Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

into solid rock. Granite and basalt are

examples of igneous rock.

Wave Rock in Australia is a formation of

granite, an igneous rock. The colored

bands are not layers but stains.

Devils Postpile in California is a

formation of basalt, an igneous

rock. Lava slowly hardened to

create the columns.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rock 75

Sedimentary rock may form from pieces

of other rock. In a process called erosion,

wind and water slowly break rock

into tiny pieces.Water washes the pieces

into rivers. They settle along the river

bottom in soft, loose layers called sediment.

Over millions of years the sediment

builds up, hardens, and becomes

solid rock. Sandstone is a sedimentary

rock that forms in this way. Sedimentary

rock also may form from the remains of

dead animals or plants. Limestone is a

sedimentary rock that is made up of the

shells and stony skeletons of certain

kinds of living things.

Metamorphic rock forms from old igneous

or sedimentary rock. Several forces

can change old rock into new metamorphic

rock. Great heat and pressure inside

Earth’s crust can shape old rock into

metamorphic rock.Water can dissolve

minerals in old rock or carry new minerals

into it to form metamorphic rock.

The heat of magma can also change old

rock into metamorphic rock. Marble

and slate are examples of metamorphic

rock.

The Rock Cycle

Rock is always being formed, worn

down into pieces, and then formed

again. This is called the rock cycle. Rock

wears down through erosion. Pieces of

rock then settle down and slowly

become sedimentary rock. If sedimentary

rock becomes deeply buried, it may

melt into magma. Then the magma may

return to the surface as igneous rock.

Deeply buried rock may also become

metamorphic rock. The rock cycle takes

many millions of years.

#More to explore

Erosion • Mineral • Sand • Soil

• Volcano

Rocket

Rockets are devices that produce the

force, or push, needed to move an object

forward. Rockets are used to launch

spacecraft. They are also used to shoot

missiles and fireworks.

Limestone, a sedimentary rock, makes good

paving blocks.

Slate is a metamorphic rock that splits off

into flat layers.

76 Rocket BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

How RocketsWork

Rockets carry fuel that is burned inside a

chamber. The fuel burns when it is

mixed with oxygen gas and ignited, or

set on fire. As the fuel burns, it gives off

hot gas that shoots out from an opening

at the back of the chamber. The force of

the gas moving backward pushes the

rocket forward. This action is called jet

propulsion.

The engines of a jet airplane also use jet

propulsion. But unlike a jet engine,

rockets carry their own oxygen supply.

This makes rockets valuable in outer

space, where there is no oxygen.

Rocket fuel can be liquid or solid. The

U.S. space shuttle uses both liquid and

solid-fuel rockets. Two solid-fuel booster

rockets launch the shuttle into space.

Three liquid-fuel rocket engines allow it

to move in and out of orbit.

History

The Chinese probably invented rockets

in the 1200s. They made rockets by

filling bamboo cases with gunpowder.

The Chinese used their rockets during

religious ceremonies and as weapons. In

the 1700s rockets were improved by

making them with metal. Rockets were

used as weapons in many wars of the

1800s and 1900s, especiallyWorldWar

II (1939–45).

In the late 1800s a Russian scientist

named Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky got

the idea that rockets could be used to

travel into space. He did not build any

rockets, but his ideas about them were

useful. Robert H. Goddard, a U.S. engineer,

built the first liquid-fuel rocket in

1925. In October 1957 the Soviet

Union used a rocket to launch the first

spacecraft, Sputnik 1, into orbit around

Earth.

#More to explore

Space Exploration •Weapon

Rock Music

Rock is a style of popular music. Since

the 1950s, rock has probably had more

fans than any other form of music.

Rock music has had many styles and

forms over the years. One thing that

most rock music has is a strong beat.

Rock almost always focuses on the

singer or singers. It often features electric

guitars along with drums, electric bass,

and sometimes piano or organ. Some

rock musicians also use saxophones,

trumpets, and other horns in their

music. Rock music styles include country

rock, heavy metal, alternative rock,

punk rock, and many others.

All speed and

distance

records—on

land, in air,

and in

space—have

been set by

rocket systems.

Rocket fuel can be liquid or solid. When the

fuel burns, it gives off gas that pushes the

rocket forward.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rock Music 77

The Early Days of Rock

Rock first appeared in the United States

in the 1950s. In the early days it was

called rock and roll. It developed from

other music styles, especially African

American popular music (called rhythm

and blues), gospel music, and country

music.

Chuck Berry was one of the first rockand-

roll singers and songwriters. Elvis

Presley was the first rock-and-roll superstar.

Other influential artists of the early

period included Little Richard, Bill

Haley, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Carl

Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Buddy

Holly. Teenagers were the biggest fans of

rock and roll. Rock-and-roll songs

expressed feelings in a way that young

people thought was powerful and truthful.

But many adults thought the music

was too wild.

Later Performers

After the late 1950s rock and roll

changed into many forms. People began

to call it simply rock music. It also

spread to other parts of the world. In the

early 1960s many British groups became

popular. These included the Beatles, the

Rolling Stones, and the Who. U.S. rock

stars of the 1960s included the Beach

Boys, Bob Dylan, Janis Joplin, the

Grateful Dead, Jimi Hendrix, and Led

Zeppelin.

Bruce Springsteen, Aerosmith, Kiss, the

Police, the Talking Heads, and the Clash

were just a few of the rock artists that

appeared in the 1970s. In the 1980s

such rock artists as Madonna, Prince,

R.E.M., Guns N’ Roses, U2, and the

Red Hot Chili Peppers became famous.

In the 1990s and early 21st century Nirvana,

Pearl Jam, Radiohead, No Doubt,

Coldplay, andWilco were some of the

top rock artists.

#More to explore

Beatles, The • Blues • Country Music

• Gospel Music • Popular Music

• Presley, Elvis

Rocky

Mountains

The Rocky Mountains are a massive

mountain range of western North

America. They are called the Rockies for

short. The Rockies include some of

North America’s highest peaks. In the

past they formed a great barrier to

explorers and settlers.

Rock musicians Lenny Kravitz (left) and

Mick Jagger perform together at an awards

ceremony.

78 Rocky Mountains BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Rockies are more than 3,000 miles

(4,800 kilometers) long. They cover

parts of the U.S. states of Montana,

Idaho, Washington, Wyoming, Utah,

Colorado, and New Mexico. In

Canada, they extend into British

Columbia, Alberta, and the Yukon and

Northwest Territories. Sometimes

Alaska’s mountains are called part of the

Rockies, too. Mount Elbert, in

Colorado, is the highest peak. It is

14,433 feet (4,399 meters) high.

Rocky Mountain forests include aspen,

white pine, Douglas fir, western hemlock,

and western red cedar trees. The

animals of the Rockies include bighorn

sheep, mountain goats, mountain lions,

American elk (wapiti), reindeer, and

grizzly bears. Bald eagles, golden eagles,

peregrine falcons, and other large birds

soar above the mountains.

The spectacular scenery of the Rockies

attracts many tourists. National parks of

the region include Yellowstone, Jasper,

Banff, Yoho, and Kootenay. The Rockies

are also rich in minerals. Mines provide

copper, gold, silver, lead, and zinc. There

are also supplies of oil, natural gas, and

coal.

Native Americans may have lived in the

Rocky Mountain region as early as

12,000 years ago. The groups of the

northern mountains included the

Kootenai, the Shoshone, the Coeur

d’Alene, and the Flathead. The Ute, the

Navajo, the Hopi, and the Pueblo lived

farther south.

The Rockies were one of the last parts of

North America to be explored by Europeans.

The rough terrain and harsh

weather made exploration difficult. In

1793 the Scottish explorer Alexander

Mackenzie crossed the Canadian Rockies.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition

The climate in the Rocky Mountains varies

widely. In summer only a short distance

may separate warm foothills from frosty

peaks.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rocky Mountains 79

crossed the Rockies in what are now

Montana and Idaho in 1805.

#More to explore

Mountain • North America

Rodent

Rodents are mammals with long, sharp

front teeth that they use for gnawing.

They are found almost everywhere in

the world. More than half the mammals

on Earth are rodents. Rats, mice, squirrels,

chipmunks, gerbils, hamsters, lemmings,

beavers, guinea pigs, and

porcupines are all rodents.

Most rodents are small. Some mice and

dormice are only 3 inches (8 centimeters)

long and weigh as little as 0.7

ounce (20 grams). The largest rodent by

far is the capybara of South America. It

can be 4 feet (1.3 meters) long and

weigh more than 100 pounds (45 kilograms).

Rodents are different from other mammals

because they have teeth that keep

growing throughout their lives. They

have one upper pair and one lower pair

of these teeth, which are called incisors.

Rodents spend much of their time

gnawing, or nibbling at, hard objects to

wear their incisors down. If the incisors

grow too long, the rodent cannot eat.

The incisors can even grow back into

the skull and kill the animal.

Rodents can be pests. They can ruin

farmers’ crops and stored grains. Their

gnawing can damage boards in houses,

barns, or even metal telephone cables.

Some rodents carry diseases that may

infect people.

But some rodents are valuable to people.

People use the fur of nutrias and chinchillas

to make clothing. They keep

hamsters, guinea pigs, and gerbils as

pets. Mice, rats, and other rodents are

useful in scientific research.

#More to explore

Beaver • Chipmunk • Gerbil • Guinea

Pig • Hamster • Lemming • Mammal

• Mouse • Porcupine • Rat • Squirrel

Roller Skating

Roller skating is a fun pastime and a

competitive sport. Roller skaters wear

shoes or boots with small wheels on the

bottom. They skate outdoors on sidewalks

and other paved areas. They also

skate indoors in buildings called rinks.

Roller-skating sports include hockey,

speed skating, figure skating, and danc-

The capybara of South America is the largest

rodent.

80 Rodent BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ing competitions. These are similar to

traditional ice-skating sports. Today

roller skaters also compete in “extreme”

sports such as vertical skating. Vertical

skaters jump from ramps and perform

tricks in the air.

Roller skates were invented in the 1760s.

Early skates were modeled on the ice

skate. They had an in-line arrangement

of wheels. This means that the wheels

formed a single straight line along the

bottom of the skate, where the blade is

on an ice skate. Skaters found it hard to

turn or stop while using these early

skates.

In 1863 James Plimpton of the United

States designed the first roller skates that

were widely used. Plimpton’s skates had

four wheels arranged in a rectangular

pattern. This design made it easier for

skaters to turn. Other changes in the late

1800s helped in braking and created a

smoother ride.

The improved skates helped to make

roller skating very popular in the early

1900s. In the 1960s plastic wheels

began to replace metal ones. The plastic

wheels gripped the skating surface

better. A new type of in-line skates,

often called Rollerblades, became

popular in the 1980s.

#More to explore

Ice Skating • Skating

Rom

A Rom is a member of the group of

people called Roma. The Roma have

traditionally been nomads, moving from

place to place. They originally came

from northern India. Today most Roma

live in Europe, especially the Czech

Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Serbia,

Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Romania.

There are about 8 to 10 million Roma

in Europe. Roma are also known as

Gypsies.

Children enjoy in-line roller skating. They

wear helmets and pads for protection from

injury.

Roma play music and dance at a festival in

the Czech Republic.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rom 81

The Rom language is called Romany.

Romany is based on Sanskrit, the

ancient language of India. Roma also

usually speak the main language of the

country in which they live.

Not all Roma are nomads. Some have

settled in cities and blended in with the

population. The Roma who are nomads

travel together in small bands. Some

travel by car and sleep in tents or trailers

at night. A few still travel and live in

caravans, or horse-drawn wagons. Sometimes

traveling Roma live for a while in

houses, apartments, and even empty

stores.

Nomadic Roma usually hold jobs that

fit in with their wandering lifestyle.

Some modern Roma make money by

fortune-telling, playing music, or selling

used cars and trailers. In the past Roma

sold livestock and helped farmers with

animal care. They also repaired pots,

pans, and other metal products.

Roma first traveled beyond northern

India in about the year 1000. They

moved into Persia (Iran) and Armenia.

They reached eastern Europe by the

1300s and western Europe by the 1400s.

By the second half of the 1900s Roma

had spread to North America, South

America, and Australia. At times Roma

have been mistreated or even killed just

because of their ethnic background.

Today some countries are working to

improve conditions for Roma.

#More to explore

Nomad

Roman

Catholicism

Roman Catholicism is the oldest and

largest branch of Christianity. There are

more than 1 billion Catholics worldwide.

The Roman Catholic church is led

by the pope. The pope rules the church

from Vatican City, which is a separate

country inside Rome, Italy.

Beliefs and Practices

Like all Christians, Catholics base their

beliefs on the Christian Bible. For

example, they believe that Jesus was the

son of God. Roman Catholics also

believe that Mary, the mother of Jesus, is

a very important holy person. Unlike

Protestant Christians, Catholics pray to

Mary. Catholics also pray to a number

of saints. Saints are men and women

who did great deeds to support the

Catholic church.

Roman Catholics generally attend a

service called Mass on Sunday mornings.

The Roma are

the largest

minority group

in Europe.

A Roman Catholic priest holds up bread

and wine during a Mass. Roman Catholics

eat bread and drink wine during a ritual

called Communion.

82 Roman Catholicism BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Catholics also perform rituals, or special

signs of their faith, called sacraments.

One sacrament is Communion. During

a Mass a priest blesses bread. Catholics

believe that the bread then turns into

Jesus’ body. At Communion Catholics

eat the bread.

History

The history of the Roman Catholic

church goes back to the beginning of

Christianity about 2,000 years ago. After

Jesus’ death, Christianity spread

throughout the Middle East and

Europe. At that time the Roman Empire

ruled these regions. At first the Romans

had their own religion, and they often

mistreated Christians. But in the AD

300s the Romans made Christianity

their main religion.

The western part of the Roman Empire

was conquered in the 400s, but Christianity

stayed strong. The city of Rome

remained the center of the church. The

leaders of the church gained more and

more power. They came to be known as

bishops. Eventually the bishop of Rome

gained the title of pope. He became the

head of the entire church. Today a special

group of bishops called cardinals

elects the pope.

