Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

Women and children carrying goods on

their heads show a traditional side of life in

Cotonou, Benin.

The boll weevil

is the most

troublesome

pest that

attacks cotton.

Boll weevils

destroy cotton

bolls.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cotton 205

flowers leave behind a green pod, or

fruit, called a boll. Inside each boll are

20 to 40 seeds. White fibers, which grow

from the seeds’ skins, surround the

seeds. Eventually, the bolls burst open to

reveal the fibers inside.

Different kinds of cotton plant produce

fibers of different lengths. The longest

fibers may be 2.5 inches (6.5 centimeters)

long. These fibers go into the finest

cotton cloth. Most cotton fibers are

closer to 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) long.

Processing

Before cotton fibers may be made into

cloth, they need to be cleaned and

ginned. In ginning, a machine separates

the fibers from the seeds. Next, a

machine cards the fibers, or combs

them into the same direction. Machines

then pull and twist the fibers into long

strands, called yarn. The yarn may be

treated with chemicals, dyed, or

combined with other types of fiber.

Finally, a machine weaves the yarn into

cloth.

Uses

Cotton is one of the most popular fibers

worldwide. People use it to make clothing,

sheets, towels, carpets, sails, and

many other textiles, or cloth goods. Cotton

cloth may be light or heavy. It is

easily washable and comfortable to wear.

People use cottonseeds to make oil for

cooking, cosmetics, and soap. Livestock

eat cottonseeds and the leftover parts of

cotton plants.

History

People in ancient India, China, and

Egypt grew and used cotton. Early

peoples in the Americas also grew cotton.

Arab traders brought cotton to

Europe by about AD 1000.

Cotton was difficult to process until

1793, when U.S. inventor Eli Whitney

created the cotton gin. This machine

separated cotton fibers from the seeds.

Farmers in the U.S. South soon produced

more cotton than ever before.

#More to explore

Fibers • Plant • Textile • Whitney, Eli

Cough

A cough is a sudden burst of air out of a

person’s lungs. Coughs happen when

something irritates, or bothers, the respiratory

system. The respiratory system is

the group of organs that allows people to

breathe.

Materials that cause a cough come from

various places. Smoke, dust, chemicals,

A harvesting machine gathers the puffy

buds of the cotton plant.

206 Cough BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

and pollution in the air all can trigger a

cough. Illnesses such as colds, influenza,

and pneumonia also can cause a cough.

These illnesses cause parts of the respiratory

system to make more of a thick,

sticky fluid called mucus. The mucus

builds up and makes it harder to

breathe. Coughing brings the mucus up

and out of the mouth. Mucus may also

drip down the back of the throat from

the nose. Coughing helps to clear this

mucus from air passages.

Coughing is good for the body. It is the

body’s way to get rid of anything in the

respiratory system that does not belong

there. However, a cough that does not

go away may be a sign that the person

has a serious disease.

#More to explore

Cold, Common • Respiratory System

Country

A country is land that is controlled by a

single government. Countries are also

called nations. Countries can be large or

small. Australia, Brazil, Canada, China,

Russia, and the United States are large

countries spread over millions of square

miles. The world’s smallest country,

Vatican City, covers less than 1 square

mile (2.6 square kilometers).

A country’s land does not have to be

connected. For example, the U.S. states

of Alaska and Hawaii are separated from

the other 48 states but are still part of

the country. Some countries are made

up of groups of islands. Indonesia and

the Philippines are examples of island

countries.

In some countries nearly all the people

belong to a single ethnic group. These

people are united by a shared history

and culture. Denmark, Norway, and

Sweden are examples. But other countries

are made up of many different ethnic

groups. Except for the Native

Americans, the United States is made up

of immigrants, or people who came

from other countries. China and India,

each with more than a billion people,

have many different ethnic groups.

A cough may be a sign of a cold or other

illness.

The flags of many countries fly outside the

United Nations building in New York City.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Country 207

Most countries are divided into smaller

parts called states or provinces. A state

has its own government. The country’s

government shares power with the state

governments. The laws made by the

country’s government affect all the

people of the country. The laws made by

a state government affect only the

people of that state.

Almost all countries belong to an organization

called the United Nations, or

the UN. The UN tries to solve disagreements

between countries peacefully. It

meets in New York City.

#More to explore

Government • State Government

• United Nations

Country Music

Country music, also called country and

western, is a style of music that began in

the southern United States. The center

of country music is Nashville, Tennessee.

However, country music is played all

over the United States and as far away as

Australia. Many country songs are about

the lives of people in rural areas and

their difficulties.

Early country musicians played mostly

fiddles, banjos, guitars, and string basses.

Later musicians added electric basses,

pedal steel guitars, keyboards, and

drums.

Country music has its roots in the folk

music of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

Settlers brought this music to

North America in the 1700s and 1800s.

People in the Appalachian Mountains

and other parts of the South created

their own form of this folk music. Radio

stations began broadcasting it in the

1920s. People called it hillbilly music

until the 1940s. It then became known

as country and western music.

The earliest popular performers of

country music included Jimmie

Rodgers and the Carter Family. In the

1930s such singers as Gene Autry and

Roy Rogers sang country songs in

movies about cowboys in the West. In

the 1940s new types of country music

included honky-tonk and bluegrass.

Honky-tonk featured steel guitars, while

bluegrass featured traditional banjos

and fiddles. Hank Williams helped

make honky-tonk popular. Bill Monroe

is considered the inventor of bluegrass.

Some leading country performers of the

1950s and 1960s were Patsy Cline,

Johnny Cash, TammyWynette, and

Merle Haggard. Later country stars

included Willie Nelson,Waylon Jen-

A country music group performs on a river

in Louisiana.

The young

Elvis Presley

and others

played a kind

of music that

combined rock

with country.

Their music

was sometimes

called rockabilly.

208 Country Music BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

nings, Dolly Parton, Randy Travis,

Garth Brooks, Reba McEntire, and Lyle

Lovett.

#More to explore

Folk Music • Music • Nashville

Cowbird

As their name suggests, cowbirds often

live among cattle and other large mammals.

They feed on insects stirred up as

these animals graze. Cowbirds are songbirds

that are related to grackles, orioles,

meadowlarks, and most types of blackbird.

Cowbirds are common in North

America. The best-known species, or

type, is the brown-headed cowbird.

Another species, the bay-winged cowbird,

lives in South America.

Most male cowbirds have shiny black

feathers, while the females are usually

grayish brown. Male brown-headed

cowbirds have brown heads and black

bodies.

Bay-winged cowbirds are the only cowbirds

that build their own nests. Most

cowbird species lay their eggs in the

nests of other types of birds. These other

birds then sit on the cowbird eggs along

with their own. When a cowbird chick

hatches, the host birds often feed and

care for it as if it were their own. Cowbird

chicks tend to hatch a day or two

before the other birds. They also grow

quickly. These facts give them an advantage

over the other birds when it comes

to being fed.

#More to explore

Bird • Blackbird • Songbird

Coyote

The coyote is a wild member of the dog

family. Its scientific name is Canis

latrans. It is known for its cleverness and

its nighttime howls.

The coyote lives over a wide area, from

Alaska in the north to Central America

in the south. It can be found throughout

the continental United States. Sometimes

coyotes live near people, such as at

the edges of cities.

Coyotes are similar to wolves, but they

are smaller and more lightly built. Most

adult coyotes weigh 20–50 pounds

(9–23 kilograms) and are 3–4 feet

(1–1.2 meters) long, including the tail.

Their fur is long and full. Most coyotes

are grayish brown with white on the

The brown-headed cowbird lives

in North America.

The coyote is

one of North

America’s

fastest land

animals, with

a top speed of

40 miles

(64 kilometers)

per hour.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Coyote 209

throat and belly. They have bushy tails,

often with a black tip.

Coyotes are active mostly at night. They

often hunt alone, typically for rodents

and hares. Groups of coyotes, called

packs, may chase larger animals such as

sheep. Coyotes communicate with each

other using barks, yaps, and howls.

While chasing prey, they can run up to

40 miles (64 kilometers) per hour. Coyotes

also eat plants and dead animals.

Coyotes in captivity have lived 18 years

or more. The life span of wild coyotes,

however, is much shorter.

#More to explore

Dog •Wolf

Crab

#see Crustacean.

Crafts

#see Decorative Arts.

Cranberry

Cranberries are fruits with a sour taste.

People use cranberries to make sauces,

jellies, baked goods, and juice. Cranberries

contain minerals and vitamins A

and C.

Cranberries grow in wet, spongy soil in

places called bogs. Cranberries grow in

natural bogs in North America, Asia,

and Europe. People also grow cranberries

in bogs that they create themselves.

The United States is the leading cranberry

producer.

Cranberries may be round, oval, or pearshaped.

They range in color from pink

to very dark red. Some are white.

Cranberries grow on small plants that

form vines. Short branches grow from

the vines. Small leaves and flowers grow

on the branches. The flowers develop

into berries. Botanists (people who study

plants) call cranberries true berries. Like

blueberries and other true berries, cranberries

are single fruits that grow from a

single flower. In contrast, strawberries

Coyotes are most commonly seen at dawn

and dusk.

Cranberries grow well along the coast of

the U.S. state of Washington.

210 Crab BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

and some other berries are really clusters

of fruits that grow from one flower.

Cranberry growers usually collect the

fruit by a method called water harvesting.

First they flood the bog. Then they

use machines to knock the berries off

the plants. The berries float to the surface,

which makes them easier to collect.

#More to explore

Blueberry • Bog • Fruit • Strawberry

Crazy Horse

Crazy Horse was a war leader of the

Oglala, a tribe of the Sioux Indians. He

was born in about 1842 near what is

now Rapid City, South Dakota. As early

as 1865 he was leading his people in the

Plains IndianWars. The Indians waged

these wars to stop non-Indians from

invading their lands.

In 1868 Sioux leaders agreed to keep

their people on a reservation. Crazy

Horse refused to honor that agreement.

He and his followers left the reservation

for bison (buffalo) country, where they

continued to hunt, fish, and wage war

against enemy tribes as well as whites.

In 1874 gold was discovered in an area

of the Sioux reservation that the Indians

considered to be sacred ground. White

miners ignored Indian treaties and

swarmed over the area. Army troops

were sent to protect the miners, but

Crazy Horse and his followers forced

them to leave in June 1876.

Later that month the Sioux fought U.S.

soldiers led by Lieutenant Colonel

George Custer. During this famous

battle Custer and all of his men were

killed.

Crazy Horse was pursued by U.S.

troops. He finally surrendered on May

6, 1877. While being held prisoner at

Fort Robinson, Nebraska, Crazy Horse

was killed on September 5, 1877, during

a struggle with U.S. soldiers.

#More to explore

Custer, George Armstrong • Sioux

Cree

The Cree are one of the largest Native

American groups in Canada. They originally

lived in the forests of eastern

Canada. They eventually expanded their

territory far into the plains of western

Canada.

A huge statue of Crazy Horse is being

carved out of a mountain in South Dakota.

The model in front shows what the statue

will look like when it is completed.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cree 211

The Cree traditionally hunted, fished,

and gathered berries and wild plants for

food. They used the bark of birch trees

to build cone-shaped houses similar to

tepees. They also used birch bark to

make canoes.

In the early 1600s traders from France

and England began arriving in Cree

lands. The Cree traded furs to the Europeans

in exchange for guns, tools, cloth,

and other goods.

Over time some Cree moved west to the

plains of what are now Saskatchewan

and Alberta. These Cree became known

as the Plains Cree. The Cree who stayed

in the east became known as the Woodland

Cree. By the late 1700s the Plains

Cree had given up their old way of life.

They got horses and began hunting

bison (buffalo) on horseback. These

Cree also built tepees.

In the 1800s the Cree lost much of their

land to white settlers. Most Cree settled

on reservations that the Canadian government

set aside for them. At the end

of the 20th century more than 60,000

Cree lived in Canada. About 2,500 Cree

lived in the United States.

Creek

The Native Americans known as the

Creek originally lived in a huge territory

in what are now Georgia and Alabama.

The Creek were a confederacy, or group,

of separate tribes. The English called all

of the tribes the Creek because they

lived mainly along rivers and creeks. The

Creek call themselves the Muskogee (or

Muscogee).

The Creek divided their towns into

“white towns” and “red towns.” White

towns were dedicated to peace, and red

towns were set apart for war planning

and ceremonies. The Creek lived in rectangular

houses made of pole frames cov-

Me-Na-Wa was a chief of the

Creek people.

A Cree boy dressed in traditional

costume attends an event

in Canada.

212 Creek BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ered with mud. The roofs were made of

grass or bark. The Creek planted fields

of corn, beans, and squash. They also

hunted and fished.

Spanish explorers invaded Creek territory

in the 1500s. Later the Creek sided

with English colonists in wars against

the Spanish. In the early 1800s the

Creek fought over land with European

settlers. In the 1830s the U.S. government

forced the Creek to move to

Indian Territory (now Oklahoma).

The Creek later adopted European customs.

They also became known as one

of the Five Civilized Tribes, along with

the Cherokee, the Chickasaw, the Choctaw,

and the Seminole. At the end of the

20th century there were about 40,000

Creek. Most lived in Oklahoma.

#More to explore

Cherokee • Chickasaw • Choctaw

• Native Americans • Seminole

Cricket

The chirping of crickets is a common

sound in the summer. Crickets are

jumping insects. Although they have

wings, most are not able to fly. Crickets

are closely related to grasshoppers.

There are about 2,400 species, or types,

of cricket. They live in warm areas of the

world. Crickets can be found in fields,

trees, and bushes.

Crickets are 0.1 inch to 2 inches (3 to

50 millimeters) long. They are usually

brown, black, or green. They have long,

powerful hind legs that they use for

jumping. Most crickets have two pairs of

wings. The wings in the front are tough

and stiff. The wings in the back are long

and thin. They help crickets jump.

Crickets also have long, thin antennas

that they use to smell and touch.

Crickets are usually active at night. After

spending the day hiding, they come out

when it is dark to find food. Crickets eat

mostly plants.

Crickets use chirps to communicate

with each other. They chirp by rubbing

their front wings together. Usually only

male crickets chirp. They have different

“songs” for different purposes. The most

common songs are used to attract

females.

Many people think that house crickets

bring good luck. In eastern Asia male

crickets are kept in cages so people can

hear their songs.

#More to explore

Grasshopper • Insect

Crickets make a chirping sound by rubbing

their front wings together.

Some crickets

chirp faster in

higher temperatures.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cricket 213

Cricket

Cricket is an outdoor team sport played

with a bat and ball. It developed in

England. It is also very popular in places

that England once ruled as colonies,

such as Australia, India, Pakistan, South

Africa, and theWest Indies. More than

90 countries are members of the sport’s

governing body, the International

Cricket Council.

Playing Area and Equipment

Cricket is played on an oval field. In the

center of the field is a long rectangular

area called the pitch. The pitch is 22

yards (20 meters) long and 10 feet (3

meters) wide. A marker called a wicket is

set in the ground at each end of the

pitch. Each wicket is made up of three

sticks, called stumps, placed closely

together. Two small pieces of wood,

called bails, are placed on top of each

wicket.

A cricket bat is about 3 feet (1 meter)

long. The hitting surface of the bat is

flat. A cricket ball is red or white.

Playing the Game

Two teams of 11 players compete in a

cricket game, or match. The team that

scores more runs (or points) wins.

Cricket matches with scores in the hundreds

are common.

When a cricket match starts, there are

two offensive players in the pitch. They

carry bats and are called batsmen. The

batsmen stand at opposite ends of the

pitch from each other, one near each

wicket. One batsman, the striker, uses

his bat to hit the ball. The batsman at

the opposite wicket is called the nonstriker.

The key player on the defensive team is

called the bowler. The bowler stands

near the wicket across the pitch from the

A diagram shows the layout of a cricket field and the positions of the players.

214 Cricket BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

striker. The bowler tries to deliver, or

bowl, the ball past the striker. The

bowler takes a running start and then

hurls the ball with an overhand, straightarm

delivery. Most balls are delivered so

that they bounce in front of the striker

and the wicket. The bowler tries to hit

the wicket with the ball. If the ball

knocks a bail off the wicket, the striker

is dismissed, or put out. This means that

his turn at bat is over.

The striker tries to keep the bowler from

hitting the wicket. He also tries to hit

the ball onto the field to score runs for

his team. If the striker hits the ball, the

two batsmen can run across the pitch to

the opposite wicket. They can keep running

back and forth between the wickets

until the fielders put them out. Each

time both batsmen reach the opposite

wicket, they score a run.

Sometimes the striker hits the ball but

decides that he does not have time to

run to the opposite wicket. In such cases

the batsmen do not have to run. Play

continues, and the bowler delivers the

next ball. The striker can earn six runs

automatically (without running between

the wickets) by hitting the ball over the

field’s outer boundary.

Fielders can dismiss the batsmen in a

number of ways. For example, a fielder

can catch a batted ball before it hits the

ground. Also, a fielder holding the ball

can dismiss a batsman by knocking a

bail off a wicket before the batsman gets

there.

Each batting session is called an innings

(always plural). A team completes an

innings after 10 players have batted.

Cricket matches vary in length. Some

matches last an afternoon. Others take

days to complete.

History

People in England may have played

cricket as early as the 1200s. A set of

rules for the sport was written in the

1700s. In the 1800s and 1900s the

English brought the game into their

colonies throughout the world. An

international cricket competition called

the World Cup was first held in 1975. It

takes place every four years.

Crime

A crime occurs when a person breaks a

law. Governments pass laws against

actions that they consider to be harmful

or dangerous. If someone breaks a law

they are punished in some way by the

government that passed the law. Crimi-

A striker swings his bat.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Crime 215

nal laws vary from place to place and

change over time. This makes it difficult

to say exactly what crime is.

