Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

A passenger ship rests in the harbor of Valletta,

Malta.

52 Valletta BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Canyons are very narrow, deep river

valleys cut through hard rock. They have

steep sides that run almost straight up

and down. Canyons can be several thousand

feet deep. Smaller valleys of this

kind are called gorges. Some canyons are

remarkable landforms. The Grand Canyon,

in the U.S. state of Arizona, is 0.1

to 18 miles (0.2 to 29 kilometers) wide

and more than a mile (1.6 kilometers)

deep in some places. It was carved by the

Colorado River.

Glacial and Rift Valleys

Not all valleys are formed by rivers.

Some valleys are formed by huge, slowly

moving bodies of ice called glaciers.

Thousands of years ago glaciers covered

large parts of Earth’s surface. As the

glaciers moved along, they scraped the

land and carried away giant boulders

and huge amounts of soil. They left valleys

behind.

Other valleys are formed by movements

of the huge plates, or pieces of land,

that make up Earth’s surface. These are

called rift valleys. Rift valleys are

formed when the edge of one plate

slides downward under the edge of

another plate.

#More to explore

Erosion • Glacier • River

Van Buren,

Martin

Martin Van Buren was the eighth president

of the United States. He helped to

found the Democratic Party.

Early Life

Martin Van Buren was born on December

5, 1782, in Kinderhook, New York.

He was the son of Abraham Van Buren,

a farmer and tavern keeper, and Maria

Hoes Van Alen. Both of his parents had

Dutch roots.

After studying with a village lawyer, Van

Buren started a law practice in 1803. In

1807 he married Hannah Hoes. They

had four sons. Van Buren’s wife died in

1819. He never remarried.

A river flows through the valley that it

carved out over thousands of years.

A wide valley lies between mountains in

Nepal.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Van Buren, Martin 53

Political Career

Van Buren was a successful lawyer, but

politics became his main interest. From

1812 to 1820 Van Buren served in the

New York Senate. He also served as state

attorney general. In 1821 he entered the

U.S. Senate.

Van Buren was a member of the

Democratic-Republican Party, started by

President Thomas Jefferson. In the mid-

1820s that party split up. Van Buren

and followers of Andrew Jackson formed

a new political party—the Democratic

Party.

In 1828 Van Buren won election as governor

of New York. After three months

he resigned to become secretary of state

under President Jackson.

After Jackson was reelected in 1832, Van

Buren became vice president. In 1836

the Democrats chose Van Buren to run

for president. Van Buren defeated his

opponents in the Whig Party.

Presidency

Soon after Van Buren took office, a

financial crisis struck the nation. Many

banks and businesses failed. The president

offered no help. He asked Congress

to set up a treasury to protect the government’s

money.

December 5, July 24,

1782 1821 1832 1836 1839 1840 1862

Van Buren is

born in

Kinderhook,

New York.

Van Buren

enters the U.S.

Senate.

Van Buren is

elected vice

president under

Andrew

Jackson.

Van Buren is

elected

president.

Van Buren

stops a dispute

over Maine’s

border.

Van Buren

loses reelection

to William

Henry

Harrison.

Van Buren dies

in Kinderhook.

T I M E L I N E

Martin Van Buren was the eighth president

of the United States.

54 Van Buren, Martin BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Van Buren lost more popularity over a

long and costly war with the Seminole

people in Florida. He also faced widespread

anger over his failure to annex, or

take over, the Republic of Texas. However,

in 1839 Van Buren successfully

stopped a dispute between Maine and

New Brunswick, Canada, over Maine’s

northeastern border.

Later Years

William Henry Harrison defeated Van

Buren in the presidential election of

1840. In 1848 Van Buren ran for president

as a member of the Free Soil Party,

but he received few votes.

Van Buren then traveled in Europe

before retiring to his estate in Kinderhook.

He died there on July 24, 1862.

..More to explore

Jackson, Andrew • Political Party • Texas

• United States

Vancouver

Population

(2006 census),

city, 578,041;

metropolitan

area,

2,116,581

Vancouver is the largest city in the

Canadian province of British Columbia.

It is also the third largest metropolitan

area in Canada, after Toronto and Montreal.

With its mild climate and beautiful

scenery, Vancouver attracts many

visitors from Canada and around the

world.

Vancouver is in southwestern British

Columbia. It is just north of the U.S.

state ofWashington. It sits on a piece of

land that juts out into the Strait of

Georgia, an arm of the Pacific Ocean.

Steep mountains lie to the north. Vancouver

Island lies across the Strait of

Georgia.

Vancouver has a fine natural harbor. The

harbor has made the city into a gateway

to the Pacific Ocean. Products of Canada’s

farms, forests, mines, and factories

come to Vancouver by railroad. Then

they are shipped around the world.

Asian products come into the city from

across the Pacific. The city’s economy

also relies on tourism, manufacturing,

and construction.

Native Americans lived on the site of

Vancouver at least 2,500 years ago. An

English naval officer named George

Vancouver, British Columbia, is known for

its scenic setting, including its harbor.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vancouver 55

Vancouver explored the coast in 1792.

The city was later named after him.

Europeans settled in the area in 1866.

The settlement became a city in 1886.

Much of the city burned in the same

year but was quickly rebuilt. In 1887 the

first railway across Canada reached the

city. The city grew in the 1890s as a

gateway to Canada’s northwest, where

many people were headed for the

Klondike gold rush.

During the 1930s Vancouver became

western Canada’s largest city. During

WorldWar II (1939–45) the city was an

important shipbuilding center. In 1986

the city celebrated its 100th birthday by

holding a world’s fair. It was announced

in 2003 that Vancouver would be the

site of the 2010Winter Olympics.

#More to explore

British Columbia

Van Gogh,

Vincent

During his lifetime the Dutch artist

Vincent van Gogh sold only one painting.

By the end of the 20th century,

however, his paintings regularly sold for

millions of dollars. He is well known for

his vivid and colorful self-portraits,

paintings of flowers, and landscapes

such as Starry Night. Van Gogh worked

with great speed and passion, using

coarse brushstrokes. He greatly influenced

the style of art called expressionism,

which shows the emotions that

objects and events stir up in the artist.

VincentWillem van Gogh was born on

March 30, 1853, in Zundert, The Netherlands.

He trained to be an art dealer.

Later he turned to religious studies and

did missionary work in Belgium.

Van Gogh did not begin his career as an

artist until 1880. In the following 10

years he produced more than 800 oil

paintings and 700 drawings. He moved

around frequently, painting and studying

art in The Netherlands and Belgium.

During a stay in Paris, France, he met

many modern artists, and his style

became less traditional. In 1888 he

moved to Arles in southeastern France,

where he did some of his best work.

A famous event took place in Arles in

1888. After a quarrel with artist Paul

Gauguin, Van Gogh cut off the lower

half of his own left ear. Van Gogh spent

Vincent van Gogh painted many pictures of

himself. His Self-Portrait with Straw Hat was

done in about 1887.

More movies

are filmed in

Vancouver

than anyplace

else in North

America

except for

Los Angeles,

California,

and New York

City.

56 Van Gogh, Vincent BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

much of the rest of his life in and out of

mental hospitals. He shot himself on

July 27, 1890, and died two days later

near Paris.

#More to explore

Painting

Vanilla

Cooks use vanilla as a flavoring in ice

cream, cakes, cookies, and many other

types of food. Vanilla comes from beans

that grow on certain types of orchids in

warm parts of the world. Madagascar,

Indonesia, and China produce large

amounts of vanilla.

An orchid is a type of flowering plant. A

vanilla orchid has a long climbing stem

that attaches itself to a tree trunk or

pole. The plant produces large yellowish

flowers. The fruits that develop from

these flowers are long pods with seeds

inside. People call these pods vanilla

beans. The pods may grow to be 8

inches (20 centimeters) long. It can take

up to nine months for them to be ready

for picking.

A vanilla orchid plant will not produce

beans unless its flowers are pollinated, or

fertilized. Usually people pollinate

vanilla plants by hand. They use a

wooden stick to move grains of pollen

from the male parts of the flowers to the

female parts.

A vanilla bean has no taste or smell

until it is processed. Beans are processed

by drying and storing them until a

chemical change called fermentation

takes place. Fermentation creates

crystals of a chemical called vanillin.

Vanillin is what gives vanilla its taste

and smell.

The processed beans are crushed and

mixed with alcohol to extract, or take

out, the vanillin and other chemicals.

The liquid that results is called vanilla

extract. It is used for flavoring.

The Aztec of Mexico flavored their

chocolate drinks with vanilla for hundreds

of years before the Spanish arrived

in their lands in the 1500s. The Spanish

learned about vanilla from the Aztec,

and they later introduced it to other

Europeans. Vanilla soon became a popular

flavoring for candy and baked goods.

But natural vanilla is expensive to produce.

Most vanilla today is made from

vanillin that is synthesized, or created

artificially, in a factory.

#More to explore

Fermentation • Orchid • Pollen

Vanilla beans grow in the form of long pods.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vanilla 57

Vanuatu

The country of Vanuatu is a chain of

islands in the southwestern Pacific

Ocean. Its capital is Vila, on Efate

Island.

Geography

Vanuatu is about 1,100 miles (1,800

kilometers) east of Australia. It lies in

Melanesia, the western part of the large

region called Oceania. The country

includes 13 main islands and about 60

smaller ones. The largest island is

Espiritu Santo. Many of the islands have

mountains with active volcanoes. The

climate is hot and rainy.

Plants and Animals

Thick rain forests grow on the islands.

The drier regions have patches of grassland.

The islands’ birds include pigeons,

parrots, honeyeaters, and thrushes. Several

types of bats also live on the islands.

People

Most of the people in Vanuatu are

Melanesians. There are also small groups

of Europeans and people from the

nearby area of Polynesia. Christianity is

the main religion. Most of the people

live in small villages.

More than 100 languages are spoken in

Vanuatu. Most people also speak Bislama,

a language based on English.

English and French are also commonly

spoken.

Economy

Farming, fishing, and raising cattle are

the main jobs in Vanuatu. Farmers grow

coconuts, yams, taro, and other fruits

and vegetables. Vanuatu sells dried coconut

meat, beef, cocoa, and wood to

other countries. Tourism and banking

are also important to the economy.

History

Melanesian peoples have lived on the

islands of Vanuatu for more than 3,000

years. Europeans explored the islands in

the 1600s and 1700s. The British

named the islands the New Hebrides,

after the Scottish Hebrides island group.

British and French settlers arrived in the

1800s. Beginning in 1887 Great Britain

and France shared control of the islands.

The New Hebrides gained independence

in 1980. The islands’ people

renamed the country Vanuatu, which

means “Our Land Forever.”

..More to explore

Oceania • Vila

Facts About

VANUATU

Population

(2008 estimate)

233,000

Area

4,707 sq mi

(12,190 sq km)

Capital

Vila

Form of

government

Republic

Major towns

Vila (Port-Vila),

Luganville

58 Vanuatu BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Vatican City

Vatican City is the smallest country in

the world. It is the home of the pope,

who is the head of the Roman Catholic

church. From Vatican City the pope

directs the government of the church.

Vatican City is also called the Vatican or

the Holy See.

Geography

Vatican City sits inside the city of Rome,

Italy. Stone walls surround most of Vatican

City. Inside the walls are a large

church called Saint Peter’s Basilica, the

Vatican Palace, and other buildings. The

Vatican Palace contains the pope’s apartments,

museums, a library, and the Sistine

Chapel. The Sistine Chapel is

famous for its ceiling, which has scenes

from the Bible that were painted by the

artist Michelangelo.

Vatican City also owns many buildings

in Rome. In the Alban Hills just south

of Rome is Castel Gandolfo, the pope’s

summer home. In addition, Vatican City

has embassies, called nunciatures, in

many capital cities.

People

The pope and hundreds of members of

the church’s government live and work

in Vatican City. Dozens of Swiss Guards,

who protect the pope, also live with

their families in the city. About 3,000

other people work in Vatican City. Most

of those workers live in Rome. Most

people speak Italian. The Latin language

is used in official documents and in

some church services.

Economy

Vatican City’s economy is different from

the economies of other countries.

Roman Catholics around the world give

money to their local churches. Vatican

City then receives some of that money.

The Vatican also sells books, stamps,

coins, and souvenirs. Tourists pay to see

its museums.

History

Rome became the center of the Roman

Catholic church by the 300s. After the

750s the popes controlled much of central

Italy. That area was called the Papal

States. In 1870 the government of Italy

took over the last of the church’s lands.

In 1929 the Italian government agreed

to let Vatican City become an independent

country.

..More to explore

Michelangelo • Pope • Roman

Catholicism • Rome

Saint Peter’s Basilica is one of the largest

Catholic churches in the world.

Facts About

VATICAN CITY

Population

(2008 estimate)

930

Area

109 acres (44

hectares)

Form of

government

Commission of

five leaders of the

Roman Catholic

church led by a

Secretariat of

State

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vatican City 59

Veda

The ancient sacred texts of Hinduism

are called the Veda, which means

“knowledge.” Hindus composed these

texts in what is now India over hundreds

of years, beginning in about 1500 BC.

For a long time they passed down the

texts of the Veda by reciting them. Eventually

they wrote the texts down. Hindus

today still study the Veda.

The earliest parts of the Veda are four

collections of hymns (songs and poems)

known as the Vedas. The first, the

Rigveda, contains more than 1,000

hymns about Hindu gods and rituals.

The Yajurveda helped priests follow

these rituals. The Samaveda contains

verses that priests chanted or sang. The

Atharvaveda includes magic spells and

rituals. It differs from the other Vedas

because it is based more on everyday

religious ideas than on the lives of the

gods.

The Veda also includes the Brahmanas,

the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads.

These texts comment on the earlier

Vedas. They explain the importance and

deeper meanings of Hindu rituals and

beliefs.

#More to explore

Hinduism • India

Vegetable

Vegetables are the leaves, stems, roots, or

other parts of certain plants that people

eat. Vegetables usually come from herbaceous

plants. Herbaceous plants have

stems that are softer than the woody

stems of bushes and trees.

Brahma was a major god of

Hinduism. He was often shown

holding a number of objects,

including the sacred Hindu text

called the Rigveda.

Shoppers at a farmers’ market choose from

a variety of fresh vegetables.

60 Veda BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Many vegetables grow aboveground.

Lettuce, spinach, brussels sprouts, and

cabbage are the leaves of plants. Asparagus

spears are stems. Broccoli, cauliflower,

and artichokes are flowers.

Other vegetables grow underground.

Root vegetables are the roots of plants.

These include carrots, beets, turnips,

radishes, and sweet potatoes. Tubers are

a kind of underground stem. Potatoes

are the most commonly eaten tuber.

Garlic and onions are plant bulbs, which

are underground buds.

Some foods that people call vegetables

are really fruits. Cucumbers, squashes,

eggplants, and pumpkins are all fruits.

They contain seeds, while true vegetables

do not.

Vegetables are an important part of a

healthy diet. They contain water, vitamins,

minerals, and fiber. People eat

many fresh vegetables raw. They drink

the juice of some raw vegetables, especially

carrots. People also eat baked,

boiled, fried, steamed, and grilled vegetables.

They often add vegetables to

soups, stews, and casseroles. Most fresh

vegetables spoil quickly, but they can be

canned or frozen for later use.

#More to explore

Fruit • Leaf • Plant • Root

Velazquez, Diego

Diego Velazquez was one of Spain’s

greatest painters. He is especially famous

for his portraits (pictures of people).

Velazquez was born in 1599 in Seville,

a city in southern Spain. At the age of

about 12 he went to work as an

apprentice, or helper, in an artist’s

studio.

At first Velazquez painted scenes of

everyday life. But in 1623 he became

court painter to King Philip IV of Spain.

A court painter’s job was to make paintings

of the royal family and the high

officials and nobles of the kingdom. As

court painter Velazquez lived in Madrid,

the capital of Spain.

Velazquez spent the years between 1629

and 1631 in Italy studying Italian art.

He returned and became the Spanish

court painter once again.

Las Meninas is one of the most famous

works by Diego Velazquez. It shows a

scene in the artist’s own studio in the palace

of the king of Spain. The king’s 5-year-old

daughter has been brought in for a visit.

Two older girls—the maids of honor—look

after her. Velazquez himself stands at left,

holding a paintbrush.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Velazquez, Diego 61

Velazquez had other duties as well. He

went to Italy for a second time in 1649

to buy art for the king’s collections.

While in Rome he painted a famous

picture of Pope Innocent X, the head of

the Roman Catholic church.

Back in Madrid, Velazquez painted some

of his greatest works, including Las

Meninas (The Maids of Honor). He

died on August 6, 1660.

#More to explore

Painting

Velociraptor

The name Velociraptor means “quick

plunderer.” This dinosaur was named

for its speed when hunting its prey. It

belongs to the group of dinosaurs called

dromaeosaurs, or “terrible-clawed lizards.”

They are also known as raptors.

When and Where Velociraptor

Lived

Velociraptor lived about 99 to 65 million

years ago. Fossil remains of Velociraptor

have been found in Asia. In Mongolia

scientists uncovered the skeleton of a

Velociraptor locked in a battle with a

dinosaur called Protoceratops. This find

presents a picture of the violent struggle

for survival during prehistoric times.

Physical Features

Velociraptor was a small dinosaur that

ran on its two back legs. It reached a

length of about 6 feet (2 meters) and

weighed up to 100 pounds (45 kilograms).

The most striking feature of

Velociraptor was the curved claw on each

foot. Velociraptor had long, muscular legs

and arms. The head of Velociraptor was

low and long, and its snout was flat. Its

jaws contained razor-sharp teeth useful

for ripping apart flesh.

Behavior

Velociraptor was a meat-eating dinosaur

that often preyed upon smaller animals.

Scientists believe that it pounced on its

victims from a hiding spot. It then

chased them down when they tried to

escape. Velociraptor hunted in packs to

bring down larger dinosaurs as well. It

also may have been a scavenger, meaning

that it fed upon dead animals.

#More to explore

Dinosaur

Velociraptor was not much taller than a modern chicken.