After the western part of the Roman

Empire came to an end, the eastern part

continued as the Byzantine Empire. The

bishops there began to disagree with the

popes. Finally the eastern and western

parts of the church split in 1054. The

eastern part became the Eastern Orthodox

churches. The western part became

the Roman Catholic church.

The Roman Catholic church was the

most powerful organization in western

Europe for hundreds of years. At times,

however, more than one person claimed

to be the pope. From 1378 to 1417

there were rival popes at Rome and Avignon,

France. This period was called the

GreatWestern Schism.

In the 1500s people who disagreed with

church teachings began to form new

Christian churches. This movement was

called the Protestant Reformation.

Meanwhile European explorers and settlers

brought Roman Catholicism to the

Americas. Catholic missionaries (people

working to spread their religion) also

helped to spread Roman Catholicism

around the world.

#More to explore

Bible • Christianity • Pope • Rome,

Ancient

Worshippers attend mass at a Roman

Catholic church in South Africa. In the late

20th century the church gained many new

followers in Africa, Latin America, and

parts of Asia. By the early 21st century

about two thirds of all Catholics lived in

those areas.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Roman Catholicism 83

Romania

Romania is the largest country on the

Balkan Peninsula in eastern Europe.

Romania’s name came from the Roman

Empire, which ruled the region in

ancient times. Bucharest is Romania’s

capital and largest city.

Geography

Romania borders Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary,

Ukraine, and Moldova. The Black

Sea lies to the southeast.

The Carpathian Mountains run through

the northern parts of Romania. The

Carpathians surround a central region

called Transylvania. Plains cover southern

Romania. The Danube River flows

along Romania’s southern border.

Plants and Animals

The Carpathians have many forests.

Oak trees grow on the low mountain

slopes. Beech, fir, and spruce trees grow

in higher areas. Grasses and scattered

trees grow on the plains.

The goatlike chamois lives high in

Romania’s mountains. Brown bears, red

deer, wolves, foxes, wild pigs, and lynx

live in the forests. The country’s birds

include eagles, vultures, and hawks.

People

Most of the people of Romania are

Romanians. Their language, called

Romanian, has its roots in Latin—the

language of the Roman Empire. The

country has smaller groups of Hungarians,

Roma (Gypsies), Germans, and

Ukrainians. Most Romanians are Eastern

Orthodox Christians. More than

half of the population lives in cities or

towns.

Economy

Services—including banking,

communications, and health care—are

Mountains and rolling hills cover large

parts of Romania.

84 Romania BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

a major part of Romania’s economy.

Manufacturing, mining, and logging are

also important. Factories make

machines, fuels, steel, chemicals, and

clothing. Mines provide coal, natural

gas, and oil.

Many Romanians still live by farming.

Crops include wheat, corn, potatoes,

and sugar beets. Romanians also grow

grapes to make wine. The main livestock

are sheep and pigs.

History

The region that is now Romania was

known as Dacia in ancient times. The

Roman Empire ruled Dacia from AD

106 until the late 200s. Over the next

800 years Goths, Huns, Slavs, and other

peoples invaded Dacia. In the 1000s the

Hungarians took over what is now Transylvania.

The Formation of Romania

In the early 1300s the people south of

the Carpathian Mountains formed a

state called Walachia. The people east of

the Carpathians formed a state called

Moldavia.Walachia and Moldavia were

the first Romanian states.

In 1859Walachia and Moldavia elected

a single prince to rule both of them. The

two states became the independent state

of Romania. Romania gained Transylvania

from Hungary in 1918.

Communist Rule

The Soviet Union took control of

Romania duringWorldWar II (1939–

45). The Soviets helped to set up a

Communist government in Romania by

1948. The Communist leader Nicolae

Ceausescu ruled harshly during the

1970s and 1980s. In 1989 Communist

governments in neighboring countries

began to collapse. That December the

Romanian military executed Ceausescu.

Modern Romania

Romania held free elections in 1990.

The new leaders worked to improve the

economy.

..More to explore

Balkan Peninsula • Bucharest

Romanian dancers perform at a folk festival. • Communism • Moldova

Sheep graze near a castle in Romania.

Facts About

ROMANIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

21,508,000

Area

92,043 sq mi

(238,391 sq km)

Capital

Bucharest

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Bucharest, Iasi,

Cluj-Napoca,

Timisoara, Constanta,

Craiova

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Romania 85

Roman

Numerals

Roman numerals are a system for representing

numbers with letters of the

Latin, or Roman, alphabet. The system

dates back about 2,000 years, to the

time of ancient Rome. Roman numerals

have been mostly replaced by Arabic

numbers (1, 2, 3…).

How Roman NumeralsWork

The Roman numeral system uses seven

letters as numerals: I = 1; V = 5; X = 10;

L = 50; C = 100; D = 500; M = 1,000.

The numerals can be written as either

capital or lowercase letters. A bar over a

numeral multiplies its value by 1,000:

for example, V = 5,000 and X = 10,000.

When a numeral is followed by one of

equal or lesser value, their values are

added together: II = 2; VI = 6; CLV =

155. This system could create very long

numbers if numerals could be repeated

without limit (for example, IIII or

CCCC). To avoid this problem, the

system uses subtraction within the numbers.

A numeral is never used more than

three times in a row. Instead of repeating

the numeral a fourth time, the value is

expressed by a smaller numeral followed

by a larger numeral. The smaller

numeral is subtracted from the larger

one. For example, instead of IIII, the

number 4 is written as IV (5 . 1). The

number 400 is written as CD (500 .

100).

Only certain combinations of numerals

are used in this way. For instance, 1,999

is written in Roman numerals as

MCMXCIX rather than MIM. This

number breaks down as follows: M

(1,000) + CM (900) + XC (90) + IX (9).

The number 2,000 is written MM;

2,001 is MMI; 2,002 is MMII; 2,003 is

MMIII; 2,004 is MMIV; and 2,005 is

MMV.

Using Roman Numerals

People generally find Arabic numbers

easier to use than Roman numerals. But

Roman numerals are still used decoratively

on some clocks and watches. They

are used to indicate dates on monuments

and buildings. They are also used

to number the front pages of books.

Kings, queens, and popes who have the

same name often put Roman numerals

after their name.

#More to explore

Numbers and Number Systems • Rome,

Ancient

Roman numerals are often used

on clocks.

86 Roman Numerals BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rome

Population

(2007 estimate)

2,705,603;

urban area,

3,339,000

Rome is the capital of Italy, a country in

southern Europe. In ancient times it was

the capital of the mighty Roman

Empire. Today the city is a center of

culture and tourism. People from all

over the world travel to Rome to see its

historic monuments and art treasures.

Rome lies on the Tiber River. It was

built on seven hills. Rome surrounds

Vatican City, the center of Roman

Catholicism. Vatican City has been an

independent country since 1929.

Places of Interest

Rome is filled with notable palaces,

churches, and public squares called piazzas.

The city also has more than 300

public fountains. Museums such as the

Borghese Gallery display famous works

of art.

The remains of many ancient monuments

still stand in Rome. The Colosseum

was an outdoor arena with rings of

seats. Fighters called gladiators fought

fierce battles there. The buildings of the

Roman Forum were the center of public

life in ancient Rome. Ancient art can

also be seen in the Capitoline Museums.

Economy

The economy of Rome is largely based

on government and tourism. Other

leading industries include construction,

publishing, and services such as banking

and trade. The city also has some manufacturing.

History

People settled in the Rome area more

than 2,700 years ago. In the 500s BC the

city became a state called a republic.

Soon Rome began taking over other

lands. By the 1st century AD the republic

had become a huge and powerful

empire. Rome was the capital of the

Roman Empire until AD 330.

In the 500s the pope—the leader of the

Roman Catholic church—began taking

control of Rome and the surrounding

area. The popes ruled Rome for hundreds

of years.

In the 1400s and 1500s Rome was a

center of the artistic movement called

the Renaissance. Great artists created

Trevi Fountain is one of the most famous

sights in Rome, Italy. A legend says that

visitors who throw a coin into the fountain

will return to Rome one day.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rome 87

buildings, paintings, and sculptures

throughout the city.

In 1861 the Kingdom of Italy was

created. But the pope still ruled Rome.

In 1870 Italian troops marched into

Rome. The city then became the capital

of Italy.

#More to explore

Gladiator • Italy • Renaissance • Roman

Catholicism • Rome, Ancient • Vatican

City

Rome, Ancient

The ancient city of Rome was the center

of one of the largest and most powerful

empires the world has ever seen. The

Roman Empire was based in what is

now Italy.With its great army, it conquered

other lands and peoples around

the Mediterranean Sea. The empire

spread across Europe and into western

Asia and northern Africa.

Roman Culture

Ancient Rome made many lasting contributions

to world culture. But the

Romans also absorbed the culture of the

peoples they conquered. For instance,

the Romans took many ideas about art

from the ancient Greeks. Romans also

worshipped many Greek gods, which

they gave new names. Later, Rome

adopted Christianity, a religion from the

Middle East.

Painting, sculpture, and other forms of

art were important to the Romans.

Architects built huge buildings that were

central to Roman life, including the

Colosseum.

88 Rome, Ancient BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Roman writers wrote history, comedy,

tragedy, and poetry. From Latin, the

ancient Roman language, many other

languages later developed. These languages,

known as the Romance languages,

include French, Spanish,

Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian.

People today use the Latin alphabet to

write these and otherWestern languages,

including English.

History

Kingdom

According to legend, twin brothers

named Romulus and Remus founded

Rome in 753 BC. Shortly before 600 BC,

warriors from Etruria, a region north of

Rome, attacked the city. The warriors,

called Etruscans, conquered Rome.

Rome grew steadily under Etruscan

kings. In about 509 BC the Romans

forced the last Etruscan king out of the

city. Rome then became a republic. This

meant that the Roman people elected

the government.

Republic

The most important Roman leaders

were called consuls. There were two consuls.

Assemblies, or groups, of adult

male Roman citizens chose both consuls.

At first the consuls had to be patricians,

or members of upper-class families.

An important group called the Senate

gave advice to the consuls. The members,

called senators, were patricians.

They met in a public building called the

Forum. The Senate grew more powerful

over the years.

Most Romans were not patricians but

plebeians, or common people. The plebeians

staged an uprising in 494 BC.

They gradually won more power. By

367 BC one of the two consul positions

was set aside for the plebeians.

Rome suffered some setbacks as it slowly

expanded its territory. In about 390 BC a

northern group called the Gauls took

over the city. They would not leave until

the Romans paid them a large amount

of gold. Another group called the Samnites

defeated the Romans in 321 BC. In

general, however, Rome’s conquests

could not be stopped. By 275 BC Rome

had forced the Greeks to give up their

colonies in Italy.

By 260 BC Rome’s last remaining rival in

the western Mediterranean was the city

of Carthage, in North Africa. For more

The ancient Romans created many designs

called mosaics out of tiny tiles. The ones

that survived show what everyday life was

like in ancient Rome.

The Appian

Way was a

famous

ancient Roman

road. It went

to southern

Italy and was

paved with

stone blocks. It

was about

360 miles

(580 kilometers)

long.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rome, Ancient 89

than a century the Romans fought

Carthage for power. It took three wars—

called the PunicWars—before the

Roman forces totally destroyed Carthage

in 146 BC.

Rome then turned to other areas,

including Sicily, Spain, Macedonia,

Greece, and Asia Minor (now Turkey).

Governors called proconsuls managed

most of the conquered lands. They had

great power. The Romans taxed the conquered

people heavily. They also

enslaved many conquered people.

Empire

In about 133 BC Rome entered a period

of unrest and civil war. Peoples in Italy

rebelled against Rome’s strict rule in 90

BC. During 73–71 BC a gladiator, or

professional fighter, named Spartacus led

an army of runaway slaves in a war

against Rome. Rome defeated both of

these rebellions.

Meanwhile, Rome continued to expand

its empire. The most successful general

was Julius Caesar. He won victories in

far-off areas and then took power in

Rome. However, his enemies assassinated

him in 44 BC. This set off another

period of civil war.

Peace finally came under the leadership

of Julius Caesar’s grandnephew Octavian.

Octavian defeated his rivals for

power, including the Roman general

Mark Antony and the Egyptian queen

Cleopatra, by 30 BC. He was crowned

Rome’s first emperor in 27 BC. He

became known as Augustus Caesar.

Two centuries of peace and progress

followed. The empire’s frontiers

expanded all the way to Britain and the

Arabian Peninsula. The Romans built

roads, bridges, and aqueducts, or water

pipes, throughout their vast empire.

They also brought their laws to conquered

lands.

The emperor Tiberius ruled from AD 14

to 37. During this time the Roman government

in Palestine put Jesus to death.

Some of Jesus’ followers, called Christians,

later set up a community in

Rome. At first the Romans did not agree

with the Christian religion. They mistreated

and killed many Christians. But

in AD 312 the emperor Constantine I

became a Christian himself. Christianity

eventually became the main religion of

the Roman Empire.

Downfall

By this time, the empire was weakening.

Constantine believed he could

The Colosseum was completed in AD 82. It

was the scene of many public gatherings

almost 2,000 years ago. Much of it still

stands in the city of Rome.

90 Rome, Ancient BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

strengthen the empire if he moved its

center away from Rome. In 330 he created

a new capital in the Greek colony

of Byzantium. He renamed the city

Constantinople.

After the death of the emperor Theodosius

I in 395, the Roman Empire split in

two. The Eastern Roman Empire was

based in Constantinople. The Western

Roman Empire was based in Rome.

Several groups of outside peoples,

including the Vandals and the Huns,

attacked the western empire. A group

called the Visigoths attacked the city of

Rome in 410. The last western emperor

fell in 476. This brought an end to the

Western Roman Empire. The eastern

empire continued as the Byzantine

Empire until 1453.