Types of Crime

Different societies divide crimes into

different groups. In the United States and

the United Kingdom, the most serious

crimes are called felonies.Murder and

robbery are felonies. Governments often

punish felonies with long prison terms or

sometimes with death. Less serious

crimes are called misdemeanors. Driving

past a stop sign without stopping and

shoplifting are misdemeanors. The

punishment for a misdemeanor may be a

short prison term or simply a fine.

Crimes can also be divided into attacks

on people and attacks on property. A

person can commit a crime against

another person by hurting, kidnapping,

or killing that person. A person can

commit a crime against property by

stealing it, damaging it, or destroying it.

Crime may affect just one person or an

entire society. Governments view crimes

that affect many people as especially

serious. Treason is the crime of

betraying one’s country. For example,

trying to overthrow the government or

helping the country’s enemies are both

forms of treason. Terrorism is the use of

violence to achieve political goals.

Terrorist crimes include bombing,

hijacking, and assassination. War crimes

break rules that have been established

by many countries together. These rules

establish how people should act during

times of war. War crimes include

mistreating prisoners or killing groups

of innocent people. Governments work

together to punish leaders who commit

war crimes.

Organized Crime

Many criminals commit crimes on their

own. Other criminals work in groups.

Some groups of criminals run illegal

businesses to make money. This is called

organized crime. These criminals often

sell drugs, weapons, or other illegal

things that are considered to be harmful

to society.

#More to explore

Law • Terrorism

Punishment for serious crimes often includes

a stay in prison.

Shoplifting, or taking something from a

store without paying for it, is a crime.

216 Crime BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Crimea

The Crimea is a peninsula, or piece of

land surrounded by water on three sides.

It lies on the north shore of the Black Sea

in Ukraine, a country in eastern Europe.

The Perekop Isthmus is a strip of land

that joins the peninsula to the mainland.

Steppes, or grasslands, cover the northern

part of the Crimea. South of the

steppes lie the Crimean Mountains. The

peninsula’s climate is mild and dry.

The steppes and mountain slopes of the

Crimea are very good for growing crops.

Farms there produce wheat, corn, cotton,

flowers, grapes, and tobacco.

Crimeans also quarry, or mine, marble

and limestone in the mountains. Tourism

is another important part of the

economy.

In the 1300s the Tatars, a Muslim

people, settled in the Crimea. Russia

took over the peninsula in 1783. The

Crimea became part of the Soviet Union

in 1921. In 1954 the Soviet government

transferred Crimea to the Soviet republic,

or state, of Ukraine. After Ukraine

gained independence in 1991, Crimea

became a republic of Ukraine.

#More to explore

Black Sea • Ukraine

Tourists visit the seafront of Yalta, Ukraine, on the southern coast of the Crimea.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Crimea 217

Croatia

Formerly a part of the nation of Yugoslavia,

the country of Croatia declared its

independence in 1991. After several

years of war, peace returned to Croatia

in the late 1990s. The capital is Zagreb.

Geography

The Republic of Croatia lies on the Balkan

Peninsula in southern Europe. The

Adriatic Sea, to the southwest, separates

Croatia from Italy. Slovenia, Hungary,

Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and

Herzegovina form the rest of Croatia’s

borders.

Along the Adriatic coast are the region

of Dalmatia and the Istrian peninsula.

More than 1,000 small islands lie off the

coast. The peaks of the Dinaric Alps rise

in the western parts of Croatia. In the

north is the Pannonian plain, where

most farms are located. The Sava and

the Drava are two of Croatia’s largest

rivers.

Forests of beech, fir, and other trees

cover less than one third of Croatia.

Wildlife includes bears, deer, wild pigs,

and lynx.

People

More than half of Croatia’s people live

in cities and towns. Croats, a Slavic

people, make up about 90 percent of the

population. Most follow Roman

Catholicism and speak Croatian. Serbs

make up less than 5 percent of the

population. Most Serbs follow Eastern

Orthodox Christianity and speak Serbian.

There are smaller groups of Bosniacs

(Muslims), Italians, Hungarians, and

others. The civil war of the 1990s forced

many ethnic minorities out of Croatia.

The Dalmatia region of Croatia borders the

Adriatic Sea. The coastline is known for its

beaches and picturesque cities.

218 Croatia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Economy

Mining and manufacturing are the most

important industries in Croatia’s

economy. Croatia’s natural resources

include petroleum (oil) and the mineral

gypsum. Factories produce food products,

transportation equipment, electrical

machinery, clothing, chemicals, and

metals. Shipbuilding provides jobs along

the coasts.

Services—for example, education, health

care, and banking—are also important

to the economy. Tourism is a growing

industry.

Farmers grow corn, sugar beets, potatoes,

wheat, and grapes to make wine.

They raise pigs, sheep, and cattle, especially

in the mountainous regions. Along

the coast, fishing provides food and

employment.

History

The Croats probably began to settle in

what is now Croatia in the 500s. In the

900s, Croatia became an independent

kingdom, but in 1091 Hungary conquered

Croatia. For most of the next

eight centuries Croatia remained a part

of Hungary, and later Austria-Hungary.

AfterWorldWar I destroyed the empire

of Austria-Hungary in the early 1900s,

Croatia became independent.

Creation of Yugoslavia

Croatia then joined the newly formed

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

The new nation united the lands of Serbia,

Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia

and Herzegovina, and Montenegro.

In 1929 the state was renamed the Kingdom

of Yugoslavia. AfterWorldWar II,

Communists took control of the country.

They named it the Federal People’s

Republic of Yugoslavia.

CivilWar

With the end of Communism in the late

1980s, old tensions between the nations

of Yugoslavia resurfaced. In 1991 Croatia

declared its independence from

Yugoslavia, which was dominated by

Serbia. Yugoslav troops invaded to try to

stop Croatia from leaving. Some of the

other republics of Yugoslavia also

declared their independence, and the

fighting spread throughout the area. As

Yugoslavia fell apart, Serbs, Croats, and

Muslims continued to fight. In 1995 the

leaders of Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia

andHerzegovina finally signed a peace

agreement. Croatia began to rebuild itself

as an independent, democratic state.

..More to explore

Balkan Peninsula • Yugoslavia

An outdoor cafe sits among the remains of

an ancient building in Split, Croatia.

Facts About

CROATIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

4,433,000

Area

21,851 sq mi

(56,594 sq km)

Capital

Zagreb

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Zagreb, Split,

Rijeka, Osijek,

Zadar

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Croatia 219

Crockett, Davy

Davy Crockett was famous in his own

time as a fighter, lawmaker, and frontiersman

in a coonskin cap. After his

death he became a hero of “tall tales”

and a symbol of the American spirit.

David Crockett was born on August 17,

1786, in eastern Tennessee. To help support

his family, he went to work as a

cattle driver at age 12. He also became

an excellent rifleman and hunter.

Between 1813 and 1815 he served in

the U.S. Army. He fought the British

and their Native American allies during

theWar of 1812.

After returning home, Crockett became

colonel of the Tennessee state militia, a

citizen fighting force. In 1821 he was

elected to the Tennessee legislature. He

later served three terms in the U.S. Congress.

Although he had little schooling,

his Army service and his folksy manner

made him popular.

In 1835 Crockett went west to fight in

Texas’ war for independence from

Mexico. He died on March 6, 1836,

when the Mexican army captured the

Alamo in San Antonio. Crockett’s heroic

death added to his legend.

#More to explore

Alamo

Crocodile

Crocodiles are lizardlike, flesh-eating

animals. They are the largest living

members of the group of animals called

reptiles. They are related to alligators.

Where Crocodiles Live

Crocodiles are found in parts of Asia,

Africa, Australia, and the Americas.Most

live in swamps, lakes, and rivers in hot

and warm regions. Some live in the

ocean. Although they spend most of their

time in water, they also travel on land.

Physical Features

There are more than 10 species, or

types, of crocodile. They vary greatly in

size. The dwarf crocodile measures only

6 feet (1.8 meters) in length. On the

Davy Crockett

The estuarine crocodile is the largest living

reptile in the world.

220 Crockett, Davy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

other hand, the estuarine crocodile may

grow to more than 20 feet (6 meters).

Like alligators, crocodiles have tough

skin composed of many large plates and

scales. The eyes, ears, and nostrils are on

top of the head. They allow a crocodile

to see, hear, and breathe even when

most of it is floating underwater. This

helps it surprise and catch large prey.

Although crocodiles look like alligators,

it is easy to tell them apart. When an

alligator closes its mouth, none of its

bottom teeth show. Many large teeth

stick out of both the top and bottom

jaw of a crocodile’s closed mouth.

Crocodiles also tend to have narrower,

pointier snouts than alligators.

Behavior

Crocodiles eat mainly fish, turtles, birds,

and other small animals. They capture

water animals in their jaws with a sideways

motion. They seize land animals by

the feet and drag them toward the water.

After crocodiles mate, the female lays

eggs. Some types can lay more than 100

eggs. The female builds a nest of mud

and dead leaves to protect the eggs. But

crocodiles do not take care of their

young once they hatch.

#More to explore

Alligator • Reptile

Crow

The Native Americans called the Crow

were great hunters and warriors of the

northern Great Plains. They called

themselves the Absaroka (Children of

the Large-Beaked Bird), which was

translated by Europeans as “crow.”

The Crow were originally united with

the Hidatsa, a farming people who lived

in what are now North and South

Dakota. In the early 1700s the Crow

broke away from the Hidatsa and

traveled west, settling in the Yellowstone

River region. There the Crow gave up

Crocodiles and alligators both have long

snouts. But crocodiles have large teeth that

stick out when the mouth is closed.

An old photograph shows a Crow woman

holding her child in a cradleboard, which is

worn on the back.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Crow 221

farming to become bison (buffalo)

hunters.

While on the hunt, the Crow lived in

temporary camps of cone-shaped tepees.

They used bison skins to cover their

tepees and to make clothing. They ate

bison meat and also gathered berries,

roots, and other wild plants for food.

In the early 1800s white traders and

settlers began arriving in Crow territory.

At first the Crow were friendly to the

newcomers. Many Crow men joined the

U.S. Army as scouts. In the 1860s and

1870s they helped the Army in battles

against other Plains Indians. But at the

same time American settlers disrupted

the Crow way of life. White hunters

killed the great bison herds. In 1868 the

Crow agreed to move to a reservation in

Montana that covered only a small part

of their traditional homeland. At the

end of the 20th century there were more

than 9,000 Crow, mostly in Montana.

#More to explore

Native Americans

Crow

Crows are large birds with shiny black

feathers. They often live together in

large families. They are known for their

loud voices and their intelligence. These

clever, curious birds have a reputation as

thieves and pranksters. They have been

known to fly off with all sorts of little

shiny objects, including people’s car

keys. Pet crows have even learned to

mimic, or imitate, human speech.

Crows belong to the group of birds

called songbirds. However, their calls are

typically harsh sounding, as in the “caw”

of the American crow. There are more

than 20 species, or types, of crow. They

look much like ravens, their close relatives.

They are also related to jays and

magpies.

Various types of crow are found nearly

all around the world. They live in many

different habitats, including woodlands,

farms, and cities. The American crow is

common in the United States and

Canada. The carrion crow is found in

Europe and much of Asia. Other wellknown

types include the fish crow, the

pied crow, and the house crow.

Crows tend to be smaller than ravens.

Large crows may reach about 20 inches

(50 centimeters) long. They are all or

mostly black. Crows have powerful

The Crow performed

a ritual

called the Sun

Dance. It was

to help young

warriors fight

their enemies.

Like all types of crow, the carrion crow has

shiny black feathers.

222 Crow BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

beaks, which they use for catching small

animals and opening seeds.

Crows eat a great variety of plants and

small animals. Since they eat corn and

other grains, they can be a nuisance to

farmers. However, they also help farmers

by eating insect pests.

#More to explore

Bird • Magpie • Raven • Songbird

Crusades

In wars called the Crusades, Christians

from Europe fought Muslims for control

of Jerusalem and other holy places. The

word crusade comes from the Latin

word crux, meaning “cross.” The Christian

soldiers, called Crusaders, wore the

cross as a symbol of their religion. The

Crusades took place between 1095 and

1291.

Jerusalem is a holy city to several religions.

Muslims controlled Jerusalem for

hundreds of years before the Crusades.

However, they allowed Christians to

make pilgrimages to the city.

In 1071 a new Muslim group called the

Seljuk Turks took control of Jerusalem.

They were hostile to Christian pilgrims.

They also attacked the Byzantine

Empire, which was Christian. The Byzantine

emperor feared that they would

attack Constantinople (now Istanbul,

Turkey), his capital. He asked the pope

for help. In 1095 the pope urged Christians

to take back Jerusalem.

First Crusades

The main army of the First Crusade left

Europe in August 1096. The Crusaders

captured Jerusalem on July 15, 1099.

Most of the Crusaders then returned

home. Others stayed in the Holy Land

and established Christian states. In 1144

the Turks captured one of the Christian

states. German and French rulers then

called for the Second Crusade. It was a

failure for the Christians.

The Muslim leader Saladin conquered

Jerusalem in 1187. The kings of

England, France, and Germany

launched the Third Crusade against

him. They were not able to recapture

Jerusalem. However, the English king

signed a peace treaty with Saladin in

1192. It allowed Christian pilgrims to

visit holy places in Jerusalem.

Crusades of the 1200s

The Fourth Crusade started in 1202.

The Crusaders planned to attack the

Muslims in Egypt. However, the plan

A drawing from the 1200s shows European

soldiers sailing to fight in the Crusades.

The Roman

Catholic

church made

King Louis IX

of France a

saint to honor

his efforts as a

Crusader.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Crusades 223

changed when the Crusaders passed

through Venice. The Venetians got the

Crusaders to capture Zara (now Zadar,

Croatia), a Christian city that competed

with Venice for trade. Then the Venetians

and the Crusaders seized Constantinople.

In 1204 they looted the city.

In 1212 two separate groups of children

set out for Jerusalem. Some children

died during the difficult journey. Others

were captured and sold into slavery. Neither

of the Children’s Crusades got near

Jerusalem.

French and German Crusaders reached

Egypt in1218 as part of the Fifth Crusade.

In 1219 the Muslims offered to

give up Jerusalem if the Crusaders

would leave Egypt. The leader of the

Crusaders refused. Later he was

defeated.

Frederick II, the Holy Roman emperor,

set out on the Sixth Crusade in 1228.

He signed a treaty with the leader of

Egypt that gave the Christians control of

most of Jerusalem. In1244, however, the

Turks took Jerusalem back. This led to

the Seventh Crusade in 1249. Louis IX,

king of France, was the leader. He was

captured and held before being released

in 1250. In 1270 Louis led the Eighth

Crusade. He died of plague, however,

and the Crusade failed.

The Crusaders then lost their fighting

spirit. In 1291 the Muslims recaptured

the last of the Christian states in the

Holy Land.

#More to explore

Christianity • Islam • Pilgrimage

Crustacean

Crustaceans are animals that usually

have a hard covering, or exoskeleton,

and two pairs of antennas, or feelers.

People around the world eat many types

of crustacean—for example, crabs, lobsters,

shrimps (or prawns), and crayfish.

Barnacles, water fleas, and pill bugs are

A group of children participates in one of

the Children’s Crusades of 1212.

The American lobster is one of the largest

crustaceans. It can weigh up to 44 pounds

(20 kilograms).

224 Crustacean BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

also crustaceans. All crustaceans are

arthropods. This is a group of animals

that also includes insects and spiders.

Where Crustaceans Live

Crustaceans live throughout the world,

mainly in water. Some species, or types,

of crustacean live in freshwater. Others

live in salt water. Barnacles are sea

crustaceans that usually attach

themselves to surfaces—for example,

rocks, boats, clams, or even whales.

Some types of crab live both in water

and on land.

Land crustaceans live in rocky, sandy, or

muddy areas. Some types are so small

that they live in the spaces between sand

grains. Other types are found among

damp leaves on forest floors.

Physical Features

The basic crustacean body consists of a

number of segments, or sections. A section

of the exoskeleton covers each segment.

To allow the body to grow, the

crustacean sheds, or molts, its exoskeleton

from time to time. It then develops

a new one.

At the front end of the body is a region

called the acron. This is the head on

most crustaceans. At this end, adult

crustaceans often have antennas and

mandibles, or jaws. Several pairs of

limbs grow from the middle section of

the body. Many species have different

types of limbs for walking, swimming,

or mating. Some species have limbs

with pincers, or claws. The tail end

differs in form, depending on the

species.

One of the largest crustaceans is the

American lobster, which may weigh up

to 44 pounds (20 kilograms). Another

large crustacean is the giant Japanese

spider crab. Its legs may span up to 12

feet (3.7 meters).Water fleas, fairy

shrimp, and brine shrimp are some of

the smallest crustaceans. Most are

shorter than 0.25 inch (6 millimeters).

Behavior

Crustaceans may eat plants, animals, or

the remains of living things. Some types

of crustacean live off the material on the

bodies of fish or other sea animals.

To reproduce, crustaceans lay eggs.

Some species carry the eggs on their

body. The young of many species hatch

from the eggs as larvae, or young that

look nothing like their parents. In other

species, the young look like tiny adults.

#More to explore

Exoskeleton • Insect • Spider

Hermit crabs are crustaceans. Some people

keep them as pets.

Whale lice are

crustaceans

that live on the

body surfaces

of whales.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Crustacean 225

Cuba

The island of Cuba has seen many

changes since it was spotted by Christopher

Columbus in 1492. It became

known worldwide for its sugar industry

but often had an unstable economy. In

the 1900s Cuba was involved in several

national and international conflicts.

Many of those concerned the country’s

ties to the political and economic system

known as Communism. The capital is

Havana.

Geography

Cuba lies in the Caribbean Sea, about

90 miles (145 kilometers) south of

Florida. The country includes a long,

narrow main island and about 2,000

smaller islands. Most of Cuba is made

up of plains. Mountains and hills cover

about a quarter of the main island.