62 Velociraptor BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Venezuela

Venezuela is a country on the northern

coast of South America. In the 1800s

Venezuela led the fight for South America’s

independence from Spain. The capital

of Venezuela is Caracas.

Geography

Venezuela shares borders with Colombia,

Brazil, and Guyana. Venezuela

claims that western Guyana belongs to

it, but Guyana does not agree. The Caribbean

Sea lies north of Venezuela, and

the Atlantic Ocean lies to the northeast.

Some islands in the Caribbean belong to

Venezuela.

Both high mountains and low plains run

along Venezuela’s coast. The Andes

Mountains rise in the northwest. Also in

the northwest is Lake Maracaibo, the

largest lake in South America. The

Orinoco River flows through the center

of the country. Along the Orinoco is the

Llanos, a huge area of grasslands. In the

southeast there are rugged highlands and

the world’s highest waterfall, Angel Falls.

Venezuela has a warm climate with rainy

and dry seasons.

Plants and Animals

Tropical rain forests grow in parts of

Venezuela. Grasslands cover about half

of the country. Mangrove trees grow in

swampy areas of the coast. The highest

parts of the Andes have only shrubs and

lichens.

Venezuela’s forests are home to jaguars,

tapirs, armadillos, deer, monkeys, and

The water of Angel Falls drops 3,212 feet

(979 meters), making it the highest waterfall

in the world.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Venezuela 63

snakes. Turtles, piranhas, and crocodiles

live in the country’s waters.

People

Most Venezuelans are mestizos, or

people with both American Indian and

European roots. There are also large

groups of whites and blacks. American

Indians make up only a small part of the

population. Spanish is the main language,

but Indian groups speak more

than 25 other languages. Most people

are Roman Catholics. Almost 90 percent

of the people live in cities and towns.

Few people live in the area south of the

Orinoco River.

Economy

Venezuela’s economy is based mainly on

the production of oil and natural gas.

The country is one of the top oil producers

in the world. Venezuela’s other

minerals include iron ore, coal, bauxite

(which is used to make aluminum),

gold, and diamonds. Factories produce

iron and steel, aluminum, clothing, processed

foods, and chemicals. Banking,

tourism, and other services are also

important to the economy.

Agriculture is a small part of the

economy. The main crops include

sugarcane, corn, bananas, sorghum, and

rice. Cattle raising is common on the

grasslands.

History

Arawak and Carib Indians lived in what

is now Venezuela when Christopher

Columbus reached the coast in 1498.

Later European explorers saw houses on

stilts that the Indians had built. This

reminded them of Venice, the Italian

city built on islands. They named the

land Venezuela, which means “Little

Venice.”

The Spanish began settling the area in

the 1520s. Spain ruled Venezuela for the

next three centuries. In 1811 Venezuelans

declared their independence. The

Spanish crushed the Venezuelan revolution,

but the Venezuelan leader Simon

Bolivar continued the fight. His forces

defeated the Spanish in 1821.

Venezuela was a part of a country called

Gran Colombia until 1829. In 1830 it

became an independent country. Military

leaders ruled Venezuela for many

years. In 1958 Venezuela’s navy and air

force forced out the military ruler. After

that date Venezuela elected presidents to

lead the country.

In 2002 army leaders arrested Venezuela’s

president. However, the president

returned to power only two days later.

..More to explore

Bolivar, Simon • Caracas

Venezuela is home to many different kinds

of birds, including flamingos.

Facts About

VENEZUELA

Population

(2008 estimate)

27,884,000

Area

353,841 sq mi

(916,445 sq km)

Capital

Caracas

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Caracas, Maracaibo,

Valencia,

Barquisimeto,

Ciudad Guayana

64 Venezuela BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Venice

Population

(2007 estimate)

268,930

The city of Venice is a major center of

culture and tourism in Italy, a country in

southeastern Europe. It is famous for its

beautiful canals, palaces, and art. The

city is built on more than 100 small

islands. They lie in a body of water called

a lagoon at the edge of the Adriatic Sea.

Cityscape

Canals and about 400 bridges link the

islands of Venice. People travel through

the city by boat or by walking. A type of

long, flat-bottomed boat called a gondola

is a traditional symbol of Venice.

The Grand Canal is like the city’s main

street.

The Piazza San Marco is the main

square in Venice. A magnificent church

called the San Marco Basilica is located

there. It is famous for its golden domes

and the golden tile decorations inside.

Also on the square is the Doges’ Palace,

which was once home to the city’s

rulers.

Economy

The economy of Venice is based mainly

on tourism. In addition, craftspeople

from the city sell their famous glass and

lace products to tourists. Trade, shipbuilding,

fishing, and manufacturing

also bring money to Venice.

History

People settled the islands of Venice in

the 500s. They moved there to escape

invaders on the Italian mainland.

A series of dukes, called doges, ruled

Venice from the 700s until 1797. It

developed into an independent power

called a city-state. Venice controlled

important trade routes and grew wealthy

from sea trade. In the 1200s it began

taking over other territories in the

region. Venice achieved its greatest

power and wealth in the 1400s.

Venice began to decline in the 1500s. It

gradually lost the lands of its empire in

wars with other powers. Austria took

control of Venice in 1797. The city has

been part of Italy since 1866.

In modern times air pollution and

regular flooding have damaged Venice’s

great buildings. Also, the islands have

Boats called gondolas gather for a special

event on the Grand Canal of Venice, Italy.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Venice 65

been sinking into the lagoon at an

alarming rate. In the 20th century the

city began projects to try to control

these problems.

#More to explore

Canal • Italy

Venus

Venus is one of the planets that orbit,

or travel around, the sun in the solar

system. Venus is the brightest planet in

the sky when viewed from Earth. It is

Earth’s nearest neighbor, coming closer

to Earth than any other planet. Venus is

the second planet from the sun. Its

distance from the sun averages about 67

million miles (108 million kilometers).

It is the hottest planet in the solar

system.

Physical Features

Venus is about the same size and weight

as Earth. Its diameter, or distance

through its center, is about 7,500 miles

(12,100 kilometers). It is solid and

rocky. Scientists believe that Venus also

has layers like Earth’s. These layers consist

of a metal core, a thick rocky

middle, and a crust.

In the past lava from erupting volcanoes

shaped the surface of Venus. Most of the

landscape is gently rolling plains. Venus

also has tall mountains.

The atmosphere, or layer of gases, surrounding

Venus is thick and heavy. Also,

thick clouds always cover the planet.

The gases and clouds trap heat. The

temperature near Venus’ surface is about

867° F (464° C). Its surface is hot

enough to melt lead.

Orbit and Spin

Like all planets, Venus has two types of

motion: orbit and spin. The orbit is the

path it takes as it travels around the sun.

Venus orbits the sun in a nearly perfect

circle. Venus takes 225 Earth days to

complete one orbit. In other words, one

year on Venus lasts 225 Earth days.

Venus also spins, or rotates about its

center. A planet’s orbit and spin combine

in a complex way to determine the

length of a day on that planet. For most

planets a day is almost equal to the time

it takes to complete one rotation. Venus

is unusual in that the length of its day is

very different than the time it takes to

complete one rotation. The planet takes

243 Earth days to complete one rota-

A view of Venus taken by the Magellan

spacecraft shows the planet’s highest mountain

range. It appears as a bright spot near

the center of the photograph.

66 Venus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tion, but a day on Venus lasts only about

117 Earth days. A day on a planet is the

time it takes for the sun to appear

straight overhead, to set, and then to rise

straight overhead again.

Observation and Exploration

People have observed Venus from Earth

since ancient times. In addition, more

than 20 unmanned spacecraft have visited

the planet. The U.S. Mariner 2

spacecraft passed by Venus in 1962. It

was the first spacecraft to fly near

another planet. In 1970 the Soviet

Union’s Venera 7 landed on Venus. It

was the first spacecraft to successfully

land on another planet. In the 1990s the

U.S. Magellan spacecraft mapped Venus’

surface in great detail. The European

Space Agency sent a craft to study

Venus’ atmosphere in 2005.

#More to explore

Earth • Planets • Solar System • Space

Exploration

Venus, goddess

#see Aphrodite.

Venus’s-flytrap

The Venus’s-flytrap is a plant that traps

and eats insects. It belongs to a group of

carnivorous, or meat-eating, plants. This

group also includes sundews and pitcher

plants. The scientific name of the

Venus’s-flytrap is Dionaea muscipula.

In the wild the Venus’s-flytrap grows

only in parts of North and South Carolina,

in the United States. It grows best

in soil that is damp.

The Venus’s-flytrap grows from a bulblike

root. It reaches heights of between 8

and 12 inches (20 to 30 centimeters)

and produces small, white flowers. The

leaves of the plant grow in rounded

halves. The halves are hinged together

on one side like jaws. Each half has long

spikes along its edge and three hairs on

top that are sensitive to touch. The leaf

oozes a sticky substance that attracts flies

and other insects.

When an insect crawls between the two

halves of a leaf, the hairs detect its presence.

In less than a second, the leaf

snaps shut and the long spikes lock

together. The leaf then releases digestive

juices that break down the insect into

nutrients. The leaf absorbs the nutrients

and transports them to all parts of the

plant. This process takes about 10 days.

Then the leaf reopens.

#More to explore

Pitcher Plant • Plant

The Venus’s-flytrap has pairs of leaves that

look like toothy jaws.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Venus’s-flytrap 67

Vermont

The U.S. state of Vermont is

nicknamed the Green Mountain

State. The nickname comes from the

state’s central geographical feature, the

Green Mountains. Vermont’s name

comes from the French words for

“green” and “mountain”—vert and mont.

The state capital is Montpelier.

Geography

Vermont is located in the northeastern

corner of the United States in the region

known as New England. The state is

bordered on the north by the Canadian

province of Quebec and on the south by

Massachusetts. To the west is New York,

which is separated from northwestern

Vermont by Lake Champlain. The Connecticut

River forms Vermont’s border

with New Hampshire on the east.

The Green Mountains run down the

center of the state and cover most of the

land. These heavily forested highlands

are part of the Appalachian Mountain

range.Winters in Vermont are cold, and

summer days are rarely hot. Snowfall

can be very heavy, especially in the

mountains.

People

The earliest European settlers were Protestants

of English heritage. The state

remains populated largely by offspring

of the original settlers and of later immigrants

from Europe and Canada. Vermont’s

minority groups are very small.

African Americans, Asians, Hispanics,

and Native Americans together make up

only about 3 percent of the population.

Economy

The greatest portion of Vermont’s economic

earnings come from businesses

and organizations that provide services.

Some examples of major business ser-

The town of Stowe is a popular destination

for tourists to Vermont.

68 Vermont BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

vices are banking and finance, commercial

sales, and real estate. Tourism is also

an important service industry in Vermont.

Vermont’s manufacturers make electronic

equipment, metal products, and

foodstuffs. Semiconductor chips, a common

part in most electronic systems, are

produced in Vermont. IBM, one of the

world’s largest electronics companies,

has a manufacturing plant near Burlington.

IBM is Vermont’s leading employer.

Dairying has always been Vermont’s

main agricultural activity, and the state

is a major producer of milk. The icecream

maker Ben and Jerry’s is based in

Vermont. Vermont is a national leader in

the production of maple syrup and

maple sugar.

History

Abnaki Indians lived in the Vermont

region before the arrival of Europeans.

No permanent European settlement was

made until the French built a fort on

Isle La Motte in Lake Champlain in

1666. Both the Dutch and the British

established settlements in the area in the

1700s. In 1763 the British took control

of the area.

During the colonial era both New

Hampshire and New York claimed parts

of the Vermont region. In 1770 Ethan

Allen organized fighters known as the

Green Mountain Boys to drive the New

Yorkers from the region. In 1777 Vermont

declared itself independent of

both New Hampshire and New York.

Vermont remained independent until it

joined the Union in 1791.

Vermont remained loyal to the Union

during the American CivilWar (1861–

65). It was the site of the only CivilWar

action north of Pennsylvania. In 1864

soldiers from the Confederacy raided the

town of Saint Albans and robbed its

banks.

The farming community suffered as the

number of Vermont’s farms began to

decline after the CivilWar. Farms continued

to drop in the 1900s. In the

1930s the first ski runs were built in the

state. By the 1960s Vermont had a successful

winter tourist industry. In the

early 21st century hotels, restaurants,

and recreational sites were important

parts of Vermont’s economy.

..More to explore

Montpelier

Many people ski in the mountains of Vermont.

Facts About

VERMONT

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

608,827—rank,

49th state; (2008

estimate)

621,270—rank,

49th state

Capital

Montpelier

Area

9,614 sq mi

(24,901 sq km)—

rank, 45th state

Statehood

March 4, 1791

Motto

Freedom and

Unity

State bird

Hermit thrush

State flower

Red clover

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vermont 69

Verne, Jules

The French author Jules Verne is known

as one of the first science fiction writers.

He wrote more than 50 novels and

many short stories.

Verne was born on February 8, 1828, in

Nantes, France. He studied law and

worked for a while as a stockbroker. But

he always considered himself to be a

writer. His first play was produced in

1850. His first successful adventure

story was FiveWeeks in a Balloon, which

was published in 1863.

Verne studied science to make his stories

as believable as possible. He knew so

much that he was able to imagine many

developments that would soon take

place in real life. In his novels and stories

he predicted wonders such as television,

airplanes, space travel, and modern submarines.

Verne’s most famous adventure novels

are probably Twenty Thousand Leagues

Under the Sea (1870) and Around the

World in Eighty Days (1873). Twenty

Thousand Leagues Under the Sea is the

story of Captain Nemo, a mysterious

wanderer who commands a marvelous

submarine. Around theWorld in Eighty

Days is the story of Phileas Fogg, an

English gentleman who makes a very

speedy (for the 1870s) trip to win a bet.

Verne died in Amiens, France, on March

24, 1905. His works were translated into

many languages and continue to be

popular. Several successful movies were

made from his works.

#More to explore

Science Fiction

Verrazzano,

Giovanni da

Giovanni da Verrazzano was an Italian

explorer who worked for the French

government. He explored the Atlantic

coast of what is now the United States.

He was the first European to see New

York Bay.

Verrazzano was born near Florence, Italy.

As an adult he moved to France. Then

he went to sea on French ships. He

made several trips to the Middle East.

An illustration from Jules Verne’s

Twenty Thousand Leagues Under

the Sea shows Captain Nemo

looking at an octopus through a

window in his submarine, the

Nautilus.

70 Verne, Jules BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1524 Verrazzano commanded a ship

that went across the Atlantic Ocean.

Like many other European explorers, he

was looking for something that did not

exist—a short route to Asia. He landed

at Cape Fear, which is now in North

Carolina. He first went south but soon

turned north because he did not want to

meet the Spanish.

Verrazzano soon found New York Bay.

He sailed by a narrow waterway that

separated two parts of New York that are

now called Long Island and Staten

Island. Verrazzano then explored what is

now Rhode Island and met Native

Americans. He continued all the way to

Newfoundland before returning home.

He claimed everything he saw for

France. The French later made colonies

in the northern part of the lands he

claimed.

Verrazzano later made two more trips to

the Americas. In 1527 he commanded

ships that went to South America. He

returned with a cargo of valuable wood.

In 1528 Verrazzano made a trip to

Florida, the Bahamas, and finally the

islands of the Caribbean Sea. His trip

ended when he was captured and killed

by the Carib people.

The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, which

spans part of New York Bay, was named

for the explorer. The bridge uses a different

spelling of Verrazzano’s name.

#More to explore

Americas, Exploration and Settlement

of the

Versailles

Versailles is a city in France. It is about

14 miles (22 kilometers) southwest of

Paris. Versailles is famous for a palace

built in the 1600s under the guidance of

King Louis XIV. The Palace of Versailles

was one of the most costly and extravagant

buildings in the world. French

kings lived there for more than 100

years.

Versailles was not even a town when

King Louis XIII built a hunting lodge

there in the 1630s. The expansion of the

lodge into the palace began in the

1660s. Construction went on through

the next century. When the building was

completed, about 5,000 people lived

there. Other buildings on the palace

grounds include the Grand Trianon and

the Petit (Small) Trianon. They were

built as private residences for the royal

family and special guests.

The town of Versailles grew around the

palace. It was founded in 1671. Many of

the first residents were people who had

The Palace of Versailles is known for its

extensive gardens as well as its grand

buildings.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Versailles 71

come to work on the palace. When

Louis XIV died in 1715, after 72 years

as king, the town of Versailles had a

population of 30,000.

The Palace of Versailles was used as the

royal residence until the French Revolution

started in 1789. After the revolution,

the palace was nearly destroyed. In

1837 King Louis-Philippe restored it

and turned it into a museum.

#More to explore

France

Vertebrate

A vertebrate is an animal with a backbone.

(An invertebrate is an animal

without a backbone.) Fishes, amphibians,

reptiles, birds, and mammals,

including humans, are all vertebrates.

Vertebrates share some basic characteristics.

A hollow backbone and the cranium,

or skull, protect the spinal cord

and brain of most vertebrates. All vertebrates

reproduce by mating between

males and females.

Fish are the oldest known vertebrates.

Most fish have a bony skeleton. However,

sharks and rays have a skeleton

made of cartilage, a strong and flexible

tissue. Fish gradually evolved, or

changed, into land animals.

Mammals are the most complex kind of

vertebrate. They feed their babies with

milk from the mother, they develop

inside their mother’s body, and they

have hair. Their highly developed brains

make them more intelligent than other

groups of animals.

Vespucci,

Amerigo

Amerigo Vespucci was an explorer from

Europe. The Americas are named for

him though he was not the first European

to visit North or South America.

He crossed the Atlantic Ocean several

years after Christopher Columbus made

his first voyage of discovery.

Vespucci was born in 1454 in Florence,

Italy. In 1491 he went to live in Spain.

There he worked for a company that

helped people prepare ships for voyages.

Through his work he met Columbus.

He helped to gather supplies for the

second and third voyages of Columbus.

In about 1499 Vespucci himself set

sail on a Spanish ship. He was the

Vertebrates

with two pairs

of limbs are

called tetrapods.