#More to explore

Augustus • Byzantine Empire • Caesar,

Julius • Carthage • Christianity

• Empire • Greece, Ancient • Rome

Roosevelt,

Eleanor

Eleanor Roosevelt was married to Franklin

D. Roosevelt, who was president of

the United States from 1933 to 1945.

She was widely respected for her many

activities as first lady. Later she worked

at the United Nations helping people

around the world.

Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born on

October 11, 1884, in New York City.

She grew up in a wealthy family that

valued community service. Eleanor was

the niece of Theodore Roosevelt, the

26th president of the United States. In

1905 she married Franklin Roosevelt,

her distant cousin.

DuringWorldWar I (1914–18) Eleanor

worked for the Red Cross. Later she

taught at a girls’ school that she partly

owned. In the 1920s Eleanor became

active in politics.

Franklin D. Roosevelt became president

in 1933. He had a disability that made it

hard for him to travel. Eleanor crisscrossed

the country in his place. She

talked to people from all walks of life

and reported back to the president. She

defended the rights of African Americans,

youth, women, and the poor.

During the 1930s the United States was

struggling through the Great Depression.

President Roosevelt tried to end

the country’s economic problems with a

group of government programs called

the New Deal. Eleanor organized a New

Eleanor Roosevelt

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Roosevelt, Eleanor 91

Deal program called the National Youth

Administration. It created jobs for millions

of college students.

Franklin Roosevelt died in 1945, but

Eleanor Roosevelt remained active. In

1945 she became a U.S. representative at

the United Nations. There she worked

to protect human rights. She also wrote

books, magazine articles, and newspaper

columns. She died in New York City on

November 7, 1962.

#More to explore

Human Rights • New Deal • Roosevelt,

Franklin D. • United Nations

Roosevelt,

Franklin D.

Franklin D. Roosevelt served for 12

years as the 32nd president of the

United States. He was elected four times

beginning in 1932. Roosevelt led the

country through two of the greatest crises

of the 20th century: the Great

Depression andWorldWar II.

Early Life

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on

January 30, 1882, in Hyde Park, New

York. He was the only child of wealthy

parents, James and Sara Delano

Roosevelt. In 1900 he enrolled at Harvard

University. While there he became

engaged to Eleanor Roosevelt, a distant

cousin and the niece of President Theodore

Roosevelt. The couple married in

1905 and had six children. After graduating

from Harvard, Franklin attended

Columbia University Law School. He

then worked as a clerk for a New York

law firm.

Political Career

In 1910 Roosevelt was elected as a

Democrat to the New York Senate. In

1912 President WoodrowWilson made

Roosevelt assistant secretary of the Navy.

DuringWorldWar I (1914–18)

Roosevelt helped lead the Navy to victory

over German sea forces. In 1920

Roosevelt ran for vice president, but the

Democrats lost the election.

In 1921 Roosevelt caught poliomyelitis,

a disease that paralyzed him from the

waist down. In later years he could walk

a little using a cane and leg braces, but

he usually used a wheelchair.

In 1928 and again in 1930 Roosevelt

was elected governor of New York. As

the Great Depression began, Roosevelt

introduced programs to help people

without jobs.

Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd president

of the United States.

92 Roosevelt, Franklin D. BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Presidency

The Democratic Party chose Roosevelt

to run for president in 1932.With the

depression worsening, Roosevelt promised

a “new deal” for millions of poor

people. He won an easy victory over his

Republican opponent, President Herbert

Hoover.

By the time Roosevelt took office in

March 1933, about 13 million people

were unemployed in the United States.

Roosevelt began his New Deal programs

by making sure banks did not go out of

business and by creating work for the

jobless. In 1935 he asked Congress to

pass the Social Security Act, which provided

money to people who were unemployed,

disabled, or elderly.

Roosevelt easily won reelection in 1936.

By the time he began his second term in

1937, the economy had greatly

improved. By 1938 the New Deal was

coming to a close.

In 1939 WorldWar II began in Europe.

In a special session called by Roosevelt,

Congress agreed to send weapons to

Great Britain and France. In 1940

Roosevelt became the first U.S. president

to run for and win a third term.

OnDecember 7, 1941, Japan bombed a

U.S. military base in PearlHarbor,

Hawaii. The surprise attack brought the

United States into the war. It joined

Britain against Japan, Germany, and Italy.

Roosevelt worked with British leader

Winston Churchill to plan the war

effort. Later, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin

joined them. Roosevelt and other world

leaders also began planning the United

Nations, a new organization to maintain

world peace. Roosevelt won election to a

fourth term in 1944.

Death

On April 12, 1945, Roosevelt died while

resting at his cottage inWarm Springs,

January 30, February April 12,

1882 1929 1932 1933 1941 1945 1945

Roosevelt is

born in Hyde

Park, New

York.

The Great

Depression

begins while

Roosevelt is

governor of

New York.

Roosevelt is

elected to the

first of his four

presidential

terms.

Roosevelt

launches the

New Deal.

The United

States enters

World War II.

Roosevelt meets

with British and

Soviet leaders

to plan the end

of the war.

Roosevelt dies

in office.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Roosevelt, Franklin D. 93

Georgia. Vice President Harry S. Truman

became president.Within five

monthsWorldWar II ended.

#More to explore

Great Depression • New Deal • Truman,

Harry S. • United Nations • United

States •WorldWar II

Roosevelt,

Theodore

Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th president

of the United States. He took office

after the assassination of PresidentWilliam

McKinley in 1901. Roosevelt made

the United States a strong presence in

international affairs.

Early Life

Theodore Roosevelt was born in New

York City on October 27, 1858. He was

the second of four children born into a

wealthy family. Sickly as a boy, he later

developed a strong body through exercise.

He enjoyed hunting and ranching.

Roosevelt graduated from Harvard College

in 1880. After briefly studying law,

he won a seat in the New York legislature

as a Republican.

In 1880 Roosevelt married Alice Hathaway

Lee, with whom he had a daughter.

His wife died in 1884, and in 1886 he

married Edith Kermit Carow. They had

five children.

Military and Political Career

In 1897 President McKinley made

Roosevelt assistant secretary of the Navy.

During the Spanish-AmericanWar in

1898 Roosevelt organized a unit of volunteer

fighters. Known as the Rough

Riders, the unit fought successfully in

Cuba.

Roosevelt was a national hero after the

war. He became governor of New York

in 1898. In 1900 he won election as vice

president under President McKinley. On

September 14, 1901, McKinley died

after being shot by an assassin. Roosevelt

became president. In 1904 he won election

to a full term.

Presidency

Roosevelt worked for peaceful relations

between businesses and workers—a program

he called the Square Deal. He also

worked to prevent big companies from

putting smaller companies out of business.

Groups of big companies were

called trusts, so Roosevelt became

known as a “trust-buster.” Roosevelt also

Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th president

of the United States.

94 Roosevelt, Theodore BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

asked Congress to pass acts against the

sale of contaminated food and drugs.

In addition, Roosevelt wanted to protect

the country’s natural resources. He set

aside lands as national forests, which

then became off-limits to companies

looking for lumber, minerals, or water.

Congress created the Forest Service in

1905 to oversee the national forests.

In foreign affairs Roosevelt said his

policy was to “speak softly and carry a

big stick.” He meant that the United

States should deal fairly with other

countries but also be ready to protect

its interests. For example, in 1903

Roosevelt helped Panama gain

independence from Colombia. In

exchange, he demanded a piece of land.

Afterward the United States began

building the Panama Canal through

that land.

Furthermore, Roosevelt expanded the

Monroe Doctrine. In 1823 President

James Monroe had said that Europe

should not become involved in the

Americas. Roosevelt added that the

United States would police the countries

of Latin America to make sure they fulfilled

their agreements with other countries.

Later Years

After leaving office in 1909, Roosevelt

traveled to Africa and Europe. In 1912

he founded the Progressive Party and

ran for president as its candidate. Both

he and PresidentWilliam Howard Taft

lost to the Democratic candidate,WoodrowWilson.

After that defeat Roosevelt

wrote his autobiography and traveled to

Brazil. Before Republicans could nominate

him for president in 1920,

Roosevelt died in New York on January

6, 1919.

#More to explore

McKinley,William • Panama Canal

• Spanish-AmericanWar • Taft,William

Howard • United States

October 27, January 6,

1858 1898 1901 1905 1909 1912 1919

Roosevelt is

born in New

York City.

Roosevelt and

the Rough

Riders fight in

the Spanish-

American War.

Roosevelt

becomes

president after

President

William

McKinley dies.

Roosevelt

pushes

Congress to

create the

Forest Service.

Roosevelt

leaves office.

Roosevelt runs

for president

with his new

Progressive

Party but loses.

Roosevelt dies

in New York.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Roosevelt, Theodore 95

Root

A root is a part of a plant that is usually

hidden underground. Roots have several

purposes. They hold the plant in the

ground and keep it upright. They take

water and food from the soil. They also

store food for the plant.

There are two main kinds of roots:

taproots and fibrous roots. A taproot is

a long, thick root that points straight

down. Smaller roots can grow out of its

sides. Plants with taproots include

carrots and dandelions. Fibrous roots

are made up of many small roots, all

about the same size. The small roots

grow out in many directions from the

base of the stem. Grasses have fibrous

root systems.

A few plants can grow roots aboveground.

Corn, for example, may grow

roots out of its lower stem. Called aerial

roots, they help to prop up the plant.

The end of a root is called the root tip.

It makes new cells so that the root can

grow. It has a cap that protects the root

as it pushes through the soil. Above the

root tip, on the outside of the root, root

hairs take in water and nutrients. The

water and nutrients move through a

layer called the cortex on their way to

the center of the root. The cortex also

stores the plant’s extra food. At the center

of the root are tissues that carry water

and food between the roots and the rest

of the plant.

Damage to the roots will harm or kill a

plant. If roots or root hairs are cut, the

plant may not be able to get enough

nutrients. Roots that dry out may never

be able to absorb water again. If the soil

is packed too tightly, roots cannot grow.

#More to explore

Carrot • Corn • Dandelion • Grass

Each part of a root has a role in keeping

the plant healthy.

Grass has fibrous roots. A sugar beet has a

fleshy taproot.

96 Root BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rose

Roses are flowers with a rich scent.

There are about 100 species, or types, of

rose plant. They belong to the rose family

of plants, called Rosaceae. Most roses

grown in gardens and sold by florists are

hybrid tea roses.

Roses grow almost all over the world.

The plants grow in the form of shrubs

or vines. The stems usually have sharp

thorns.

The flowers vary in color and size. They

come in shades of pink, red, orange,

yellow, and white. They may be from

0.5 inch (1.3 centimeters) to 7 inches

(18 centimeters) across.Wild roses usually

have five petals. Roses grown by

people often have many sets of petals.

The petals grow out from a fleshy, fruitlike

structure known as a hip.

Roses make beautiful decorations. But

roses have other uses besides being

pretty. People use the fragrant oil from

rose blossoms in perfumes. They also use

rose hips to make jams and herbal teas.

Rose hips are a rich source of vitamin C.

..More to explore

Flower • Plant

Roseau

Population

(2006 estimate)

16,600

Roseau is the capital and largest town of

Dominica, an island country in the Caribbean

Sea. Roseau lies on the island’s

southwestern coast, near the Roseau

River.

Roseau has an attractive waterfront with

a harbor and a dock for cruise ships.

Waterfalls and hot springs can be found

in and around the town. Roseau also has

a botanical garden and a cultural

museum.

Dominica’s economy is based on farming

and tourism. Bananas, coconut oil,

and soaps are exported from Roseau.

Many of the town’s people work in

hotels or restaurants.

France and Great Britain fought for control

of Dominica for hundreds of years.

In 1805 French troops burned much of

Roseau. In 1978 Dominica became an

independent country with Roseau as its

Rose plants are grown in many gardens for

their beautiful flowers.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Roseau 97

capital. A hurricane struck a year later. It

caused great damage.

#More to explore

Dominica

Rosh Hashana

Rosh Hashana is the start of the religious

new year for followers of Judaism.

To Jewish people, it also marks the anniversary

of the creation of the world.

Rosh Hashana means “beginning of the

year” in the Hebrew language. Festive

gatherings with family and friends are a

tradition during this holiday. Also traditional

are meals that feature sweet foods.

The holiday is celebrated during the first

two days of the Hebrew calendar month

of Tishri. The holiday falls either in September

or in early October. Rosh Hashana

begins a 10-day period called the

High Holy Days, or the Days of Awe,

that ends on Yom Kippur.

Rosh Hashana is a joyous holiday, but it

also is a serious one.Work is not allowed

on the holiday. Most of the day is spent

praying in the synagogue, the Jewish

house of worship. The service at the

synagogue includes the sounding of the

shofar, a trumpet made of a ram’s horn.

During Rosh Hashana people take time

to review the mistakes they made in the

past year. They also plan the changes

they hope to make in the new year.

#More to explore

Judaism • Yom Kippur

Ross, Betsy

Legend says that Betsy Ross sewed the

first flag of the United States in 1776.

The flag was known as the Stars and

Stripes.

Elizabeth, or Betsy, Griscom was born

on January 1, 1752, in Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania. She attended a Quaker (a

type of Christian) school. She married

John Ross in 1773. The couple worked

together in an upholstery business that

he started. John died in 1776.

The Roman Catholic cathedral is one of the

main buildings of Roseau, Dominica.

Jews pray and blow on the shofar (a type of

horn) during Rosh Hashana in Jerusalem,

Israel.

98 Rosh Hashana BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

There is no solid proof that Betsy Ross

sewed the first U.S. flag. But most

people accept the following story as true.

In 1776 a secret committee of three

people, including GeorgeWashington,

asked Ross to sew a flag. The flag was to

have 13 stars and 13 stripes, to stand for

the 13 American colonies. Ross suggested

that the stars have five points

instead of six, asWashington had chosen.

She showed the men that it was easy

to make a five-pointed star by folding a

piece of cloth and making just one cut.