Cuba is warm year-round. Hurricanes

sometimes hit the country in the

summer and fall, during the rainy

season.

Plants and Animals

Thousands of types of flowering plants

grow in Cuba. Forests of tropical trees

cover about one fifth of the land. Royal

palms are common in rural areas. Animals

include small mammals, iguanas,

frogs, and scorpions. Sharks, mollusks,

and manatees live in Cuba’s waters.

People

About one third of Cuba’s people are

white, many with a Spanish background.

A smaller number of people are

the descendants of African slaves. More

than half of all Cubans have mixed

white and black roots. Spanish is the

main language. Although the government

looks down on religion, many

Cubans practice Roman Catholicism or

Santeria (a religion of African origin).

About three fourths of the people live in

cities.

Economy

Trade, services, and manufacturing are

the most important economic activities.

Much of the industry in Cuba is related

to the country’s agricultural and natural

resources. Tobacco and food products

are the major manufactured items.

Sugar, made from sugarcane grown on

large plantations, is Cuba’s main export.

Mines provide nickel, and the waters

provide fish. Factories also make chemicals,

transportation equipment, and

nonelectrical machinery.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cuba 227

History

Columbus claimed Cuba for Spain in

1492. After the Spanish began settling

there in 1511, warfare and disease soon

killed the native Taino and Ciboney

peoples. The Spanish brought in African

slaves to work on sugarcane plantations.

Following the Spanish-AmericanWar of

1898, Spain granted Cuba independence.

The Republic of Cuba was established

in 1902. It suffered from

government instability, corruption, and

widespread poverty.

In 1959 Fidel Castro overthrew the government

and took power. He made

Cuba a Communist country. Other

Communist countries, particularly the

Soviet Union, gave Cuba their support,

and some Cubans hoped that Castro

would put an end to the country’s problems.

Many Cubans who did not like

Communism, however, left the country.

In 1961 a force of 1,500 people who

opposed Castro invaded the Bay of Pigs,

southeast of Havana. They tried to capture

Cuba but failed.

Cuba’s relationship with the United

States suffered because the United States

opposed Communism. The United

States refused to trade with Cuba. It also

threatened Cuba in 1962, when it discovered

that the Soviet Union had

placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The

event became known as the Cuban Missile

Crisis. It ended when the Soviets

withdrew the missiles.

In 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed and

Cuba lost an important source of support.

But Castro remained in power

until 2008, when his brother Raul

became president. Raul made some

changes, but the United States still limited

trade with Cuba.

..More to explore

Caribbean Sea • Castro, Fidel

• Columbus, Christopher

• Communism • Havana • Spanish-

AmericanWar

A market in front of the Cathedral of San

Cristobal in Havana, Cuba, is a busy place.

A band performs in Havana, Cuba.

Facts About

CUBA

Population

(2008 estimate)

11,236,000

Area

42,804 sq mi

(110,861 sq km)

Capital

Havana

Form of

government

Socialist republic

Major cities

Havana, Santiago

de Cuba,

Camaguey,

Holguin, Santa

Clara,

Guantanamo

228 Cuba BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Cuckoo

The birds called cuckoos are named for

the sounds they make. Because of their

shy personality, these birds are more

often heard than seen.

More than 125 different types of cuckoos

are found throughout the world.

Examples include the common cuckoo,

the yellow-billed cuckoo, and the birds

called roadrunners, coucals, and anis.

Most cuckoos live in forests, where they

hide in thick vegetation. Other types live

in open areas. Most cuckoos eat insects,

especially caterpillars.

Cuckoos range in length from about 61/2

to 36 inches (17 to 91 centimeters).

Most of them are drab gray or brown. A

few types have some brightly colored or

glossy feathers. The cuckoo has a long

tail and medium to long legs. Its outer

toes point backward. Its bill is usually

short and curves down a bit.

Some kinds of cuckoos, including the

common cuckoo, do not raise their own

young. Instead, they lay eggs in the nests

of other kinds of birds that have similarlooking

eggs. In this way the cuckoos

trick the other birds into keeping the

cuckoo eggs warm and caring for the

young cuckoos. However, many cuckoos,

including the roadrunners, care for

their own eggs and young.

#More to explore

Bird • Roadrunner

Cucumber

The cucumber is a vegetable plant that

people often make into pickles. It is

related to melons, squashes, and pumpkins.

The scientific name of the cucumber

is Cucumis sativus.

People grow cucumbers all over the

world. In colder places cucumbers grow

in greenhouses. In milder places they

grow in fields or in home gardens.

An adult reed warbler feeds a

large cuckoo chick.

Cucumbers grow on vines. In the United

States they are grown in home gardens as

well as on large farms.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cucumber 229

Cucumbers grow on long, creeping vines

with fuzzy leaves. The parts that people

eat are long, firm, and green. They

develop from yellow flowers. The flesh

inside a cucumber is pale green to

almost white. In the center are small,

white seeds.

Cucumbers are crisp and have a mild

flavor. People eat cucumbers in salads

and on sandwiches. People also pickle

them, or preserve them with salt and

vinegar. Cucumbers do not provide a lot

of nutrition, but the green peel contains

vitamins A and C.

#More to explore

Melon • Pumpkin • Squash • Vegetable

Culture

Culture is a pattern of behavior shared

by a society, or group of people. Many

different things make up a society’s culture.

These things include food, language,

clothing, tools, music, arts,

customs, beliefs, and religion.

Differences and Similarities

Every human society has its own culture.

Each culture is unique. A group’s environment

often decides the type of culture

that develops. For example, a group

that lives in a cold, mountainous region

would develop a culture different from a

group that makes its home in a hot,

desert region.

Scientists who study human culture are

called anthropologists. Anthropologists

have found that certain parts of culture

are universal. This means that all people

all over the world share these behaviors.

All societies have ways of dealing with

relatives, telling good from bad, making

art, playing games, choosing leaders, and

raising children. However, each culture

does these things in different ways.

How Culture Changes

Older people pass culture down to

younger people. In this way a group can

keep the same traditions for many years.

However, culture also changes over time.

This may happen when the environment

changes. It also happens when

Weddings in the United States, Nigeria, and India show that different cultures celebrate

marriage in different ways.

230 Culture BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

different groups come into contact with

one another. Each group brings new

ideas that can cause changes in the other

group’s culture. Sometimes conflict happens

when different cultures come into

contact. Other times the contact is

peaceful, and the groups share their cultures

in positive ways.

Earliest Culture

Culture began to develop after early

humans began to make tools. Humans

eventually developed customs around

the creation and the use of tools. These

customs were early forms of culture.

#More to explore

Anthropology

Cumberland Gap

A natural mountain pass, the Cumberland

Gap is located near the point where

Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee meet.

It was cut through the Cumberland Plateau

in the eastern United States by

streams many years ago.

ThomasWalker discovered the pass in

1750. American frontiersman and hero

Daniel Boone helped build the Wilderness

Road, the first trail through the

pass, in the 1770s. The gap was named

for the duke of Cumberland, who was

the son of King George II. It became the

main route used by pioneers moving

west to settle the land beyond the Appalachian

Mountains.

In 1940, 32 square miles (83 square

kilometers) of the plateau, with the gap

as the central feature, were reserved as

the Cumberland Gap National Historical

Park.

#More to explore

Boone, Daniel

Curie Family

Four different members of the Curie

family played an important role in the

history of nuclear physics. The science

of nuclear physics deals with the

nucleus, or center, of atoms. All four

Curies earned Nobel prizes for their

Fog swirls around the Cumberland Gap. work.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Curie Family 231

Marie and Pierre

Marie Curie was born Maria

Sklodowska inWarsaw, Poland, on

November 7, 1867. Her family valued

education, but women were not allowed

to study at the University ofWarsaw.

Instead, Maria saved enough money to

study in Paris, France. In 1891 she

entered the Sorbonne, a university in

Paris. In France she began calling herself

Marie.

Marie completed degrees in physics and

in math within three years. She then

began doing research in the laboratory

of chemist Pierre Curie. Pierre was born

in Paris on May 15, 1859. He and

Marie married on July 25, 1895. They

had two daughters, Irene and Eve. Irene

became a scientist like her parents. She

was born in Paris on September 12,

1897.

TheirWork

Marie began studying the rays (beams of

energy) given off by the element uranium.

She named the unusual activity of

these rays radioactivity. Pierre soon

joined Marie in her research. In 1898

the Curies announced their discovery of

polonium and radium, two other elements

that were radioactive. In 1903

they won the Nobel prize in physics for

their work. The Nobel prize is the most

important award that a scientist can

receive. The Curies shared the prize with

Henri Becquerel, who first discovered

uranium rays.

Pierre died on April 19, 1906, after

being run over by a horse-drawn carriage.

Marie continued their research. In

1911 she received the Nobel prize in

chemistry for her many further discoveries.

Irene and Frederic Joliot

Irene Curie began to work at her mother’s

side. She earned an advanced degree

in physics in 1925. In 1926 Irene married

Frederic Joliot, another scientist

working in her mother’s laboratory.

Frederic was born in Paris on March 19,

1900. In 1934 the couple discovered

that radioactivity could be made artificially.

The following year they won the

Nobel prize in chemistry for their work.

Marie did not live to see her daughter

accept the award. Her many years of

exposure to harmful radioactivity had

made her very sick. She died on July 4,

1934. Irene died on March 17, 1956.

Frederic died on August 14, 1958.

#More to explore

Atom • Nobel Prize

Marie Curie

232 Curie Family BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Cush

#see Kush.

Custer, George

Armstrong

In 1876 Lieutenant Colonel George

Armstrong Custer led his U.S. Army

unit into battle against a group of Native

Americans. This group consisted of

Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. Custer

and all his men died in the battle, called

the battle of the Little Bighorn. Yet

Custer remains one of the best-known

and most popular figures in U.S. history.

Early Life

George Armstrong Custer was born in

New Rumley, Ohio, on December 5,

1839. He spent most of his childhood in

Monroe, Michigan. After high school he

enrolled at the United States Military

Academy atWest Point, New York.

Army Career

During the American CivilWar, Custer

fought for the North. He was famous

for being very brave and aggressive.

When the CivilWar ended, Custer

became lieutenant colonel of an Army

unit called the 7th Cavalry.

In 1874, looking for gold, Custer led

soldiers into the Black Hills of what is

now South Dakota. The U.S. government

had recognized the northern Great

Plains as the sacred hunting grounds of

certain Native American tribes. Many

white miners, however, ignored that fact

and began to settle on the hunting

grounds. When the Native Americans

complained, the government ordered the

U.S. Army to drive them off the land.

Custer’s unit was supposed to prevent

the Native Americans from escaping

attack by the main force of soldiers.

Instead, Custer ordered an attack on a

group that had been assembled by the

Sioux chief Sitting Bull in a nearby

camp. Custer’s attack was one of the

greatest disasters in the history of the

U.S. Army. The Native Americans surrounded

Custer’s force near the Little

Bighorn River and killed all the men.

Death and Legend

Custer died with the rest of the 7th Cavalry

on June 25, 1876. After Custer’s

death, people remembered him as a

hero. The battle of the Little Bighorn

became the subject of songs, books, and

paintings.

Custer once

left his post to

go visit his

wife. The

Army suspended

him

for one year

without pay.

George Armstrong Custer

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Custer, George Armstrong 233

Custer’s reputation slowly changed in

the late 20th century, when people

began to recognize the Native American

side of the story. In 1991 the U.S. Congress

changed the name of the battlefield

monument from the Custer Battlefield

to the Little Bighorn Battlefield.

#More to explore

Cheyenne • Sioux • Sitting Bull

Cycling

The use of a bicycle for pleasure, transportation,

or sport is known as cycling.

Both children and adults ride bicycles

for fun and for exercise. Some people

use bicycles for transportation because it

is less expensive than traveling by car.

Others use bicycles for transportation

because bicycles, unlike cars, do not

pollute the air.

The sport of cycling consists of races

that are held mostly on roads or tracks.

Sport cycling began in 1868 with a race

near Paris, France. The first recorded

race in the United States was held in

1878 in Boston, Massachusetts. The

most famous bicycle race, the Tour de

France, began in 1903. Cycling is also a

part of the Summer Olympic Games.

Road Racing

Sport cycling includes road races for

men, women, and children. Some races

cover short distances of 2.5 to 3 miles (4

to 5 kilometers). Others cover hundreds

of miles. A stage race consists of a series

of races held over several days or even

weeks. The Tour de France is a stage race

that covers more than 2,200 miles

(3,500 kilometers), mainly in France. It

takes three weeks to complete. The

world’s best riders compete in it.

Time trials are a type of competition in

which cyclists do not race directly against

each other. Instead, individual cyclists or

teams are timed as they ride separately

over a certain distance. The cyclist or

team with the fastest time wins.Most

stage races include time trials.

Russian cyclists compete at the 2004 Olympics.

Some of the world’s top cyclists compete in

a championship road race. The International

Cycling Union holds world championships

every year.

234 Cycling BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Track Racing

Several types of bicycle races are held on

an oval track. The track may be either

indoors or outdoors. In the high-speed

races called sprints, cyclists compete

against each other over a short distance.

The pursuit is an event in which cyclists

start on opposite sides of the track and

try to catch each other. In a motorpaced

race, each cyclist rides behind a

motorcycle or motorbike. The motorcycle

cuts through the wind, which normally

slows a bicycle down. As a result,

cyclists can go much faster than they can

in other races.

Another form of track racing is bicycle

motocross (BMX). BMX races are held

on short dirt tracks with many jumps

and turns.

#More to explore

Bicycle

Cypress

Cypresses are evergreen trees and shrubs.

There are about 20 different species, or

types, of cypress. They grow in warm

parts of Europe, Asia, and North

America.

Cypresses reach heights of 80 feet (25

meters) or more. Some cypresses have a

pyramid shape. Others grow into tall

columns. The bark is sometimes

smooth, but it usually forms plates or

strips. The leaves are small and overlapping.

They look like scales covering the

branches.

Cypresses belong to the large group of

plants called conifers. This means that

they produce cones that hold their seeds.

Cypress cones have a woody or leathery

covering and are usually round.

Cypress wood resists rotting and pests.

For this reason people use cypress wood

to make fences, docks, and other outdoor

structures. People also plant

cypresses in parks.

Only the plants belonging to the scientific

group called Cupressus are true

cypresses. But other trees are also called

cypresses. The trees called false cypresses

differ from true cypresses because they

have smaller cones with fewer seeds.

Bald cypresses grow in swampy parts of

southern North America. They are

known for their knobby “knees,” which

are actually part of their root system.

#More to explore

Conifer • Tree

Cypress trees stand along a

winding road in Italy.

Some

cypresses are

rare trees. The

Monterey

cypress can be

found growing

wild only in

two groves

near the central

California

coast.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cypress 235

Cyprus

The island of Cyprus has been divided

for many years between its Greek and

Turkish populations. The Republic of

Cyprus is the official government of the

island. Only Turkey considers the Turkish

Republic of Northern Cyprus, which

controls the northern third of the island,

to be a separate country. The capital of

both states is Nicosia—called Levkosia

in Greek and Lefkosa in Turkish.

Geography

Cyprus lies in the eastern part of the

Mediterranean Sea. It is about 40 miles

(64 kilometers) south of Turkey and 480

miles (772 kilometers) southeast of

mainland Greece.

Cyprus has mountains in the north and

the south with a flat plain in between.

Its long coastline is jagged and rocky,

with sandy beaches. Cyprus has hot, dry

summers and rainy winters. Its rivers

flow only in the winter; they dry up in

the summer.

Plants and Animals

Olive, carob, and citrus trees grow in the

north. Pine, dwarf oak, cypress, and

cedar forests cover the southern Troodos

Mountains.Wildflowers and flowering

bushes grow in the central plain.

Many years ago the island was home to

elephants, hippopotamuses, deer, and

boars. The only large wild animal in

Cyprus today is the agrino, a type of

wild sheep. Millions of birds fly over

Cyprus during their migrations each

year, and many types spend winters

there. Green and loggerhead turtles are

found on the island’s beaches. They are

protected by law.

The sandy beaches of Cyprus are a popular

vacation spot.

236 Cyprus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People

The two main ethnic groups of Cyprus

are Greeks and Turks. Greek Cypriots

make up the majority. They are mostly

Eastern Orthodox Christians. The Turkish

Cypriots are Muslims. Greek and

Turkish are the official languages, but

English is considered a second language

in both populations. Most of the people

live in cities.

Economy

Services, including tourism, are the

main economic activities of Cyprus.

Manufacturing and construction are also

important. Greek Cyprus produces food

products, cement, cigarettes, wine, and

vehicles. Turkish Cyprus produces

mainly clothing. Farms in both areas

grow citrus fruits and potatoes.

History

People have lived on Cyprus for more

than 7,000 years. The first Greek settlers

arrived between 2000 and 1000 BC.

They founded new cities, which became

the capitals of six ancient Greek kingdoms

on Cyprus. Later, the Persians, the

Egyptians, the Roman Empire, and the

Byzantine Empire took control at various

times.

The Ottoman Turks captured Cyprus in

1571 and continued ruling for more

than three centuries. The British leased

Cyprus from the Ottomans in 1878 and

took it as their own in 1914.

AfterWorldWar II (1939–45) the longstanding

conflict between the Greek and

Turkish communities intensified. Many

Greek Cypriots wanted to be part of

Greece, while many Turkish Cypriots

wanted the island split into two political

areas. Cyprus gained independence in

1960, but the two groups soon began

fighting.

In 1974 the military forced out the

president of Cyprus, and forces from

Turkey invaded the north. In 1975 the

northern part of the island became the

Turkish Federated State of Cyprus. The

north declared itself the independent

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in

1983. This declaration was condemned

by the United Nations. By the early 21st

century the two sides were working

toward reunification, but only Greek

Cyprus joined the European Union in

2004.