Limbs

include legs,

arms, wings,

and flippers.

The name of America appeared for the first

time on a map made in 1507. The map

showed the lands that Amerigo Vespucci

had visited in the New World.

72 Vertebrate BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

navigator, or the person who found the

way. He explored the northeastern coast

of South America and then returned to

Spain.

In 1501 Vespucci sailed again, this time

on a Portuguese ship. He explored the

southeastern coast of South America.

When he got back to Europe, Vespucci

wrote about his travels. Unlike Columbus,

he did not think he had been to

Asia. Instead he described the places he

had seen as a “NewWorld.”

A German mapmaker named Martin

Waldseemuller read Vespucci’s writings.

In 1507 Waldseemuller made a world

map and labeled South America as

“America.” (Vespucci’s first name was

also spelled Americus.) Later

mapmakers used “America” for North

America and Central America as well,

even though Vespucci had never been

to either place.

After he stopped traveling Vespucci went

to work for the Spanish government. He

helped to prepare the official map of

newly discovered lands and of the routes

to them. He died in 1512 in Spain.

..More to explore

Americas, Exploration and Settlement of

the • Columbus, Christopher

Vesuvius, Mount

Mount Vesuvius is an active volcano in

southern Italy. It is famous for an eruption

that happened in AD 79. Thousands

of people died when lava, ashes, and

mud buried the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum,

and Stabiae. The cities were

forgotten until archaeologists began

digging up their ruins in the 1700s.

Mount Vesuvius towers over the ruins of the ancient city of Pompeii, in southern Italy. An

eruption of Vesuvius buried Pompeii in AD 79, but workers have uncovered much of the city.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vesuvius, Mount 73

Mount Vesuvius stands about 4,200 feet

(1,280 meters) high, but its height

changes after each major eruption. A

high ridge known as Mount Somma

partly surrounds the main cone of Vesuvius.

The area between the ridge and the

cone is known as Valle del Gigante

(Giant’s Valley). At the top of the cone

is a large crater. It is about 1,000 feet

(300 meters) deep and 2,000 feet (600

meters) across.

Scientists believe that Mount Vesuvius

was formed about 200,000 years ago.

Vesuvius was inactive for hundreds of

years before the disaster of AD 79. Since

then the volcano has erupted many

times. An eruption in 1631 killed about

3,000 people. The last major eruption

occurred in 1944.

#More to explore

Italy • Pompeii • Volcano

Veterans Day

Every year on November 11, people in

the United States celebrate Veterans

Day. The holiday honors veterans, or

people who served in the U.S. military.

The day especially honors those veterans

who died while fighting in a war.

To celebrate Veterans Day, some cities

and towns have parades. Veterans from

the area may march in the parades.

Sometimes people visit cemeteries on

Veterans Day. People may put flowers or

flags on the graves of veterans to honor

them.

Before it got the name of Veterans Day,

November 11 was called Armistice Day.

November 11, 1918, was the day of the

armistice (agreement to stop fighting)

that endedWorldWar I.

The United States celebrated the first

Armistice Day in 1919. Armistice Day

became an official holiday in 1938. U.S.

forces later fought inWorldWar II

(1939–45) and the KoreanWar (1950–

53). In 1954 Armistice Day was

renamed Veterans Day to honor veterans

of all wars.

People in Australia, Canada, France, and

the United Kingdom also honor veterans

on a day in November. Canada and

In many

countries of

the world a

red flower

called a

poppy is a

symbol of the

veterans who

died in wars.

A veteran of World War II (1939–45)

wears his uniform and medals at a U.S.

Veterans Day ceremony.

74 Veterans Day BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the United Kingdom call the holiday

Remembrance Day. On November 11,

people across Europe remember the end

ofWorldWar I.

#More to explore

War •WorldWar I

Veterinary

Medicine

Veterinarians, or veterinary surgeons, are

animal doctors. A veterinarian’s job is to

keep animals healthy and to treat them

when they get sick. This branch of

medicine is called veterinary medicine,

or veterinary science.

People go to school to become veterinarians.

They must earn a degree called a

doctor of veterinary medicine. This

takes at least four years. Veterinarians

can specialize in different areas. For

example, some only take care of pets.

Before they can treat animals, veterinarians

must pass a state test. They then

decide where they want to work. Many

veterinarians work in hospitals or clinics.

Others start their own business, or practice.

Many people think of veterinarians as

pet doctors. But veterinarians are also

very important to zoos and farms. Farmers

can go out of business if a disease

kills many of their animals. Veterinarians

try to keep the animals free from disease.

They also help the animals breed and

give birth. They do the same things for

zoo animals. This is especially important

since many endangered animals live in

zoos.

Not all veterinarians treat animals. Some

teach veterinary medicine. Others conduct

research. They look for better

medicines. In addition, a number of

veterinarians try to control animal diseases

that can spread to humans.

Veterinary medicine may have begun as

early as 2000 BC in Babylonia (present-

Veterinarians at zoos care for a

wide range of animals.

Pet owners can help keep their pets healthy

by taking them to a veterinarian for regular

checkups.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Veterinary Medicine 75

day Iraq) and Egypt. In the Middle Ages

(AD 500–1500) veterinary medicine

practically disappeared. Then in the

1700s a disease killed herds of cattle in

Europe. To prevent this from happening

again, colleges of veterinary medicine

were created in Europe. Soon they were

found all over the world.

Viburnum

Viburnums are shrubs and small trees

that are often planted in parks and gardens.

Most have showy flowers and colorful

fruits.

There are 200 species, or types, of

viburnum. Plant scientists place them

in the honeysuckle family of plants.

They can be found in Europe, Asia,

and North America. Viburnums grow

in areas that have mild or subtropical

weather.

The flowers of viburnums are often

white and have a sweet smell. They usually

grow in clusters, or groups. These

clusters can be so large that they look

like snowballs. Two popular types of

viburnum are the Chinese snowball and

the Japanese snowball.

Most viburnums have blue-black fruit.

Their leaves come in many shapes. A

type of viburnum called the black haw

has plumlike leaves. The sheepberry has

oval leaves.

Viburnums vary in height. The American

wayfaring tree grows up to 10 feet (3

meters) tall. The wayfaring tree of

Europe reaches a height of 16 feet (5

meters).

Victoria, Queen

Queen Victoria was queen of the United

Kingdom from 1837 to 1901. She

reigned over her country longer than

any other British king or queen before

her. Her reign is called the Victorian

Age.

Viburnum flowers grow in round clusters, or

groups, that sometimes look like snowballs.

Queen Victoria

76 Viburnum BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Early Life

Alexandrina Victoria was born on May

24, 1819, in London, England, the capital

of the United Kingdom. Her father

was a son of King George III. Her

mother was a German princess.

Reign

Victoria became queen in 1837. She was

18 years old. The young queen learned

about the British government from Lord

Melbourne, the British prime minister

(head of government).

In 1840 Victoria married her cousin

Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.

They had nine children together. Almost

all of them married members of European

royal families.

Albert died in 1861. Victoria was never

really happy after that. She stopped

going to places where people could see

her. She spent less and less time in London

and more and more time in a castle

in Scotland called Balmoral.

Then another prime minister, named

Benjamin Disraeli, became Victoria’s

friend. Disraeli pleased Victoria in 1876

by making the British government a part

owner of the Suez Canal. The canal was

an important link between Europe and

Asia. Disraeli pleased Victoria even more

by giving her the title of empress of

India in 1876.

Later Years

As the years passed, Victoria kept her

popularity. In 1887 the British people

had a big celebration called the Golden

Jubilee to honor her 50 years as queen.

Ten years later they had another big

celebration called the Diamond Jubilee.

On January 22, 1901, Victoria died at

age 81 on the Isle ofWight, an island in

the English Channel. Her son Edward

VII then became king.

#More to explore

George III • United Kingdom

Victoria

Victoria is the second smallest of Australia’s

six states. Only the island state of

Tasmania is smaller. But Victoria is the

second largest state in population. Only

New SouthWales has more people. Victoria’s

capital is Melbourne.

Geography

Victoria lies in the southeastern corner

of Australia. It shares borders with New

SouthWales on the north and South

Australia on the west. The Pacific Ocean

lies to the east. The Tasman Sea and the

Antarctic Ocean lie to the south. Victo-

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Victoria 77

ria’s area is 87,806 square miles

(227,416 square kilometers).

The Murray River runs along most of

Victoria’s border with New South

Wales. Mountains rise in the northeast

and in the center of the state. Mount

Bogong, at 6,516 feet (1,986 metres), is

the highest point. Flat plains lie north,

west, and south of the mountains. Sandy

deserts are found in the west.

People

About 5 million people live in Victoria.

Most people can trace their roots to

Great Britain. Some have other European

or Asian roots. About one quarter

of Victoria’s people were born outside

Australia. A small number of Aborigines,

or native Australians, also live in

Victoria.

Melbourne is the largest city in Victoria

and the second largest city in Australia.

It has a population of more than 3

million. Melbourne is a port, an

industrial city, and the cultural center

of Victoria. It lies on the southern coast

of the state.

Economy

Victoria has one of the strongest economies

in Australia. Many people work in

manufacturing. Factories produce

machines, vehicles, clothing, and paper.

Many other people of Victoria work in

services—for example, banking, communications,

and tourism.

The state’s farmers grow wheat, broccoli,

brussels sprouts, celery, cauliflower,

lettuce, and potatoes. Sheep and cattle

ranchers produce wool and beef products.

Victoria’s mineral resources include

coal, oil, and natural gas.

History

Aborigines first settled in what is now

Victoria at least 40,000 years ago. In

1770 the British explorer James Cook

became the first European to visit the

region. At that time between 15,000 and

20,000 Aborigines lived there.

In the 1830s Europeans started to settle

in the area. The land was then a part of

the British colony of New SouthWales.

The Europeans fought wars with the

Aborigines. By 1850 only about 3,500

Aborigines were left in the region.

By 1850 Victoria had about 76,000

people, mainly farmers and sheep herders.

Victoria became a separate colony of

Great Britain in 1851. The discovery of

gold in that year soon brought many

The unusual rock formations off the coast of

Victoria, Australia, are called sea stacks.

They were formed over thousands of years

by the water washing away at the stone.

The process continues, and in 2005 one of

the rocks collapsed into the water.

78 Victoria BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

more people. More than 200,000 came

from Britain, and another 25,000 came

from China.

In 1855 Victoria set up its own government.

In 1901 Australia gained independence

from Britain. Victoria then

became a state of Australia.

..More to explore

Aboriginal Peoples • Australia • New

SouthWales

Victoria

Population

(2004 estimate)

23,200

Victoria is the capital of Seychelles, an

island country in the Indian Ocean. The

town lies on the coast of Mahe Island,

the country’s largest island. It is the only

major town in Seychelles.

Victoria is Seychelles’ business center

and port. Shipping goods through the

port is important to the town’s

economy. Tourism also brings money to

Victoria.

The French built the first permanent

settlements on the islands of Seychelles

in the 1700s. Great Britain took control

of the islands in the early 1800s. In

1841 the British named the islands’

capital Victoria in honor of Queen Victoria

of Britain. Seychelles became an

independent country in 1976. Victoria

was its capital.

..More to explore

Seychelles

Victoria, Lake

Lake Victoria is the largest lake in

Africa. It is also the second largest freshwater

lake in the world. The lake lies

mainly in the countries of Tanzania and

Uganda. It also borders on Kenya.

Lake Victoria has an area of 26,828

square miles (69,484 square kilometers).

Several rivers flow into the lake. The

most important is the Kagera River. The

lake’s only outlet is the Victoria Nile,

which is the beginning of the Nile River.

Many islands are in Lake Victoria. The

British colonists built a clock tower in the

center of Victoria, Seychelles. They wanted

it to look like a clock tower they knew in

London, England.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Victoria, Lake 79

largest is Ukerewe. The island has hills

650 feet (200 meters) high.

More than 200 species of fish are found

in Lake Victoria. Fishing is important to

the local economies. Several million

people live in the area around the lake.

In 1858 a British explorer named John

Hanning Speke saw the lake while

searching for the source of the Nile

River. He named it Lake Victoria after

Queen Victoria of England.

#More to explore

Lake • Nile River

Video Games

#see Electronic Games.

Video Recording

Video recording is a way of storing television

programs and other moving

images along with sound. Video recording

is used to record TV programs for

later broadcast. Video recording also

gives viewers the ability to save a TV

program and watch it whenever they

want to.

Thousands of movies are available in the

form of video recordings, too. They can

be viewed on a TV set or a computer

screen. And many people make their

own movies using portable video cameras

called camcorders.

How Video RecordingWorks

Video cameras such as TV cameras create

electric signals that represent pictures

(video) and sound (audio). A TV set

receives these signals and uses them to

reproduce the pictures and sound that

the camera recorded.

Home video-recording devices allow

people to record video and audio signals.

One such device is the videocassette

Tourists use camcorders to record interesting

animals, people, or events that they observe

during their travels.

The sun sets behind one of the many islands

in Lake Victoria.

80 Video Games BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

recorder, or VCR. It changes the signals

into patterns of magnetic particles on a

plastic tape. The tape is stored in a case

called a videocassette. VCRs can also

play recorded videocassettes. They read

the magnetic patterns on the tape and

re-create the recorded electric signals.

Digital video-recording devices store

video and audio signals as a number

code. DVD recorders store the number

code on plastic discs called digital videodiscs,

or DVDs. The code is recorded on

the disc as a series of tiny pits, or holes,

arranged along narrow tracks. A DVD

player uses a laser to read the code and

turn it back into pictures and sound. A

digital video recorder (DVR) stores the

number code on a metal disk inside a

device called a hard drive. Unlike other

video-recording devices, a DVR can

show a TV program even while it is still

being recorded.

History

The first successful videotape recorder

was introduced in 1956. It was very

expensive and was used mainly by TV

broadcasters. From then on, recorded

TV shows almost completely replaced

live broadcasts. VCRs became common

in homes starting in the 1970s. Camcorders

that used videotape appeared in

the early 1980s.

Digital video recording is a newer technology.

DVDs and digital camcorders

were introduced in the mid-1990s.

Recordable DVDs and DVRs appeared

a few years later. By the early 21st century

DVDs had mostly replaced videocassettes.

..More to explore

Camera • Laser • Movie • Television

Vienna

Population

(2007

estimate), city,

1,664,150;

urban area,

1,954,960

Vienna is the capital of Austria, a country

in central Europe. The city lies on

the Danube River. It is Austria’s largest

city. It is also the country’s center of

industry, trade, and, especially, culture.

For centuries Vienna has been one of the

world capitals of music. Operas and

classical music concerts have played a

major part in city life. Many great

composers—including Ludwig van

Beethoven,Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,

and Johannes Brahms—have lived in

Vienna. The city is home to a worldfamous

orchestra, opera house, and

boys’ choir.

Vienna is famous for its palaces and

other grand buildings. The Hofburg is a

large group of buildings that originally

housed Austria’s royal family. One of its

buildings now houses the Spanish

Riding School and its performing horses

of the Lipizzaner breed.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vienna 81

Economy

The economy of Vienna is based on

manufacturing and services such as

trade, banking, and tourism. Many

people in the city work for the

government. Factories in Vienna make

car parts, electrical machinery, and

chemicals. Vienna also has many

companies that develop medical

products, software, and other hightechnology

products.

History

Celtic peoples settled in the Vienna area

in ancient times. In the 1st century AD

the Romans established a military post

at the site. Different groups later controlled

Vienna.

Vienna was the capital of the Hapsburg

family from the late 1200s until the

early 1900s. The Hapsburgs ruled the

Austria area as part of a series of powerful

empires. Vienna was their capital.

During their rule Vienna became one of

the world’s great cities.

The Ottoman Turks attacked Vienna in

1529 and again in 1683. They were

defeated both times.

Hapsburg rule ended in 1918. Vienna

then became the capital of the new

country of Austria.

German troops captured Austria in

1938. DuringWorldWar II Vienna was

often bombed. Foreign troops controlled

the city from 1945 to 1955.

Since then Vienna has again become an

important city. It is one of the headquarters

of the United Nations and other

international organizations. Vienna’s

culture and architecture continue to

attract tourists from all over the world.

#More to explore

Austria • Classical Music • Hapsburgs

• Opera

The Schonbrunn Palace near Vienna was

once the summer home of the Hapsburg

family. The Hapsburgs were the ruling family

of Vienna and Austria for many years.

In addition to its music and history, Vienna

is known for its many coffeehouses. Tourists

and local people alike go to the coffeehouses

to eat, drink, read, or visit with

friends.

82 Vienna BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Vientiane

Population

(2003

estimate), city,

194,200;

(2005

estimate), urban

area, 702,000

Vientiane is the capital of Laos, a country

in Southeast Asia. It is the country’s

largest city by far. It lies on the Mekong

River, which is a major transportation

route. Vientiane is the main port for

shipping goods into Laos.

Laos is a poor country with little industry.

Vientiane is the country’s center of

business. It is also one of the main

manufacturing areas. Tourism is also

slowly becoming part of Vientiane’s

economy.

Vientiane was founded in the late

1200s. It became the capital of the Lao

kingdom in the 1500s. In 1778 Siam—

which is now the country of Thailand—

took control of Vientiane.

France controlled Laos from the late

1800s until the 1950s. Vientiane was

the capital of Laos during French rule.

In the 1950s France’s colonies in Asia

fought for independence. Many groups

also fought for control of Vientiane. In

1954 Laos became an independent

country. Vientiane remained its capital.

..More to explore

Laos • Mekong River

That Luang is a Buddhist religious building in Vientiane, Laos.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vientiane 83

Vietnam

The Asian country of Vietnam split into

northern and southern parts in 1954.

After the long VietnamWar, the two

parts of Vietnam reunited in 1976. Vietnam’s

capital is Hanoi.

Geography

Vietnam is a long, narrow country in

Southeast Asia. It shares borders with

China, Laos, and Cambodia. The South

China Sea lies to the east and south. The

Gulf of Tonkin lies to the northeast, and

the Gulf of Thailand is to the southwest.