Ross then made the flag at her house.

Whether this story is true or false, in

1777 the United States accepted the

Stars and Stripes as its new flag.

Ross married and then lost two more

husbands. She continued with her

upholstery business until she was 75.

She died in Philadelphia on January 30,

1836.

#More to explore

American Revolution • United States

•Washington, George

Rowling, J.K.

British writer J.K. Rowling is the creator

of the character Harry Potter. Her books

and movies about the boy wizard are

popular with children and adults

throughout the world.

Joanne Rowling was born on July 31,

1965, in Chipping Sodbury, England.

She first thought up Harry Potter in

1990 during a long train delay. But she

had trouble producing a book about

him. She was a busy single mother. She

had to write by hand because she could

not afford a typewriter or a computer.

In 1997 she finally published the first

book about Harry Potter. It appeared in

the United Kingdom as Harry Potter and

the Philosopher’s Stone. It was published

in the United States in 1998 as Harry

A painting shows Betsy Ross displaying the

first U.S. flag to George Washington (left)

and other patriots.

Author J.K. Rowling signs one of her Harry

Potter books.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rowling, J.K. 99

Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. Rowling

did not want boys to know the author

was a woman, so she used initials.

(Rowling does not have a middle name,

so she chose “K” in honor of her grandmother

Kathleen.)

Other successful Harry Potter books

followed. Movie versions of the books

began coming to theaters in 2001.

#More to explore

Book and Bookmaking • Literature for

Children

Rubella

Rubella is a disease that is also known as

German measles or three-day measles. A

germ known as a virus causes rubella.

The rubella virus passes from person to

person through coughing and sneezing.

The virus that causes rubella is not the

same virus that causes regular measles.

Rubella is not usually a serious disease.

However, pregnant women with rubella

may pass the virus to their unborn children.

Infected children may be born

with deafness, heart defects, vision problems,

or other disabilities.

A rubella infection begins with a fever.

The throat and the glands at the back of

the neck may be sore. After one or two

days a rash begins on the face and spreads

downward. The spots of the rash are

either pink or light red. The spots may be

so close together that they look like

patches. The rash lasts about three days.

Rubella is usually a mild illness that does

not require medical treatment. Patients

with rubella should rest and take pain

medication if a doctor recommends it.

Scientists developed a vaccine for rubella

in 1969. (A vaccine is a substance that

prevents people from getting a certain

disease.) Rubella is now rare in the

United States. Most children get a vaccination

that protects them against

rubella, measles, and mumps.

#More to explore

Measles • Mumps • Virus

Rudolph,Wilma

Wilma Rudolph was an outstanding

athlete in track and field events. She was

the first U.S. woman to win three gold

medals in a single Olympics. People

called her the world’s fastest woman.

Wilma Glodean Rudolph was born on

June 23, 1940, near Clarksville, Tennessee.

As a childWilma had many illnesses,

including polio. This disease

made her unable to walk without a leg

The red rash of rubella can be seen on a

person’s arm.

100 Rubella BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

brace or a special shoe. By age 12, however,

she could walk normally.

Rudolph became a graceful yet powerful

sprinter. She won a bronze medal at the

1956 Olympics. She won her three gold

medals at the 1960 Olympics. She set

world records in the 100- and 200-meter

dashes and in the 4 . 100-meter relay.

After these victories Rudolph’s hometown

of Clarksville planned a welcomehome

parade for her. Rudolph, who was

African American, refused to participate

unless blacks and whites could attend

the event together. This was the first

time that both races had gathered

together in Clarksville.

Rudolph retired from running in 1962.

She later became a track coach and a

national sports commentator. She died

on November 12, 1994, in Brentwood,

Tennessee.

#More to explore

Olympic Games • Track and Field

Rug and Carpet

Rugs and carpets are thick textiles, or

pieces of cloth, that people use as floor

coverings. They are often decorative as

well as useful. The term rug usually

means a floor covering that is not fastened

down and does not cover the

entire floor. Carpet usually means a floor

covering that is fastened down and covers

the entire floor.

Most rugs and carpets are made by

weaving together two sets of yarn. One

set stretches from top to bottom. The

other set goes from side to side. The

yarn is made of wool, nylon, or other

fibers. Many rugs and carpets have a

raised surface called pile. The pile may

be made of loops of yarn. Or it may be

made of strands of yarn that stick up

from the carpet backing. Flat-woven

rugs have intersecting strands of yarn

but no pile.

Today many rugs and carpets are made

on machines that can produce them

quickly and inexpensively. But for thou-

Wilma Rudolph wins the women’s 100-

meter dash in the 1960 Olympics.

Colorful rugs line the walls and floor of a

tent in Kazakhstan.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rug and Carpet 101

outs, and play rarely stops. The game

starts with a kickoff—one team kicks

the ball to the other team. The two

teams then move up and down the field

as they gain and lose control of the ball.

The players may catch the ball, throw it,

or run with it. Teammates may pass the

ball to each other either sideways or

backwards. They may not pass the ball

forward. Players may also kick the ball.

The two ways of scoring points in rugby

are called tries and goals. A player scores

a try by touching the ball to the ground

behind the opponent’s goal line. A

player scores a goal by kicking the ball

over the crossbar between the opponent’s

goalposts.

After a try, the scoring team can kick a

type of goal called a conversion goal.

During play, a player scores a dropped

goal by dropping the ball and kicking it

after it bounces. A team can score a penalty

goal after the other team breaks the

rules.

Rugby Union and Rugby League award

different numbers of points for tries and

goals. In both versions, however, a try is

worth more points than a goal.

As in American football, the team

defending its goal tries to tackle the

opponent who is carrying the ball. One

type of tackle forces the player to the

ground. Another type happens when the

player is stopped and held motionless.

The scrum, or scrummage, is a unique

feature of rugby. It is a way to put the

ball in play. Six or eight players from

each team link their arms and bend forward

to form a tightly packed group.

The ball is dropped between the two

teams. The players use their feet to try to

get control of the ball.

History

According to legend, rugby began at

Rugby School in England in 1823. During

a soccer game, a student named WilliamWebb

Ellis picked up the ball with

his hands and ran with it. This went

against the rules of soccer, which ban the

use of the hands. But it led to the creation

of rugby.

A group of English teams formed the

Rugby Football Union (RFU) in 1871.

The RFU wrote rules for the game. In

1895 more than 20 teams left the RFU.

They set their own rules. The league

they created is now known as the Rugby

Football League. The different versions

of the game came to be known as Rugby

Union and Rugby League.

#More to explore

Football • Soccer • Sports

Players in a scrum struggle for the ball.

The ancient

game called

harpastum is

like rugby.

Romans introduced

it to

Great Britain

in about AD

400.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rugby 103

Russia

Russia has been a powerful country

throughout its history. In the 1900s it

was the center of the Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics. Today Russia is the

largest country in the world. The capital

of Russia is Moscow.

Geography

Russia stretches from eastern Europe to

the Pacific Ocean. On the west Russia

borders the Baltic Sea, Norway, Finland,

Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, and Ukraine.

The small Russian province of Kaliningrad

lies apart from the rest of Russia,

between Lithuania and Poland. To the

southwest of Russia are the Black and

Caspian seas, Georgia, and Azerbaijan.

South of Russia are Kazakhstan, Mongolia,

China, and North Korea. The Arctic

Ocean lies to the north. Several large

islands in the Arctic and Pacific oceans

also belong to Russia.

Russia lies partly in Europe and partly in

Asia. The low Ural Mountains are the

dividing line. European Russia is a broad

plain with scattered hills. South of the

plain are the Caucasus Mountains. Asian

Russia contains the large region called

Siberia. Siberia includes a plain and a

plateau, or area of flat, raised land.

Northeastern Russia has mountain

chains and volcanoes.

The most important river in European

Russia is the Volga. Many other rivers

run through Siberia. In general, Russia

has warm summers and very cold, snowy

winters.

Plants and Animals

A treeless region called tundra lies along

Russia’s northern coast. Only mosses,

lichens, and grasses grow in the tundra.

South of the tundra is the taiga, an area

104 Russia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

of evergreen forests. The taiga stretches

across most of Siberia. In European Russia

there are forests of ash, spruce, hazel,

oak, and other trees. An area of grassland,

called the steppe, covers southern

Russia.

Animals in the tundra include reindeer,

Arctic foxes, and musk oxen. The taiga is

home to sables, squirrels, foxes, elk, and

bears. Marmots, skunks, and wolves are

common on the steppe.

People

About 80 percent of the people are Russians.

The largest minority groups are

the Tatars and the Ukrainians. Most of

the population speaks Russian. Most

people live in cities. Moscow is the largest

city by far.

About one third of the people follow no

religion. About half of the people are

Eastern Orthodox Christians. There are

smaller groups of Muslims, Protestants,

and Jews.

Economy

Most Russian workers work in services,

including banking, science and technology,

education, and transportation.

International trade is also a large part of

the economy.

Russia’s factories produce metals,

machinery, cement, chemicals, motor

vehicles, military equipment, and other

goods. Russia is also a top producer of

coal, oil, and natural gas. Its mines provide

iron ore, copper, nickel, zinc, and

other minerals. The large forests supply

wood.

Farmers in Russia grow mainly grains,

including wheat, barley, rye, and oats.

Other crops include potatoes, sugar

beets, corn, and sunflower seeds. Cattle,

pigs, and sheep are the main livestock.

Fishing is another important source of

food.

History

People have lived in what is now Russia

for thousands of years. The East Slavs

Winter weather is severe in

many parts of Russia.

Most of Russia’s people live in cities. But

small towns and farms can be found

throughout the country.

Facts About

RUSSIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

141,841,000

Area

6,592,800 sq mi

(17,075,400 sq

km)

Capital

Moscow

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Moscow, Saint

Petersburg,

Novosibirsk,

Nizhny

Novgorod

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Russia 105

settled in the southwest by the AD 300s.

They came from eastern Europe.

By the 800s people from Scandinavia

(Denmark, Sweden, and Norway) had

entered the territory of the East Slavs.

These Scandinavians are known as

Varangians. The Varangians mixed with

the Slavs and gave them the name Rus.

The name Russia came from that name.

The town of Kiev was the capital of the

territory, which became known as

Kievan Rus. Kievan Rus grew to be the

largest state in Europe.

The Mongols and Muscovy

In the 1200s warriors from central Asia

known as Mongols, or Tatars, invaded

Kievan Rus. The Mongols set up a kingdom

called the Golden Horde. During

the time of Mongol rule, two strong

Russian states developed. Novgorod

became a powerful state in western Russia.

Muscovy, or Moscow, became the

strongest power in the north.

In 1478 the ruler of Muscovy, Ivan III

(also called Ivan the Great) conquered

Novgorod. Two years later he defeated

the Mongols and made the Russian

lands independent. Ivan IV came to the

throne in 1533. He called himself tsar

(emperor) of all Russia. Ivan IV earned

the title Ivan the Terrible because of his

cruel and violent rule.

The Romanov Dynasty

In 1613 Michael Romanov became tsar.

His family ruled Russia until 1917.

Under the Romanovs, Russia became

one of the most powerful states in

Europe.

Peter I, called Peter the Great, became

tsar in 1682. Peter added to Russia’s

territory and built a new capital, which

he named Saint Petersburg. Catherine

II, called Catherine the Great, came to

the throne in 1762. She also expanded

Russia. Nicholas II, who became tsar in

1894, was the last of the Romanov

rulers.

1200s 1480 1613 1917 1922 1991 1999

The Mongols

invade Kievan

Rus.

Ivan III ends

Mongol rule.

Michael

Romanov

becomes tsar

of Russia.

The Russian

Revolution

overthrows the

tsar.

Russia becomes

part of the

Soviet Union.

The U.S.S.R.

collapses; Boris

Yeltsin becomes

president of an

independent

Russia.

Yeltsin resigns

as president;

Vladimir Putin

becomes the

next president.

T I M E L I N E

106 Russia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Russian Revolution

In 1914 Russia enteredWorldWar I.

After three years of terrible losses, the

Russian people rebelled against the tsar

in March 1917. Nicholas II stepped

down, and the country set up a temporary

government. Nicholas was later

executed.

In November 1917 a group called the

Bolsheviks seized control of Russia. Led

by Vladimir Lenin, the Bolsheviks set up

a Communist government. The new

government took Russia out ofWorld

War I.

The Soviet Union

Some Russians fought a civil war against

the Bolsheviks, but the Bolsheviks

defeated them. In 1922 the Bolsheviks

set up a new country called the Union of

Soviet Socialist Republics, or the Soviet

Union. Russia was the largest of the new

country’s republics, or states. The Communist

government of the Soviet Union

ruled harshly at times. Millions of

people died during the rule of Soviet

leader Joseph Stalin.

By the 1980s many people in the Soviet

Union wanted more freedom and a better

economy. A leader named Mikhail

Gorbachev tried to institute some

reforms. But the Communist government

could not solve the country’s problems.

In 1991 the Soviet Union

collapsed. Each of the 15 republics that

had made up the Soviet Union became

an independent country.

A New Russia

The first leader of the newly independent

Russia was Boris Yeltsin. His government

gave the people more rights

and freedoms. However, the government

also faced a poor economy and a number

of revolts. One of those revolts took

place in the southwestern region called

Chechnya. Some people in the region

wanted independence from Russia.

Chechen rebels carried out several

deadly attacks in Russia.

Yeltsin retired in 1999. His successor

continued to face problems with the

economy and with the rebellion in

Chechnya into the 21st century.

#More to explore

Communism • Ivan IV • Lenin,

Vladimir Ilich • Moscow • Nicholas II

• Peter the Great • Russian Revolution

• Tsar • Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics • Volga River

Catherine the Great ruled Russia from 1762

to 1796.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Russia 107

Russian

Revolution

Centuries of harsh rule under the tsars,

or emperors, of Russia came to an end

with the Russian Revolution of 1917.

The revolution took place in two stages.

In the end, it gave the Russian people an

entirely new form of government.