..More to explore

Greece • Nicosia • Turkey

Part of an ancient Roman temple

still stands in Cyprus. The

ancient Romans began ruling

Cyprus more than 2,000 years

ago.

Facts About

CYPRUS

Population

(2008 estimate)

805,000

Area

3,572 sq mi

(9,251 sq km)

Capital

Nicosia

Form of

government

Republic

Urban areas

Nicosia, Limassol,

Larnaca

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Cyprus 237

Czar

#see Tsar.

Czechoslovakia

The country called Czechoslovakia

existed in central Europe from 1918

through 1992. It was formed after

WorldWar I from parts of the defeated

empire called Austria-Hungary. On

January 1, 1993, Czechoslovakia split

into two countries: the Czech Republic

and Slovakia. The capital of Czechoslovakia

was Prague.

Geography and People

Czechoslovakia shared borders with Germany,

Poland, Ukraine, Hungary, and

Austria. Its three main regions were

Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia. The

Bohemians and the Moravians together

were known as Czechs. They had most

of the power, which angered the Slovaks.

Most of the people of Czechoslovakia

spoke Slavic languages. However, there

were many German speakers in an area

called the Sudetenland.

History

DuringWorldWar II, Czechoslovakia

was taken over by Germany. In 1945, as

the war was ending, the army of the

Soviet Union freed Czechoslovakia.

Then Communists backed by the Soviets

took control. Czechoslovakia

struggled under Communist rule. Its

farms produced fewer crops. The people

lost many freedoms.

The Communist government was

unpopular. In 1968 a leader named

Alexander Dubcek tried to make the

government more democratic. The

Soviet Union did not like the changes. It

forced out Dubcek. The new government

went back to strict control.

In the 1980s protests against the government

began to work. In 1989 the Communist

government resigned. Vaclav

Havel became the country’s first non-

Communist president in more than 40

years. The last Soviet troops left in 1991.

After Communism ended, relations

between Czechs and Slovaks worsened.

The people of Slovakia voted to form a

separate country. At midnight on

December 31, 1992, Czechoslovakia

broke up. The Czech Republic and Slovakia

took its place.

#More to explore

Austria-Hungary • Czech Republic

• Prague • Slovakia • Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics

238 Czar BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic is a country in central

Europe. It was formerly part of the

Communist country of Czechoslovakia.

The independent Czech Republic came

into being in 1993. The country is

known for its picture-book towns, its

polka dance, and the architecture of its

capital, Prague.

Geography

The Czech Republic is bordered by Slovakia,

Austria, Germany, and Poland.

Low mountain ranges surround the

country. In the southwest is the large

Bohemian Forest. The country’s main

river is the Elbe, which flows into Germany.

Most parts of the Czech Republic

have a moderate climate.Winter temperatures

are mild, and summers are

warm. Snow and rain are heaviest in the

mountains.

Plants and Animals

Spruce and fir trees are common in the

high forests. Oak, ash, and maple trees

grow at lower levels. Pollution from the

use of coal has severely damaged the

forests, however. The country’s animals

include wild boars, brown bears, marmots,

otters, mink, and deer.

People

Czechs make up about 90 percent of the

country’s population. Moravians form

the largest minority group. Other ethnic

groups include Slovaks, Poles, Germans,

and Roma (Gypsies). The official language

is Czech, a Slavic language closely

related to Slovak and Polish. About 40

percent of the people are Roman Catholic.

Many people follow no religion.

About 75 percent of the population lives

in urban areas.

Economy

Manufacturing is the most important

part of the Czech Republic’s economy.

Factories produce machinery, food

products, metals, cars, computers,

chemicals, and other goods. The

country has limited resources of coal,

petroleum (oil), natural gas, and

minerals. It must import many of the

raw materials needed for its factories.

Trade, tourism, banking and other services

are also important to the economy.

Agriculture is a smaller part of the

economy. The main crops are wheat,

barley, corn, sugar beets, and potatoes.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Czech Republic 239

History

Germans, Celts, and Avars were some of

the first peoples in Moravia and Bohemia,

the two main provinces of the

Czech Republic. The Slavs, ancestors of

the Czechs, arrived between the 500s

and the 700s. By the mid-800s the

Moravians had formed a kingdom. It

eventually grew into Great Moravia and

included part of Poland, all of Bohemia,

and part of Hungary.

The decline of Moravia in the early 900s

led to the rise of Bohemia. In 1029

Moravia became part of the kingdom of

Bohemia. In 1526 Bohemia and Moravia

came under the control of the Hapsburg

monarchy of Austria. Austria, and

later the empire of Austria-Hungary,

ruled Bohemia and Moravia until after

WorldWar I (1914–18).

When Austria-Hungary collapsed in

1918, Bohemia, Moravia, and neighboring

Slovakia were united to form the

independent republic of Czechoslovakia.

Czechoslovakia soon became a Communist

country. Vaclav Havel, a playwright

and poet, was elected president of

Czechoslovakia after Communism

ended in 1989.

On January 1, 1993, Czechoslovakia

peacefully split into the Czech Republic

and Slovakia. Havel became the first

president of the Czech Republic. In

2004 the country joined the European

Union.

..More to explore

Czechoslovakia • Prague • Slovakia

Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic, is

famous for its old architecture.

A field of yellow flowers brightens the countryside in the Czech Republic.

Facts About

CZECH REPUBLIC

Population

(2008 estimate)

10,408,000

Area

30,450 sq mi

(78,866 sq km)

Capital

Prague

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Prague, Brno,

Ostrava, Plzen.,

Olomouc, Liberec

240 Czech Republic BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Britannica

Student

Encyclopedia

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Volume 4

2010 Britannica Student Encyclopedia

Copyright © 2010 by Encyclop.dia Britannica, Inc.

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All rights reserved. Copyright under International Copyright Union

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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7

eBook edition January, 2010

The Dead Sea has so much

salt in it that only microbes

(tiny organisms) are able to live

in it.

(See Dead Sea.)

Paul Revere was a hero of the

American Revolution. But he

was also known for making

beautiful silver objects.

(See Decorative Arts.)

Not all deserts are hot and

sandy. Much of Antarctica, for

example, is considered a cold

desert.

(See Desert.)

Some dinosaurs were the

largest creatures that ever

walked on land.

(See Dinosaur.)

Young dragonflies live in water

and do not look like adult

dragonflies.

(See Dragonfly.)

Dd

Daedalus

In ancient Greek mythology Daedalus

was a great inventor. His son was named

Icarus. Daedalus was said to have built a

complex maze for King Minos of Crete.

The maze was built to enclose a monster

called the Minotaur. Later the king

learned that Daedalus had given away

the secret to the maze. He became angry

and imprisoned Daedalus and Icarus in

the maze.

Daedalus made wings of wax and feathers

so that he and Icarus could fly to

freedom. Before they escaped, Daedalus

warned Icarus not to fly near the sun.

The sun’s heat would melt the wax. The

two easily flew out of the maze. Excited

by his ability to fly, Icarus soared

through the sky. But he got too close to

the sun, and his wings melted. Icarus fell

into the ocean and drowned.

#More to explore

Mythology

Dahl, Roald

The funny and imaginative children’s

stories of British author Roald Dahl are

favorites with readers both young and

old. His action-packed tales feature

memorable and often magical characters.

Roald Dahl was born in Llandaff,Wales,

on September 13, 1916. His early life

was difficult. When he was only 3, his

sister and father died. Soon after, the

family moved to Kent, England.

WhenWorldWar II began in 1939,

Dahl joined the British Royal Air Force.

He was seriously injured during a crash

Daedalus was

also known as

an architect

and a sculptor.

In ancient

times many

temples and

statues in

Greece and

Italy were

believed to be

his work.

Daedalus made wings of wax for himself

and his son Icarus. They used the wings to

fly out of the maze in which they were

trapped.

4 Daedalus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

landing. Dahl’s first writings were about

his experiences in the military. His first

children’s book, The Gremlins, was published

in 1943. It is about mythical creatures

who make fighter planes crash.

During the 1950s Dahl wrote short stories

for adults. After he became a father,

he started making up bedtime stories for

his children. In 1961 he published James

and the Giant Peach. It was followed in

1964 by Charlie and the Chocolate Factory,

which is about a poor child whose

luck changes when he visits an extraordinary

candy factory.

Dahl’s later children’s books included

Danny: The Champion of theWorld

(1975), The BFG (1982), and Matilda

(1988). He died in Oxford, England, on

November 23, 1990.

#More to explore

Literature for Children

Dahomey

In the 1700s and 1800s an African kingdom

known as Dahomey grew rich and

powerful through the slave trade. The

kingdom was located on the west coast

of Africa. The region is now the southern

part of Benin.

Dahomey had a system of social classes.

The king was at the top. Under him was

the royal class, followed by commoners,

and then slaves. Each government office

was filled by one male and one female

official. The women checked on the men

and reported back to the king.Women

also served in Dahomey’s powerful army.

The kingdom of Dahomey arose in the

1600s from another kingdom called

Alladah. European slave traders were

already visiting the Atlantic coast during

this time. Dahomeans began capturing

people from other tribes. They sold the

captives to slave traders in return for

weapons and other goods. They also

Roald Dahl

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dahomey 5

kept slaves of their own. These slaves

worked on large farms that supplied

food for the army and the royal court.

The empire grew larger and stronger

throughout the 1700s. After Great Britain

and other countries outlawed the

slave trade in the 1800s Dahomey

started selling palm oil instead of slaves.

At the end of the 1800s France conquered

Dahomey. The French combined

it with other regions to form a colony

that was also called Dahomey. This

colony gained its independence in 1960.

It kept the name of Dahomey until

1975, when it became Benin.

..More to explore

Benin • Slavery

Daisy

Daisies are flowers with flat petals that

surround a round center. Daisies belong

to the aster family, which also includes

chrysanthemums, dahlias, marigolds,

sunflowers, and zinnias.

Common types of daisy include the

oxeye daisy; the English, or true, daisy;

and the Shasta daisy. These daisies grow

in Europe, North America, and other

parts of the world. Oxeye and English

daisies grow in gardens and in the wild.

The Shasta daisy is mainly a garden

plant.

Daisy plants often grow to about 2 to 3

feet (61 to 91 centimeters) tall. Two

types of flower make up each flower

head. Ray flowers are what people call

petals. The ray flowers may be long or

short. Tiny disk flowers make up the

center. The center may be flat or

rounded. Depending on the type of

daisy, the flower heads are from 1 to 4

inches (2.5 to 10 centimeters) wide.

Oxeye and Shasta daisies have a ring of

white ray flowers around a bright yellow

center. The ray flowers of the English

daisy may be white, purple, pink, or red.

..More to explore

Flower • Marigold • Plant • Sunflower

Dakar

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area,

2,243,400

Dakar is the capital of Senegal, a country

in West Africa. It is the largest city in

People often use colorful daisies to brighten

flower arrangements.

Daisies are

perennials,

which means

that they

bloom year

after year

without having

to be

replanted.

6 Daisy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Senegal by far. The city lies on a piece of

land that sticks out into the Atlantic

Ocean.

Dakar is one of the main seaports of

West Africa. The city is also a leading

center of industry and services. Factories

in Dakar process peanuts, fish, and

petroleum (oil). Other factories put

together trucks and make cloth, fertilizer,

and medicines. Tourism also brings

money to the city.

Goree Island lies just south of Dakar.

Europeans used the island as a base for

trading slaves from the 1500s to the

1800s. The French founded Dakar in

1857.

West Africa’s first railway opened in

1885. It connected Dakar with the city

of Saint-Louis. Dakar soon grew into an

important center for growing and shipping

peanuts.

In 1904 Dakar became the capital of the

colonies called FrenchWest Africa. In

1960 Senegal became an independent

country with Dakar as its capital.

#More to explore

Senegal

Dakota

#see Sioux.

Dalai Lama

The Dalai Lama is the leader of the main

sect, or group, of Buddhists in Tibet.

Tibetan Buddhists believe that the Dalai

Lama is the god of compassion who

comes to Earth to help people. Until

1959 the Dalai Lama also ruled Tibet.

Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism

that began in Tibet some 1,400

years ago. Its followers believe in reincarnation,

which is the idea that after death

a person’s soul is born again in a new

body. They believe that each Dalai Lama

is a rebirth of the first Dalai Lama, who

died in 1475.

Many people in Dakar are Muslim and

worship at mosques.

The 14th Dalai Lama leads a prayer meeting

in Varanasi, India.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dalai Lama 7

When a Dalai Lama dies, Tibetan Buddhist

leaders use different ways to discover

where he will be reborn. They may

consult an oracle, who is a holy person

believed to have a message from a god.

The leaders look for a child born soon

after the previous Dalai Lama dies. The

child must pass many tests to prove that

he is the Dalai Lama. For example, the

child is usually asked to identify objects

that belonged to the previous Dalai

Lama.

Once the child has passed the tests, he

officially takes the throne. The Dalai

Lama spends much of his time studying

Buddhism and meditating.

The current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso,

is the 14th Dalai Lama. He was born in

1935 to a peasant family. Before his 5th

birthday he was named as the Dalai

Lama. In 1950 he became the head of

Tibet’s government. In the same year the

Chinese entered Tibet and took control

of the area.

In 1959 the Chinese killed more than

80,000 Tibetans who were protesting

Chinese rule. The Dalai Lama and some

followers fled to India and settled in the

mountains.

The 14th Dalai Lama travels around the

world to promote peace and to speak

about the Tibetans’ desire for political

independence. In 1989 he won the

Nobel peace prize for his nonviolent

work to end Chinese control of Tibet.

..More to explore

Buddhism • Tibet

Dallas

Population

(2000 census),

city, 1,188,580;

(2007 estimate)

1,240,499

Dallas is one of the largest cities in the

United States. It is located in the northeastern

part of the state of Texas. Dallas

lies on the Trinity River, near where the

river’s three branches come together.

Dallas is a center of banking, insurance,

and publishing. Trade, health care, and

business services are also important to

the city’s economy. Factories in Dallas

make such products as computers, software,

processed foods, and clothing.

A lawyer named John Neely Bryan

founded Dallas in 1841. The town grew

as a center of trade. In the early 1900s

one of the world’s largest cotton markets

was in Dallas.

In 1930 a huge oil field was discovered

in eastern Texas. Dallas grew large and

wealthy as a center of the oil industry.

During the middle of the 1900s many

factories in the city made aircraft for the

military.

Dallas’ oil industry declined in the

1980s. However, the city continued to

grow. Many high-technology companies

The Dalai

Lama is the

head of the

group known

in English as

the Yellow Hat

order of Buddhists.

They

are called that

because they

wear a yellow

headdress.

8 Dallas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

established themselves in Dallas in the

late 20th and early 21st centuries.

#More to explore

Houston • Texas

Dam

A dam is a barrier that blocks flowing

water or sends it in a new direction.

People and animals build dams to control

rivers and to create ponds or lakes.

A beaver’s dam works in much the same

way as the giant dams that people build.

Both must be high enough and strong

enough to keep the water from flowing

forward.

People throughout the world have built

dams since ancient times. Early Egyptians

built a dam almost 5,000 years ago.

The Chinese built stone structures to

block rivers as early as 240 BC. Two

dams in Spain that were built by ancient

Romans are still in use today.

Uses

People build dams to keep rivers from

flooding and to save water. During

heavy rains a river’s waters may rise too

high.Without a dam to contain it, the

extra water is wasted as it flows away

unused.

With a dam in place, a deep reservoir, or

pool, of water builds up behind the

dam. This extra water can be put to

many good uses. It might be used as a

lake for boating or swimming, for drinking

water, for farm irrigation, or in

manufacturing.

The force created by water rushing

through pipes in a dam is also useful.

The flowing water makes wheels called

turbines spin. The turbines run

machines called generators, which produce

electricity. This type of power is

known as hydroelectric power.

How DamsWork

Most dams operate in the same basic

way. The weight of the water pushing

against a dam creates tremendous pressure.

A dam’s shape and thickness must

work together to hold the water back,

even when rainfall increases the pressure.

The dam wall must be made of something

strong enough to keep water from

breaking through. Some dams are made

of earth and rock packed together to

form a thick barrier. However, most

dams are made of concrete. Some concrete

dams are thicker at the bottom

than they are at the top. They are built

The Hoover Dam is 726 feet (221 meters)

high. It is on the Colorado River between

Nevada and Arizona.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dam 9

that way because water creates more

pressure as it gets deeper. The bottom of

the dam must be thicker and stronger to

hold back the deeper water. Other concrete

dams have a curved shape that

helps to lessen the pressure of the water.

The curve sends some of the pressure to

the rock walls on the sides of the dam.

A spillway is a passage over or around

the dam wall. If the water behind the

dam builds up to a dangerous level,

some of the water is released through the

spillway.

Passages called sluices are other important

parts of a dam. Some water constantly

moves through these passages to

keep the river flowing on the other side

of the dam. Gates in the passages allow

workers to control the amount of water

that flows through the dam.

#More to explore

Beaver • Electricity • Flood • Irrigation

Damascus

Population

(2004 estimate)

1,614,500

Damascus is the capital of Syria, a country

in the Middle East. It is one of the

world’s oldest cities. For thousands of

years Damascus has been an important

trading center. Today it is also Syria’s

center of education and culture.

Damascus is surrounded by desert.

However, the city gets plenty of water

from the Barada River. The only easy

route through the Anti-Lebanon Mountains

ends in Damascus.

Many people in Damascus work for the

government. Others work in education,

health care, tourism, and other businesses.

Factories in the city make processed

foods, cloth, chemicals, plastics,

and machinery.

Damascus is at least 5,000 years old. In

ancient times many groups fought to

control the city and its trade.

Muslim Arabs took over Damascus in

AD 635. It was the capital of the Muslim

world from 661 to 750. Damascus was

later an important city in a series of

Muslim empires.

People walk through the entrance

of a mosque in Damascus.

10 Damascus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Turks ruled Damascus from the

1500s to the early 1900s. It remained a

major trade center. People traveling to

the Muslim holy cities also bought supplies

in Damascus.