Mountains cover about two thirds of the

land, especially in the north. The

Mekong River forms a delta, or triangle

of rich land, in the south.

Vietnam has a warm, rainy climate.

Storms called typhoons (like hurricanes)

sometimes strike during the warmest

seasons.

Plants and Animals

Forests of oak, beech, pine, teak, and

ebony trees cover about a third of the

land. Bamboo plants grow in many

places. Mangrove trees grow along the

coast.

Deer, elephants, tigers, leopards, bears,

and monkeys live in the forests. Vietnam

also has crocodiles, boars, jackals, otters,

skunks, and flying squirrels.

People

Most of the people are Vietnamese. Chinese

and Hmong peoples form small

groups in the north. In the south there

are small groups of Khmer (or Cambodians)

and Cham. Many other small

groups live in the mountains.

The country’s main language is Vietnamese.

Many people also speak Chinese,

Khmer, English, French, or a local

language. Buddhism is the major religion.

Vietnamese religions and Chris-

People live in houseboats on the Gulf of

Tonkin in northern Vietnam.

84 Vietnam BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tianity are also common. Most of the

people live in villages in the river deltas.

Economy

Most of Vietnam’s workers are farmers.

The most important crop is rice.Other

food crops include cassava, corn, sweet

potatoes, and peanuts. Farmers also grow

sugarcane, coffee, tea, and rubber trees.

They raise ducks, pigs, cattle, and buffalo.

Vietnam’s factories make food products,

clothing, shoes, cement, chemicals, steel,

and electronics. Vietnam also produces

coal, oil, and other minerals.

History

The first Vietnamese lived in a kingdom

called Nam Viet beginning in 207 BC.

China soon conquered Nam Viet. The

Vietnamese gained independence from

China in AD 939.

French Rule

France invaded the region in the 1800s.

By 1883 the French controlled all of

Vietnam. France later combined Vietnam,

Cambodia, and Laos into one territory

called French Indochina.

AfterWorldWar II a Communist group

called the Viet Minh took control of

northern Vietnam. In 1946 a war broke

out between the French and the Viet

Minh. The Viet Minh won the war in

1954.

VietnamWar

Vietnam was then divided into two

parts. North Vietnam set up a Communist

government. A president with

strong powers ruled South Vietnam.

Communist rebels called the Viet Cong

soon began fighting the government of

South Vietnam. North Vietnam supported

the rebels. The United States

supported South Vietnam. In 1965 the

United States began bombing North

Vietnam. It also sent U.S. soldiers into

the south. However, the United States

could not defeat the Communists.

Communist forces took over South

Vietnam by 1975.

Recent History

North and South Vietnam joined

together in 1976. In 1978 Vietnam

attacked Cambodia. Vietnam’s actions

led to trouble with China and other

countries. Vietnamese forces finally left

Cambodia in 1989. Vietnam’s relationships

with other countries then began to

improve.

..More to explore

Communism • Hanoi • Mekong River

• VietnamWar

Farming is very important to Vietnam’s

economy. Some farmers sell fruit from baskets

on their bicycles.

Facts About

VIETNAM

Population

(2008 estimate)

88,537,000

Area

128,379 sq mi

(332,501 sq km)

Capital

Hanoi

Form of

government

Socialist republic

Major cities

Ho Chi Minh City,

Hanoi, Haiphong,

Da Nang, Bien

Hoa

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vietnam 85

VietnamWar

The VietnamWar was a long conflict in

Southeast Asia. It began in 1954, after

the country of Vietnam was split into

two parts, North Vietnam and South

Vietnam. North Vietnam wanted to

reunite the country under Communism,

its political and economic system. South

Vietnam fought to keep this from happening.

The United States helped South

Vietnam, but North Vietnam won the

war in 1975. Soon Vietnam was a

united, Communist country.

The VietnamWar had a huge cost in

human lives. More than 1.3 million

Vietnamese soldiers and about 58,000

U.S. troops were killed. More than 2

million civilians (people not fighting the

war) also died.

Background

Vietnam had many troubles before the

VietnamWar. In the early 1900s the

country was part of a French colony.

Japan seized the colony in 1940 and

held it until 1945. Then a Vietnamese

group called the Viet Minh declared

Vietnam’s independence. But the

French still wanted to rule Vietnam as a

colony. The two sides fought an eightyear

war, called the French Indochina

War. The Viet Minh defeated the

French in 1954.

France and the Viet Minh then took

part in a meeting to decide what would

happen to Vietnam. People from the

United States, the Soviet Union, and

several other countries also participated.

The meeting divided Vietnam into

North and South Vietnam. The Viet

Minh got control of North Vietnam. A

Communist named Ho Chi Minh was

the president. The Vietnamese who had

supported the French got control of

South Vietnam. Ngo Dinh Diem, who

opposed Communism, led the south.

The French soon left the country.

CivilWar

By 1957 Communist rebels in South

Vietnam had begun fighting Diem’s

government. They were called the Viet

Cong. The Viet Cong hid by day and

attacked by night. The North Vietnamese

army trained and supported the Viet

Cong. Communist fighters from the

north later joined the fighting themselves.

The United States supported Diem

because U.S. leaders hated Communism.

U.S. military advisers trained the

South Vietnamese army. Nevertheless,

the Viet Cong seized control of much of

South Vietnam in the early 1960s.

The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is in Washington,

D.C. It includes a wall with the

names of U.S. soldiers who died or were

missing because of the Vietnam War.

86 Vietnam War BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Meanwhile Diem was losing support

among the South Vietnamese people.

One reason was his harsh treatment of

followers of the Buddhist religion. Most

Vietnamese were Buddhist, but Diem

was a Roman Catholic. Diem imprisoned

and killed hundreds of Buddhists.

More and more people turned against

him. In 1963 members of the South

Vietnamese army murdered Diem. A

group of army officers took over the

government.

More U.S. Troops Arrive

The United States continued to help

South Vietnam. In August 1964 the

North Vietnamese attacked a U.S. warship

in a waterway called the Gulf of

Tonkin. Afterward the U.S. Congress

gave President Lyndon B. Johnson the

power to expand the U.S. role in the

VietnamWar.

By 1968 the United States had more

than 500,000 troops in Vietnam. Small

units from South Korea, Australia, New

Zealand, Thailand, and the Philippines

also helped the South Vietnamese. The

Communist governments of the Soviet

Union and China supported North

Vietnam and the Viet Cong.

U.S. warplanes dropped bombs on highways

and bridges in North Vietnam.

The United States also bombed the Ho

Chi Minh Trail, a Viet Cong supply

road in Laos and Cambodia. Soon U.S.

bombers were striking Hanoi and other

North Vietnamese cities.

In February 1968, during a Vietnamese

holiday called Tet, the Communists

attacked about 30 cities in South Vietnam.

The Viet Cong suffered heavy

losses in these battles. But many U.S.

soldiers died, too. Some people in the

United States started to think that the

war could not be won. Other people

protested the war.

U.S. Troops Leave Vietnam

In 1968 President Johnson gradually

ended the bombing of North Vietnam.

Peace talks began. In 1969 Richard M.

Nixon became president. Nixon began

U.S. Marines wade through a marsh during

the Vietnam War.

People march in New York City in 1968 to

protest the Vietnam War. Many Americans

were against the war. They participated in

protests and demonstrations.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vietnam War 87

to remove U.S. troops from Vietnam.

But he also started bombing North Vietnam

again, and he expanded the war to

neighboring countries. U.S. and South

Vietnamese troops attacked North Vietnamese

and Viet Cong hiding places in

Cambodia and Laos.

In January 1973 North and South Vietnam,

the Viet Cong, and the United

States signed an agreement to stop fighting.

The United States then removed

almost all its troops from Vietnam. But

the war did not end. The United States

continued to give money and equipment

to South Vietnam.

TheWar Ends

In August 1974 the United States cut

back its military aid to the south. The

South Vietnamese army fell apart

quickly after that. In 1975 the North

Vietnamese launched a massive invasion

of South Vietnam. North Vietnamese

troops entered Saigon, the capital of

South Vietnam, on April 30, 1975. The

war was over, and the Communists had

won. Thousands of South Vietnamese

people fled the country.

In 1976 the Communists combined

North and South Vietnam into one

country, called Vietnam. They made

Hanoi the capital. They renamed Saigon

as Ho Chi Minh City in honor of Ho,

who had died in 1969.

#More to explore

Communism • Ho Chi Minh

• Johnson, Lyndon B. • Nixon, Richard

M. • Vietnam

Vikings

The Vikings, who are also called Norsemen

or Northmen, were warriors from

northern Europe. They sailed the seas

from the late 700s to the 1000s. They

attacked many countries and took away

much treasure. Their northern European

neighbors gave them the name of

Viking, which means “pirate.”

People

The homeland of the Vikings was in the

region that is now called Scandinavia.

The region now contains the modern

countries of Denmark, Norway, and

Sweden. Vikings also settled peacefully

on Iceland, Greenland, and other islands

in the North Atlantic Ocean. At home

the Vikings were farmers. They belonged

to clans, or large families, and were ruled

by chiefs.

The U.S. government

sometimes

used the

term Vietnam

Conflict

instead of

Vietnam War

because the

United States

never officially

declared war.

A picture from a handwritten

book shows the Vikings in their

ships. They are preparing to

attack the island of Great Britain.

88 Vikings BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Vikings were good sailors. They

sailed in ships called longships. Rowers

and sails moved the longships across the

seas. In about 1000 a Viking named Leif

Eriksson sailed all the way to North

America.

The Vikings also were fierce warriors.

The gods they worshipped were warriors,

too. Their chief god was called

Odin. Odin ruled over a warrior heaven

called Valhalla.

The Vikings buried their chiefs with the

supplies they thought they would need

to get to Valhalla—tools, weapons, and

even boats. Modern scientists have

learned much about Viking life by opening

Viking graves.

Writings called sagas provide even more

information about Vikings. Sagas are

Viking stories that Icelanders wrote

down in the 1100s and 1200s.

Conquests

Vikings first attacked England in the late

700s. In 865 a Viking group from Denmark

called the Danes conquered several

English kingdoms. The English drove

out the Danes in 954, but the Danes

soon returned. The Danish king Canute

I ruled England from 1016 to 1035 as a

part of his Viking empire. England

finally threw off Danish rule in 1042.

However, in 1066 the Normans conquered

England. The Normans were

descendants of Vikings who had settled

in France. The name Norman means

“Northman.”

Vikings first attacked Ireland in 795.

They started several kingdoms there.

They threatened all of Ireland until

1014, when the Irish beat them in the

battle of Clontarf.

Some Vikings roamed eastward. They

attacked and looted the coasts of the

Baltic Sea. After invading Russia, they

moved far inland and mixed with the

native people. The name of Russia

comes from a Viking word.

After the 1000s the Vikings were no

longer an independent group of warriors.

Some mixed with the peoples of

the lands that they conquered. Others

settled down in their homelands. Eventually

they also became Christians.

#More to explore

Denmark • Leif Eriksson • Norway

• Sweden

Vila

Vila is the capital of Vanuatu, an island

country in the Pacific Ocean. The town

is on Efate Island. Vila is a small town,

A Viking burial ship is on display in a

museum in Oslo, Norway.

In some Viking

funerals, the

body was put

in a boat that

was set on fire

and pushed

out into the

water.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vila 89

but it is the largest town in Vanuatu. It

is also one of the country’s main ports.

The town is also called Port-Vila.

Tourism, banking, and other service

industries are important to Vila’s

economy. The town is Vanuatu’s center

of trade.

Melanesian peoples have lived on the

islands of Vanuatu for thousands of

years. In the 1880s the French and British

together took control of the islands.

In the 1940s, duringWorldWar II, the

U.S. Navy used Vila’s harbor as a base.

U.S. troops built many roads and buildings

in the town. In 1980 Vanuatu

became an independent country. Vila

was made the capital.

#More to explore

Vanuatu

Villa, Pancho

Pancho Villa was a leader of the Mexican

Revolution in the early 1900s. Some

people called him a dangerous revolutionary.

Many others saw him as a

defender of the poor.

Pancho Villa was born on June 5, 1878,

in San Juan del Rio, in northern

Mexico. His name at first was Doroteo

Arango. As a young man he led a gang

of criminals and changed his name to

Francisco Villa. Pancho was a nickname.

The president of Mexico, Porfirio Diaz,

was hard on the common people. Villa

helped a leader named Francisco Madero

to overthrow Diaz in 1911. This

began the Mexican Revolution. Victoriano

Huerta, who was Madero’s army

chief, did not trust Villa. He put Villa in

prison. But Villa escaped to the United

States. In 1913 Huerta seized control of

Mexico from Madero. Then Villa

returned to Mexico.

Pancho Villa

Vila, the capital of Vanuatu, is on the coast

of Efate Island. A small island called Iririki

sits in Vila’s harbor.

90 Villa, Pancho BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Villa put together a group of fighters

called the Division of the North. In

1914 Villa and Venustiano Carranza,

another leader of the revolution,

defeated Huerta. Carranza became the

new leader of Mexico.

Carranza and Villa soon turned against

each other. Carranza forced Villa and

Emiliano Zapata, another rebel leader,

out of Mexico City, the capital. In 1915

the United States gave its support to

Carranza. Villa then murdered U.S.

citizens in both Mexico and the United

States. U.S. soldiers invaded Mexico in

1916, but they did not find Villa.

Carranza was overthrown in 1920. Then

Villa stopped fighting the government.

Someone killed Villa on his ranch near

Parral, Mexico, on June 20, 1923. Police

never solved the murder.

..More to explore

Mexico • Zapata, Emiliano

Vilnius

Population

(2008 estimate)

544,200

Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, a

country in northeastern Europe. It is the

largest city in Lithuania.

Service industries such as banking, trade,

and tourism are important to the

economy of Vilnius. The city is also a

major manufacturing area. The leading

industries include clothes making, food

processing, and printing and publishing.

Vilnius dates back to about the 900s. In

the 1500s the city grew as a trading center.

For hundreds of years it was also a

center of Jewish culture and learning.

Many countries—including Russia,

Sweden, and Poland—controlled Vilnius

throughout its history. The Soviet Union

captured Lithuania in 1940.

German troops ruled Vilnius in the early

1940s, duringWorldWar II. The city

suffered heavy damage. The Germans

murdered nearly all the city’s Jews. This

was part of a mass killing called the

Holocaust.

After the war the Soviet Union again

ruled Lithuania. In 1991 Lithuania

The cathedral of Vilnius stands at the end of

a street in the city’s Old Town. The original

cathedral was built in the 1300s. The current

building dates from 1801.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Vilnius 91

became a fully independent country.

Vilnius once again became its capital.

#More to explore

Holocaust • Lithuania

Vinegar

Vinegar is a sour liquid that is used to

flavor and preserve food. It is made by

putting alcohol through a chemical

change called fermentation.

The word vinegar comes from the

French words for sour wine. Vinegar

that is made from grapes is called wine

vinegar. But vinegar can be made from

other foods as well. Vinegar made from

apples is called cider vinegar. Vinegar

made from barley or oats is called malt

vinegar.

The process of making vinegar starts

with liquid that comes from the grapes,

apples, or other foods. When a substance

called yeast is added to the liquid

it converts sugars in the liquid into alcohol.

Tiny living things called Acetobacter

bacteria then make the alcohol combine

with oxygen in the air to form acetic

acid and water. The acetic acid is what

gives vinegar its sour taste.

Acetic acid is a strong acid. The vinegar

that is sold in supermarkets is only

about 4 percent acetic acid.Water and

flavorings make up the other 96 percent.

Vinegar is used to add a sour taste to

foods. Cooks make a sour salad dressing

called vinaigrette by mixing vinegar with

cooking oil and spices. Cooks also use

vinegar to preserve foods. This practice

is called pickling. Pickles are cucumbers

that have been pickled. Many other

kinds of vegetables and fish can also be

pickled.

#More to explore

Acid and Base • Fermentation

Violet

Violets are popular garden plants with

delicate flowers. They also grow in the

wild. There are about 500 species, or

types, of violet. They include the common

blue violet and the pansy. The

popular houseplants called African violets

are not in the same family as true

violets.

Violets grow in places that have warm

summers and cold winters. They are

hardy plants and can grow well under

trees and shrubs. The smallest violets are

about 2 inches (5 centimeters) high. The

largest can reach a height of more than

20 inches (50 centimeters).

Some people

use vinegar to

treat wasp

stings. However,

the vinegar

treatment

probably does

not work.

The common blue violet has heart-shaped

leaves and purple or white flowers.

92 Vinegar BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Violets often have large, heart-shaped

leaves. The flowers have five petals. They

are most commonly deep purple, blue,

or lavender. They also can be white,

yellow, reddish purple, or a combination

of colors.

Some people eat the flowers of violets.

In addition, sweet-smelling violets are

used to make perfume.

#More to explore

Flower • Plant

Viper

The vipers are a group of poisonous

snakes that have sharp fangs. There are

about 200 species, or types, of viper.

Some of the deadliest snakes in the

world are vipers.Well-known types

include rattlesnakes and adders.

Vipers are found throughout the world

except in Australia and Antarctica. They

live in both dry and wet climates. Vipers

may spend time on the ground, in trees,

or in water.

Some vipers are less than a foot (30

centimeters) long. Others are more than

10 feet (3 meters) long. A viper’s body

may be thin or thick. The color ranges

from tan to black to green. Vipers

blend in well with their surroundings.

This helps to protect them from their

enemies.

Vipers have a triangular head. Many

have scales that stand up straight above

their eyes. These scales make it seem like

the snake has horns. Vipers have long

fangs compared to other snakes. When a

viper closes its jaw, its fangs fold up

against the roof of its mouth. Some

female vipers lay eggs. Others give birth

to live young.

Vipers do not really hunt for food.

Instead they wait for small animals to

come to them. Once a prey animal is

near, a viper bites quickly and injects

venom, or poison, into it. The prey usually

dies nearby. The viper then finds the

prey using its sense of smell. It swallows

the prey whole.

Some types of viper are called pit vipers.