Background

The common people of Russia had few

rights under the tsars. They protested

this situation in 1905. Afterward, Tsar

Nicholas II created a lawmaking body

called the Duma. The Duma was supposed

to give some of the citizens a say

in the government. However, the tsar

still held most of the power.

February Revolution

By 1917, Russia faced several challenges.

The country was fighting Germany in

WorldWar I (1914–18). Russia was also

short of food and fuel for the cold winter.

In the capital city of Petrograd (now

Saint Petersburg), angry people protested

the hard conditions. The army

joined the protesters instead of stopping

them. Tsar Nicholas II had to give up all

power. This was called the February

Revolution.

A committee of the Duma appointed a

temporary government to replace the

tsar. This government was unable to

solve Russia’s problems. A group of

workers and soldiers rose to challenge

the government. The group was called

the Petrograd Soviet.

Other soviets soon appeared in other

cities. As the government grew weaker,

the soviets grew stronger. Several different

political parties fought for control of

the soviets. Eventually, the party called

the Bolsheviks came out on top.

Vladimir Lenin led the Bolsheviks.

October Revolution

In October 1917 the Bolsheviks took

over the government. Soon a new government

was formed, with Lenin as its

leader. The Bolsheviks believed in Communism.

They thought that all the common

working people should share in the

wealth of the country. They did not

believe that individuals should be able to

own land on their own. They took away

everything that the tsar’s family had

owned. They also improved conditions

for workers.

CivilWar

Lenin made peace with Germany in

March 1918. In the process, he had to

give up much of Russia’s territory. This

made many Russians unhappy. Some of

them started a civil war.

Protesters gather outside the tsar’s palace in

Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) in 1917.

108 Russian Revolution BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The armies that fought the war were

called the Reds and the Whites. The

Reds represented the Russian Communists,

as the Bolsheviks called themselves

after March 1918. The Whites represented

other groups that wanted to control

the country. During the war the

Communists killed the tsar and his family.

The Communists won the war in

November 1920. In 1922 they gave the

country a new name—the Union of

Soviet Socialist Republics.

#More to explore

Communism • Lenin, Vladimir Ilich

• Nicholas II • Russia • Tsar • Union of

Soviet Socialist Republics

Ruth, Babe

Babe Ruth is probably the most famous

player in baseball history. He set or tied

about 60 records during his long major

league career.

Early Life

George Herman Ruth was born in Baltimore,

in the U.S. state of Maryland, on

February 6, 1895. He spent much of his

childhood getting into trouble on the

streets. At age 7 his parents placed him

in Saint Mary’s Industrial School, which

took in troubled youth. There he

learned to play baseball.

Career

Ruth began his career in 1914 as a

pitcher for Baltimore’s minor league

team. It was then that he got the nickname

Babe. Later in 1914 he joined the

Boston Red Sox. Ruth pitched for Boston

in theWorld Series in 1916 and

1918. He also became a powerful batter.

In 1918 the team moved him to the

outfield so he could play in every game.

In 1920 the Red Sox sold Ruth to the

New York Yankees. Ruth played his best

seasons with the Yankees. He led the

American League in home runs for 12

years. In 1927 he hit 60 home runs.

This was a season record that was not

broken until 1961.

Ruth played 22 major league seasons

and starred in 10World Series. His lifetime

record of 714 home runs stood

until Hank Aaron broke it in 1974.

Retirement

Ruth played his last season for the Boston

Braves in 1935. In 1936 he was

elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame.

Ruth died in New York City on August

16, 1948.

#More to explore

Aaron, Hank • Baseball

Babe Ruth

Babe Ruth was

known as the

Sultan of

Swat.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ruth, Babe 109

Rwanda

Rwanda is a small, mountainous country

in east-central Africa. The capital is

Kigali.

Rwanda borders the Democratic Republic

of the Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, and

Burundi. Lake Kivu forms part of

Rwanda’s western border. Mountains,

hills, and deep valleys cover the land.

Rwanda has bamboo forests, wooded

regions, and grasslands. Its wildlife

includes elephants, chimpanzees, antelopes,

zebras, hippopotamuses, and buffalo.

Rare mountain gorillas live in

Rwanda’s Virunga Mountains.

The Hutu people make up more than

80 percent of the population. The Tutsi

make up most of the rest. The Twa

people form a small group. Rwanda’s

main languages are Rwanda, French,

English, and Swahili. Most people live

on farms or in small villages.

Most Rwandans are farmers who produce

food for their own families. The

major food crops are plantains, sweet

potatoes, cassava, potatoes, sorghum,

and corn. Cattle and goats are the main

livestock. Rwandans also grow coffee

and tea to sell to other countries.

The first people to live in Rwanda were

the Twa. The Hutu arrived next. The

Tutsi appeared in the 1300s and conquered

the Hutu. Germany and then

Belgium controlled Rwanda from the

late 1800s. In 1962 Rwanda became

independent under Hutu leaders.

Tutsi rebels began a civil war in 1990. In

1994 Hutu forces killed at least 500,000

people, mostly Tutsi. The Tutsi rebels

managed to take control of Rwanda,

however. They set up a government with

both Tutsi and Hutu representatives.

..More to explore

Africa • Kigali

Women carry baskets on their heads in

Rwanda.

Facts About

RWANDA

Population

(2008 estimate)

10,009,000

Area

10,169 sq mi

(26,338 sq km)

Capital

Kigali

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Kigali, Gitarama,

Butare,

Ruhengeri,

Gisenyi

110 Rwanda BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rye

Rye is a grain that grows well in poor

soils and harsh climates. Grains are

grasses that produce seeds that can be

eaten. Poland, Russia, and Germany are

major rye-producing countries. The

scientific name for rye is Secale cereale.

A rye plant grows to about 4 to 6 feet (1

to 2 meters) tall. It has a round, hollow

stem and long, narrow leaves. The leaves

are blue-green and have a coarse texture.

At the end of the stem is a slender structure

called a spike, which holds the

seeds. A rye spike is about 3 to 6 inches

(7.6 to 15 centimeters) long. There are

two or more rows of seeds on each spike.

People grind rye seeds to make flour.

Rye flour is used to make bread and

crackers. It is often mixed with wheat

flour.

Farmers feed rye to livestock. They also

use rye plants to make tough straw. Rye

straw is used as bedding for farm animals.

It is used in mattresses, hats, and

paper, too.

A poisonous fungus called ergot sometimes

attacks rye plants. Ergot forms

hard, black masses on rye plants that

may look like grains. People or animals

may become ill or even die after eating

rye with ergot in it. Ergot poisoning can

cause hallucinations (seeing things that

are not there), vomiting, and shaking.

Many people throughout history have

observed the effects of ergot on humans

and animals. Some experts think that

the people accused of being witches during

the Salem witch trials of 1692 may

have had ergot poisoning. Today, foods

made with rye that are sold in stores

rarely contain ergot. Scientists have even

found a way to use chemicals in ergot to

make certain medicines.

#More to explore

Grain • Grass • SalemWitch Trials

• Wheat

Rye grows in colder regions than

most other grasses that are used

for food.

Women in Albania cut and thresh, or

remove the seeds from, rye plants.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Rye 111

Britannica

Student

Encyclopedia

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Volume 12

2010 Britannica Student Encyclopedia

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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7

eBook edition January, 2010

Sacagawea was a member of

the Shoshone Native American

group.

(See Sacagawea.)

The scientific method is the

process that scientists use to

solve problems.

(See Science.)

The shamrock is a symbol of

Ireland.

(See Shamrock.)

The Chinese began making silk

more than 4,500 years ago.

(See Silk.)

Skateboarding first became

popular in the early 1960s.

(See Skateboarding.)

Events at the Winter Olympics

include the types of skiing

called Nordic, Alpine, and

freestyle.

(See Skiing.)

Ss

Sacagawea

Sacagawea was a member of the Shoshone

Native American tribe. She

helped Meriwether Lewis andWilliam

Clark explore parts of the western

United States from 1804 to 1806. She

traveled thousands of miles in the wilderness

on the group’s journey to the

Pacific Ocean.

Early Life

Sacagawea was born in about 1786 in

what is now Idaho or Montana. When

Sacagawea was about 10 or 12 years old,

a group of Hidatsa Native Americans

captured her. They took her to what is

now North Dakota. In about 1804 Sacagawea

became the wife of a French

Canadian fur trapper named Toussaint

Charbonneau.

Expedition

In 1803 President Thomas Jefferson

organized an expedition to explore the

territory between the Missouri River and

the Pacific Ocean. Meriwether Lewis

andWilliam Clark headed the expedition.

They arrived near what is now Bismarck,

North Dakota, in the fall of

1804. They spent the winter among the

Mandan tribe of Native Americans.

During this time Lewis and Clark hired

Charbonneau as a guide. Sacagawea

joined the expedition as well. On February

11, 1805, Sacagawea gave birth to a

baby boy, Jean-Baptiste. When the expedition

set out on April 7, Sacagawea

carried her infant son on her back.

Sacagawea identified plants for the

explorers. She also searched for fruits

and vegetables that they could eat. In

addition, her presence showed other

Native Americans that the group came

in peace. Many tribes believed that a

woman with an infant would travel only

with a peaceful group.

In August 1805 the expedition met

some Shoshone in what is now Montana.

The chief of these Shoshone was

Sacagawea’s brother, Cameahwait. He

gave the expedition horses and guides to

help them on their journey.

Charbonneau and Sacagawea went all

the way to the Pacific coast with the

expedition. Sacagawea may have died

several years after the return journey, in

1812. But some stories say that she

rejoined the Shoshone inWyoming and

lived until 1884.

#More to explore

Lewis and Clark Expedition • Shoshone

Sacagawea guided Lewis and Clark on

their expedition of 1804–06.

The U.S.

golden dollar

coin, introduced

in

2000, features

an image of

Sacagawea

carrying her

infant son on

her back.

4 Sacagawea BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sacramento

Population

(2000 census)

407,018;

(2007 estimate)

460,242

Sacramento is the capital of the U.S.

state of California. The city was the center

of activity during a gold rush in the

mid-1800s. It lies where the American

and Sacramento rivers meet. A shipping

canal links Sacramento to the San Francisco

Bay.

Many people in Sacramento work for

the government or in health care, trade,

or other service industries. Food processing,

construction, and printing are

among the leading industries.

In 1839 a man named John Augustus

Sutter established a settlement that later

became Sacramento. In 1848 gold was

discovered on Sutter’s land. Thousands

of people moved to the area to look for

gold. Sutter’s son soon laid out Sacramento.

The city became the supply center

for the gold seekers.

In 1854 Sacramento became the capital

of California. Gold mining later

declined in the area. But Sacramento

continued to grow as a center of government,

food processing, and shipping.

..More to explore

California • Gold Rush

Sadat, Anwar el-

Anwar el-Sadat was the president of

Egypt from 1970 until 1981. He is

remembered for trying to make peace

with Israel.

Muhammad Anwar el-Sadat was born in

Egypt on December 25, 1918. He

graduated from the Cairo Military Academy

in 1938. In 1950 Sadat joined a

group of military officers led by Gamal

Abdel Nasser. In 1952 Nasser’s group

removed the king of Egypt from power.

Nasser became president. In 1964 Sadat

became vice president under Nasser. He

was elected president soon after Nasser’s

death in 1970.

As president Sadat had to deal with

Egypt’s long-standing conflict with

Israel. Many Arabs in Egypt and other

countries believed that Israel was their

enemy. Some thought that Israel should

not even be a country. In 1967 Israel

had taken control of a piece of Egyptian

The California state Capitol is in a park in

the heart of Sacramento.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sadat, Anwar el- 5

land called the Sinai Peninsula. In October

1973 Sadat led Egypt into war with

Israeli soldiers on the peninsula. Israel

was able to hold onto the land. But

Sadat gained respect among Arabs.

Sadat’s actions toward Israel soon

changed. In 1977 he made a historic

visit to the country. He said that Israel

had a right to exist and offered to make

peace. Later he took part in peace talks

with Menachem Begin, Israel’s leader.

Sadat and Begin shared the Nobel peace

prize in 1978. The next year Egypt and

Israel signed a peace treaty. It was the

first peace treaty between Israel and an

Arab country.

Many Arabs hated Sadat for making

peace with Israel. They still believed that

Israel was their enemy. A group of Egyptian

soldiers shot and killed Sadat in

Cairo on October 6, 1981.

#More to explore

Arab-IsraeliWars • Egypt

Saddam Hussein

Saddam Hussein took power as president

of Iraq in 1979. He ruled as a brutal

dictator, or leader with unlimited

power, until 2003.

Early Life

Saddam Hussein al-Tikriti was born on

April 28, 1937, in a village near Tikrit in

northern Iraq. He joined the Ba!th Party,

a revolutionary political group, in 1957.

Two years later, Saddam participated in

a plot to kill Iraq’s prime minister (head

of government). When the government

discovered the plot, he fled to Egypt.

Presidency

Saddam returned to Iraq in 1963. He

joined the Ba!th government, which had

seized power. The Ba!th government lost

control later that year. But the Ba!th

Party, including Saddam, returned to

power in 1968. In 1979 Saddam forced

Anwar el-Sadat

A special court was created for Saddam

Hussein’s trial. He was accused of several

crimes, including crimes against humanity.

6 Saddam Hussein BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Iraq’s president to retire. He then took

the job for himself.

As president, Saddam became extremely

rich and built a powerful military to

serve him. Those who did not agree with

Saddam’s government paid a heavy

price. They were often jailed or murdered.

Despite these acts, many Arabs in the

Middle East admired Saddam. They

liked that he spoke out against the

power of the United States and Europe.

In 1980 Saddam attacked Iran. This led

to the Iran-IraqWar, which lasted until

1988. In 1990 Saddam invaded Kuwait.

The Persian GulfWar began in 1991 as

a result. During the war, the United

States and its allies drove Saddam’s

forces out of Kuwait.