France took control of Syria in 1920.

Damascus underwent many changes to

become more modern. In 1946 Syria

became an independent country with

Damascus as its capital. The city grew

greatly during the 20th century.

#More to explore

Syria

Dance

Dance involves the rhythmic movement

of the human body, usually to music. It

is one of the oldest forms of human

expression. Dance movements are often

closely related to the gestures of everyday

life.

Dance serves a variety of purposes in

cultures around the world. Some dances

mark special social events such as births,

marriages, and deaths. Other dances are

religious or magical. They may be performed

to worship gods or to try to end

famine, bring rain, or cure the sick. And

dances are also performed as art, to

express emotions, to tell stories, and

simply for fun.

Types of Dance

There are many kinds of dance. Certain

dances are associated with particular

ethnic groups or cultures. They are often

deeply woven into everyday life. For

instance, in many societies in Africa

dances are an important part of community

life.

Folk dances come from a particular

country or location. But these dances are

no longer associated with their original

purposes or meanings. Instead, people

Members of a U.S. dance company perform a dance called Split Sides.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dance 11

often perform folk dances for entertainment

and to preserve the dance traditions

of their ancestors.

People perform social dances for their

own entertainment. Social dances

include ballroom dances such as the

waltz and tango as well as newer forms

such as hip-hop. On the other hand,

trained dancers perform theatrical

dances. They dance to entertain an audience

or to provide an audience with an

artistic experience. Some styles of theatrical

dance are ballet, modern, jazz, tap,

and classical Indian dances.

Elements of Dance

The movements of dancers’ bodies create

different shapes and patterns in

space. Dance movements tend to be

organized into a sequence of steps. The

steps of traditional dances have been

passed down over many years. In other

dances the dancer makes up the movements

during the dance. Or sometimes a

dance designer called a choreographer

makes up the steps ahead of time.

Rhythm is a major element in dance.

Rhythm helps pace the movement. It

helps give dance its emotional power

too. Rhythm can also match or contrast

the dancer’s movements to the music.

Most dancing is done to music. The

music may suggest the style or dramatic

quality of a dance. One example is the

Middle Eastern form of dance called

raqs sharqi (or belly dance). In this style

of dance the music sets up the mood or

story. The dancer then interprets this

through movement. In ballet whole sections

of music may have the style of the

character dancing to them.

Many types of dance are associated with

special clothing. For instance, dancers

may use weapons, masks, and makeup

to increase the effect of war dances and

hunting dances.Wearing certain clothes

for ritual dances can also show that it is

a sacred occasion. Theatrical dances may

use costumes, scenery, and lighting.

These elements may help tell a story, set

a mood, or create interesting visual patterns.

History

Ancient Dance and Traditions

Paintings made in caves more than

10,000 years ago suggest that even the

earliest peoples danced. The first written

records of dance date back some 4,000

years to the ancient Egyptians. Dance

was a crucial element in festivals for

their gods. The ancient Egyptians also

brought skilled dancers from central

Africa to Egypt to provide entertain-

Couples dance the tango in a ballroom. ment.

12 Dance BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Many cultures in Asia have a long history

of formal, theatrical dance. In India

the earliest book discussing dance is

more than 1,500 years old. Bharatanatya

is a classical dance form based on

this book. The dances of the Japanese

royal court are called bugaku. They were

adapted from traditional dances of

China, Korea, India, and Southeast Asia.

Dance is also an important feature of

traditional forms of Japanese drama.

For the ancient Greeks dance was an

important part of religious ceremonies

as well as everyday life. Dances at festivals

to honor a god developed into

Greek drama in the 400s BC. Later in

ancient Rome religious festivals also

featured dances.

Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages (AD 500–1500) in

Europe traveling acrobats danced to

entertain crowds. Some festivals on

Christian feast days also featured dancing.

But some Christian leaders of the

time thought dancing was sinful.

Social dancing became important to the

nobles of the Middle Ages. The upper

classes learned to move gracefully in

formal dances for couples. The peasants

had their own dances. They usually sang

and danced in large lively groups.

Renaissance

During a period in Europe called the

Renaissance (mid-1300s to 1500s) dancing

became an art, not just an entertainment.

The royal courts began to stage

festive pageants that combined dance,

music, and drama. Professional dancers

began performing ballet in theaters in

the 1660s. From then on ballet was a

form of theatrical dancing separate from

social dancing.

Theatrical Dancing

Professional dancers and teachers developed

a formal ballet technique. It was

based on basic poses and steps. Ballet

became extremely popular in France in

the 1700s. In the 1800s the French

dancer Marius Petipa went to Russia. He

helped make that country the center of

the ballet world. In the early 1900s the

Russian arts promoter Sergey Diaghilev

helped spread ballet through Europe and

the Americas.

At the end of the 1800s the American

dancer Isadora Duncan started what is

now called modern dance. She felt that

the set steps and poses of ballet limited

her ability to express herself. She created

Two dancers in Thailand perform a traditional

Thai dance.

Ballet dancers

wear special

shoes, but

performers

of modern

dance often

go barefoot.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dance 13

a new form of dance that was freespirited

and highly personal. Many

other dancers developed their own styles

of modern dance in the 1900s. One of

the most influential was Martha Graham.

Her company and school trained

generations of important modern dancers.

Her famous students included Twyla

Tharp and Paul Taylor.

The American choreographer Agnes de

Mille made dancing an important part

of musical theater. Her production of

the musical Oklahoma! in 1943 mixed

ballet, folk, and modern dance. The

dances Jerome Robbins created for West

Side Story (1957) brought a new edge to

musical theater. Robbins influenced later

Broadway choreographers such as Bob

Fosse and Michael Bennett.

Social Dancing

Once ballet became a professional form,

the dancing done in the European royal

courts was social dancing. Starting in the

1700s dances were held in ballrooms

and houses. That way more people

could participate.

Over the years, various dance forms

went in and out of style. Some of the

most popular were the minuet (1600s

and 1700s) and waltz (1700s and

1800s). As music became less formal in

the 1900s, so did social dances. Popular

music—from big band to rock and roll

and house music—has continued to

inspire new forms of social dancing.

#More to explore

Ballet • Music • Theater

Dandelion

Dandelions are plants with bright yellow

blossoms that turn into round, fluffy

seed heads. Many people consider these

wild plants to be weeds. The several species,

or types, of dandelion belong to the

same plant family as daisies and sunflowers.

Dandelions grew first in Europe and

Asia. They are now widespread in North

America. Dandelions survive the winter

and regrow each spring.

Dandelions are small plants that often

grow low to the ground. Green, jaggededged

leaves surround the base of a hollow

stem. The central root, or tap root,

can grow as deep as 5 feet (1.5 meters).

In spring and summer, each plant produces

a single flower head that is made

up of many tiny yellow flowers.

After flowering, dandelions produce a

head of thin, brownish seeds. Each seed

is attached to a feathery structure. These

seeds can scatter widely in the breeze.

Most people

enjoy social

dancing for

fun. Some

people enter

competitions

in which they

are judged for

their ballroom

dancing skills.

Many people consider dandelion flowers to

be pesky weeds.

14 Dandelion BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Some people eat dandelion leaves in

salads. People may also make the roots

into a coffeelike drink.

..More to explore

Daisy • Flower • Plant • Sunflower

Daoism

Daoism is a system of philosophy and

religion that began in ancient China. It is

sometimes spelledTaoism. Along with

the philosophy called Confucianism,

Daoism has helped to shape Chinese

culture. Confucianism focuses on human

society and the duties of its members. In

contrast, Daoism emphasizes nature. It is

more joyful and carefree.

Daoism began more than 2,000 years

ago. It was based on a book called the

Daodejing (or Tao-te ching). Laozi has

traditionally been named as the author

of the Daodejing. But scholars are not

sure that Laozi ever existed. They now

think that more than one person wrote

the Daodejing between the 500s and the

200s BC.

For Daoists, the most important thing

in life is to find the Dao. The Dao is not

easy to define. It is the unchanging reality

that is the source and end of everything.

This means that all beings and

things are one. Because all is one, life

and death merge into each other. A

Daoist does not fear death because it is

only part of an eternal cycle.

“Dao” also is translated as “theWay,”

meaning the way to think and act. Followers

are taught to act in harmony with

the natural course of things. They try to

avoid disturbing the natural order. This

often means that they take no action at

all. Daoists believe that striving for

power and wealth is a waste of energy.

Such things distract people from searching

for the Dao.

..More to explore

China • Confucius

Dardanelles

The Dardanelles is a strait, or narrow

body of water, that connects the Aegean

Daoist worshippers make offerings in Hong

Kong.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dardanelles 15

Sea and the Sea ofMarmara inTurkey. It

also separates the continent of Europe

from the westernmost tip of AsiaMinor.

The strait is named for the ancient city of

Dardanus. In ancient times it was called

theHellespont, meaning “Helle’s sea,” in

memory ofHelle, a mythical princess.

Another strait, called the Bosporus, connects

the Sea of Marmara with the Black

Sea. Together the Bosporus and the Dardanelles

provide the only sea connection

between the lands lying on the Black Sea

and the rest of the world. The Gallipoli

Peninsula lies along the western side of

the strait. Major ports along its shores

include Gallipoli, Eceabat, and

Canakkale, all in Turkey.

The Dardanelles came under Turkish

control in 1453 and remained in Turkey’s

hands untilWorldWar I. After the

defeat of Turkey in 1917, the Dardanelles

became part of a neutral zone

under the control of the League of

Nations. In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne

returned the region to Turkey.

Dar es Salaam

Population

(2002 census),

metropolitan

area,

2,336,055

Dar es Salaam serves as the capital of

Tanzania, a country in East Africa.

Dodoma was named the new capital in

1974. But many of Tanzania’s government

offices were still in Dar es Salaam

in the early 21st century.

Dar es Salaam is much larger than any

other city in Tanzania. The city lies on

the Indian Ocean. It is Tanzania’s main

port and center of manufacturing. It is

also a popular tourist destination.

The sultan (king) of nearby Zanzibar

founded Dar es Salaam in 1862. A German

company took control of Dar es

Salaam in 1887. It soon became the

capital of the German colonies in East

Africa. The city began to grow.

InWorldWar I (1914–18) Germany

lost its African colonies. Dar es Salaam

became the capital of the new British

territory of Tanganyika. The new country

of Tanzania was formed in 1964. Dar

es Salaam was its official capital until

1974.

#More to explore

Tanzania

Fishermen sell their catch at a fish market in

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

16 Dar es Salaam BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Darwin, Charles

Charles Darwin was an English scientist

who studied nature. He is known for his

theory of evolution by natural selection.

According to this theory, all living things

are struggling to survive. The living

things that have the most helpful traits

for their environment tend to survive.

These living things then pass along their

helpful traits to their young. In this way,

animals change, or evolve, over hundreds

of years. He described his ideas in

his important book, On the Origin of

Species by Means of Natural Selection

(1859).

Charles Robert Darwin was born on

February 12, 1809, in Shropshire,

England. He did poorly throughout

school. Nevertheless he attended the

University of Edinburgh and the University

of Cambridge. A professor at

Cambridge encouraged Charles’s interest

in natural history.

In 1831 Darwin joined an expedition to

explore the coasts of South America. On

December 27, 1831, Darwin and the

others set sail on the HMS Beagle. Darwin’s

goal was to study the natural history

of the areas they were to explore.

The observations he made during the

five-year trip led him to wonder how

new species, or types, of plants and animals

developed. To explain this process

Darwin formed his theory of natural

selection.

Darwin first presented his theory in

1858. The idea of evolution was not

new then, but Darwin’s theory

explained how evolution occurred.

When Darwin published On the Origin

of Species in 1859, the book was an

immediate success. However, it was not

popular with people who believed that

God created everything in the world all

at one time. He continued writing about

his theory in several other books.

Charles Darwin died on April 19, 1882.

#More to explore

Evolution

Date

Dates are small, sweet fruits that grow in

large bunches on date palm trees. A

single bunch may contain as many as

1,000 dates. Dried dates have a very

high amount of sugar—at least half of

their total weight.

Date palms can be found in hot, dry

climates. They grow in North Africa, the

Middle East, South Asia, and the southwestern

United States. Egypt, Iraq, Iran,

Although he is

famous for

writing about

plants and

animals, during

his trip on

the Beagle

Darwin also

studied the

forces that

build up

mountains.

Charles Darwin

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Date 17

and Saudi Arabia are the largest producers

of dates.

Date palms grow to a towering height of

about 75 feet (23 meters). Rough, overlapping

stubs, or leaf bases, cover the

surface of the tree trunk. These stubs,

which point upward, are the remains of

old leaves. A crown of shining leaves

sprouts from the top of date palms.

These leaves, or fronds, can be as long as

16 feet (5 meters).

The fruits are about 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to

7.5 centimeters) long. They are usually

oval. When dates are ripe, their color

ranges from golden brown to black.

Dates contain one long, slender seed,

called a stone.

Dates have been an important food for

thousands of years, especially for people

in the deserts of the Middle East. Dates

are an excellent source of energy and

fiber. They also contain potassium and

iron. The trunks and leaves of date

palms may be used for fuel or to make

furniture, baskets, or rope.

#More to explore

Fruit • Palm

Davis, Jefferson

While Abraham Lincoln was president

of the United States, Jefferson Davis was

president of the Confederate States of

America. The Confederate states were

Southern states that decided they did

not want to be part of the United States

anymore. They disagreed with the other

states about many things, especially slavery.

Their disagreements led to the

American CivilWar.

Davis was born on June 3, 1808, in

Kentucky. His parents were farmers who

owned slaves. Jefferson grew up in Mississippi

and graduated from the U.S.

Military Academy atWest Point in

1828.

Career in the United States

Davis served in the Army until 1835.

He then returned to Mississippi and ran

a plantation.

In 1845 Davis was elected to the U.S.

House of Representatives. He left Congress

in 1846 to command Mississippi

troops in the MexicanWar. He won a

great victory at the battle of Buena

Vista.

Dates ripen on a date palm tree.

18 Davis, Jefferson BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Davis returned from the war as a hero

and became a U.S. senator from Mississippi

in 1847. From 1853 to 1857 he

served as secretary of war under President

Franklin Pierce. Davis again

became a senator in 1857. At the time,

Northerners and Southerners were arguing

about many issues. Davis tried to get

the two sides to work together, but they

became more and more divided.

The Confederacy

In January 1861 Mississippi seceded, or

left the Union. Several other states did

the same. Representatives of those states

chose Davis to be their president. He

took office on February 18, 1861. Davis

ordered an attack on Fort Sumter in

South Carolina on April 12. The attack

began the American CivilWar.

As president, Davis had a hard job. The

United States had more people and

more resources than the Confederacy.

After four years of fighting, the Confederate

troops were forced to surrender.

This brought an end to the Confederate

States of America.

Davis then left Richmond, Virginia,

which was the Confederate capital. On

May 10 he was captured in Georgia. He

was put into prison for disloyalty to the

United States. But he was not placed on

trial. After two years he was released.

Davis spent time in Canada and Europe

and then ran an insurance company in

Memphis, Tennessee. He died in New

Orleans, Louisiana, on December 6,

1889.

#More to explore

American CivilWar • Confederate

States of America

Dead Sea

The Dead Sea is actually a salt lake. It is

located in southwestern Asia between

Jordan on the east and Israel and the

West Bank on the west. The Dead Sea

Jefferson Davis

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dead Sea 19

has so much salt in it that only microbes

(microscopic life-forms) are able to live

in it. Its salt content is about seven times

that of the ocean.

The Dead Sea is about 50 miles (80

kilometers) long and 10 miles (16 kilometers)

wide. Its surface is 1,312 feet

(400 meters) below sea level, making it

the lowest body of water on Earth. Its

greatest depth is in the north, where it is

about 1,309 feet (399 meters) deep. The

Jordan River flows into the Dead Sea

from the north.

The land surrounding the Dead Sea is a

desert. The hot summer temperatures

cause the lake’s water to evaporate at a

high rate. When the water evaporates it

leaves behind salt. The area gets very

little rain so the water that evaporates is

not replaced very quickly. Because of

that, a high concentration of salt has

built up in the Dead Sea over the years.

In addition to the huge amount of salt

in the Dead Sea, there are also large

reserves of potash, gypsum, and other

chemical substances. The salt has been

used since ancient times. In the 1900s

nearby factories began collecting potash,

magnesium, calcium chloride, bromine,

and other chemicals from the sea.

#More to explore

Israel • Jordan

Dead Sea Scrolls

In 1947 a young shepherd found some

ancient scrolls (rolled-up writings) in a

cave in Jordan. More scrolls were found

nearby soon afterward. Now they are all

known as the Dead Sea Scrolls because

they were found near the Dead Sea.

They are important because some of the

scrolls contain parts of one of the earliest

versions of the Hebrew Bible. Others are

writings of the Jewish people who lived

in the area more than 2,000 years ago.

The Dead Sea Scrolls are written on

such materials as leather, papyrus (made

from the stems of a plant), and copper.

After being rolled up for so long they

were dried out and would not unroll

without breaking into pieces. Scholars

spent years working out ways to unroll

them without destroying them. Most of

The salt from the Dead Sea collects on its

shores.

A piece of the Dead Sea Scrolls shows an

early form of Hebrew writing.

20 Dead Sea Scrolls BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the scrolls and fragments are now overseen

by the government of Israel.

The Bible scrolls were copies of original

manuscripts. They have been useful in

understanding the history of the Hebrew

Bible. Other scrolls outline the rules of a

community of Jews who lived on the

shores of the Dead Sea from about 150

BC to AD 68.Many scholars believe that

this was a group called the Essenes. Some

believe that the scrolls themselves were

the property of the Essenes.

Deafness

A person who is deaf either has trouble

hearing or cannot hear at all. Deafness

can occur in one ear or in both ears. It is

called partial deafness if the person can

still hear a little. It is called total deafness

if a person cannot hear anything.