Pit vipers have special organs called pits

on both sides of their face. These pits

help them sense heat coming from the

body of their prey. Once a pit viper

senses the heat, it can attack its prey

even in the dark. Pit vipers include

rattlesnakes, copperheads, fer-de-lances,

and moccasins.

#More to explore

Rattlesnake • Snake

The common adder is a viper. Common

adders live on the island of Great Britain

and in many other parts of Europe and Asia.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Viper 93

Virginia

Virginia has one of the longest

continuous histories among the

U.S. states. Its history dates back to the

English settlement of Jamestown in

1607. Virginia was named for Queen

Elizabeth I of England. She was often

called the Virgin Queen because she

never married. The state is also referred

to as the Birthplace of Presidents. Eight

presidents of the United States were

born in Virginia, including George

Washington and Thomas Jefferson.

Richmond is the capital.

Geography

Virginia is located in the southeastern

part of the United States. The Potomac

River separates northeast Virginia from

Maryland andWashington, D.C. The

Atlantic Ocean runs along part of eastern

Virginia. Tennessee and North Carolina

border Virginia at the southern end.

West Virginia and Kentucky border Virginia

to the west.

Five different natural regions exist in the

state. Eastern Virginia is a low-lying

coastal plain. To the west of the coastal

plain is a large region of low rolling hills.

Further west is a highland region. It is

the site of Mount Rogers, the highest

point in the state. Most of western Virginia

is a region of valleys and ridges.

The region includes the Shenandoah

River valley. A plateau region covers a

small area in far western Virginia. It

contains a maze of deep ravines and

winding ridges. Virginia’s weather tends

to be mild and pleasant.

People

Most of Virginia is populated by people

whose ancestors came from Europe.

Northern Virginia, nearWashington,

D.C., tends to have a greater mix of

ethnic groups than other parts of the

state. More than 70 percent of Virginia’s

population is white. About 20 percent of

Shenandoah National Park covers a large

section of the Blue Ridge Mountains in Virginia.

The mountains stretch from northeast

to southwest through the western part of the

state.

94 Virginia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the population is African American, and

about 5 percent is Hispanic.

Economy

About one fifth of Virginia’s workforce

is involved in public administration.

These people are employed by the local,

state, or federal government. Some of

these are members of the military, such

as the Marines stationed at the base in

Quantico. Many military employees

work at the Pentagon, the headquarters

of the United States Department of

Defense.

Major agricultural products in Virginia

are chickens, cattle, and dairy goods.

Important crops include tobacco, soybeans,

and corn. The production of food

products is the most valuable manufacturing

industry in the state. Major products

include processed meat, baked

goods, and beverages. Chemical, computer,

and electronic products are also

profitable manufactured goods.

Tourism is a vital part of Virginia’s

economy. Many tourists visit sites

related to the history of the United

States. Some like to see historical buildings,

such as the homes of presidents

GeorgeWashington and Thomas Jefferson.

Others are interested in Virginia’s

many American Revolution and American

CivilWar battlefields. Another

popular tourism site is Colonial Williamsburg.

The village looks much like it

did in colonial times. To re-create the

village’s early years, actors behave and

dress like early colonists.

History

Before the arrival of the English in the

1600s the largest group of Native

Americans in the region was the Powhatan

Confederacy. The first permanent

English settlement in America was

Jamestown, near Chesapeake Bay. It was

named for James I of England, who was

king when the settlers arrived in May

1607. The people of Jamestown had a

hard time surviving during the first

years. In 1624 Jamestown became an

English royal colony.

Many farmers in Virginia became rich

by growing and selling tobacco. England

wanted to benefit from the money being

made in Virginia and in other colonies

in America. To do that, it kept putting

taxes on the colonists. In May 1776,

Virginia patriots asked the Continental

Congress to declare the American Colo-

An instrument maker carves a

violin neck in Colonial Williamsburg.

The village of Williamsburg

re-creates daily life in early

Virginia.

Facts About

VIRGINIA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

7,078,515—

rank, 12th state;

(2008 estimate)

7,769,089—

rank, 12th state

Capital

Richmond

Area

42,774 sq mi

(110,785 sq

km)—rank, 35th

state

Statehood

June 26, 1788

Motto

Sic Semper

Tyrannis (Thus

Ever to Tyrants)

State bird

Cardinal

State flower

Dogwood

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Virginia 95

nies free from British rule. Members of

that legislative body agreed. This decision

led to the Declaration of Independence,

which was adopted on July 4,

1776.

Virginia was the scene of many battles

during the American Revolution. The

war’s final battle took place in Yorktown,

Virginia. After the battle, the British

commander surrendered to George

Washington on October 19, 1781. The

former colonies then turned to the task

of creating a system of national government.

Virginia’s state constitution was

used as a guide. In 1788 Virginia

entered the Union as the new nation’s

10th state.

Virginia legalized slavery in 1661. By

the 1860s, however, states in the North

wanted slavery to end. Southern states

such as Virginia considered slave labor

necessary to their economies. Eventually,

Southern states withdrew from the

Union to form their own government.

This Southern government was known

as the Confederacy.

Virginia joined the Confederacy in

1861. Richmond, Virginia, soon became

the Confederate capital. The American

CivilWar began soon after the Confederacy

was founded.

At the time, Virginia included what is

now West Virginia. People in the western

part of Virginia had smaller farms

than those in the east, and they did not

use slaves to run them. They often disagreed

with the slaveholders in eastern

Virginia. In 1863, more than 50 counties

in northwest Virginia decided to

become the separate state ofWest Virginia.

Virginia was the site of Bull Run and

many other bloody battles during the

CivilWar. By April 1865, Confederate

leaders realized that the South could not

win. Confederate general Robert E. Lee

surrendered to Union commander

Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox, Virginia.

This surrender ended the war.

Virginia rejoined the Union in 1870. It

took a long time for the state to rebuild

all the structures that had been damaged

during the war. It also took many years

for African Americans in the state to

gain the same rights as whites.

In the 20th century Virginia began to

show characteristics of both the North

and the South. Virginia’s northern

counties reflected the worldly city character

of the nearby national capital,

Washington, D.C. Other areas of the

state remained more rural. In rural Virginia

the history and culture of the Deep

South could still be felt.

In the late 20th century some cities

began to spread into the countryside.

Some people in the state were unhappy

with this growth. They complained that

important American CivilWar battlefields

were sometimes threatened by

people wanting to take over the land to

build more houses.

#More to explore

American Revolution • Richmond

96 Virginia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Virunga

Mountains

The Virunga Mountains are a mountain

range, or group of mountains, in eastcentral

Africa. They span parts of

Uganda, Rwanda, and the Democratic

Republic of the Congo. There are eight

major peaks. All are volcanoes.

Six of the major peaks in the Virunga

Mountains are extinct volcanoes, meaning

that they no longer erupt. The

extinct volcanoes are named Mikeno,

Sabinio, Visoke, Mgahinga, Muhavura,

and Karisimbi. Karisimbi is the highest

peak in the Virunga Mountains. It is

14,787 feet (4,507 meters) high. It is on

the border between Rwanda and the

Democratic Republic of the Congo.

The other two major peaks are active

volcanoes. This means that eruptions

still take place there. The active volcanoes

are named Nyiragongo and Nyamulagira.

In 2002 a flow of lava, or

melted rock, from Nyiragongo destroyed

much of the city of Goma in the Democratic

Republic of the Congo.

Forests on the slopes of the Virunga

Mountains are home to the mountain

gorilla. The mountain gorilla is very rare

and in danger of dying out. All three

countries in the region have set aside

areas as national parks. In a national

park, wild animals and their habitat are

protected by law.

#More to explore

Africa • Gorilla • Volcano

Virus

Viruses are tiny particles that cause disease

in people, other animals, and

plants. Different viruses cause the common

cold, influenza (flu), chicken pox,

measles, AIDS, and many other diseases.

Viruses are so tiny that people can see

them only with powerful microscopes.

Some viruses have a spherical, or round,

shape. Others are shaped like rods.

Viruses are made up mostly of a substance

called nucleic acid surrounded by

protein.

On its own, a virus is lifeless. However,

it becomes active when it infects, or

enters, a cell of an animal or a plant.

Once inside a cell, a virus can reproduce

itself, like living things can. The copies

that a virus makes of itself are called

virions. These virions can leave the origi-

Antibiotic

drugs kill

bacteria but

have no effect

on viruses.

Drugs that

work against

viruses are

called antiviral

drugs.

Muhavura is one of the main peaks of the

Virunga Mountains.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Virus 97

nal cell and infect other cells. Viruses

also can live in bacteria, which are living

things made up of only one cell.

Humans and other animals have natural

defenses against viruses. Fever is one

important way that the human body

fights viruses. A fever is when a body’s

temperature rises. A fever causes some

viruses to become inactive. The body’s

immune system also fights viruses. It

produces white blood cells and substances

called antibodies to attack

viruses. After these cells and antibodies

have attacked a virus, they stay in the

body. This prevents future infection by

the same virus.

Doctors use vaccines to prevent many

diseases caused by viruses. Vaccines are

substances made from dead or weakened

viruses. They prepare the immune system

to fight off active forms of these

viruses.

#More to explore

Cell • Disease, Animal • Disease,

Human • Immune System • Vaccine

Vitamins

Vitamins are nutrients that humans

need in order to grow, reproduce, and be

healthy. Only two vitamins are made in

the human body. People get most of the

vitamins they need from food or vitamin

pills.

Scientists have identified 13 vitamins: A,

eight B vitamins, C, D, E, and K. These

vitamins can be obtained through a

healthy diet filled with a variety of

A virus reproduces itself by taking over a

living cell and making it into a virus factory.

98 Vitamins BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

foods, including plenty of fruits and

vegetables.

Vitamins D and K are both found in

foods and produced by the human body.

The body makes vitamin D when the

skin is exposed to sunlight. Bacteria in

the intestines produce vitamin K.

Certain vitamins (the B complex vitamins

and vitamin C) dissolve in water.

The body stores a small amount of these

vitamins but gets rid of most of those it

does not use. For this reason, people

need to take in plenty of these vitamins

every day.

Other vitamins (A, D, E, and K) do not

dissolve in water. The vitamins that the

body does not use right away are stored

in the body’s fat and liver. Getting too

much of these vitamins can be dangerous

over time.

#More to explore

Food and Nutrition

Volcano

A volcano is an opening in Earth’s crust.

When a volcano erupts, hot gases and

melted rock from deep within Earth

find their way up to the surface. This

material may flow slowly out of a fissure,

or crack, in the ground, or it may

explode suddenly into the air. Volcanic

eruptions may be very destructive. But

they also create new landforms.

A Volcanic Eruption

During a volcanic eruption, hot melted

rock called magma escapes from a vent,

or opening, in Earth’s surface, or crust.

Magma released from a volcano is

known as lava. Fresh lava ranges from

1,300° to 2,200° F (700° to 1,200° C)

in temperature. It glows red as it flows

out of the volcano’s opening. As it cools,

it hardens into rock.

Strong volcanic eruptions throw bits of

magma into the air. These bits cool into

tiny pieces of rock, called volcanic dust

or volcanic ash.Wind can carry volcanic

Apples and other fresh fruits contain many

of the vitamins that growing children as well

as adults need.

An erupting volcano threatens a village in

Indonesia. Glowing liquid rock called lava

flows down the side. Clouds of smoke and

ash fill the air.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Volcano 99

dust thousands of miles away. Volcanic

ash can coat the land for miles around

the volcano.

Steam and poisonous gases also escape

from volcanoes. Sometimes these gases

mix with ash to create destructive fiery

clouds.

Where Volcanoes Form

Earth’s crust is made up of huge, rocky

pieces called plates. The plates move

slowly over the crust. Most volcanoes lie

along the boundaries between these

plates.

Some of the most violent eruptions take

place where the edge of one plate is

forced beneath the edge of another. This

forces magma to rise to the surface. Hot

gases in the magma make these volcanoes

very explosive. Most volcanoes of

this type are found around the edges of

the Pacific Ocean. This huge circle of

volcanoes is known as the ring of fire.

Volcanoes also form in places where two

plates slowly pull apart. Molten rock

rises through the gap between the plates.

It causes fissure eruptions, in which lava

flows out over the ground. This type of

volcano is common along the Mid-

Atlantic Ridge, a mountain chain under

the Atlantic Ocean. Volcanoes in the

northern part of this ridge formed the

island country of Iceland.

A small number of volcanoes are not

located along the edges of plates. They

form at “hot spots” in Earth’s crust. At a

hot spot, molten rock rises from deep

below the crust. The volcanoes of

During a volcanic eruption, lava flows from

vents. Ash and gas shoot into the air.

100 Volcano BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Hawaii are the best examples of hot-spot

volcanoes.

Volcanic Landforms

Volcanic eruptions create new landforms

that are also called volcanoes. The two

most common types are stratovolcanoes

and shield volcanoes.

Stratovolcanoes are mountains shaped

like cones. They have a narrow top with

steep sides and a wide bottom. A crater,

or bowl-shaped pit, usually lies at the

top. Stratovolcanoes are made up of

layers of hardened lava and ash. Thousands

of eruptions left these layers over

millions of years. Mount Fuji in Japan is

a stratovolcano.

Shield volcanoes are dome-shaped

mountains built by lava flows. They are

not as steep as stratovolcanoes. The volcanoes

of Hawaii are shield volcanoes.

Sometimes the top of a volcano collapses

and forms a pit called a caldera. A

caldera is larger than a crater. Some

calderas fill up with water to form lakes.

A somma volcano forms when a new

volcanic cone partially fills a caldera.

A complex volcano has more than one

vent. A volcano can have more than one

vent when two cones overlap one

another. Or a volcano can form new

vents during an explosion.

Hot Springs, Geysers, and

Fumaroles

Hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles are

other types of volcanic activity. They

happen in places where magma heats

underground water. A hot spring is a

place where warm water comes up

through the ground. A geyser is a kind

of hot spring that shoots water and

steam into the air. Fumaroles are vents

that release gas and steam.

Studying Volcanoes

Volcanology is the branch of geology

that focuses on volcanoes. Scientists who

study volcanoes keep track of earthquakes

and other signs of volcanic activ-

Eruptions of volcanoes can create several

different types of landforms.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Volcano 101

ity. They try to predict when an

eruption may take place.

History

Volcanoes have a long history of destruction.

In AD 79 the eruption of Mount

Vesuvius destroyed the Roman cities of

Pompeii and Herculaneum. Two of the

deadliest volcanic eruptions happened in

1815 and 1883 on islands in what is

now Indonesia. The eruptions killed

tens of thousands of people.

The 1980 eruption of Mount Saint

Helens, in the U.S. state ofWashington,

was one of the biggest in North

America. The 1991 eruption of Mount

Pinatubo, in the Philippines, was the

largest of the 1900s. These eruptions

killed fewer people than earlier volcanoes,

but they still destroyed much

property.

#More to explore

Fuji, Mount • Geology • Hawaii

• Iceland • Mountain • Ring of Fire

• Vesuvius, Mount

Vole

Voles are small mammals that belong to

the rodent family. They look like mice.

There are more than 100 species, or

types, of vole. They are found in North

America, Europe, and Asia. A small

number of voles live in the African

country of Libya. Voles can be found in

many different habitats, including forests,

prairies, and meadows.

Voles have small eyes and ears. Their

snout is blunt rather than pointy. The

tail is shorter than the body. Voles have

long, soft fur that is usually gray, brown,

or reddish in color.

Most voles grow between 4 to 10 inches

(10 to 26 centimeters) long, including

the tail. The woodland vole is one of the

smallest. It weighs less than 1 ounce (35

grams) and is under 5 inches (13 centimeters)

long. One of the larger voles is

the European water vole. It weighs up to

The mildest type of volcanic eruption consists

of a flow of lava from fissures, or

cracks, in the ground. This type of eruption

takes place in Iceland.

Most voles live in underground tunnels.

They come aboveground to find food.

102 Vole BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

9 ounces (250 grams) and is 14 inches

(35 centimeters) long.

Voles are active year-round. They eat

plants and sometimes insects. Most voles

live in burrows, or underground tunnels.

But some, such as the Sonoma tree vole,

live in trees.Water voles are found near

ponds and streams. They are excellent

swimmers.

#More to explore

Mammal • Rodent

Volga River

The Volga is Europe’s longest river. It

flows 2,325 miles (3,740 kilometers)

through western Russia. The Volga has

played an important part in the life of

the Russian people. In Russian folklore

it is called Mother Volga.

The Volga begins in the Valdai Hills

northwest of Moscow, Russia’s capital. It

flows generally southward to the Caspian

Sea. Canals and other rivers connect

the Volga to the Baltic Sea, the

White Sea, the Sea of Azov, and the

Black Sea.

The Volga gets about 60 percent of its

water from melting snow. The rest of its

water comes from underground sources

and rainfall. The Volga used to flood

during the spring. Today dams and artificial

lakes called reservoirs store its

water and prevent floods.

The Volga is important to Russia’s

economy. Power stations at the reservoirs

use the river to produce electricity. Boats

on the Volga carry more than half of the

goods shipped within Russia. Construction

materials, including timber, make

up most of the shipments. Many passenger

boats also use the Volga.

#More to explore

Caspian Sea • River • Russia

Volleyball

Volleyball is a team sport in which players

use their hands or arms to knock a

ball over a net. Two teams, usually with

six players each, compete in a volleyball

The Volga River now has dams to control

flooding. People build houses close to the

riverbank because they are not afraid of

rising waters.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Volleyball 103

game. Volleyball can be played inside, in

a gym, or outside, on a beach or in a

park.

Court and Equipment

Volleyball is played on a court that is 30

feet (9 meters) wide by 60 feet (18

meters) long. A center line divides the

court into two equal areas. A net runs

along the center line. Each team defends

one side of the net. A volleyball is filled

with air and weighs 9 to 10 ounces (260

to 280 grams).

Playing the Game

Play begins when one player serves. A

player serves by hitting the ball over to

the receiving team’s side of the net. The

receiving team tries to return the serve,

or hit the ball back over the net. The

receiving team can return the serve with

a single hit. More often, though, the

receiving team tries to set the ball. To do

this, players hit the ball into the air on

their own side of the net. A good set

allows a teammate to drive the ball over

the net with great force. This makes it

harder for the other team to hit it back.