Capture and Trial

By 2003 the United States and other

countries feared that Saddam was building

illegal weapons and supporting terrorism.

U.S. and British forces invaded

Iraq that year, but Saddam escaped.

Months later, U.S. soldiers found and

captured him. In 2005 Saddam went on

trial for his crimes. He was accused of

playing a role in the deaths of more than

100 people in Iraq in the 1980s. In

2006 he was found guilty and sentenced

to death. He was executed on December

30, 2006.

..More to explore

Iran-IraqWar • Iraq • Persian Gulf War

Safety

Safety is anything that people do to protect

themselves or others from harmful

accidents. People can prevent accidents

by following safety measures. Governments

pass laws to keep people safe. For

example, a law could require that buildings

have clearly marked exits. This

would allow people to escape quickly

during a fire. Laws and other rules that

are meant to protect all people are called

public safety measures.

Another way to promote public safety is

to spread information about safety

measures. For example, magazines

about parenting often have articles on

how to keep a house safe for children.

These articles may recommend keeping

cleaning products out of reach or

covering electrical outlets.

Workplaces also have rules that are

designed to keep workers safe. These are

called occupational safety measures. For

example, factories may require employ-

Special seats and seat belts help keep children

safe while riding in cars.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Safety 7

ees to wear a helmet or safety goggles to

protect themselves from injury.

#More to explore

Law

Sahara

The Sahara is the largest desert on

Earth. It covers about 3,320,000 square

miles (8,600,000 square kilometers) in

northern Africa. The Sahara includes at

least part of 10 countries—Morocco,

Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania,

Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan—

plus the territory ofWestern Sahara.

The Sahara is the hottest region in the

world during the day in summer. Temperatures

above 120° F (49° C) are common.

The air becomes much cooler

when the sun sets. Rain is very rare.

When rain does fall, it often comes in

powerful storms.

Features

Much of the Sahara’s surface is rocky.

There are flat plains and raised land

called plateaus. There are also some

mountains. Sand covers only about one

quarter of the Sahara. In some places the

sand is piled high in hills called dunes.

The Nile and the Niger rivers cross the

edges of the Sahara. No other streams

flow year-round. Dry streambeds, called

wadis, fill with water only when it rains.

In some places there is a supply of

underground water. These places are

called oases. The water comes to the

surface through openings called springs.

People also dig wells to get underground

water.

Plants and Animals

Many of the Sahara’s plants and animals

depend on the water found at oases.

Shrubs, rough grasses, and palm trees

make up much of the region’s plant life.

Olive, cypress, and acacia trees grow in

the highlands. Animals of the desert

include gerbils, hedgehogs, gazelles,

baboons, hyenas, and foxes. Scorpions

and snakes are common.

Palm trees grow in an oasis of the Sahara

in the country of Algeria.

8 Sahara BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People

Some people of the Sahara are nomads.

They raise camels, sheep, and goats.

They roam from place to place in search

of grass for their animals to eat. Today,

however, most of the people of the

Sahara stay in one place, mostly near

oases. They grow fruit, especially dates,

and grains such as millet, barley, and

wheat. People trade animal skins, wool,

fruits, and salt in oasis villages.

..More to explore

Africa • Desert • Nomad

Saint

A saint is a person who is believed to be

especially close to God. Some saints are

prophets, or messengers of God. Others

are healers, doers of good deeds, or martyrs.

A martyr is someone who is killed

for belonging to a religion. Sainthood is

an official status in some religions. In

other religions people become saints

simply because many people honor

them.

Saints are venerated—honored with

special acts of devotion—in two of the

three branches of Christianity. In

Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy

a person can be declared a saint

after his or her death. Roman Catholics

and Eastern Orthodox Christians believe

that saints have special powers to help

people. They venerate the remains of the

saints and certain objects associated with

the saints. They also honor each saint

with a special feast day. Most Protestants

do not venerate saints.

Muhammad, the great prophet of Islam,

said that there are no saints. But Muslims

do honor certain holy people who

they believe are especially close to God.

These holy people are thought to have

special powers to bless people and to

perform miracles. Such a person is

known as wali, meaning “friend of

God.” Muslims also honor martyrs.

All Buddhists honor saints, which

include the Buddha himself. Buddhists

believe in a cycle of birth, death, and

rebirth; after death, one’s soul is reborn

in another being. In general, Buddhists

honor as saints people who have freed

themselves from this cycle of rebirth and

those who have helped others free themselves

from the cycle.

Hinduism recognizes a great variety of

saints, including sadhus and avatars.

Sadhus are holy people who go without

Stained-glass windows in many

Roman Catholic churches have

images of saints, such as Saint

Dominic.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Saint 9

nearly everything except what they need

to survive, such as a little food and a few

simple belongings. An avatar is believed

to be a god reborn into human or animal

form.

..More to explore

Buddhism • Christianity • Eastern

Orthodox Churches • Hinduism • Islam

• Martyr • Roman Catholicism

Saint Augustine

Saint Augustine is a city in northeastern

Florida, near the Atlantic Ocean. Settled

in 1565, it is the oldest city in the

United States. It was named for the

Catholic leader Saint Augustine of

Hippo.

Saint Augustine has kept many historical

features. Many buildings still look like

they did when Spain ruled Florida as a

colony hundreds of years ago. The Spanish

fortress Castillo de San Marcos is a

national monument. It is the oldest fort

in the country.

Saint Augustine’s main industry is tourism.

Many people hold jobs in hotels

and other places serving vacationers.

The city also depends on fishing and

shipbuilding.

In 1513 the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce

de Leon landed near what is now Saint

Augustine. He claimed the land for

Spain. Another Spanish explorer, Pedro

Menendez de Aviles, founded Saint

Augustine in 1565. In 1819 Spain gave

Florida to the United States.

..More to explore

Florida • Ponce de Leon, Juan

Saint George’s

Population

(2004

estimate), town,

4,300; (2001

estimate), urban

area, 35,560

Saint George’s is the capital of Grenada,

an island country in the eastern part of

the Caribbean Sea. It lies on the island’s

southwestern coast. It surrounds a deep,

scenic harbor called the Carenage.

Saint George’s is Grenada’s main port

and center of trade. Shipping goods

through the port is important to the

town’s economy. Tourism also brings

money to the town. The sites include

two forts from the 1700s and the

Grenada National Museum. Saint

A photograph taken from above shows the

Castillo de San Marcos. The Spanish built

the stone fort in Saint Augustine, Florida,

between 1672 and 1695.

10 Saint Augustine BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

George’s also has a university that specializes

in medical education.

French settlers founded Saint George’s

in 1650. Great Britain took over

Grenada in the late 1700s. From 1885

to 1958 Saint George’s was the capital

of the BritishWindward Islands, a

group of islands that were a British

colony. In 1974 Grenada became an

independent country. Saint George’s was

its capital.

Fighting took place in Saint George’s

when U.S. troops invaded Grenada in

1983. Hurricanes caused great damage

to the town in 2004 and 2005.

#More to explore

Grenada

Saint John’s

Population

(2004 estimate)

23,600

Saint John’s is the capital of Antigua and

Barbuda, an island country in the Caribbean

Sea. The city lies on the coast of

the island of Antigua. It is the country’s

largest city, main port, and business center.

It is also a popular vacation spot.

The main landmark in Saint John’s is

Saint John’s Cathedral. First built in

1681, it was rebuilt in the 1840s after

suffering earthquake damage. Other

attractions include Fort James, from the

1700s, and the Museum of Antigua and

Barbuda.

Tourism is the main industry in Saint

John’s. Banking and shipping goods

through the port also bring money to

the city.

British settlers founded Saint John’s as a

colony in 1632. The city had to be

rebuilt after severe earthquakes occurred

in 1690 and 1843. A fire in 1769 and a

hurricane in 1847 also damaged the city.

In 1981 Antigua and Barbuda became

an independent country with Saint

John’s as its capital.

#More to explore

Antigua and Barbuda

A sailing ship finds shelter in the harbor of

Saint George’s, Grenada.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Saint John’s 11

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Saint Kitts and Nevis is a country of two

small islands in the eastern Caribbean

Sea. The capital and largest city is Basseterre.

Geography

Saint Kitts, sometimes called Saint

Christopher, is about twice the size of

Nevis. Nevis lies to the southeast of

Saint Kitts. The islands are part of the

region called theWest Indies.

An inactive volcano rises on Saint Kitts.

A mountain forms almost all of Nevis’

land. Saint Kitts has beaches of black

sand, while Nevis’ sand is white. Both

islands have hot, tropical weather.

Plants and Animals

Grasslands and rain forests grow on the

islands’ mountains. Animals include

green vervet monkeys, wild deer, and

mongooses. Spiny lobsters, parrot fish,

and hammerhead sharks live in the

waters around the islands.

People

Most of the country’s people have black

African ancestors. There are also small

groups of Asians and whites. Most of the

population is Christian. English is the

main language. Most people live in the

countryside.

Economy

The economy depends on tourism,

banking, and the sale of sugar. The sugar

is made from sugarcane, which grows all

over Saint Kitts. Farmers on Nevis grow

mostly cotton, vegetables, and coconuts.

Manufacturers on the islands make electronics,

beverages, and clothing.

History

The first people on the islands were

American Indians. Christopher Columbus

visited the islands in 1493. The

English settled on both islands in the

early 1600s. They brought in Africans to

work as slaves on sugar plantations.

The English and the French fought over

the islands until the 1780s. Then the

English officially took control. In 1882

Great Britain combined Saint Kitts,

Nevis, and the island of Anguilla into

one colony. Anguilla broke away in

1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis became an

independent country in 1983. In 1998

Nevis voted against separating from

Saint Kitts.

..More to explore

Basseterre •West Indies

Facts About

SAINT KITTS

AND NEVIS

Population

(2008 estimate)

51,300

Area

104 sq mi (269

sq km)

Capital

Basseterre

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Basseterre,

Charlestown

12 Saint Kitts and Nevis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Saint Lawrence

River and Seaway

The Saint Lawrence Seaway connects

the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean in

eastern North America. The Saint

Lawrence River is just one part of the

long seaway system. The seaway allows

ships from the ocean to reach the industrial

and farming regions around the

Great Lakes. This makes the system very

important to the economies of both the

United States and Canada.

The Saint Lawrence Seaway is about

2,340 miles (3,770 kilometers) long. At

its western end is the city of Duluth,

Minnesota. Duluth is a port on Lake

Superior, one of the five Great Lakes.

Narrow waterways link the lakes to one

another. The Saint Lawrence River itself

begins at the eastern end of Lake

Ontario. It flows 740 miles (1,190 kilometers)

to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

Finally, the Cabot Strait connects the

gulf to the Atlantic Ocean.

French explorer Jacques Cartier was the

first European to sail into the Saint

Lawrence River. He could not travel

very far into the continent by river, however.

The way was blocked by a stretch

of rapids. Later explorers discovered

other natural barriers to sailing through

the Great Lakes.

Over the years people built canals, locks,

and dams to get around some of these

barriers. Canals are waterways built to

connect two natural bodies of water.

Locks are structures that raise or lower a

ship from one water level to another.

They are needed where the water level

varies between different bodies of water.

Some barriers remained, however.

Finally in 1954 the governments of the

United States and Canada agreed to

build the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The

construction took nearly five years. In

addition to building locks and canals,

workers deepened several waterways.

The seaway opened to ships in 1959.

#More to explore

Atlantic Ocean • Canal • Dam • Great

Lakes • Sault Sainte Marie Canals

A passenger ship winds through the Thousand

Islands section of the Saint Lawrence

River near the river’s source at Lake Ontario.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Saint Lawrence River and Seaway 13

Saint Lucia

Saint Lucia is a small island country in

theWest Indies region of the Caribbean

Sea. Castries is the capital.

Geography

Mountains run from north to south

through the middle of the island. Many

streams flow down into deep valleys. In

the southwest is the volcano Qualibou,

which lets off steam and gases. Saint

Lucia’s climate is hot and humid.

Plants and Animals

Rain forests grow on the highest land.

Flowering vines, wild orchids, and ferns

grow in the valleys. The country’s colorful

birds include parrots, black finches,

and orioles.

People

Most Saint Lucians are descended from

black Africans. Many people have mixed

African and European roots. The island

also has small groups of East Indians and

whites. Most people speak English or a

local version of French. Christianity is

the main religion.

Economy

The economy is based mainly on tourism

and agriculture. Farmers grow

bananas, mangoes, coconuts, yams, citrus

fruits, and some cacao. Saint Lucia

also produces clothing and electronics.

History

Carib Indians lived on the island when

Europeans arrived in about 1500. France

and Great Britain fought for control of

the island until 1814, when Britain

won. The Europeans brought Africans

with them to work as slaves on cotton

and sugar plantations. Saint Lucia

gained independence in 1979.

..More to explore

Castries •West Indies

The town of Soufriere, Saint Lucia, occupies

a valley near two huge mounds of rock. A

volcano formed the mounds long ago.

Facts About

SAINT LUCIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

171,000

Area

238 sq mi (617

sq km)

Capital

Castries

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major towns

Castries, Vieux

Fort, Micoud,

Soufriere

14 Saint Lucia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Saint Patrick’s

Day

Saint Patrick’s Day is a popular holiday

celebrated on March 17. The holiday

honors Saint Patrick, the man who

brought Christianity to Ireland. Saint

Patrick’s Day is a national holiday in

Ireland. Yet people in other countries

enjoy the holiday, too.

How Saint Patrick’s Day Is

Celebrated

Many people celebrate Saint Patrick’s

Day by wearing green clothing or shamrocks

(three-leafed clovers). Green and

shamrocks are symbols of Ireland.

Many U.S. cities with large Irish populations

have huge public celebrations. Boston

held its first Saint Patrick’s Day

celebration in 1737. In the 1760s New

York City began the tradition of holding

a parade for the occasion. Chicago dyes

its river green for the day.

History

Saint Patrick was born in Britain in the

late 300s or early 400s. Pirates captured

him when he was 16. They sold him as a

slave in Ireland, where he worked as a

shepherd for six years. He then escaped

and returned home.