Causes

There are a number of reasons why

people are deaf. Parents can pass down

genes that cause deafness. Diseases and

head injuries can result in deafness. Ear

infections can cause temporary deafness.

Too much earwax can also cause temporary

deafness. In some cases people lose

hearing because of listening to loud

noise. People often lose some hearing as

they get older, too.

Prevention and Treatment

Sometimes deafness cannot be prevented

or treated. This is the case when deafness

is caused by genes or by old age. However,

vaccines can prevent certain diseases

that might damage the ears. People

who work in noisy places can wear earplugs.

Hearing aids help people who are

partially deaf. They make sounds louder.

In some cases a doctor can perform surgery.

An example would be when an ear

passage is blocked. If nerves are damaged,

a doctor might put a cochlear

implant under the skin near the ear.

This device changes sounds into electrical

signals. The person then learns to

recognize those signals as sounds.

Deaf people can still communicate.

They can read lips. Some use their hands

to make signs for letters, words, and

ideas. This is known as sign language.

They can also learn to speak. Many are

helped by speech therapy.

Deaf people can use the telephone by

typing on a special keyboard. They can

also understand television shows

through the closed-captioning system.

This system translates the spoken words

The composer

Ludwig van

Beethoven

composed

some of his

greatest music

after he

became deaf.

A teacher uses sign language to

communicate with deaf students.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Deafness 21

to written words. The words appear at

the bottom of the screen.

#More to explore

Ear • Sign Language

Death

Death marks the end of life. When a

living thing dies, its body stops working.

All living things, including plants and

animals, go through the process of

death.

How Death Happens

In humans death can happen in many

different ways. Most people die from

diseases related to aging. Cancer, heart

disease, and other illnesses may cause

death. Some people die in accidents or

as a result of violence or natural disasters.

In some parts of the world people

die from warfare, starvation, or poor

nutrition.

A person dies when the body’s most

important organs—the heart, the lungs,

and the brain—stop working. Once

these organs fail, other organs also stop

working. Individual cells can survive

longer, but eventually they also die.

People used to be considered dead when

they stopped breathing and their heart

stopped. Today, however, special medical

techniques and equipment can restart

the heart and lungs. Many people now

consider brain death to be the end of

human life. Brain death happens when

the brain shows no signs of any activity,

even if machines are keeping the heart

and lungs working.

Dealing with Death

Every culture has its own customs for

dealing with death. Most of these customs

include either burial or cremation

(burning) of the body. In addition,

people often gather at funerals or other

services to honor the person who died.

Many people believe that, once the body

dies, a person’s mind or soul continues

in some kind of afterlife. Others think

that the body’s death is the end of that

person. People have always been interested

in what happens after death, but

no one knows for certain.

#More to explore

Living Thing

Death Valley

Death Valley is the lowest, hottest, and

driest point in North America. It got its

Cemeteries are final resting places for the

dead. Many members of the military and

other notable Americans are buried in

Arlington National Cemetery, near Washington,

D.C.

22 Death BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

name because of the hardships faced by

settlers attempting to cross the valley.

Death Valley is located in southeastern

California, in the United States. The

valley is about 140 miles (225 kilometers)

long and 4 to 16 miles (6 to 26

kilometers) wide. The lowest point in

the valley lies 282 feet (86 meters) below

sea level. Not far away towers Mount

Whitney, the highest point in the continental

United States. It is 14,494 feet

(4,418 meters) above sea level.

Summer daytime temperatures in the

valley often reach 120° F (50° C) in the

shade.Winter temperatures rarely fall to

freezing. The average annual rainfall is

only about 2 inches (50 millimeters).

Despite the extreme conditions, Death

Valley is home to a variety of plants and

animals. The plants include saltgrass,

cacti, and desert wildflowers. Animals

include lizards, rabbits, kangaroo rats,

coyotes, and bobcats. The largest animal

is the desert bighorn sheep.

For many years Death Valley was little

known except to the Panamint Indians

who lived in the area before the

Europeans came. Few people visited the

area until the 1870s. At that time, gold

was discovered in the surrounding

mountains. Death Valley’s extreme

environment now attracts tourists and

scientists. It was made a national park

in 1994.

#More to explore

California • United States

Declaration of

Independence

The Declaration of Independence is the

founding document of the United

States. On July 4, 1776, the

Continental Congress of the British

colonies in North America adopted the

declaration at Independence Hall in

Philadelphia. The document proclaimed

that the 13 original colonies of America

were “free and independent states.” It

was the last of a series of steps that led

Dead trees are scattered among sand dunes

in Death Valley.

North America’s

highest

known

temperature—

134° F

(57° C)—was

recorded in

Death Valley

in 1913.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Declaration of Independence 23

the colonies to final separation from

Great Britain.

At the time the American Revolution

began with Great Britain in April 1775

most colonists were not seeking independence.

They simply wanted the British

government to listen to their

complaints. But as the war continued,

many colonists began to favor freedom

from British rule.

New reasons for independence from

Great Britain appeared regularly. In

August 1775 King George III declared

that the colonists were rebels and hired

foreign troops to fight them. The British

attacked the coast of Maine and did

great damage in Virginia. In January

1776 Thomas Paine published the pamphlet

Common Sense. It pointed out how

the colonists were being mistreated by

the king. Many copies of the pamphlet

were sold, and support for independence

grew.

On June 7 Richard Henry Lee, a

Virginian, asked the Continental

Congress to consider declaring

independence from Great Britain. The

congress appointed a committee of five

to write the formal declaration. Thomas

Jefferson wrote the first draft. A few

changes were suggested by other

members of the committee: John

Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger

Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston.

On July 2, 1776, the congress accepted

the idea of independence. It then

debated the content of the declaration

over the next two days. On July 4 the

Declaration of Independence was

accepted by the representatives of 12

states. The New York delegation

accepted it 11 days later. It was first

published in newspapers and read aloud

to crowds in towns throughout the colonies.

Members of the congress signed the

official parchment document on August

2. The document first lists the complaints

against the English king and then

makes the actual declaration.

#More to explore

American Revolution • Continental

Congress • Jefferson, Thomas

Decorative Arts

Decorative art is the art of making

useful things beautiful. The decorative

Many important people in the early history

of the United States signed the Declaration

of Independence. Famous signers include

Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and

Samuel Adams.

24 Decorative Arts BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

arts include pottery making, jewelry

making, weaving, woodworking, and

other crafts. Different cultures around

the world have their own forms of

decorative art.

For most of history people made decorative

art by hand. In North America,

Native Americans made painted pottery

and delicate baskets. In the American

colonies Paul Revere was well known for

creating beautiful silver objects. He

made silver utensils, bowls, plates, and

candleholders.

In Europe and early America a young

woman’s education usually included

decorative arts. Girls learned these skills

both at school and at home. They

learned embroidery and quilt design.

They painted flowers and landscapes on

tabletops and other household objects.

In the 1800s people began using

machines to make decorative art. Factories

made pottery, furniture, lamps, and

rugs from designs created by artists. The

factories turned out thousands of decorative

objects from each design.

Arts and Crafts Movement

However, some decorative artists still

wanted to create one-of-a kind objects.

Many of these artists joined a movement

called the Arts and Crafts Movement.

Arts and Crafts artists made stained glass

windows and lamps by hand. They also

made furniture and other kinds of beautiful,

useful objects.

Later Developments

In the early 1900s a famous school for

design opened in Germany. This school

was called the Bauhaus. Artists there

designed furniture and other objects for

the home. They wanted everyday objects

to be both useful and artistic. Bauhaus

artists believed that the good design of

useful things, such as forks and teapots,

could improve people’s lives.

People in Mexico weave blankets in colorful,

traditional patterns. This type of blanket

is both useful and decorative.

Glassmaking is a type of decorative art. The

U.S. designer Louis Comfort Tiffany made

many beautiful glass vases.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Decorative Arts 25

Decorative art is still very popular today.

Many weavers, jewelers, woodworkers,

potters, and other decorative artists sell

their work at art shows, in art galleries,

or in shops. Many people who are not

artists also enjoy making decorative

objects. They learn how to create decorative

art from books, magazines, and

home decorating shows on television.

Some people also take classes or attend

special workshops.

#More to explore

Arts • Jewelry and Gems • Pottery

• Revere, Paul

Deer

Deer are the only animals that can grow

large antlers. They are hoofed mammals

that belong to the scientific family

Cervidae. There are about 30 different

species, or kinds, of deer. Among them

are the white-tailed deer, the mule deer,

the moose, the wapiti, and the reindeer,

or caribou.

Where Deer Live

Deer are native to Europe, Asia, North

America, South America, and northern

Africa. People have brought them to

Australia, New Zealand, and other areas.

Deer live in a wide variety of places,

including forests, swamps, deserts, and

tundras.

Physical Features

Deer have large ears, short tails, and

long, slender legs. On each foot they

have two small and two large hooves.

Deer usually have smooth, brown fur.

White areas often cover the chest and

throat. Some types have a shaggy coat,

especially in the cold seasons.

The smallest deer, the South American

pudu, is about 12 inches (30 centimeters)

tall at the shoulder. The largest

deer, the moose, may be more than 7

feet (2.1 meters) tall at the shoulder.

Females are usually smaller than males.

White-tailed deer live in open wooded

areas. As with most deer, only the males

grow antlers.

One of the leading designers of the Arts

and Crafts Movement was William Morris.

His designs for wallpaper often featured

flowers or leaves in complex patterns.

26 Deer BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The males of most species grow antlers,

which are bony growths on the head.

Female reindeer also grow antlers. Male

deer use their antlers to fight other males

for a chance to mate with females. Deer

shed their antlers and grow a new set

each year.

Behavior

Deer eat only plant material—for

example, grass, twigs, and bark. They

chew their food, swallow it, and then

bring it back up from the stomach in a

form called cud. After chewing the cud,

they swallow it again.

Most deer live in small family groups,

though the males generally spend some

time alone. In warm climates deer mate

at any time of the year. In colder climates

they breed in autumn or winter.

Female deer usually give birth to one or

two young. Most deer reach adulthood

in one to three years.

Deer and Humans

Since ancient times, people have hunted

deer for their meat (called venison),

hides, and antlers. Hunting deer is still a

popular pastime in the United States

and many other places. People also use

hunting to control the number of certain

types of deer.

In many parts of the world, some types

of deer are endangered, or at risk of disappearing.

Possible causes include too

much hunting and the clearing of the

land where the deer lived.

#More to explore

Mammal • Moose • Reindeer •Wapiti

Deere, John

John Deere invented the first successful

steel plow. His invention helped make

the midwestern United States one of the

world’s great farming regions. The company

he started, Deere & Company,

became a leading maker of farm equipment.

Deere was born in Rutland, Vermont,

on February 7, 1804. As a teenager he

worked in a blacksmith’s shop. At age

21 he set up his own shop. Many of his

customers were farmers.

In 1836 Deere moved to Illinois. The

farmers of Illinois had a troublesome

problem. The soil was very good for

growing crops, but it was also very hard

to plow. It was so thick that it stuck to

their plows, which had blades made of

cast iron. Deere designed new plows

with blades of polished steel. The steel

plows worked well because the soil did

not stick to the blades.

Soon Deere began making plows in large

quantities. In 1847 he moved his factory

to Moline, Illinois, and expanded it. By

1857 he was producing 10,000 plows a

A farmer stood behind John Deere’s steel

plow and used the two handles to guide its

path.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Deere, John 27

year. In 1868 Deere’s business became

known as Deere & Company. Today

Deere & Company makes all kinds of

farm machinery.

Late in life Deere registered some of his

ideas with the U.S. government as patents.

He also served for several years as

mayor of Moline. He died there on May

17, 1886.

#More to explore

Agriculture • Steel

De Gaulle,

Charles

A military leader and statesman, Charles

de Gaulle led France through several

difficult periods. In 1959 he became

president under a new constitution that

he helped write. Throughout his career

De Gaulle was guided by his belief in

the greatness of France.

Early Life

Charles de Gaulle was born on November

22, 1890, in Lille, in northern

France. He became interested in the

military as a boy and graduated from the

Military Academy of Saint-Cyr in 1911.

Career

De Gaulle fought inWorldWar I

(1914–18). After the war he taught military

history at Saint-Cyr. He served on a

military mission to Poland and also

wrote several books on military subjects.

When Germany occupied France at the

beginning ofWorldWar II (1939–45),

De Gaulle took control of the Free

French resistance movement. He led the

movement from England.

De Gaulle returned to Paris as a national

hero in 1944 after the Germans had

retreated. He became active in politics as

the country tried to deal with many

problems. One problem was a civil war

that broke out in Algeria, which was a

French colony at the time. De Gaulle

finally became president of France in

1959.

After he became president, De Gaulle

promoted peace negotiations in Algeria.

He declared Algeria’s independence on

July 3, 1962. De Gaulle also increased

his efforts to make France a leading

world power. At his urging the French

developed nuclear weapons and a space

program.

Last Years

In 1968 the French government faced a

Charles de Gaulle students’ and workers’ revolt. On April

28 De Gaulle, Charles BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

27, 1969, the people of France voted

down De Gaulle’s proposals for constitutional

changes. The following day De

Gaulle resigned. He retired to his home

at Colombey-les-Deux-Eglises, where he

died on November 9, 1970.

#More to explore

Algeria •WorldWar II

Delaware

The Native Americans known as the

Delaware call themselves the Lenape

(meaning “real people”). They are also

often called the Lenni Lenape. English

settlers named them the Delaware

because they lived in villages along the

Delaware River.

The Delaware originally lived in a huge

territory that included what are now

New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York,

and Delaware. Delaware men fished and

hunted deer, elk, bear, and beaver.

Women planted fields of corn, beans,

squash, and other crops. The women

also made clothing, baskets, and pottery.

The Delaware built dome-shaped houses

called wigwams that they covered with

tree bark. They also built large structures

made of wood and bark called longhouses.

Each autumn, people gathered

at the longhouses for a 12-day ceremony.

During the Big House ritual, the

Delaware thanked their creator for their

latest harvest. The Big House ceremony

was performed until the 1900s.

In the early 1600s settlers from England,

Sweden, and the Netherlands began

arriving in Delaware territory. They

brought with them diseases, such as

smallpox and measles, that killed many

tribe members.

Europeans also forced the Delaware to

give up much of their land. After the

colonists’ victory in the American Revolution

(1775–83), many Delaware

moved to Ontario, Canada. The Delaware

who stayed in the United States

moved west. In the mid-1800s the government

forced them to move to Indian

Territory (now Oklahoma).

By the end of the 20th century, there

were about 10,000 Delaware. Most live

in Oklahoma,Wisconsin, and Ontario,

Canada.

#More to explore

Tishcohan was a chief of the Delaware. Measles • Native Americans • Smallpox

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Delaware 29

Delaware

In 1610 Englishman Samuel

Argall sailed into a large bay

along the Atlantic Coast of North

America. He called it Delaware Bay in

honor of Virginia’s colonial governor Sir

ThomasWest, baron De laWarr (or

Delaware). The name was later given to

the nearby river and to the colony that

became the state of Delaware. Delaware

is nicknamed the First State because it

was the first colony to ratify, or vote in

favor of, the United States Constitution.

Dover is the capital.

Geography

Delaware is a Middle Atlantic state

located on the East Coast of the United

States. Delaware is bordered on the

southeast by the Atlantic Ocean. The

Delaware River and Delaware Bay separate

it in the northeast from New Jersey.

To the north is Pennsylvania. To the

south and west is Maryland.

Most of Delaware is a flat coastal plain.

It is seldom more than 60 feet (18

meters) above sea level, and it becomes

increasingly sandy to the south. There

are many woodlands, streams, and freshwater

ponds in the region. The far

northern part of the state is more

elevated and runs into the foothills of

Pennsylvania.

People

More than 70 percent of Delaware’s

population are whites of European

descent. African Americans make up

about 19 percent of the state’s population.

Hispanics represent 5 percent of

the population and Asian Americans 2

percent. Although Delaware’s total

population is less than 1 million people,

it is one of the nation’s most densely

populated states. This means that there

are many people living in a small area.

Delaware’s largest city,Wilmington, has

a population of more than 72,000

people.

Economy

Delaware has been called the Chemical

Capital of theWorld. This is mostly

because of the DuPont Company’s long

connection with the state. One of

DuPont’s many inventions in the field

of chemistry was the artificial fiber

known as nylon. DuPont and Hercules,

another large chemical firm in Delaware,

30 Delaware BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

create products used in such things as

fabrics, paper, pigments, and plastics.

Credit card businesses also have operations

in the state. Broiler chickens

(raised for meat) are the major agricultural

product.

History

The Delaware area was the home of the

Delaware (or Lenni Lenape) and several

other Native American tribes before

Europeans began to settle the area in the

early 1600s. Dutch settlers arrived in the

area in 1631. They called their new

home Zwaanendael, meaning “valley of

the swans.”

The next European settlement was made

by Swedish colonists in 1638 under the

leadership of Peter Minuit. They built

their homes on the site of what is now

Wilmington, on the Christina River.

The first permanent settlement was

called Fort Christina. In 1682 the Delaware

colony became part of Pennsylvania.

Disagreements led the colony to

form its own legislature in 1704, but the

area remained under the control of

Pennsylvania’s governor until 1776.

In 1776 Delaware played an important

role in the passage of the Declaration of

Independence. Caesar Rodney was one

of Delaware’s three delegates to the

Continental Congress. When the two

other delegates split their vote over

whether to support the declaration,

Rodney rode on horseback from Dover

to Philadelphia in order to break the tie.

His last-minute ride allowed him to cast

Delaware’s deciding vote for

independence.

Although many Delaware residents

owned slaves, the state remained with

the Union when the American CivilWar

began in 1861. After the war, with much

help from the Du Pont family, the state

prospered.