The teams hit the ball back and forth

over the net until one team scores a

point. A team scores a point when it

lands the ball on the floor inside the

other team’s playing area. A team also

scores a point if the other team hits the

ball out of bounds or makes some other

error. Scoring 25 points wins a game. A

team has to win by at least two points.

History

William G. Morgan invented the game

of volleyball in 1895 at the Young Men’s

Christian Association (YMCA) in Holyoke,

Massachusetts. It quickly became

popular in schools and on playgrounds

throughout the United States. In the

early 1900s the sport spread throughout

the rest of the world. In 1947 an organization

called the Federation Internationale

de Volleyball (FIVB) was formed to

govern the sport worldwide. In 1964

volleyball became a sport for both men

and women in the Summer Olympics.

Many people enjoy playing a casual game

of volleyball at the beach or in a backyard.

Players from Cuba and China face each

other during an international volleyball

tournament.

104 Volleyball BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Today the FIVB sponsors several other

international tournaments as well.

#More to explore

Olympic Games • Sports

Voting

Voting is a process by which a group of

people can decide things fairly when

they do not all agree. Voting is an

important part of the type of government

called democracy. In a democracy

people use voting to choose government

leaders. They also may vote for or

against certain laws or projects in their

community. The right to vote is called

suffrage.

Elections

When a group of people votes, it is

called an election. In an election for a

government job, the people who want

the job are called the candidates. Candidates

often run a campaign before an

election. During a campaign a candidate

tries to convince voters that he or she is

right for the job. Candidates often make

speeches and run advertisements on television.

On election day people usually go to a

polling place to vote. Polling places are

often in schools, community centers, or

other public buildings. At the polling

place people vote for their favorite candidate.

They use a machine to make

their choice, or they mark their choice

on a form called a ballot. Everyone’s

choice remains secret. After the election,

machines or election workers count the

votes for each candidate. The candidate

with the most votes usually wins the

election.

The Right to Vote

Every country that holds elections sets

its own rules about who can vote. Today

most countries allow nearly all adult

citizens to vote. Sometimes people who

have committed serious crimes cannot

vote. People who have certain mental

disabilities sometimes cannot vote either.

In the past many countries allowed only

white men to vote. In the United States

African American men gained the right

to vote in 1870, after the end of slavery.

Women in New Zealand, Australia, the

United Kingdom, and the United States

won the right to vote by 1920.Women

in most other countries gained suffrage

by the end of the 1900s. Black men and

women in South Africa first voted in

national elections in 1994.

#More to explore

Citizenship • Civil Rights • Democracy

•Women’s Rights

Workers in India learn how to use a new

voting machine.

Voting is a

duty in

Australia and

some other

countries.

Australians

who fail to

vote must pay

a fine.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Voting 105

Vulcan

#see Hephaestus.

Vulture

Vultures are large birds of prey. Unlike

other birds of prey, vultures usually do

not hunt for live animals. They mostly

eat dead meat and garbage instead.

When one vulture finds a dead or dying

animal, others fly in from miles away to

share in the meal.

Some of the biggest of all flying birds are

vultures. Vultures can fly for hours, soaring

gracefully on their long, broad

wings. Their feathers are usually brown,

black, or white. However, most vultures

do not have feathers on their heads and

necks. Vultures have excellent eyesight.

Vultures live mainly in warm regions.

There are two groups of vultures, New

World vultures and OldWorld vultures.

They have many similar characteristics,

but they are not closely related.

NewWorld Vultures

The NewWorld vultures live in North

and South America. They are probably

related to storks. These vultures do not

build nests. Females lay their eggs on

cliffs or in trees. Larger types of New

World vulture lay one egg at a time.

Smaller types lay two.

The black vulture is a NewWorld vulture

that is about 24 inches (61 centimeters)

long. The California condor is a

huge NewWorld vulture. It may reach

55 inches (139 centimeters) long with a

wingspread of about 9.5 feet (2.9

meters). The California condor nearly

died out in the late 20th century, but

scientists are trying to save it. Other

NewWorld vultures include the turkey

vulture and the Andean condor.

OldWorld Vultures

The OldWorld vultures live in Europe,

Asia, and Africa. They are closely related

to eagles and hawks. OldWorld vultures

build nests out of sticks on cliffs or in

trees. Sometimes many vultures build

nests in groups called colonies. The

larger types usually lay one egg at a time.

The cinereous vulture is a large bird in

this group. It is about 39 inches (99

centimeters) long. The lappet-faced vulture

is about the same size. Large folds

of skin, called lappets, hang down from

its head. Other OldWorld vultures

include the griffon vulture and Egyptian

vulture.

#More to explore

Bird • Bird of Prey • Eagle • Hawk

• Stork

A source of food attracts crowds of vultures

in Africa. Dead animals and garbage form

most of their diet.

106 Vulcan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Britannica

Student

Encyclopedia

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Volume 15

2010 Britannica Student Encyclopedia

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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7

eBook edition January, 2010

The U.S. artist Andy Warhol is

famous for his paintings of

soup cans.

(See Warhol, Andy.)

The whippoorwill, a kind of

bird, is named for its call—three

whistled notes that sound like

“whip-poor-will.”

(See Whippoorwill.)

Winds are named after the

direction from which they come,

not the direction toward which

they blow.

(See Wind.)

There are three species, or

types, of wolf: gray, red, and

Ethiopian.

(See Wolf.)

The 19th Amendment to the

U.S. Constitution gave women

throughout the United States

the right to vote.

(See Women’s Rights.)

Ww

Wabanaki

#see Abnaki.

Wales

Wales is part of the United Kingdom, a

country of western Europe. The other

three parts of the United Kingdom are

England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.

The people and the special language

ofWales are calledWelsh. In the

Welsh language,Wales is known as

Cymru. The capital ofWales is Cardiff.

Geography

Wales is in the southwestern part of the

island of Great Britain. It borders

England on the east. On the other three

sides it is surrounded by water. The

land is rugged. The Cambrian

Mountains extend from north to south

through Wales. The other major

mountain areas are the Snowdonia in

the north and the Brecon Beacons in

the south. The coast has many cliffs

and beaches. The Severn, Wye, and Dee

are the longest rivers. The climate is

cool and wet.

People

TheWelsh people can trace their roots

back to the Celts. The Celts were people

who lived in the area thousands of years

ago. TheWelsh language came from the

language of the Celts. About one fifth of

the people ofWales speakWelsh. English

is the other main language. Schools have

classes in both English andWelsh.Most

of theWelsh people are Protestant.

Economy

Most of the people ofWales work in

services such as government, education,

banking, and tourism. Manufacturing,

farming, and forestry are also important

to the economy. Factories make electrical,

automotive, chemical, and metal

products. Farmers raise sheep, cattle, and

poultry. Major crops include barley,

wheat, potatoes, and oats.

History

The Celts lived inWales in prehistoric

times. The Romans invaded in the 1st

Conwy Castle is one of many castles in

Wales. King Edward I of England had it

built in the 1280s.

4 Wabanaki BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

century AD. The Romans used the name

Britons for the Celts they found. Roman

rule ended in about 400. Then a number

of new Celtic kingdoms were

formed. The English considered the

Britons to beWelsh. The nameWelsh

comes from an Old English word meaning

“foreigner.” But the people ofWales

called themselves Cymry, which means

“countrymen” inWelsh.

In the 800s and 900sWelsh princes

tried to unite the kingdoms. They were

not successful. In 1093 French invaders,

called the Normans, brought all of

southernWales under their rule. In the

1100s and 1200s the kings of England

made several attempts to conquerWales.

King Edward I was finally successful in

1277. In 1301 he gave his son the title

prince ofWales.

In 1401 the Welsh revolted against the

English. For a few years Wales was

independent. By 1410, however, the

English had regained control. In 1536

Wales was officially united with

England. In 1801 Wales became part of

the United Kingdom along with

England, Scotland, and Ireland. (Later

most of Ireland split from the United

Kingdom, but Northern Ireland

remained.)

In the 1800s and 1900s the people of

Wales worked for the right to govern

themselves. In 1997 the people voted to

form a lawmaking body of their own.

The body, called the National Assembly

forWales, was formed in 1999. It took

control of many things that the national

Parliament in London had handled

before.

#More to explore

Cardiff • Celt • England • Northern

Ireland • Scotland • United Kingdom

Walkingstick

Walkingsticks are insects that look like

the twigs of a plant. They are also called

stick insects. There are about 2,000 species,

or kinds, of walkingstick. They are

most numerous in the tropics.

Walkingsticks are long and thin. They

can be more than 12 inches (30 centimeters)

long. Tropical species are the

largest.Walkingsticks have wings, but

they do not fly. Instead they walk with a

rocking motion that makes them look

like a stick being blown in the wind.

A walkingstick rests on a plant.

The insect’s color and shape

make it look like a twig.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Walkingstick 5

Lizards and birds eat walkingsticks. The

insects try to blend in with their surroundings

so they will not be noticed.

Walkingsticks are green or brown, which

makes them look like the plants on

which they feed. Some species have

sharp spines or give off a bad smell to

help keep enemies away. If a walkingstick

loses legs or antennas to an enemy,

it can grow new ones.

Female walkingsticks scatter their eggs

on the ground. The eggs of some walkingsticks

look like seeds. This helps keep

the eggs from being discovered. The eggs

hatch within several months. A walkingstick

usually lives for less than a year.

#More to explore

Insect • Protective Coloration

Walrus

The walrus is a large mammal that lives

in cold Arctic seas of Europe, Asia, and

North America. It is closely related to

the seals. The walrus can be told apart

from seals by the two large upper teeth,

called tusks, that stick down from its

mouth. The scientific name of the walrus

is Odobenus rosmarus.

The walrus has a stocky body and a

rounded head. It has flippers instead of

legs. Its mouth is covered with stiff whiskers.

The skin is wrinkled and grayish

brown. A thick layer of fat below the

skin, called blubber, keeps the walrus

warm.Walruses can be 12 feet (3.7

meters) long and weigh more than

2,600 pounds (1,200 kilograms).

The walrus has a tusk on each side of its

mouth. The tusks can be 3 feet (1

meter) long. The walrus uses its tusks to

fight. It also uses them to cut holes in ice

and to pull itself out of water.

Walruses live in groups that can include

more than 100 animals. They spend

most of their time in the sea. They

sometimes rest on ice or rocky islands.

In the water a walrus uses its flippers to

swim. On land it turns its rear flippers

forward under its body to waddle

around.

Walruses eat mostly clams. They dig

clams from the seafloor with their tusks.

They shovel food into the mouth with

their whiskers.

#More to explore

Mammal • Seal

Wampanoag

TheWampanoag are a Native American

people of New England. They traditionally

lived in villages in Massachusetts,

Walruses often live in large groups. Rhode Island, and on nearby islands.

6 Walrus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

TheWampanoag built dome-shaped

houses called wigwams. Several families

lived in each wigwam. TheWampanoag

hunted and fished. They also grew corn,

beans, and squash.

TheWampanoag were the first Native

Americans to deal with the English settlers

known as the Pilgrims. The Pilgrims

established a colony at Plymouth,

Massachusetts, in 1620. Massasoit, the

Wampanoag chief, made a peace treaty

with the Pilgrims that lasted for 40

years. TheWampanoag taught the Pilgrims

the skills they needed to survive in

their new home.

Massasoit died in 1661. By that time the

relationship between theWampanoag

and the settlers had become tense. Some

settlers were takingWampanoag lands

without payment. Massasoit’s son

Metacom—known to the Pilgrims as

King Philip—became chief in 1662. He

got other tribes to help theWampanoag

fight the settlers in what became known

as King Philip’sWar. Metacom was

killed, and theWampanoag were

defeated.

TheWampanoag survivors fled their

lands. Some traveled to the islands of

Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard. At

the end of the 20th century there were

about 2,000Wampanoag, mostly on

Martha’s Vineyard.

#More to explore

King Philip’sWar • Massasoit

• Metacom • Native Americans

• Plymouth Colony

Wapiti

The wapiti is a North American deer

that is often called American elk. Scientists

sometimes consider wapiti to be of

the same species, or type, as the red deer

of Eurasia. The wapiti is the second largest

deer after the moose. Its scientific

name is Cervus canadensis.

An engraving shows a

Wampanoag man dressed for

battle.

A male wapiti blends in with the dry grass

of a meadow in Yellowstone National Park

in the U.S. state of Wyoming.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Wapiti 7

At one time wapiti roamed over most of

North America. They are now only in

the northwestern United States and

southwestern Canada.Wapiti like open

woodlands and mountain meadows.

Wapiti weigh about 650 to 1,100

pounds (295 to 500 kilograms). Males

may stand taller than 5 feet (1.5 meter)

at the shoulder.Wapiti have brown fur

with a yellowish white patch on the

rump. The shoulders and neck are covered

with long, shaggy, dark brown hair.

Males have large antlers that are shed

and regrown each year.

Wapiti eat a variety of grasses and plants.

They generally look for food in the early

morning and late evening. In the winter

they stay in large groups, but in the

summer they break up into smaller ones.

In early summer the females give birth

to one white-spotted calf.

#More to explore

Deer • Moose

Wappinger

TheWappinger were a group of seven

Native American tribes. They lived in

what are now New York State and Connecticut.

TheWappinger lived in bark-covered

homes called wigwams. They also lived

in longhouses. Longhouses were large

enough for several related families. They

grew corn and other crops. They also

hunted and fished.

Italian explorers visitedWappinger territory

in 1524. In 1609 an English

explorer named Henry Hudson arrived.

He was working for the Dutch. Hudson

claimed the tribe’s land for the Netherlands.

TheWappinger gladly traded animal

furs to the Dutch for European goods

such as metal pots and tools. But the

Wappinger also caught diseases such as

smallpox and measles from the Dutch.

ManyWappinger died of disease.

In the early 1640s theWappinger and

other nearby Indians went to war against

the Dutch. They were trying to protect

their land from Dutch settlers. The Indians

lost the war in 1645.

Most of the survivingWappinger joined

the Nanticoke tribe in the middle of the

1700s. TheseWappinger and Nanticoke

later merged with other tribes, including

the Delaware (Lenni Lenape) and the

Mohican. By the 1800s theWappinger

were no longer a separate people.

#More to explore

Delaware • Mohican • Native Americans

War

When countries or other large groups of

people use weapons to fight each other,

the fight is called a war. Throughout

history groups of people have used war

as a way of settling differences.

Types ofWar

There are two main kinds of war:

international and intranational.

Wappinger

chiefs were

called

sachems. Both

men and

women could

become

sachems.

8 Wappinger BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

International wars are fought between

countries or groups of countries. The

Iran-Iraq War (1980–90) was an

international war between two

countries, Iran and Iraq. World War I

(1914–18) and World War II (1939–

45) were international wars fought

between groups of countries.

Intranational wars are fought between

groups within a country. Intranational

wars are also known as civil wars, rebellions,

or revolutions. Civil wars are wars

between two groups of citizens of the

same country. The American CivilWar

(1861–65) started when the Southern

states seceded, or separated, from the

United States. The Northern states

fought to keep this from happening. A

rebellion is when citizens rise up against

their government and demand change.

It may or may not be successful. Revolutions

are like rebellions, but in a revolution

a group succeeds in overthrowing

the existing government. That group

usually establishes a new government.

Causes ofWar

Countries and other groups of people go

to war with one another for a number of

reasons. A country may feel that it does

not have enough land or resources. It

then may try to take these things from a

neighboring country by force. Sometimes

groups fight wars simply because

one group wants to show it is more

powerful than another. Civil wars can

start when a group within a country

wants more power or money. A group

also may fight to gain religious freedom.

History

EarlyWars

In the earliest wars people fought with

simple weapons—for example, wooden

clubs, rocks, spears, and bows and

arrows. After people learned how to use

metals, they fought with swords and

Warriors in ancient times fought on foot, on horseback, on war elephants, and on wheeled

vehicles. They fought with bows and arrows, spears, and other weapons. They protected

their bodies with shields and armor.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA War 9

other sharp weapons. They also made

better bows and arrows.

For many centuries people fought on

foot. About 4,000 years ago armies

began to use horses to pull carts called

chariots. Armed fighters later began to

ride horses into battle.

European fighters first used gunpowder

in the 1300s. They used it to blast castle

walls and to shoot arrowlike missiles

from tubes. Europeans invented the big

guns called artillery, including cannons,

during this time. In the mid-1400s

European inventors made the first rifles

and handguns. For the first time soldiers

on foot could carry guns.

ModernWar

A huge change in war happened in the

1800s, during the Industrial

Revolution. (The Industrial Revolution

was a time when people invented new

ways to make goods quickly and

cheaply.) Large numbers of guns

became available for armies. Guns also

became more powerful and accurate.

The first machine guns appeared in the

late 1800s.

Other inventions allowed people to

fight much larger wars. Steam engines

allowed warships to move around

without depending on wind. Telegraphs

allowed fast communication between

troops. Railroads moved troops and

supplies farther and faster. All these

new developments made war much

more destructive.

The next major advance in war came

with the use of airplanes duringWorld

War I. Pilots could now drop bombs

from the air. Armies also used tanks,

submarines, and chemical weapons

(weapons that released poisonous gas)

during this war.

DuringWorldWar II tanks and many

other kinds of weapons improved. But

the biggest change of all was the development

of the atomic bomb, the first

nuclear weapon. The United States

dropped two atomic bombs on Japanese

cities duringWorldWar II. These

bombs killed more than 100,000 people

instantly.

AfterWorldWar II a group of countries

formed the United Nations. This organization

tries to keep countries from going

to war. Many countries also agreed to

some new rules of war. These rules are

included in a set of agreements called

the Geneva Conventions. One of the

rules is that warring countries should try

Shallow water does not stop a modern tank.

A tank is an armored vehicle that runs on

crawler tracks and carries a powerful gun.

The first tanks were used in World War I

(1914–18).

10 War BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

not to harm civilians (people not in the

military).

