Direct democracy works best

in places where there are few people.

Modern democratic countries have representative

democracy instead. In a representative

democracy citizens vote for

representatives to make decisions for

them.

In a democracy people are free to start

and join political parties. Parties are

groups of people who agree with each

other on political issues.

Most modern democracies have constitutions.

A constitution is a document

Colorful gourds are often used as decorations.

The word

government

comes from a

Greek word

meaning “to

pilot a ship.”

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Government 131

that organizes the government and sets

limits on its power. The two main types

of constitutional democracy are the

presidential system and the parliamentary

system.

Presidential System

The presidential system is common in

republics (countries with no king or

queen), including the United States. In a

presidential system the executive and

legislative branches are separate. The

people elect representatives for a legislature,

or lawmaking body. They also elect

a president to be the head of the executive

branch. The president is not allowed

to be a member of the legislature.

Parliamentary System

The United Kingdom and many of its

former colonies have a parliamentary

system. In a parliamentary system, the

legislative and executive branches of

government are not separate. The people

elect members of a legislature, called a

parliament. But they do not elect the

head of the executive branch, called the

prime minister. The prime minister is a

member of the parliament. Usually, the

prime minister is the leader of the political

party with the most members in the

parliament.

Monarchy

Hundreds of years ago almost all countries

were monarchies. A monarch is a

king or a queen. Monarchs are not

elected. They inherit their titles from

their families.

In the kind of monarchy called an absolute

monarchy, the monarch has unlimited

power. A few absolute monarchies

still exist. But most modern monarchies,

including the United Kingdom, are limited,

or constitutional, monarchies. In a

constitutional monarchy the monarch

has little or no power. An elected parliament

and a prime minister run the

country. This is why constitutional

monarchies also count as democracies.

Two justices (high-level judges) of the

Navajo Supreme Court hear a case. The

court is a part of the judicial branch of the

government of the Navajo people.

Students outside the Arkansas Capitol protest

a proposed change to Arkansas’s constitution.

A constitution is a document that

explains how a government works.

132 Government BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Dictatorship

Some countries have a ruler who is not a

king but still has unlimited power. Such

a person is called a dictator. Many dictators

take power by force. Some call

themselves the president. Others are

generals in the army. Only the dictator’s

political party is allowed to exist.

Levels of Government

People in modern countries live under

several levels of government at the same

time. For example, most people in the

United States live in a city or village, a

county, and a state. In general, national

governments fit together with lower

levels of government in two different

ways. They are called the unitary system

and the federal system.

Most of the world’s countries, including

the United Kingdom, France, and Japan,

have a unitary political system. In such a

system the national government supervises

local governments. Some unitary

governments allow local areas to elect

some of their leaders. In others the

national government chooses local

leaders.

A federal political system is found in

other countries, including Argentina,

Australia, Brazil, Canada, India, Russia,

and the United States. In a federal system

the national government shares

power with local governments. Local

governments elect their own leaders and

make their own laws, as long as they do

not go against national law. Federal systems

are found most often in large

countries.

World Government

Throughout history disputes between

countries have often led to wars. In the

1900s countries of the world began to

work together to settle disputes peacefully

instead. These efforts led to the

United Nations (UN). The organization

was formed in 1945 after the end of

WorldWar II.

The majority of the countries of the

world belong to the UN. The UN is not

considered a world government because

it does not create and enforce laws for

individual people to follow. However,

because the UN attempts to set rules for

all the countries of the world, it could be

described as a government of governments.

#More to explore

City • Constitution • Country

• Democracy • Dictatorship • Law

• Monarchy • Parliament • Political

Party • Republic • State Government

• United Nations • United States

Government

Each of the 50 U.S. states has its own government.

The legislative or lawmaking

branch meets in the state’s Capitol.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Government 133

Graham, Martha

As a dancer and choreographer (creator

of dances), Martha Graham had a powerful

influence on modern dance. She

rejected traditional graceful styles of

dancing and used forceful movements

that expressed strong emotions.

Graham was born near Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania, on May 11, 1894. She

moved to California with her family in

1908. As a teenager she studied at the

Denishawn dance school, where she

learned dance styles from around the

world. She later became a member of

the Denishawn dance company. Her

great dramatic power made her a favorite

with audiences.

In 1923 Graham went to New York,

where she danced and later taught