..More to explore

American CivilWar • Declaration of

Independence • Dover

Visitors to Delaware’s Rehoboth Beach enjoy the sun, sand, and ocean.

Facts About

DELAWARE

Flag

Population

(2000 census),

783,600—rank,

45th state; (2008

estimate)

873,092—rank,

45th state

Capital

Dover

Area

2,489 sq mi

(6,447 sq km)—

rank, 49th state

Statehood

December 7,

1787

Motto

Liberty and

Independence

State bird

Blue hen chicken

State flower

Peach blossom

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Delaware 31

Delhi

Population

(2001 estimate),

Old Delhi,

9,817,439;

New Delhi,

294,783

Delhi was the capital of mighty empires

in South Asia for hundreds of years.

Today it is divided into two cities—

Delhi (or Old Delhi) and New Delhi.

New Delhi is the capital of the country

of India. Both cities are part of an area

known as the national capital territory

of Delhi.

Old Delhi grew over hundreds of years.

It has narrow, winding streets and busy

markets. Its living areas are crowded.

Old Delhi also has many historic buildings.

The beautiful Red Fort was built

there in the 1600s.

New Delhi was built in the early 1900s.

A British architect designed the city. It

has wide, straight streets and many parks.

Many people in Delhi work in government,

education, health care, and tourism.

Delhi has long been northern

India’s leading center of business and

trade. Factories in Delhi make cloth,

electronics, tools, and other products.

Many different cities were built in the

Delhi area over the years. It was the

capital of a series of Muslim rulers

beginning in the 1100s.

In the 1700s Great Britain began taking

over parts of India. The British captured

Delhi in 1803. They began building

New Delhi in 1912. It became the capital

of British India. In 1947 India

became an independent country with

New Delhi as its capital.

#More to explore

India

Delphi

Delphi was a town in ancient Greece. It

was the home of the most important

Greek oracle. The ancient Greeks asked

their gods for answers to their questions

and problems. An oracle was both the

god’s answer and the temple where

people came to receive such answers.

The Greeks considered Delphi to be the

center of the world. Over many years,

Traffic moves through a busy

street in Old Delhi.

An ancient

poem tells of a

city built on

the site of

Delhi nearly

3,500 years

ago.

32 Delhi BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

several temples were built there to honor

Apollo. He was the god of light, poetry

and music, and prophecy, or the telling

of the future.

People came from every part of Greece

to learn their future through Apollo.

The oracle was even consulted before

any new colony was formed. People

would often bring expensive gifts. Priestesses

and priests would deliver the

oracles to the people. The oracles were

worded so that they could have two or

more different meanings.

The oracle was closed in the AD 300s.

Today Delphi is a popular tourist destination

and a major archaeological site.

Excavations have uncovered temple

ruins and pieces of sculptures.

#More to explore

Apollo • Greece, Ancient

Delta

In ancient times Greek merchants who

sailed to Egypt noticed that the Nile

River branched into two streams before

flowing into the sea. The sea and the

river’s branches enclosed a piece of land

shaped like a triangle. The Greeks called

that land a delta because it resembled

the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet

(.). Now the term delta is used for any

plain made up of material deposited by a

river at its mouth.

Rivers often carry a lot of soil, sand, and

other material. When the flow of a river

slows at its mouth, some of that material

settles. Over the years the material builds

up to form a delta. The surface of a delta

is almost level, and the river usually flows

across it in a number of small branches.

Deltas have been important to people

since prehistoric times. The soil of a

delta is usually ideal for farming. Major

civilizations developed in the deltas of

Visitors to Delphi today can see

the ruins of one of the temples of

Apollo.

A photograph taken from a satellite shows

the Nile River delta and the Mediterranean

Sea.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Delta 33

the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, and

Huang He rivers. More recently, scientists

have discovered that the rocks of

some deltas hold large amounts of oil.

#More to explore

River

Demeter

In ancient Greek mythology Demeter

was the goddess of grain and farming.

She was associated with the Roman goddess

Ceres because they shared many

characteristics. Demeter’s symbols

included corn and a basket filled with

grain, flowers, and fruit.

Demeter was the daughter of Cronos

and Rhea, who were Titans. The Titans

were giants who once ruled the world.

Demeter was said to watch over all

aspects of farming, including plowing,

planting, and harvesting. In ancient

Greece the women typically did these

jobs. So Greek women often worshipped

Demeter.

The ancient Greeks used a story about

Demeter to explain the changing of the

seasons. Demeter’s daughter was the

beautiful Persephone. Hades, the god of

the underworld, seized Persephone. He

took her to the land of the dead to be

his queen. Demeter was overcome with

grief. In her great sadness she did not

care about helping the harvest. As a

result, no crops on Earth could grow.

Zeus, the chief god, ordered Hades to

give up Persephone. But in the underworld

Persephone had eaten the seed of

a fruit called a pomegranate. Because of

this, she would always be connected to

the land of the dead. For part of each

year she would have to return to Hades.

When Persephone was gone, Demeter

refused to let anything grow.Winter

then fell over Earth. But when Per-

Certain grass

seeds that are

good to eat

are called

cereals in

honor of

Ceres.

34 Demeter BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

sephone returned, Demeter made all the

plants bloom in celebration. It was then

spring.

#More to explore

Hades • Mythology

Democracy

The word democracy describes a form of

government. The word comes from two

Greek words that mean “rule by the

people.” In a democracy the people have

a say in how the government is run.

They do this by voting, though there are

usually rules about who can vote.

Democracies are different from dictatorships.

In a dictatorship one person called

a dictator makes all the rules.

Types of Democracy

There are two main forms of democracy.

In a direct democracy all the voters

come together in one place to make laws

and decisions. Often there are too many

people for a direct democracy to work.

In those cases the people elect representatives,

or other people to speak for

them. This is called a representative

democracy. The elected representatives

make the laws and decisions.

History

The first democracies were in ancient

Greece more than 2,000 years ago.

Those did not last long, however. After

that, kings and other rulers had all the

power in their countries. In about the

1200s, however, some rulers began to

allow certain citizens to be part of the

government.

By the 1600s and 1700s some people

began to think that all people had certain

rights. These included the right to

participate in their government. In the

British colonies of North America the

colonists felt that the king did not allow

them to participate enough. They

fought a war to gain their freedom.

When they won the war they established

the United States as a republic.

A republic is a form of democracy in

which the citizens vote for the people

who make the laws. They also vote for

the leader of the country, who is often a

president. Many other countries became

republics as well. Other countries kept

their kings or queens but still became

democracies. Monarchies with democracy

are called constitutional monarchies.

In such countries the people vote

for representatives. The king or queen is

the head of the country, but they have

little real power.

#More to explore

Government • Voting

People line up to vote in Sierra Leone, a

country in Africa.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Democracy 35

Denmark

The Kingdom of Denmark is the southernmost

of the countries that form the

region known as Scandinavia. Scandinavia

also includes Sweden and Norway.

Although small in territory and population,

Denmark has played a notable role

in European history. The capital is

Copenhagen.

Geography

A long peninsula known as Jutland

makes up most of the country’s area.

Denmark also includes more than 400

islands to the east of Jutland. Germany

lies to the south of the peninsula. The

North and Baltic seas surround the rest

of Denmark. Narrow passages of water,

called straits, separate Denmark from

Norway and Sweden. Greenland and the

Faroe (or Faeroe) Islands, both located

in the North Atlantic Ocean, are selfgoverning

parts of Denmark.

The Jutland Peninsula is a lowland

region with farmland in the east. The

longest river in Denmark, the Gudena,

flows for 98 miles (158 kilometers)

through Jutland. The islands have low

hills, small lakes, and sandy beaches.

Fewer than one quarter of the islands are

populated. The climate is generally

moist and mild.

Plants and Animals

Much of Denmark was once covered by

forests of oak, elm, lime (linden), and

beech trees. These original forests were

cleared to create farmland, but some

areas have been replanted.Wildlife

includes deer, hares, and hedgehogs.

More than 300 species, or types, of bird

live in Denmark. However, though the

once-common stork is now rare. Fish are

plentiful in Danish waters.

The Faroe Islands of Denmark are home to

Atlantic puffins and other sea birds.

36 Denmark BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People

Most of the people of Denmark are ethnic

Danes. Minority groups include

people from Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan.

Danish, the official language, is closely

related to Norwegian. English is also

widely spoken. Most of the people

belong to the Lutheran church. About

85 percent of the population lives in

cities and towns. Copenhagen is home

to about one quarter of the country’s

people.

Economy

Denmark’s economy is based largely on

services (for example, banking, education,

and health care) and manufacturing.

The leading manufactured products

are machinery, processed foods, metals,

printed material, plastic and rubber

goods, and furniture. Tourism is important

as well.

Denmark has few natural resources. The

soil is the country’s most important raw

material, as about 60 percent of the land

is suitable for farming. Wheat and barley

are the main crops, and pigs are the

main livestock. Denmark’s harbors support

a large fishing industry.

History

People have lived in Denmark since prehistoric

times. The Danish kingdom

dates back to the Viking Age, which

lasted from the 800s to the 1000s. The

Vikings were Danish, Norwegian, and

Swedish warriors who invaded much of

Europe. By the 1000s the Danish kingdom

had grown to include parts of what

are now Germany, Sweden, Norway, and

England.

In 1397 Denmark united all of Scandinavia,

plus Iceland, under its rule. After

a series of wars, Sweden left the union in

1523. The union between Denmark and

Norway lasted until 1814, when Denmark

was forced to turn over Norway to

Sweden.

Nazi Germany occupied Denmark duringWorldWar

II. In 1945 Denmark

recognized the independence of Iceland.

It granted the Faroe Islands selfgovernment

in 1948. Greenland became

part of Denmark in 1953. It gained selfgovernment

in 1979.

Denmark joined the European Economic

Community (now the European

Union) in 1973. In 2000, however, the

nation voted against adopting the

euro—the monetary unit of the European

Union—as its currency.

..More to explore

Copenhagen • Greenland • Vikings

Boats anchor in the harbor at Copenhagen, Denmark.

Facts About

DENMARK

Population

(2008 estimate)

5,494,000

Area

16,640 sq mi

(43,098 sq km)

Capital

Copenhagen

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major urban

areas

Greater Copenhagen,

Arhus,

Odense, Alborg,

Esbjerg

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Denmark 37

Dentistry

The work of dentists is called dentistry.

Dentists are doctors who prevent and

treat diseases of the teeth and gums.

Preventing Tooth Decay

Tooth decay is the most common problem

with teeth. A sticky film called

plaque causes tooth decay. Bacteria in

the mouth form plaque as they feed on

sugars from food. As acids in the plaque

eat away the outer layer of the teeth,

decayed areas called cavities form.

Brushing and flossing the teeth can prevent

tooth decay. But regular cleanings

at a dentist’s office are also important.

During a cleaning the dentist, or an

assistant called a dental hygienist,

removes tartar and other material from

the teeth. Tartar is a hard, yellowish substance

that forms from plaque, minerals,

and saliva. The hygienist also polishes

the teeth, which helps to prevent plaque

from building up again. The hygienist

may also treat the teeth with sodium

fluoride, a mineral that helps to keep

cavities from forming.

Dental Treatments

After a cleaning or on a separate visit,

the dentist inspects the teeth and gums

for problems. An assistant will often take

X-rays, which show cavities or problems

inside the teeth or below the gums.

The dentist uses a drill to remove any

cavities. Drugs help the patient not to

feel pain during the drilling. Then the

dentist fills the tooth with a substance

made of metals, plastics, or other materials.

The substance is commonly called a

filling.

Dentists try to avoid pulling teeth.

Sometimes, though, dentists must

remove teeth that cause pain or other

problems. If a patient loses teeth, the

dentist may fit the patient with false

teeth. Some false teeth are attached to

the jawbone. Others, called dentures,

may be taken out at night for cleaning.

Dentists may also treat other problems

with the teeth, gum disease, and problems

with the jaw. Some dentists, called

orthodontists, straighten teeth. Cosmetic

dentists work to make teeth even

and white.

History

In ancient times people used herbs,

mouthwashes, magic spells, and prayers

to treat tooth problems. They also

pulled out decayed teeth. Dentistry

became more scientific in the 1700s.

Dentists began using drugs and X-rays

in the 1800s. In the 1900s people began

A dentist drills a patient’s tooth. adding sodium fluoride to toothpastes

38 Dentistry BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

and drinking water to help prevent

tooth decay.

..More to explore

Teeth • X-rays

Denver

Population

(2000 census),

city, 554,636;

(2007 estimate)

588,349

Denver is the capital of the U.S. state of

Colorado. It is a center of transportation,

industry, and culture.

Denver is known as the Mile High City.

This is because it sits about 1 mile (1.6

kilometers) above sea level. The city lies

just east of the Rocky Mountains. Many

people visit Denver to ski and hike in

the mountains.

Many people in Denver work in tourism,

health care, banking, and hightechnology

industries. Some factories in

the city make electronics and equipment

for space travel. A U.S. government factory

in Denver makes coins.

Denver developed as a mining town.

Gold was discovered in Colorado in

1858. People looking for gold settled the

site of Denver. It became the capital of

the Colorado Territory in 1867. Colorado

became a U.S. state in 1876. Denver

was then made the state capital.

The people of Denver built their own

railroad line in 1870. It connected Denver

to a major rail line that crossed the

United States. The city grew as a result.

In the late 1800s more people moved to

Denver. They came to work in the area’s

silver mines. The city continued to grow

greatly during the 1900s.

..More to explore

Colorado • Gold Rush

Desert

When people think of a desert, they

usually think of a sandy, hot, and dry

place. But there are other types of

deserts as well. A desert is any large

region that gets very little rain each year.

Very few plants or animals live in desert

areas.

Features

Deserts cover about 20 percent of

Earth’s land surface. All the continents

The Civic Center is a government building

in downtown Denver, Colorado. The Rocky

Mountains lie to the west of the city.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Desert 39

have them. Deserts differ greatly in their

land features. They may include dunes

of shifting sand, mountains, bare rock,

and plains of gravel and boulders. Sand

dunes are not as common in deserts as

many people think. For example, they

make up only about 10 percent of the

Sahara of northern Africa. Some deserts

are not sandy at all.

Types of Deserts

Deserts may be hot or cold. In hot

deserts daytime temperatures are often

above 100° F (38° C) in summer. The

temperature drops sharply at night. The

Sahara is the world’s largest hot desert.

Other hot deserts include the Kalahari

in southern Africa and those in the

southwestern United States. Most hot

deserts are in the region known as the

tropics. This is a band of Earth on either

side of the equator.

Cold deserts are farther from the equator

than hot deserts. Though they are

very dry, the main reason they have few

plants is that it is so cold there. A cold

desert covers much of Antarctica. The

Gobi in Mongolia is another cold desert.

Life in a Desert

Desert plants and animals have features

that help them survive in the dry climate.

Some plants have special roots

that help them absorb the small amount

of water that is available. Cacti and yuccas

are common desert plants. Desert

animals include camels, gazelles, snakes,

lizards, and small rodents.

Few people live in deserts. Groups who

do include the Tuareg of the Sahara, the

San of the Kalahari, the Bedouins of the

Middle East and North Africa, and the

Aborigines of Australia. Many desert

dwellers live in oases. An oasis is a place

in the desert with a supply of freshwater.

..More to explore

Cactus • Gobi • Kalahari • Sahara

Des Moines

Population

(2000 census)

198,682;

(2007 estimate)

196,998

Des Moines is the capital of the U.S.

state of Iowa. The city lies along the Des

Moines and Raccoon rivers.

Des Moines is a center for manufacturing.

Factories in the city make tires, farm

machinery, and tools. Publishing, insurance,

and health care are other impor-

Most deserts get less than 10 inches (25

centimeters) of rain in a year.

40 Des Moines BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tant industries. Many people in Des

Moines work for the state government.

Before Des Moines was founded, Sauk

and Fox Indians lived in the area. In

1843 the U.S. government built Fort

Des Moines at the site. A town soon

grew around the fort.

In 1857 the Iowa state capital was

moved from Iowa City to Des Moines.

The city grew rapidly in the early 1900s.

In 1993 the Des Moines and Raccoon

rivers overflowed their banks. Much of

the city was flooded.

De Soto,

Hernando

Hernando de Soto was a Spanish soldier

and explorer. He grew rich as a trader

and conqueror in Central America and

Peru. He died, however, while looking

for more treasure in North America.

Hernando de Soto was born in Spain in

about 1496. In 1514 he traveled to the

West Indies and Central America. He

grew wealthy as a trader of Indian slaves.

In 1532 he went to South America.

There he helped conquer the wealthy

Inca Empire of Peru. De Soto returned

to Spain in 1536, rich with Inca treasure.

In 1537 the king of Spain sent De Soto

to North America. The king wanted De

Soto to conquer the land that is now

Florida. He arrived in May 1539 and

traveled through what is now the southeastern

United States. He treated the

Native Americans cruelly, trying to force

them to lead him to gold. In response,

the Native Americans frequently

attacked the Spaniards.

In 1541 De Soto and his men crossed

the Mississippi River. They were the first

Europeans to see it. De Soto died of

disease on May 21, 1542, in what is

now Louisiana. His men returned to

Spain without gold.

#More to explore

Inca • Mississippi River

Iowa’s Capitol stands on a hill in Des Moines.

Hernando de Soto

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA De Soto, Hernando 41

Dew

At dawn, tiny drops of water often

cling to grass and other plants. This

moisture is called dew. Dew forms in

the night air through a process called

condensation.

Air contains water in the form of a gas

called water vapor. In the evenings,

when warm, moist air passes over cool

surfaces, the air cools down. The water

vapor in the air begins to condense, or

form into small drops. The drops cling

to cool surfaces such as leaves, flower

petals, and grass. The temperature at

which this condensation begins to happen

is known as the dew point.