#More to explore

Bomb • United Nations •WorldWar I

•WorldWar II

Warhol, Andy

AndyWarhol was a U.S. artist famous

for his paintings of Campbell Soup cans

and portraits of celebrities.Warhol himself

became a celebrity, in part because

of his unusual personality and sense of

style.

AndrewWarhola, as he was originally

named, was born in Pennsylvania in

about 1928. He studied art at the Carnegie

Institute of Technology. After

graduating in 1949, he moved to New

York City. There he drew illustrations

for advertisements. But he wanted to be

an artist whose works were shown in art

galleries.

In 1962Warhol showed some of his

paintings at a gallery. He had painted 32

pictures of different flavors of Campbell’s

soup. The soup cans were all

painted in the same flat style.

Warhol’s paintings were a new kind of

art.Warhol took familiar objects and

made them into art.Warhol and other

artists were called pop artists because

they took images from popular culture,

or everyday life.

By 1963Warhol had begun to make

pictures from photographs. He started

creating portraits of such stars as Marilyn

Monroe and Elvis Presley. He made

numerous portraits of the same person

using different bright colors for each

picture.

Warhol called the place where he created

his art the Factory. Unlike other artists,

he did not treat his works as unique.

Instead he mass-produced his art, similar

to the way factories make products. The

Factory became a place for unusual and

famous people to meet.Warhol worked

with some of these people to create

films. The films were known for not

having plots and for being very long.

In 1968 one of Warhol’s followers shot

and nearly killed him. After recovering,

Warhol continued to make art. He died

in New York City on February 22,

1987.

#More to explore

Advertising • Arts • Painting

Andy Warhol created paintings of everyday

objects and celebrities.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Warhol, Andy 11

War of 1812

The War of 1812 was the second war

between the United States and Great

Britain. The United States won its

independence in the first war—the

American Revolution. Neither country

won anything important in the War of

1812.

Background

In the early 1800s Great Britain was

fighting a war against France. The

United States did not take part in this

war, but Britain tried to keep U.S. ships

from stopping at French ports. The British

also took sailors away from U.S.

ships and forced them to join the British

Navy. These actions angered many

people in the United States.

People who lived in newly settled areas

of the United States were also angry

with Britain. They accused the British

of getting Native Americans to attack

settlers.

Most of the fighting in the War of 1812 took place near seacoasts and lakeshores in North

America.

12 War of 1812 BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Henry Clay of Kentucky led a group in

Congress called “war hawks.” The war

hawks got President James Madison to

sign a declaration of war against Britain

on June 18, 1812.

Early Battles

The United States was not ready for war.

The Army first tried to take Canada,

which belonged to Britain. The attacks

failed. Britain struck back by taking

Detroit, Michigan. The U.S. Navy was

more successful at first. The USS Constitution

(“Old Ironsides”) won several

battles in the Atlantic.

U.S. forces won two notable victories in

1813. On September 10 ships commanded

by Oliver Hazard Perry

defeated British ships on Lake Erie. He

then helped recapture Detroit. In October,

Perry’s ships and troops commanded

by William Henry Harrison

chased the British into Canada. There

the U.S. forces defeated the British in

the battle of the Thames. The Native

American leader Tecumseh died while

helping the British. After this battle,

most of the Native Americans stopped

fighting.

Later Battles

These victories did not stop the British,

however. In August 1814 British troops

sailed up Chesapeake Bay and entered

Washington, D.C. They burned the

White House and other government

buildings. They then tried to capture

Baltimore, Maryland, but failed. Francis

Scott Key wrote the words to “The Star-

Spangled Banner” after this battle.

On January 8, 1815, British soldiers

attacked troops led by Andrew Jackson

at New Orleans, Louisiana. Jackson’s

forces defeated the British. Both sides

fought this battle without knowing that

their countries had signed a peace treaty

in Ghent, Belgium, on December 24,

1814.

The war was over, but there was no

clear winner. The boundaries returned

to where they were before the war.

Andrew Jackson and William Henry

Harrison were considered heroes

because of the battles that they won.

Both were later elected president of the

United States. Another result of the war

was that the United States became more

independent from Europe. The country

developed more of a sense of national

identity.

#More to explore

Harrison,William Henry • Jackson,

Andrew • Key, Francis Scott • Madison,

James • Tecumseh • United Kingdom

• United States • White House

A painting shows the USS Constitution and

a British warship fighting a sea battle during

the War of 1812. Smoke from the guns

fills the air between the ships.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA War of 1812 13

Warsaw

Population

(2008 estimate)

1,706,620

Warsaw is the capital of Poland, a country

in eastern Europe. It is Poland’s largest

city and center of culture.Warsaw

lies on a flat plain. The Vistula River

cuts through the city.

Many people inWarsaw work in service

industries such as trade, insurance, education,

and tourism. The city is Poland’s

center of banking. Factories inWarsaw

make electronics, cars, processed foods,

and other products.

Warsaw was once a small trading settlement.

The town grew after a castle was

built there in the late 1200s. It became

the capital of Poland in 1596.

Warsaw survived great destruction several

times. Sweden attacked the city in

the 1650s. Russia invadedWarsaw in the

1790s.

Poland fell under foreign rule in the late

1700s. In 1918, afterWorldWar I, it

became an independent country again.

Warsaw was its capital.

Nazi troops from Germany ruled Poland

during WorldWar II, from 1939 to

1945. They murdered hundreds of thousands

of Jews, Poles, and other people

fromWarsaw. This was part of a mass

killing called the Holocaust.

The Nazis forcedWarsaw’s Jews to live

in terrible conditions in an area called a

ghetto. In 1943 the Jews fought an

uprising against the Nazis. The Jews

were greatly outnumbered, however. The

Nazis recaptured the ghetto and

destroyed it.

The people ofWarsaw fought the Nazis

again in 1944, but they lost. The Nazis

then destroyed most of the city.

After the warWarsaw was rebuilt. By the

end of the 20th century the city’s population

was larger than it had been before

the war.

..More to explore

Holocaust • Nazi Party • Poland

Most of the buildings in the older section of

Warsaw, Poland, were rebuilt after World

War II. The builders made them look just

like the old buildings that were destroyed in

the war.

14 Warsaw BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Washington

The U.S. state ofWashington is called

the Evergreen State because of its great

fir, pine, and hemlock forests. It is also

sometimes called the Chinook State,

after a Native American tribe of the

Columbia River area.Washington is the

only state named after a president—

GeorgeWashington. Olympia is the

capital.

Geography

Washington lies in the northwestern

United States. On the north the state

borders the Canadian province of British

Columbia. Idaho is to the east, and

Oregon is to the south. The Pacific

Ocean lies to the west. Puget Sound is

an arm of the Pacific that reaches into

the state.

The greatest physical feature ofWashington

is the Cascade Range, or the Cascades.

This mountain chain has the

highest point in the state, Mount

Rainier. It rises 14,410 feet (4,392

meters). The Cascades divideWashington

into two parts. About one third of

the state lies west of the Cascades. The

area around Puget Sound is a lowland

where more than half of the state’s

people live. Much of the land east of the

Cascades is high, flat land called a plateau.

The main river inWashington is

the Columbia.

The climate in westernWashington is

wet and mild. EasternWashington is

much drier, with hot summers and cold

winters.

People

During the 1800s many settlers

came toWashington along the route

called the Oregon Trail. Most of them

were from the Midwest. Immigrants

from Canada and northern Europe

arrived later.

Today whites make up about four fifths

ofWashington’s population. Hispanics

and Asians are the largest minority

groups. More than 90,000 Native

Americans live in the state, too.

Economy

Washington’s economy depends mostly

on manufacturing and services. The

Boeing Company makes aircraft and

spacecraft in a huge factory near Seattle.

The Microsoft Corporation, in Redmond,

is a leader in the production of

computer software. Service industries

such as real estate and tourism grew

quickly in the late 20th century.

Bonneville

Dam

Grand

Coulee

Dam

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Washington 15

Other industries inWashington include

the making of wood products and the

processing of seafood and farm products.

The main farm goods are apples, dairy

products, and cattle. Fishing boats bring

in salmon, crabs, and other seafood.

History

Native American tribes lived in the

Washington region long before white

settlers arrived. They included the Chinook,

the Salish, and the Yakima. In

1792 both Great Britain and the United

States claimed the region. The U.S.

claim was strengthened in 1805, when

the explorers Meriwether Lewis and

William Clark arrived.

The region’s early settlers made their

living mainly by fur trading. Beginning

in 1826 logging camps and sawmills

were established. In 1846 Britain and

the United States signed a treaty that set

the border between Canada and the

United States. In 1853 the U.S. Congress

established theWashington Territory

north of the Columbia River.

Washington became the 42nd state in

1889.

In the 1890s a gold rush in Alaska

spurred the growth of cities and shipping

ports on Puget Sound. Early in the

1900sWashington began projects to

improve navigation and create power

plants on the Columbia River. The Bonneville

and Grand Coulee dams were

built in the 1930s and 1940s.

In the second half of the 1900s the

Seattle area became famous for the

manufacture of airplanes and other

high-technology products. Microsoft has

been a major force in the state’s

economy since the 1980s.

..More to explore

Lewis and Clark Expedition • Olympia

• Oregon Trail

The snowy peaks of Washington’s Mount Rainier attract mountain climbers.

Facts About

WASHINGTON

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

5,894,121—

rank, 15th state;

(2008 estimate)

6,549,224—

rank, 13th state

Capital

Olympia

Area

71,300 sq mi

(184,665 sq

km)—rank, 18th

state

Statehood

November 11,

1889

Motto

Alki (By and By)

State bird

American

goldfinch

State flower

Coast

rhododendron

16 Washington BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Washington,

Booker T.

Booker T.Washington was an educator

who spoke for many African Americans

during the late 1800s and early 1900s.

Washington taught that hard work and

patience were the best ways for them to

improve their lives.

Booker TaliaferroWashington was born

into slavery in Franklin County, Virginia,

on April 5, 1856.Washington and

his mother gained their freedom in

1865, after the end of the American

CivilWar. They moved to Malden,West

Virginia. At age 9Washington started

working to help support the family.

Washington taught himself the alphabet

and studied at a local school. He later

attended the Hampton Normal and

Agricultural Institute. After graduating

in 1875 he became a teacher.

In 1881 Washington was selected to

head a new school for African

Americans in Alabama. The school was

called the Tuskegee Normal and

Industrial Institute. It had few students,

only two buildings, and very little

money. By 1915 Washington had built

the institute into a university with

about 1,500 students and almost 200

teachers.

During this time, although slavery had

ended, African Americans still did not

have the same rights that white people

had.Washington wanted African Americans

to win the respect of whites by

learning farming skills and trades, such

as brickmaking, mattress making, and

wagon building. This, he said, would

gradually break down the divisions

between the two races.

Washington had many African American

followers, but W.E.B. Du Bois and

other leaders disagreed with him. These

leaders believed that African Americans

should protest and fight directly for

more rights.

Many whites admired and honored

Washington. He became one of the

most powerful African American leaders

of his time. Washington died in

Tuskegee, Alabama, on November 14,

1915.

#More to explore

African Americans • Du Bois,W.E.B.

Booker T.

Washington

told his own

story in a

famous book

titled Up from

Slavery.

Booker T. Washington

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Washington, Booker T. 17

Washington,

D.C.

Population

(2000 census),

city, 572,059;

(2007

estimate),

588,292

The city of Washington is the capital of

the United States, a country in North

America. It was named after George

Washington, the country’s first president.

He helped plan the city.

Washington is not part of a state.

Rather, it is in a separate district called

the District of Columbia. The city is

thus known asWashington, D.C. The

city and the district take up the same

space.

Washington lies on the Potomac River.

The state of Maryland surrounds the

city on all other sides. The state of Virginia

lies across the river fromWashington

to the southwest.

Places of Interest

The most important U.S. government

buildings are arranged around a broad

lawn inWashington called the Mall.

These buildings include the Capitol,

where U.S. laws are made, and the

White House, where the U.S. president

lives. The city also has more than 300

monuments and statues. Among them

are memorials honoring war veterans

and former U.S. presidents George

Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and

Thomas Jefferson.

The Smithsonian Institution operates

many large national museums inWashington.

The city is also home to the

world’s largest library, the Library of

Congress.

Economy

The economy ofWashington depends

heavily on government activity and tourism.

The U.S. government is the largest

employer. Many large national and

international organizations also have

headquarters in the city. Business services,

research, law, health care, and

other services are also important.

History

Washington is one of the world’s few

cities built to be a national capital.

GeorgeWashington chose its location in

1790. An engineer named Pierre-

Charles L’Enfant designed the city.

The U.S. government offices were

moved toWashington in 1800. During

theWar of 1812 British troops burned

The U.S. Congress meets in a building

called the Capitol. The Capitol sits on Capitol

Hill in Washington, D.C.

18 Washington, D.C. BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the White House and other buildings in

Washington. They were rebuilt.

The population ofWashington doubled

after the American CivilWar ended in

1865. Many freed slaves moved to the

city. In the 1900s the city continued to

grow.

In 2001 terrorists crashed airplanes into

buildings outsideWashington and in

New York City. Many people were

killed. After that the United States

increased security around many government

buildings.

#More to explore

Congress of the United States • United

States • United States Government

•Washington, George • White House

Washington,

George

GeorgeWashington led the American

colonists to victory in the American

Revolution. After the war he helped

produce the U.S. Constitution. Finally,

he served as the first president of the

United States.Washington is often

called the Father of His Country.

Early Life and Career

GeorgeWashington was born inWestmoreland

County, Virginia, on February

22, 1732. He was the eldest child of

Augustine and Mary BallWashington.

His father owned plantations, businesses,

and mines. After his father died,

George lived with his half brother

Lawrence at an estate on the Potomac

River called Mount Vernon. George

learned how to survey (measure) areas of

land and to farm.

At age 16Washington joined a group

sent to survey the Virginia frontier. In

1749 he became the official surveyor of

Culpeper County. After Lawrence’s

death in 1752,Washington became head

ofMount Vernon and one of the richest

planters in Virginia. Slaves did most of

the work on his estate.

Beginning in 1754Washington fought

in the French and IndianWar. He eventually

became commander of all Virginia’s

troops.Washington also served in

the House of Burgesses, Virginia’s

assembly of representatives. In 1759 he

married Martha Dandridge, a widow

with two children. The couple had no

children together.

George Washington was the first president

of the United States.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Washington, George 19

American Revolution

Before the American RevolutionWashington

was loyal to Great Britain. By the

late 1760s, however, he began protesting

unfair British policies. In 1774 and

1775Washington served in the Continental

Congress. In April 1775 fighting

between British and colonial troops

began. The Continental Congress chose

Washington to lead the colonial forces,

called the Continental Army.

The fighting lasted for six difficult years.

The army’s lowest point was the winter

of 1777–78, which it spent at Valley

Forge, Pennsylvania. Many soldiers died

from the cold, and more than 2,000

deserted.Washington held the army

together, however, and continued fighting.

Finally, in 1781, the British surrendered.

Presidency

In 1787Washington served as president

of the Constitutional Convention.

There, representatives designed the new

U.S. government, laid out in a document

called the Constitution. After the

states accepted the Constitution, a

group of men called electors chose

Washington to be the country’s first

president.Washington took the oath of

office in New York City on April 30,

1789. He was reelected in 1792. John

Adams was his vice president.

Washington believed in a strong federal,

or central, government. He also believed

that the United States should remain

neutral, or not take sides, in foreign

affairs. Political parties developed

because of his views. The Federalists,

such as Alexander Hamilton, supported

Washington’s ideas. The Democratic-

Republicans, such as Thomas Jefferson,

defended the power of the states.Washington

tried to keep a balance between

the two parties.

Another problem faced byWashington

was finding ways to pay the expenses of

February 22, December 14,

1732 1775 1781 1787 1789 1797 1799

Washington is

born in

Westmoreland

County,

Virginia.

Washington

leads the

Continental

Army into the

American

Revolution.

Great Britain

surrenders.

Washington

heads the

Constitutional

Convention.

Washington

becomes the

first U.S.

president.

Washington

retires to

Mount Vernon.

Washington

dies at Mount

Vernon.

T I M E L I N E

20 Washington, George BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the new government. Congress passed

taxes on certain products, including

whiskey. In 1794 farmers in Pennsylvania

rebelled against the whiskey tax.

Washington sent about 13,000 soldiers

to end the rebellion. His actions showed

the power of the federal government.

Retirement and Death

After eight years as president,Washington

refused to run for a third term. He

retired to Mount Vernon in March

1797. On December 14, 1799, he died

of a throat infection. In 1800 the U.S.

capital was moved from Philadelphia to

the new city ofWashington, D.C.,

named in honor of the first president.

#More to explore

Adams, John • American Revolution

• Continental Congress • French and

IndianWar • United States • United

States Constitution

Wasp

Wasps are insects related to bees and

ants. There are more than 20,000 species,

or types, of wasp. Yellow jacket and

hornet are common names for several

wasp species.

Wasps live on every continent except

Antarctica. They are plentiful in tropical

areas.

Wasps vary in color and size. Yellow

jackets and hornets are black and yellow.

Other wasps may have green, blue, or

red markings. Some species measure up

to 2.5 inches (6 centimeters) long. Others

are among the world’s smallest

insects.Wasps usually have two pairs of

clear wings and six legs. Females often

have a powerful stinger.

Some wasps live in groups called colonies.

These insects are called social

wasps. A female known as the queen

starts the colony. She builds a paperlike

nest and lays eggs in it. Her first batch

of offspring gathers food and works to

make the nest bigger.

Most types of wasp do not form colonies.

They are known as solitary wasps.

They may build nests in the ground, lay

eggs inside plants, or even sneak their

eggs into the nests of other insects.

Many people fear the sting of wasps.

However, wasps usually sting only

people who swat at them or touch their

nest. In fact, wasps can be helpful. They

feed many troublemaking insects to

their young. They also help to spread

pollen when they visit flowers to drink

nectar. Spreading pollen allows flowers

to make seeds.

#More to explore

Ant • Bee • Insect

A potter wasp constructs a nest out of mud.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Wasp 21

Watch

#see Clock.