After years of religious training, Patrick

went back to Ireland. There he converted

many people to Christianity. The

year of his death is unknown.

There are several legends about Saint

Patrick. One legend says that he drove

away all the snakes in Ireland. Another

legend says that he used the three parts

of a shamrock leaf to explain the idea of

the Trinity. The Trinity refers to the

Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in the

Christian religion.

..More to explore

Ireland • Shamrock

Saint Paul

Population

(2000 census),

city, 287,151;

(2007 estimate)

277,251

Saint Paul is the capital of the U.S. state

of Minnesota. It lies along a deep bend

of the Mississippi River. The city of

Irish Americans march in New

York City’s Saint Patrick’s Day

parade.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Saint Paul 15

Minneapolis is located just across the

river. Together Saint Paul and Minneapolis

are called the Twin Cities.

Saint Paul is a major center of industry,

banking, and insurance. Factories in and

around the city make cars, electronics,

computers, and many other products.

Other factories process oil and foods.

Hundreds of years ago the Dakota

Indians (a division of the Sioux people)

were living in the Saint Paul region. A

French-Canadian trader named Pierre

Parrant established a settlement there in

1838. The settlement was called Pig’s

Eye, which was Parrant’s nickname. A

log chapel dedicated to the Christian

saint Paul was built in Pig’s Eye in

1838. After that the town was called

Saint Paul.

In 1849 Saint Paul became the capital of

the Minnesota Territory. In 1858 Minnesota

became a U.S. state with Saint

Paul as its capital.

..More to explore

Minnesota

Saint Petersburg

Population

(2006 estimate)

4,580,620

Saint Petersburg is the second largest

city in Russia, after Moscow. The city

lies on the Neva River where it flows

into the Baltic Sea. It spreads over a

mainland section and more that 40

islands. Saint Petersburg was Russia’s

capital for 200 years. Today it is an

important center of industry, education,

science, and culture.

Places of Interest

Saint Petersburg is famous for its beauty

and its many historic buildings. The

huge gold dome of Saint Isaac’s Cathedral

can be seen from throughout the

city. Many of Russia’s former rulers,

called tsars, are buried in the Cathedral

of Saints Peter and Paul. The city’s Winter

Palace was home to the tsars from

1762 until 1917.

Saint Petersburg is a great cultural center

known for its ballet, music, and theater.

The city’s Hermitage and State Russian

museums have large, important collections

of art.

The Cathedral of Saint Paul is the most

important Roman Catholic church in Saint

Paul, Minnesota.

16 Saint Petersburg BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Economy

Saint Petersburg is a major seaport and

industrial center. Factories in the city

make such products as machinery,

metals, foods and drinks, and paper.

Many people in the city work in

services such as trade, education, and

health care.

History

The Russian tsar Peter the Great

founded Saint Petersburg in 1703. The

city grew rapidly. It became the capital

of Russia in 1712.

By the late 1800s Saint Petersburg had

many factories, as well as many poor

workers. In 1905 government troops shot

people who were protesting poor working

conditions. This event became known as

Bloody Sunday. It led people to try to

overthrow Russia’s government. In 1917

the city was a center of the revolution

that forced the tsar from power.

The leader of that revolution was named

Lenin. For much of the 1900s Saint

Petersburg was called Leningrad in his

honor.

In 1918 the Russian capital was moved

to Moscow. Russia soon became part of

a Communist country called the Soviet

Union.

German soldiers surrounded Leningrad

from 1941 until 1944, duringWorld

War II. More than half a million people

in the city died from bombings, hunger,

and disease. Leningrad was later rebuilt.

In 1991 the Soviet Union fell apart, and

Russia became a separate country again.

Leningrad’s name was changed back to

Saint Petersburg.

#More to explore

Lenin, Vladimir Ilich • Moscow • Peter

the Great • Russia • Russian Revolution

• Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Buildings line the banks of a waterway in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Many waterways flow

through the city.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Saint Petersburg 17

Saint Vincent and the

Grenadines

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is an

island country in the Caribbean Sea. It

is part of the region called theWest

Indies. The capital is Kingstown.

Geography

The country is made up of more than

30 islands. Saint Vincent is the largest

island. To the south the small Grenadine

Islands stretch toward the country of

Grenada.

Saint Vincent is mountainous. The

highest point is an active volcano called

Mount Soufriere. The Grenadines have

coral reefs. The country has a warm climate

with dry and rainy seasons.

Plants and Animals

Rain forests grow on the mountains of

Saint Vincent. Palm and fruit trees

grow in lower areas. Mammals include

opossums and large rodents called

agoutis.

People

About two thirds of the population is

black. Many other people have a

mixture of African and European or

Carib Indian ancestors. There are small

groups of Asians and whites. English is

the main language. Most people are

Christians. Most of the population lives

in towns along the coast of Saint

Vincent.

Economy

The country’s economy depends on

tourism, banking, and agriculture.

Crops include bananas, coconuts, and

root vegetables.

History

The Ciboney, Arawak, and Carib

Indians were the first people on the

islands. In the 1600s shipwrecked

African slaves landed on Saint Vincent

and mixed with the Carib. The British

won control of the islands in the 1700s.

British settlers brought in more Africans

to work as slaves on sugarcane

plantations. Saint Vincent and the

Grenadines became an independent

country in 1979.

..More to explore

Carib • Kingstown •West Indies

Facts About

SAINT VINCENT

AND THE

GRENADINES

Population

(2008 estimate)

106,000

Area

150 sq mi (389

sq km)

Capital

Kingstown

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major city

Kingstown

18 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Salamander

A salamander is an amphibian with a

slender body and a long tail. They are

related to frogs and toads. Salamanders

look rather like lizards. But unlike lizards,

they are covered with smooth,

shiny skin. There are about 400 species,

or kinds, of salamander. They include

newts and mud puppies.

Salamanders live mainly in the northern

half of the world. Like other amphibians,

they can live either in water or on

land. Salamanders especially like dark,

wet places, like the woods.

Most salamanders are about 4 to 6

inches (10 to 15 centimeters) long. They

have four short legs. They are usually

brightly colored, often with spots or

stripes. Salamanders can breathe

through lungs or through special organs

called gills. Some salamanders can take

in oxygen through their skin.

Salamanders usually hide during the day

and come out at night. They eat insects,

small fish, worms, snails, and smaller

salamanders. Salamanders have several

ways to protect themselves from

enemies. Most kinds can release a poison

that tastes bad or causes pain. A salamander

can also lash its tail to defend

itself. If the tail breaks off, a salamander

can grow a new one.

Salamanders hatch from eggs. Most

salamanders begin life in water in a

form called larvae. Larvae go through a

series of changes, called metamorphosis,

to become adults. Salamanders that

hatch on land come out as miniature

adults.

..More to explore

Amphibian • Metamorphosis

Salem

Population

(2000 census),

city, 136,924;

(2007 estimate)

151,913

Salem is the capital of the U.S. state of

Oregon. It lies on theWillamette River

in an area with many farms. Dairy farming

and fruit growing are common.

Many people in Salem work for the government

or in health care, trade, or

other service industries. Factories in the

city process the foods grown on nearby

farms. Other factories in Salem make

metal products, electronics, and other

goods.

A salamander often has bright colors or

patterns on its body.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Salem 19

The Kalapuya Indians lived in the Salem

area for thousands of years. In the 1800s

a preacher named Jason Lee came to the

area to try to convert the Indians to the

Methodist religion. Lee led a group of

Methodists who settled Salem in 1840.

Salem developed quickly. Many pioneers

who traveled to the area on a major

route called the Oregon Trail settled in

Salem. In 1851 Salem became the capital

of the Oregon Territory. In 1859

Oregon became a U.S. state with Salem

as its capital.

#More to explore

Oregon • Oregon Trail

SalemWitch

Trials

In 1692 many people in Salem, Massachusetts,

came to believe that there were

witches among them. As fear gripped

the town, they put their fellow townspeople

on trial for witchcraft. The Salem

witch trials caused 19 people to be put

to death.

In 1692 Massachusetts was one of Great

Britain’s North American colonies. It

had been settled by strict Christians

called Puritans. The witchcraft scare

probably began when a slave named

Tituba told a group of girls stories about

African witchcraft. A few of the girls

then claimed to be possessed by the

devil. They accused Tituba and two

other women of witchcraft. Colonial

officials believed the girls and arrested

the women. Tituba confessed to being a

witch.

The town panicked. Between May and

September townspeople accused hundreds

of men and women of witchcraft.

The colony set up a special court to try

A statue of a pioneer stands on top of the

unusual dome of the Oregon state Capitol

in Salem, Oregon.

An illustration shows a trial of

two women accused of witchcraft

in Salem, Massachusetts, in

1692.

20 Salem Witch Trials BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

them. Under pressure, many of the

people on trial falsely accused others.

About 150 people were put in prison.

Nineteen people were found guilty and

hanged.

By October the panic was over. The

governor of Massachusetts stopped the

trials and released the prisoners. The

government later reversed the guilty

decisions.

#More to explore

Massachusetts Bay Colony • Puritans

Salish

#see Flathead.

Salk, Jonas

Jonas Salk was a pioneer in the field of

medical research. His research focused

on creating vaccines, or substances that

protect people from diseases. He is best

known for making the first safe and successful

vaccine to prevent polio.

Polio is a disease caused by a tiny germ

called a virus. The virus can damage the

nerves in the spine. Some people with

this damage lose their ability to walk.

U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt

had polio. He used a wheelchair for the

rest of his life. Others lose their ability

to breathe on their own, which can

cause death.

Jonas Edward Salk was born in New

York City on October 28, 1914. His

parents were immigrants from Russia.

After graduating from high school at

only 15 years old, Salk entered the City

College of New York. He went on to

medical school at New York University

and became a doctor in 1939.

Salk began studying vaccines in 1942.

By the 1950s he had developed a

vaccine against polio. He tested the

polio vaccine on large numbers of

people, including himself and his own

family. The vaccine worked. In 1955

the U.S. government agreed that Salk’s

vaccine was safe. Millions of children

soon received the vaccine. Salk’s success

made him a hero. He received the

Presidential Medal of Freedom and

other awards.

Salk died in La Jolla, California, on June

23, 1995. Today polio has been nearly

wiped out in the United States and

Dr. Jonas Salk vaccinates a girl against

polio in 1953.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Salk, Jonas 21

many other countries. However, it still

occurs in places where children have not

received the vaccine.

#More to explore

Polio • Vaccine

Salmon

Salmon are fish that are known for making

long, difficult journeys in order to

breed. Salmon belong to the scientific

family Salmonidae, which also includes

trout.

There is one species, or type, of Atlantic

salmon. There are six species of Pacific

salmon: coho, chum, king, pink, sockeye,

and cherry.

Where Salmon Live

The Atlantic salmon lives mainly in the

North Atlantic Ocean. It breeds in the

rivers of North America and Europe.

Pacific salmon are found in the waters of

the North Pacific. They breed in rivers

near both the North American and

Asian coasts.

Physical Features

Salmon come in a range of sizes. The

Atlantic salmon weighs about 12 pounds

(5.5 kilograms). The pink salmon usually

weighs 3 to 6 pounds (1.4 to 2.7

kilograms). The king salmon may weigh

25 pounds (11 kilograms) or more.

While in the ocean, salmon have a silver

color and spots on their back and fins.

During the breeding season, they

undergo changes in color that vary by

species.

Life Cycle

After being born in freshwater, salmon

travel to the ocean. They live there for

one to three years. Then they travel back

to where they hatched in order to breed.

For some salmon, this can mean a trip of

more than 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers).

Salmon may leap over waterfalls

and cut through churning rapids to

reach their home waters again.

Once in freshwater, salmon stop eating

and live off their body fat. The males

fight for a mate. After a male and a

female are paired, the female digs a pit

and lays thousands of eggs. Most Pacific

salmon die shortly after mating. Many

Atlantic salmon, however, return to the

sea and may breed again.

#More to explore

Fish • Trout

Salmon make difficult journeys,

including leaping up waterfalls,

to reach the place where they

mate and produce offspring.

22 Salmon BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Salt Lake City

Population

(2000 census),

city, 181,743;

(2007 estimate)

180,651

Salt Lake City is the capital of the U.S.

state of Utah. It is the world headquarters

of the Church of Jesus Christ of

Latter-day Saints, or the Mormons. The

church strongly influences the city’s

political, social, and economic life.

Salt Lake City lies in a valley at the foot

of theWasatch Range of the Rocky

Mountains. Several ski areas are located

nearby. Salt Lake City hosted the 2002

Winter Olympics.

Many people in Salt Lake City work for

the government or in health care, trade,

tourism, or other service industries. Factories

in the city make computers, software,

and other high-technology

products.

Mormon pioneers founded Salt Lake

City. In 1847 a church leader named

Brigham Young led a group of

Mormons westward from Illinois. They

were looking for a place where they

would be free to practice their religion.

They settled in a valley near the Great

Salt Lake. The Mormons turned the

bare land into a beautiful, well-planned

city.

In 1856 Salt Lake City became the capital

of the Utah Territory. Utah became a

U.S. state in 1896. Salt Lake City was

the state capital.

..More to explore

Mormon • Rocky Mountains • Utah

A view of Salt Lake City, Utah, includes the state Capitol (left) and the Wasatch Range.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Salt Lake City 23

Samoa

Samoa is a small island country in the

southern Pacific Ocean. Samoa’s capital

and largest town is Apia, on the northern

coast of Upolu Island.

Samoa is in Polynesia, which is part of

the region called Oceania. There are two

main islands, Upolu and Savai’i, and

seven smaller islands. Six islands east of

Samoa are controlled by the United

States. They are called American Samoa.

The islands of Samoa are rocky and

mountainous. They are surrounded by

coral reefs. The weather is hot and

humid all year.

Rain forests cover much of Samoa. The

wildlife includes bats, lizards, snakes,

scorpions, centipedes, and many birds.