Dew usually forms on clear nights when

the air is calm. Dew can form on any

surface that is cool and exposed to the

sky. It often forms on the ground and on

plants because these things usually cool

faster than the air. For the same reason,

dew often collects on the tops of cars.

The time of night when dew begins to

form is called dewfall.

Dew can help plants if they are dry. But

damaging fungi may form on plants if

dew makes them too wet. Dew that contains

pollution is another danger. Pollution

can get into dew when the water

vapor in polluted air condenses. Like

acid rain, this polluted dew, called acid

dew, can harm living things.

..More to explore

Rain •Water

Dhaka

Population

(2006

estimate), city,

6,479,751;

urban area,

11,813,728

Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh, a

country of southern Asia. The city lies

on the Buriganga River. It is the largest

city in Bangladesh. Dhaka is a center of

industry, education, and culture.

The old section of Dhaka has many historic

buildings. The city has several hundred

mosques. The Star Mosque was

built in the 1700s. It is decorated with

twinkly tiles set in star shapes. Lalh Bagh

is an unfinished fort from the 1600s. It

includes a mosque, a tomb, and a

museum.

Many people in Dhaka work for the

government. Banking, education, health

Dew often forms on grass during cool nights. care, and construction also bring money

42 Dew BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

to the city. Factories in Dhaka make

fibers and fine cloth. Other factories

make rubber, jewelry, furniture, and

machinery.

People have lived in Dhaka since at least

the 900s. In the 1600s the Mughal

emperors of India took over the area.

They made Dhaka the capital of a province

in India. The city grew wealthy as a

center of sea trade. Many palaces and

gardens were built. In 1704 the Mughals

moved their capital to another city. This

hurt Dhaka’s economy. Great Britain

took control of the city in 1765.

Dhaka became the capital of a province

of Pakistan in 1947. In 1971 the province

became the independent country of

Bangladesh. Dhaka was made the new

country’s capital.

#More to explore

Bangladesh • Mughal Empire

Diabetes

Two different diseases are called diabetes.

Diabetes mellitus happens when

there is too much glucose in the body.

Glucose is a sugar that the body gets

from food and uses for energy. Diabetes

insipidus is a rare disease that affects the

kidneys.

Types of Diabetes

There are two major types of diabetes

mellitus. In type I the body stops making

insulin or does not make enough.

Insulin is a hormone, or chemical, that

normally controls the level of glucose in

the blood. This type of diabetes often

happens in children and teenagers. In

type II the body makes insulin but cannot

use it properly. Type II usually

occurs in adults. It is the most common

type of diabetes.

Diabetes insipidus is linked to a hormone

called vasopressin. When the body

Dhaka, Bangladesh, is one of

the world’s fastest growing

urban centers.

A woman with diabetes gives

herself a shot of insulin.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Diabetes 43

does not make vasopressin or cannot use

it, the kidneys produce too much urine.

Symptoms

Diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus

have similar symptoms. People with

either disease are often very thirsty. They

also urinate a lot. The loss of water

through urination can cause dry skin

and tiredness. Untreated diabetes mellitus

can lead to heart disease, kidney

problems, blindness, the loss of feet or

legs, and death. Untreated diabetes

insipidus can lead to low blood pressure

and shock.

Causes

Doctors do not know the exact cause of

diabetes mellitus. People who are overweight

and do not exercise seem to have

an increased risk of developing the disease.

Diabetes insipidus may be caused

by brain damage, kidney damage, or

certain drugs.

Treatment

People with type I diabetes mellitus

must have daily shots of insulin. People

with type II can usually control the disease

with a healthy diet and weight loss.

In some cases, however, medication is

needed. Doctors treat diabetes insipidus

with medications.

#More to explore

Hormone • Kidney

Diana

#see Artemis.

Dias, Bartolomeu

Bartolomeu Dias of Portugal was one of

the most important European explorers

before Christopher Columbus. He led

the first European expedition around the

southern tip of Africa. This opened the

way for sea trade between Europe and

Asia.

Bartolomeu Dias (also spelled Bartholomew

Diaz) was born in about 1450

near Lisbon, Portugal. In August 1487

Dias took three ships in search of the

southern tip of Africa. In January 1488

he passed the tip, but he did not see it. It

was very stormy at the time. After he

turned around and reached the southern

coast of Africa he realized what had happened.

Dias wanted to go on to India, but his

crew would go no farther. Upon rounding

the tip of Africa again, Dias named

it the Cape of Storms because of the

weather he had battled on the voyage

Before doctors

began to give

insulin to

people with

diabetes

mellitus in the

1920s, many

people died

soon after

developing the

disease.

Bartolomeu Dias

44 Diana BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

out. It was later renamed the Cape of

Good Hope. Dias returned to Portugal

in December 1488. In 1497 another

Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama,

continued along the same route and

reached India.

In 1500 Dias commanded a ship in an

expedition led by Pedro Alvares Cabral.

Cabral’s fleet veered far from Africa and

sighted land that turned out to be Brazil.

Dias died at the Cape of Good Hope in

May 1500, when his ship sank in a

storm.

#More to explore

Gama, Vasco da

Dickens, Charles

Charles Dickens was one of the most

famous English writers of the 1800s.

Although his books are often very funny,

they show many of the difficulties of

living in his time. His books are still

very popular today.

Charles Dickens was born on February

7, 1812, in Portsmouth, England. His

family moved to London in 1822. The

Dickens family often had money problems.

For a while Charles had to leave

school to work in a factory. He later

wrote about the difficult working conditions

he experienced.

Dickens finished school for good at age

15 and went to work. He wrote stories

and articles for magazines and newspapers.

His first novel, The Pickwick

Papers, was published in 1837.

He wrote many famous books. Oliver

Twist (1838) tells the story of an orphan

boy in London. A Christmas Carol

(1843) became one of the most popular

Christmas stories of all time. Another

novel, called David Copperfield (1850),

was based partly on Dickens’ childhood.

In many of his later books, Dickens

wrote about social problems that worried

him. For example, his book Hard

Times (1854) is about problems faced by

factory workers.

In his later years, Dickens wrote less. He

had grown tired. He published A Tale of

Two Cities in 1859. It is a novel about

the French Revolution. Great Expectations

was published from 1860 to 1861.

Dickens died on June 9, 1870.

#More to explore

Book and Bookmaking • Literature

Most of

Dickens’ novels

were first

published as

serials. They

appeared a

few chapters

at a time in a

magazine.

Charles Dickens

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dickens, Charles 45

Dictatorship

A dictatorship is a form of government

in which a person or a small group rules

with almost unlimited power. The ruler

of a dictatorship is called a dictator.

Absolute monarchs (kings) are another

type of ruler with unlimited power. But

monarchs usually inherit their position.

By contrast, dictators take power by

force or by misleading the people.

How Dictators Rule

Dictators may come to power in free

elections and gradually take over the

entire government. Or they may use

force to throw out the current ruler.

This is called a coup. When an army

commander or a group of army officers

takes power, it is called a military

dictatorship.

Once in power, dictators use the police

or the army to keep control. They often

take away people’s freedoms. In addition,

many dictators cancel or control

elections so that the people cannot vote

them out of office.

A special form of dictatorship is totalitarianism.

Totalitarian dictators control

all parts of society. Schools, businesses,

newspapers, and even the arts must follow

the government’s wishes. Anyone

who displeases the dictator may be

killed. The worst totalitarian governments

of the 1900s were those of Adolf

Hitler in Germany and Joseph Stalin in

the Soviet Union.

History

The word dictator was first used in the

ancient Roman Republic. At that time a

dictator was a temporary leader. His

great power lasted only during times of

trouble. But one Roman leader, Julius

Caesar, became dictator for life.

Dictatorships became common during

the 1800s and 1900s. In those years

many colonies of foreign nations gained

their independence. As they did so they

either became democracies or dictatorships.

Many dictatorships arose in Latin

America in the 1800s and in Africa in

the late 1900s.

#More to explore

Democracy • Government • Monarchy

Digestive System

Animals need food for energy and

growth. To use the food they eat, they

General Augusto Pinochet overthrew Chile’s

president and became dictator in 1973. He

ruled with military force.

46 Dictatorship BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

must change it into a form that the body

can use. This process is called digestion.

The different organs, or body parts, that

are involved in this process make up the

digestive system.

In humans the main organs of the digestive

system are the mouth, the esophagus,

the stomach, the small intestine,

and the large intestine. The liver and the

pancreas also help in the process of

digestion.

Mouth

Digestion begins in the mouth, where

the teeth chew the food. Glands in the

mouth produce a digestive juice called

saliva. The tongue mixes the food particles

with the saliva. The saliva moistens

and softens the food so that it can be

swallowed easily. When a person swallows

food it passes through the pharynx,

or throat, into the esophagus.

Esophagus

The esophagus is a tube that connects

the mouth to the stomach. In a process

called peristalsis, the walls of the esophagus

move in waves to push the food

down the tube to the stomach.

Stomach

In the walls of the stomach, millions of

glands produce digestive juices. The

juices contain substances called enzymes

and hydrochloric acid. These substances

help to break down the food particles.

The stomach churns the food into a

thick liquid called chyme. This process

does not take place all at once. Starch

Many organs are involved in the human

digestive system.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Digestive System 47

and sugar are easily digested, so they

remain in the stomach for only a couple

of hours. Proteins remain for three to

five hours. Fats may remain in the stomach

even longer.

Small Intestine

From the stomach, peristalsis pushes the

chyme into the small intestine. The

small intestine is the longest part of the

digestive system. Food remains in the

small intestine for several hours.

Two large glands, the liver and the pancreas,

are connected to the small intestine

by ducts, or tubes. The glands send

digestive juices to the small intestine

through these ducts. Juice from the pancreas

helps to digest carbohydrates, proteins,

and fats. The liver makes bile,

which helps to digest fat. Glands in the

small intestine also produce digestive

fluids.

All these fluids break down most of the

remains of the food into simple chemicals.

These chemicals enter the bloodstream

through the walls of the small

intestine. The blood carries the chemicals

to the body’s cells. The body then

uses those chemicals as fuel for energy

and growth.

Large Intestine

Some substances, like plant fibers, cannot

be broken down. These substances

pass from the small intestine into the

large intestine, or colon. The large intestine

is much shorter and wider than the

small intestine. The waste material

slowly moves through the colon over a

period of 10 to 20 hours.

The first section of the colon absorbs

fluids and salts. The second section

removes more water. This process turns

the waste material from a liquid to a

solid. The last section of the colon is a

A grasshopper’s digestive system is basically

a long tube divided into sections.

A frog’s digestive system has many similarities

to the human digestive system.

48 Digestive System BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

holding area for waste. From there the

waste passes out of the body through the

anus.

#More to explore

Intestines • Mouth • Stomach

Dike

#see Levee and Dike.

Dili

Population

(2004 estimate)

51,700

Dili is the capital of East Timor, a country

in Southeast Asia. East Timor takes

up the eastern part of Timor Island. Dili

has been its capital for hundreds of

years. However, East Timor was not an

independent country until 2002.

Dili is East Timor’s largest city. It is also

the country’s main port and center of

trade.

People have lived on Timor Island for

thousands of years. Portuguese settlers

founded Dili in about 1520. It became

the capital of Portugal’s colony on the

island. East Timor declared its independence

from Portugal in 1975. However,

Indonesia soon captured East Timor.

In 1999 Indonesia began preparing to

allow East Timor to become independent.

Indonesian groups that opposed

this killed hundreds of East Timor’s

people. Dili was badly damaged, but it

later began to rebuild. In 2002 East

Timor became an independent country

with Dili as its capital.

#More to explore

East Timor

Dinosaur

Dinosaurs were the main animals on

Earth for more than 150 million years.

They were lizardlike reptiles. Some of

them were the largest and scariest creatures

that ever walked on land. The

word dinosaur comes from Greek words

meaning “terrible lizard.”

The last dinosaurs became extinct, or

died out, about 65 million years ago.

Fossils of dinosaurs were first discovered

in the early 1800s. Fossils are remains or

impressions of a plant or animal that

have been preserved in rock. By studying

these fossils, scientists know that dinosaurs

were the ancient cousins of today’s

crocodiles, snakes, and lizards. Scientists

also believe that today’s birds descended

from dinosaurs.

When and Where

Dinosaurs Lived

The study of the history and physical

features of Earth is called geology. Earth

began forming about 4.6 billion years

ago. Earth underwent many changes

from then until the present. Geologists

call this vast time period geologic time.

They break geologic time into smaller

time periods. Dinosaurs lived from

about 215 to 65 million years ago. They

At least 1,000

types of dinosaur

are

known. Paleontologists

(scientists who

study fossils)

discover new

types almost

every year.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dinosaur 49

were common during the Triassic, Jurassic,

and Cretaceous geologic time periods.

Not all the species, or types, of

dinosaur lived at the same time. They

also did not all become extinct at the

same time. They died out gradually.

Dinosaurs lived throughout the world,

and their fossils have been found on

every continent. They lived in all different

kinds of environments as well, ranging

from tropical forests to dry, sandy

deserts.

Physical Features and Behavior

Dinosaurs were all different sizes. Some

dinosaurs were smaller than a chicken.

Others weighed as much as 100 tons—

more than 10 times as much as the largest

elephants.

Dinosaurs did not have any hair. Their

skin had a bumpy or pebbly surface.

Some scientists believe that dinosaurs

were gray or green in color. These

colors would have helped the dinosaurs

blend in with their surroundings. Other

scientists think that dinosaurs were very

colorful. Bright colors would have

helped males get the attention of

females.

Scientists have divided dinosaurs into

two large groups. The groups are based

on the way a dinosaur’s hip bones were

shaped. One group is the Ornithischia,

or bird-hipped dinosaurs. Members of

this group are called ornithischians. The

other is the Saurischia, or lizard-hipped

dinosaurs. Members of this group are

called saurischians.

Some dinosaurs had hip bones that resembled those of modern reptiles. Others had hip

bones that resembled those of modern birds.

50 Dinosaur BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ornithischian Dinosaurs

The ornithischians had hips shaped like

the hips of today’s birds. Despite this

similarity, however, today’s birds are not

related to the ornithischians.

The ornithischians were plant eaters.

They walked on either two or four

thick, sturdy legs. Ornithischians generally

had flat teeth to grind tough plants.

They also had an extra bone at the tip of

the lower jaw. This bone joined the two

halves of the lower jaw together. It also

helped to form a horny beak that made

it easier for the dinosaurs to bite plants.

Many of the ornithischian dinosaurs had

special features. Some, such as Triceratops,

had horns like a modern rhinoceros.

Euoplocephalus had a huge club at

the end of its tail. Stegosaurus had large,

triangular bony plates sticking out of its

back.

Saurischian Dinosaurs

The saurischians had hips that look like

the hips of today’s reptiles. But they also

had some features in common with

today’s birds. In fact, scientists believe

that the saurischians are more closely

related to birds than to some other dinosaurs.

The earliest bird, Archaeopteryx,

was a saurischian. The saurischians are

divided into the meat-eating theropods

and the plant-eating sauropods.

Theropods

The theropods include all the meateating

dinosaurs. Among them is the

fierce Tyrannosaurus rex, which weighed

as much as 8 tons. Giganotosaurus and

Spinosaurus were even larger. Theropods

walked on their two back legs. Most of

them were built to hunt. They used their

short front arms to catch and tear prey.

Their fingers and toes had long, sharp

claws. They had powerful jaws and sharp

teeth for tearing flesh.

Theropods normally hunted alone. They

caught and ate smaller, plant-eating

dinosaurs. Sometimes they hunted in

groups and attacked larger dinosaurs.

Sauropods

Sauropods were not only the largest of

all dinosaurs. They were also the largest

Plant-eating and meat-eating dinosaurs had

different mouth features.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Dinosaur 51

land animals that ever lived. Sauropods

were plant eaters that walked on four

legs. Brachiosaurus, Diplodocus, and

Apatosaurus are examples of sauropods.

Sauropods had a very small head and

brain when compared to their huge

body. But they had a long neck, which

let them reach leaves on even the tallest

trees. They had thick, strong legs, like

those of an elephant. Many sauropods

probably could stand up on their back

legs to reach even higher into the trees.

They used their long, muscular tail to

balance themselves when standing.

Some sauropods also might have used

the tail as a whiplike weapon.

Life Cycle

Most, if not all, dinosaurs laid eggs.

Some dinosaurs built large nests to keep

their babies together. Young dinosaurs

grew very fast. Many reached full size in

seven or eight years. Large dinosaurs

might have lived almost 100 years.

Extinction

The last dinosaurs died out about 65

million years ago. Scientists still do not

agree about why this happened. Some

scientists think that dinosaurs died out

because the temperature on Earth got

too hot or too cold for them. Others

The biggest dinosaurs may have been more than 130 feet (40 meters) long.

A dinosaur sits on its eggs.

52 Dinosaur BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

believe that a huge asteroid collided with

Earth. The collision could have produced

dust that blocked the sun’s heat

and light for months or even years.

Plants would have stopped growing, and

plant-eating dinosaurs would have died

from lack of food. So would have the

meat eaters that hunted them.

Some animals lived through the time

when the dinosaurs disappeared. The

ancestors of today’s frogs, turtles, lizards,

and snakes found a way to survive. Birds

also survived. Scientists do not know

why some animals lived but the dinosaurs

did not.

#More to explore

Apatosaurus • Archaeopteryx • Bird

• Brachiosaurus • Euoplocephalus

• Fossil • Geology • Reptile

• Stegosaurus • Triceratops

• Tyrannosaurus Rex

Disability

A disability is a physical or mental problem

that makes it difficult or impossible

for a person to walk, see, hear, speak,

learn, or do other important things.

Some disabilities are permanent, or last

forever. Others are temporary, or last for

only a short time. A disability can be

something a person was born with. Or it

can be the result of an illness or an accident.

A physical disability is a problem with

the body. Physical disabilities may affect

the eyes, the ears, the muscles, or the

interior organs. Some people with physical

disabilities may use wheelchairs to