Water

Water is the most important liquid on

Earth. It covers almost 75 percent of

Earth’s surface in the form of oceans,

rivers, and lakes. All plants and animals

need water to live.

People have many uses for water besides

drinking. They use it for washing and

cooking. They use it to irrigate crops

and lawns, to clean streets, and to operate

air-conditioning units and heating

systems. They also use the power of

flowing water to produce electricity.

Makeup and Physical States

Water is made of tiny units called molecules,

which are combinations of even

smaller units called atoms. A molecule

of water is made of two hydrogen atoms

and one oxygen atom. The scientific

formula for water is H2O.

Water can be found in three physical

states: liquid, solid (ice), or gas (steam or

vapor). The molecules in all three states

are constantly moving. The speed of this

movement determines water’s physical

state. In ice, the water molecules vibrate

but basically stay in place. In liquid

water, the molecules move more quickly

but stay near each other. In vapor, the

molecules move so quickly that they fly

away in all directions.

Heat causes water to change from one

physical state to another. When ice is

heated, the water molecules move faster

and farther apart. This causes the ice to

melt into liquid. When liquid water is

heated, the molecules speed up even

more. Molecules at the surface of the

liquid begin to break loose and fly into

the air. In this way the liquid evaporates,

or becomes vapor.

Everyone should drink water every day.

Water makes up about 60 percent of an

adult’s body by weight. Children’s bodies

have an even higher percentage of water.

River water gushes down rapids. Liquid

water can flow freely. Water also occurs as

a solid, called ice, and as a gas, called

steam or water vapor.

22 Watch BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

This process also works in reverse. Cooling

temperatures slow down the molecules

so that vapor turns back into

liquid. Very cold temperatures turn liquid

into ice.

Boiling and Freezing

Boiling is the formation of bubbles of

vapor inside liquid. As water boils, the

bubbles of vapor rise to the surface and

escape into the air. At most places on

Earth, freshwater boils when it reaches

212° F (100° C). Once it reaches this

temperature, the water cannot get any

hotter. Any heat added to the water just

causes more water to evaporate.

Freezing is the transformation of liquid

water into ice. Freshwater freezes at

32° F (0° C).Water is lighter as a solid

than as a liquid. This is why ice floats

and why it forms on top of a lake

instead of at the bottom.Water also

expands when it freezes. This is why

water pipes can burst on very cold

nights. The water inside the pipes

pushes outward as it turns into ice.

The Water Cycle

Water on Earth is always moving. It

moves from Earth’s surface into the

atmosphere and then returns to the surface.

This movement is called the water

cycle.

The sun, air, and gravity work together

to create the water cycle. Heat from the

sun causes water to evaporate from the

Most of Earth’s water is in the oceans. But water is constantly being recycled. Through a

process called evaporation, water moves from Earth’s surface into the air as water vapor.

The vapor can form clouds, which make rain and snow. Rain and snow bring water back

to the ground again and into lakes, streams, and oceans. Some of the water seeps underground,

where it is called groundwater.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Water 23

surface of lakes, streams, oceans, and

plants. The water vapor moves into the

atmosphere. In the cool air high above

the ground, the water vapor changes

into droplets of water. Large groups of

these droplets are called clouds. Gravity

pulls the droplets back to Earth as rain.

The rain falls into oceans and lakes,

enters rivers, and seeps into the ground.

#More to explore

Cloud • Evaporation and Condensation

• Lake • Molecule • Ocean • Rain

• River

Waterfall

A waterfall is a place in a river where

water spills suddenly downward.Waterfalls

are known for their beauty and awesome

power.

The world’s tallest waterfall is Angel

Falls, in Venezuela. Its water plunges

3,212 feet (979 meters). Angel Falls and

other large waterfalls are sometimes

called cataracts. Cataracts often drop

straight down. The falling water may

not even touch the rock behind it.

Smaller or less steep waterfalls may be

called cascades. Cascades often fall over

a number of short rock walls.

The action of flowing river water is one

of the most common causes of waterfalls.

Flowing water wears away the rock

in a riverbed. Riverbeds sometimes contain

areas of hard rock and areas of soft

rock. In these cases the river wears away

the soft rock before the hard rock. The

hard rock that is left creates a steep wall.

The river water plunges over the rock

wall, forming a waterfall.

Waterfalls also form as a result of movements

in Earth’s crust. These movements

can cause huge blocks of rock to

rise or drop. This creates rock walls over

which rivers may fall. Large, moving

sheets of ice called glaciers also can cut

away rock to form waterfalls.

#More to explore

River • Rock

Water Lily

Water lilies are plants that grow in still

or slowly moving water. They like

ponds, streams, and the edges of lakes in

tropical and mild areas. Their floating

leaves are often called lily pads. Frogs

like to sit on them.

Havasu Falls is a scenic waterfall in the

Grand Canyon.

Niagara Falls

is the bestknown

waterfall

in North

America. It is

partly in

Canada and

partly in the

United States.

24 Waterfall BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Water lilies grow from the muddy bottom

of a body of water. Thick underwater

stems are buried in the mud. Long

stalks reach up from the stems to support

the round, waxy leaves. Some leaves

grow to 6 feet (2 meters) across. The

leaves usually float on the surface, but

sometimes they are underwater.

A single flower blooms at the end of

each stalk. The flowers are shaped like

stars or cups. They can be white, cream,

pink, yellow, red, orange, purple, or

blue. Some flowers open only in the

morning. Others open only in the

evening. For example, the Egyptian

lotus has white flowers that bloom in the

night and stay open only until midday.

Water lily plants also produce a fruit. It

looks like a nut or a berry. Inside are

seeds. When the fruit opens the seeds

sink or float away to produce new

plants.

Water lilies provide shade and hiding

places for fish and other water animals.

Fish, ducks, and other animals eat them,

too. Some people grow water lilies in

garden ponds.

#More to explore

Frog • Plant

Weapon

A weapon is an object used to harm or

kill living creatures or to destroy property.

Individual people and armed forces

use weapons to defend themselves or to

attack an enemy. People also use weapons

for hunting.

EarlyWeapons

The first weapons were things such as

stones and wooden clubs. Early peoples

used such objects to protect themselves

and to hunt for food. Later, ancient

people made weapons out of bronze

and iron. They developed special

swords, spears, and bows and arrows for

warfare.

Ancient people also invented special

weapons to get past the thick walls of

cities and castles. Catapults were weapons

that hurled objects over the walls.

Battering rams were large wooden beams

that could break down doors and walls.

During the Middle Ages (about AD 500

to 1500) Europeans began to use more

complex and deadlier weapons. By the

900s they were using powerful crossbows

that released arrows with a trigger.

In the 1300s they developed large guns

called cannons. These weapons were

powered by gunpowder, an explosive

mixture of chemical substances. (The

Chinese had developed gunpowder hun-

Water lilies bloom in the water. The plant’s

leaves float on top of the water.

Poisonous

chemicals and

deadly germs

can be made

into weapons

called

chemical and

biological

weapons.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Weapon 25

dreds of years before.) In a cannon,

exploding gunpowder shot a heavy stone

or metal ball out of a tube.

ModernWeapons

In the mid-1400s the Spanish invented

the first gun that could be fired from a

man’s shoulder. It was called a harquebus.

A larger shoulder gun, called a musket,

replaced the harquebus in the

1500s. The first pistols, or handheld

guns, also came into use at this time.

Rifles came into wide use in the 1800s.

Bullets shot from a rifle spin around as

they travel. This makes shots fired from

rifles very accurate. In the mid-1800s

the first successful machine guns also

began to be made. Machine guns could

quickly fire many bullets in a row.

Armed forces used many deadly new

weapons duringWorldWar I (1914–18)

and WorldWar II (1939–45). Some of

these included tanks, poison gas,

flamethrowers, and missiles (rockets that

carry explosives to a target). Airplanes

also played a major role in these wars

because they could drop explosive weapons

called bombs.

The deadliest weapon ever used was the

atomic bomb, a kind of nuclear weapon.

WorldWar II ended after the United

States dropped two atomic bombs on

Japan. More than 100,000 Japanese

people were killed.

Weapons Today

Today armed forces continue to use

guns, missiles, bombs, and other modern

weapons. Police officers in many

countries carry clubs, handguns, rifles,

or stun guns. (Stun guns use electrical

shocks to stop people from moving.)

#More to explore

Army • Bomb • Nuclear Energy • Police

• Rocket •War

Weasel

Weasels are meat-eating mammals that

are excellent hunters. They are closely

related to mink, ferrets, and wolverines.

The crossbow was a powerful weapon that

could shoot a bolt (short arrow) as far as

1,000 feet (300 meters). At close range it

could shoot through a knight’s armor.

A powerful military rifle has two supports to

hold it steady. A small telescope, or scope,

helps the soldier to take aim.

26 Weasel BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Weasels live on every continent except

Australia and Antarctica. There are

about 10 species, or types, of weasel.

The least weasel lives in Europe, Asia,

and North America. The long-tailed

weasel is common in North America

and South America.

Weasels have very long, thin bodies. The

neck is long and flexible.Weasels usually

have brown fur. Some species turn white

during winter.

Weasels are small animals. Not including

its tail, the long-tailed weasel is

about 10 to 12 inches long. It weighs 3

to 12 ounces (85 to 350 grams). The

least weasel is the smallest living carnivore,

or meat-eater. It weighs only 1 to

2.5 ounces (30 to 70 grams). The least

weasel is about 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20

centimeters) long.

Weasels hunt alone at night. They move

quietly and use scent to track their prey.

They also have very good hearing.Weasels

usually eat mice, rats, fish, and frogs.

Many weasels are valued for their skins

and furs. Tail hair from some weasels is

used to make paintbrushes.

#More to explore

Mammal • Mink •Wolverine

Weather

Weather is the daily state of the atmosphere,

or air, in any given place. It is

different from climate. Climate is the

average of weather conditions in an area

over a long period.

Elements ofWeather

Many different elements combine to

create weather. Temperature is one of

the basic elements of weather. Temperature

is how warm or cold it is outside.

Wind, or the movement of air across

Earth’s surface, is a second element of

weather.Winds may be gentle or very

powerful.

A third element of weather is humidity,

or the amount of moisture in the air.

Warm air can hold more moisture than

cold air can.

Precipitation is a fourth element of

weather. Precipitation may come in

many forms, including rain, hail, sleet,

and snow. The form precipitation takes

depends on other weather conditions,

such as temperature.

A fifth element of weather is atmospheric

pressure. This is the weight of air

above a given area. Changes in pressure

help people to predict approaching

The stoat, or short-tailed weasel, has mostly

brown fur in summer. In winter the fur may

turn white.

Scientists

sometimes try

to control

weather. For

example, they

may add

chemical particles

to clouds

in order to

cause raindrops

to form.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Weather 27

storms. A storm is a disturbance in the

atmosphere—for example, a thunderstorm

or a hurricane.

Meteorology

Meteorology is the scientific study of

weather. People who study and predict

weather are called meteorologists.

Meteorologists use many instruments to

gather information about weather. The

thermometer and the barometer are two

of the oldest and most common weather

instruments. The thermometer measures

temperature, and the barometer measures

atmospheric pressure. Another

common instrument is the wind vane,

which shows the direction in which

winds are blowing.

Today satellites in space collect weather

information worldwide. Computers help

meteorologists to track weather patterns

and to make weather forecasts, or predictions.

..More to explore

Climate • Rain • Snow • Storm •Wind

Wellington

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area, 379,100

Wellington is the capital of New

Zealand, an island country in the South

Pacific Ocean. The city is New

Zealand’s cultural center. It is located

on the coast of North Island. The city

and its port lie on a bay called Port

Nicholson, one of the world’s finest

harbors.

Many people inWellington work for the

government or in service industries such

as trade, health care, education, or com-

A meteorologist, or weather scientist, studies

computer images of a hurricane. Meteorologists

study satellite images of storms to

find out how strong they are and which

way they are headed.

A cable car carries people between downtown

Wellington, New Zealand, and the

Wellington Botanical Garden.

28 Wellington BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

munications. The city is New Zealand’s

center of business and banking. The

tourism and film industries also bring

money toWellington. Factories in the

city make cars, furniture, plastics, and

other products.

The Maori people have lived in the

Wellington area for hundreds of years.

Great Britain took control of New

Zealand in the 1800s. The British

foundedWellington in 1840. The capital

of New Zealand was moved from

Auckland toWellington in 1865. New

Zealand became an independent country

in 1947.Wellington remained its

capital.

#More to explore

New Zealand

Wells-Barnett,

Ida B.

Ida B. Wells-Barnett was a writer and

public speaker in the United States during

the late 1800s and early 1900s. Her

speeches and writings tell a shocking

story of how whites killed African

Americans in attacks called lynchings.

Early Life

Ida BellWells was born on July 16,

1862, in Holly Springs, Mississippi. Her

parents were slaves.Wells’s family

gained their freedom after the American

CivilWar ended in 1865.

Wells was about 16 years old when both

her parents died.Wells then looked after

the rest of her family. She taught school

to earn money.

Career

As a young woman,Wells moved to

Memphis, Tennessee. There she fought

racial segregation—the forced separation

of the races. In 1884 she refused to leave

a railroad car that was reserved for

whites. One of the railroad workers

dragged her from the car.Wells began

writing articles against segregation in

African American newspapers. She soon

became a part owner of a newspaper.

Wells started writing about lynching in

1892. White Southerners used lynching

as a weapon of terrorism against African

Americans. Mobs of whites would seize

and murder African Americans, often by

hanging. Police usually made no arrests.

Wells wrote and spoke in public about

lynchings so that people would know

Ida B. Wells-Barnett

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Wells-Barnett, Ida B. 29

what had really happened. She wanted

people to become angry and put a stop

to lynching.

Some whites dislikedWells’s antilynching

articles so much that they destroyed

her newspaper office.Wells eventually

moved to Chicago, Illinois, where she

married Ferdinand L. Barnett in 1895.

Later Life

Besides fighting lynching,Wells-Barnett

worked for women’s right to vote. She

also helped to found the National Association

for the Advancement of Colored

People.Wells-Barnett died in Chicago

on March 25, 1931.

#More to explore

African Americans • National

Association for the Advancement of

Colored People

Western Australia

Western Australia is Australia’s largest

state. It covers nearly one third of the

country. However, only about 10 percent

of Australia’s people live there. The

state capital is Perth, a city on the southwestern

coast.

Geography

Western Australia borders the Indian

Ocean on the south, west, and northwest.

The Timor Sea makes up its northern

coast. The Northern Territory and

the state of South Australia lie to the

east.Western Australia covers an area of

976,790 square miles (2,529,875 square

kilometers).

The Fitzroy and Ord rivers flow through

the northern part of the state. South of

the rivers is the Great Sandy Desert.

Other deserts, the Gibson and the Great

Victoria, cover the central part of the

state. Mountains rise in parts of the

west. Mount Meharry, in the northwest,

isWestern Australia’s highest point. It

rises 4,104 feet (1,251 meters) above sea

level.

Several different climate areas are found

inWestern Australia. The northern section

is warm throughout the year, with a

Formations of limestone thrust upward

through the sand of the Pinnacles Desert in

Western Australia.

30 Western Australia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

wet and a dry season. The southwest has

cool, mild winters and warm, breezy

summers. Hot, dry winds blow from the

desert areas to the east.

People

Western Australia has a population of

nearly 2 million. Most people have British,

Irish, or other European ancestors.

A small number of people have Asian

roots. Australia’s native people, called

Aborigines, make up about 3 percent of

the population.

Most people live in the southwestern

quarter of the state. More than 1 million

people live in Perth. Albany, a much

smaller city on the southern coast, has

the state’s only good harbor. Other cities

include Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Bunbury,

and Geraldton.

Economy

ManyWestern Australians work in services

such as education, health care, and

retail (shops). A smaller number of

people work in manufacturing.Workers

produce steel, furniture, food products,

and other goods.

Mining is also important to the

economy.Western Australia is rich in

valuable minerals, including gold, diamonds,

nickel, iron, coal, tin, uranium,

and bauxite. The state also has major

deposits of oil and natural gas.

Western Australia has little freshwater

and poor soil, so growing crops is hard.

Farmers mainly produce grains, wool,

and mutton (sheep meat). They also

grow grapes for wine.

History

Aborigines have lived in what is now

Western Australia for at least 40,000

years. In 1616 the Dutch explorer Dirck

Hartog became the first European to

land on the coast. The British made the

first lasting settlement in 1826, at

Albany. The British made the land a

colony. They later sent thousands of

prisoners to work in the colony.

In the 1880s people discovered gold in

southernWestern Australia, and settlers

poured in.Western Australia became a

state of the new country of Australia in

1901.

#More to explore

Aboriginal Peoples • Australia • Great

Victoria Desert

West Indies

The West Indies is a group of islands

that stretches from near the U.S. state

of Florida to the northern coast of

South America. The islands separate the

Caribbean Sea from the rest of the

Atlantic Ocean. People also call this

area the Caribbean.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA West Indies 31

Greater Antilles

A group of large islands in the northwestern

Caribbean is known as the

Greater Antilles. The Greater Antilles

include Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and

Hispaniola. Two countries share the

island of Hispaniola: Haiti and the

Dominican Republic.

Lesser Antilles

The Lesser Antilles are smaller islands

that lie southeast of the Greater Antilles.

The northern Lesser Antilles are also

known as the Leeward Islands. They

include the British and U.S. Virgin

Islands, Anguilla, Saint Martin, Saint

Kitts and Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda,

Montserrat, and Guadeloupe.

South of the Leewards are theWindward

Islands. The Windward Islands

include Dominica, Martinique, Saint

Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,

and Grenada.

Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles, and

Trinidad and Tobago also belong to the

Lesser Antilles. These islands are close to

the coast of South America.

Other Islands

Several other islands lie outside the Antilles

groups. The Bahamas are east and

southeast of Florida. The Turks and

Caicos Islands are southeast of The

Bahamas. The Cayman Islands are

northwest of Jamaica. Barbados lies east

of theWindward Islands.

Foreign Ties

There are many independent countries