Polynesians make up almost all of the

country’s people. These people and their

language are called Samoan. Many

people also speak English. Christianity is

the main religion.

Tourism, fishing, and farming are

important parts of Samoa’s economy.

Farmers grow coconuts, bananas, pineapples,

mangoes, and taro.

Polynesians settled in Samoa in about

1000 BC. Europeans first arrived in the

1700s. In 1899 the United States and

Germany divided the islands between

themselves. The United States took the

eastern islands (now American Samoa).

Germany took the western islands,

which were calledWestern Samoa.

New Zealand ruledWestern Samoa

from 1920 to 1961. The country

became independent on January 1,

1962, and changed its name to Samoa

in 1997.

..More to explore

Apia • Oceania

A village in Samoa has both

traditional and modern buildings.

Facts About

SAMOA

Population

(2008 estimate)

180,000

Area

1,093 sq mi

(2,831 sq km)

Capital

Apia

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major towns

Apia, Vaitele,

Faleasi’u

24 Samoa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Samurai

For hundreds of years warriors called

samurai controlled Japan. The Japanese

emperor took away the power of the

samurai in 1871. But even after that,

many Japanese people continued to

honor the samurai for their fighting

spirit.

Rise of the Samurai

The first samurai protected vast lands

owned by members of Japan’s upper

class. Gradually the samurai spread out

across the country and got their own

pieces of land. They also built up their

own armies. The samurai became more

and more powerful.

In 1185 one of the samurai gained military

control of all Japan. In 1192 this

person took the title of shogun. The

samurai then became the ruling class of

Japan. Shoguns ruled Japan until 1867.

Japan also had emperors during this

time, but the emperors had less power

than the shoguns.

Bushido

The samurai followed a set of rules

called Bushido. The word Bushido

means “way of the warrior.” A samurai

built up his body and learned all the

skills of a soldier. He was brave and honest.

He honored his parents. But above

all, he obeyed his leader. A samurai who

lost a battle, or whose leader was killed,

would often kill himself because he felt

he had not done his duty.

End of the Samurai

Japan was mostly at peace between the

1600s and the 1800s. During this

period most samurai worked for the

government instead of fighting. But they

were still called samurai because the rank

was handed down from father to son.

By the mid-1860s many samurai were

unhappy with the conditions in the

country. They thought that the country

needed to be more modern so they took

part in a revolution that brought down

the shogun.

An emperor named Meiji took power

during the revolution. The samurai

wanted Meiji to make Japan stronger.

He did, but he also took away the power

of the samurai. He created a modern

army to replace them.

#More to explore

Japan • Meiji

The samurai’s

method of killing

himself

was called

seppuku, or

hara-kiri,

meaning

“belly cutting.”

A photograph from the 1860s shows a

samurai in armor.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Samurai 25

Sanaa

Population

(2007 estimate)

2,006,620

Sanaa is the capital of Yemen, a country

in the Middle East. It is Yemen’s largest

city. It is also one of the oldest cities in

the world. The city has thousands of

stone houses built more than 1,000

years ago. Parts of the Great Mosque in

Sanaa date back to the time of Muhammad,

the founder of Islam.

Many people in Sanaa work for the government

or in trade. Factories in the city

make cotton cloth, food products, and

other goods.

Sanaa is more than 2,000 years old. The

city’s people converted to Islam in 632.

After that Muslim leaders ruled the city.

Sanaa was part of the Turkish Ottoman

Empire from the 1500s to the early

1900s.

For most of the 1900s Yemen was

divided into two parts. In 1918 North

Yemen became an independent country

with Sanaa as its capital. In 1990 North

Yemen and South Yemen united to form

one country. Sanaa then became the

capital of all of Yemen.

..More to explore

Yemen

Sand

Sand is made up of small, loose pieces of

rock, soil, minerals, and even gemstones.

It may also contain the remains of living

things. Sand particles, called grains, are

smaller than gravel. They are larger than

particles of mud or clay.

Sand grains can be described by their

size, color, and shape as well as the way

they feel to the touch. Some grains are

hard, while others are softer. Some are

jagged or rough. Others are smooth and

polished. Sand particles may be flat,

oval, or round in shape.

How Sand Forms

Nature forms sand constantly. Tiny

chips of rock are always breaking off

from boulders, cliffs, and mountainsides.

As the weather and water wear

down the chips, they create sand. This is

the most common kind of sand.

A second type of sand comes from living

things, such as corals and clams. After

Rugged mountains tower behind the ancient

city of Sanaa, Yemen.

26 Sanaa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the animal dies, the ocean slowly wears

down its skeleton or shell into tiny particles.

This type of sand is common on

tropical beaches.

A third type of sand comes from minerals

dissolved in water. When the water

dries up, it leaves behind the minerals in

the form of sandlike crystals.

Where Sand Is Found

Sand is found in many places all over

the world. It collects at beaches and in

lakes and rivers. It lies at the bottom of

oceans. In some deserts and on some

beaches, the wind blows sand into large

hills called dunes. Sometimes sand gathers

at the openings of deep canyons.

Schools and parks often provide sandboxes

for children to play in.

Because sand grains are so small and

light, they travel more easily than most

other kinds of rock.Wind, water, and

ice can carry sand far away from the

place where it first formed.

#More to explore

Mineral • Rock • Sand Dune • Soil

Sand Dune

A hill or ridge of sand piled up by the

wind is called a sand dune. Dunes may

form wherever there is a lot of loose

sand and enough wind to move it.

Beaches and deserts are common places

for dunes.

Most windblown sand is made up of the

mineral quartz. However, near volcanoes,

dunes may be built of volcanic ash

particles. In some very dry regions, particles

of the mineral gypsum can form

gypsum dunes.

Dunes are always changing. The wind

shifts the sand into a variety of shapes

and heights. As wind containing sand

comes to the peak of a dune’s slope, the

speed of the wind drops. The wind then

releases the sand it was holding. The

sand falls down the dune’s steeper side.

As this action keeps happening, the

dune moves in the direction that the

wind blows.

#More to explore

Desert • Sand

Building sand castles is a popular beach

activity.

Death Valley National Park in California

has sand dunes.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sand Dune 27

San Jose

Population

(2006

estimate), city,

344,750;

(2003

estimate), urban

area,

1,085,000

San Jose is the capital of Costa Rica, a

country in Central America. It is the

largest city in Costa Rica by far.

The economy of San Jose is very important

to Costa Rica. Many people in the

city work in government or business

offices, schools, hospitals, hotels, and

shops. Factories in San Jose make food

and tobacco products, cloth, chemicals,

software, and electronics.

American Indians have lived in the San

Jose region for many thousands of

years. In the 1500s Spain took control

of what is now Costa Rica. Spanish

settlers founded a town called Villa

Nueva in 1736. It was later renamed

San Jose.

Costa Rica became free from Spanish

rule in 1823. San Jose was made the

capital. San Jose grew rapidly in the second

half of the 20th century.

..More to explore

Costa Rica

San Juan

San Juan is the capital of the Commonwealth

of Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico is an

island in theWest Indies that belongs to

the United States. San Juan is the largest

city in Puerto Rico.

San Juan is the oldest city in U.S. lands.

The Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de

Leon founded the city in 1508. The city

grew into an important port and trade

center. The United States took control

in 1898. Tourism, government, shipping,

and printing became important

parts of the city’s economy.

..More to explore

Ponce de Leon, Juan • Puerto Rico

A park in the center of San Jose, Costa

Rica, has a bandstand that is sometimes

used by musical groups.

The city of San Juan is protected by walls

that are more than 200 years old.

28 San Jose BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

San Marino

San Marino is one of the smallest countries

in the world. It is surrounded by

the country of Italy. Its capital is also

called San Marino.

Geography

San Marino lies in the Apennine Mountains

in central Italy. Mount Titano rises

in the center of the country. Hills cover

the southwest. A grassy plain slopes

down in the northeast. San Marino has

cold winters and warm summers.

Plants and Animals

Olive, pine, oak, ash, and other trees

grow in San Marino. The country’s animals

include moles, hedgehogs, foxes,

badgers, weasels, and hares.

People

The people of San Marino are similar

in culture and background to their

Italian neighbors. Italian is the main

language. Most of the people are

Roman Catholics.

Economy

Banking and tourism are very important

to San Marino’s economy. More than 3

million people visit San Marino each

year. San Marino also sells postage

stamps to collectors.

History

Stories say that a Christian named Marinus

founded San Marino in the early AD

300s. He and his followers wanted freedom

to practice the Christian religion.

The people of San Marino built mountain

forts that protected the country

against invaders. This allowed San

Marino to remain independent.

A group of representatives called the

Great and General Council governs San

Marino today. SanMarino does not

belong to the European Union (EU), but

it uses the EU’s form of money, the euro.

..More to explore

Italy

Mount Titano is the highest point in San

Marino. It is 2,424 feet (739 meters) tall.

Facts About

SAN MARINO

Population

(2008 estimate)

31,000

Area

24 sq mi (61 sq

km)

Capital

San Marino

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Serravalle/

Dogano, San

Marino, Borgo

Maggiore,

Murata,

Domagnano

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA San Marino 29

San Salvador

Population

(2007 census),

city, 316,090;

urban area,

1,433,000

San Salvador is the capital of El Salvador,

a country in Central America. It is

the largest city in El Salvador by far.

Over the years it has suffered many

natural disasters, including earthquakes,

floods, and hurricanes.

San Salvador is El Salvador’s center of

manufacturing, transportation, and services

such as banking and trade. However,

in the late 20th century a civil war

in El Salvador hurt the city’s economy

greatly.

A Spanish explorer founded San Salvador

in 1525. Spain ruled El Salvador as a

colony from the early 1500s until 1823.

El Salvador then joined the United Provinces

of Central America. This was a

union of former Spanish colonies. For a

few years San Salvador was the capital of

the United Provinces. In 1839 El Salvador

became an independent country

with San Salvador as its capital.

From 1979 to 1992 San Salvador was

the site of terrible violence. The government

of El Salvador fought rebels and

had many thousands of other citizens

killed. After the war the city worked to

recover.

..More to explore

El Salvador

Santa Claus

Santa Claus is a legendary figure who is

said to bring Christmas gifts to children.

In Great Britain he is also known as

Father Christmas. According to the

story, Santa Claus lives at the North Pole

with his wife, Mrs. Claus, and many

elves. Throughout the year Santa and his

elves make toys for Christmas. But they

also keep track of which children have

been good and which have been bad.

On Christmas Eve Santa delivers toys to

each good child’s house.

Santa Claus is based on Saint Nicholas.

Nicholas was a real person who lived in

the AD 300s. People loved him because

of his many acts of kindness. Through

stories, Nicholas became known as a gift

giver. In some European countries chil-

Shops line a street in San Salvador,

the capital of El Salvador.

30 San Salvador BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

dren received gifts on his feast day,

which was in December. Other countries

had similar traditions of children

receiving presents around Christmas.

Europeans brought these traditions with

them when they settled the American

Colonies. The Dutch in particular are

said to have brought the story of Saint

Nicholas. The name Santa Claus came

from the Dutch word for Saint Nicholas,

Sinterklaas.

The image of Santa that people know

today developed in the 1800s. In 1822

Clement C. Moore wrote a poem called

A Visit from Saint Nicholas. This poem is

better known as ’Twas the Night Before

Christmas. It describes a chubby, jolly,

rosy-cheeked old man with a white

beard. He flies through the air in his

sleigh pulled by eight reindeer. He

climbs down chimneys and leaves gifts

for children. In 1863 a U.S. cartoonist

named Thomas Nast began drawing

pictures of Santa Claus based on

Moore’s poem. Nast gave Santa his red

suit with white fur trim.

..More to explore

Christmas

Santa Fe

Population

(2000 census),

city, 62,203;

(2007 estimate)

73,199

Santa Fe is the capital of the U.S. state

of New Mexico. The city lies at the foot

of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. It is

one of the oldest cities in North

America. It is also a major center of the

arts and of Hispanic and Native American

culture.

The first pictures of Santa Claus in his familiar

red suit were drawn by Thomas Nast in

the 1800s.

The Santa Fe Museum of Fine Arts is an

example of a traditional building style in

New Mexico.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Santa Fe 31

Tourism and other service industries are

important to Santa Fe’s economy. Many

people in the city work for the

government.

The Spanish founded Santa Fe in 1610

as the capital of their colony of New

Mexico. Native Americans drove the

Spanish out in 1680, but the Spanish

returned in 1692.

The city became part of the newly independent

country of Mexico in 1821. In

that year a trade route called the Santa

Fe Trail was opened between Santa Fe

and Independence, Missouri.

In 1848, after the MexicanWar, New

Mexico became part of the United

States. Santa Fe became the capital of

the Territory of New Mexico in 1851.

In 1912 New Mexico became a U.S.

state with Santa Fe as its capital.

#More to explore

MexicanWar • New Mexico • Santa Fe

Trail

Santa Fe Trail

In the 1800s the Santa Fe Trail was one

of the longest and most important trade

routes in the United States. Like the

Oregon Trail (another famous route), the

Santa Fe Trail began in Independence,

Missouri. It stretched for about 900

miles (1,450 kilometers) across the

Western plains to Santa Fe, NewMexico.

From Independence, the Santa Fe Trail

went west into Kansas. It followed the

Kansas River and then the Arkansas

The Santa Fe Trail divided in two in western Kansas. The southern route, called the Cimarron

Cutoff, was shorter but more dangerous.

32 Santa Fe Trail BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

River into the western part of the state.

There it divided into two main routes.

The longer route looped slightly northwest

into Colorado before coming down

into Santa Fe. The other route came

directly southwest. It was more popular

because it was shorter. But it was also

more dangerous because it passed

through desert lands that had little

water.

People traveled along the trail in covered

wagons. Many wagons traveled together

in lines, called wagon trains, for safety. If

Native Americans attacked, the wagons

could form a circle, and the travelers

could defend themselves from the center.

It took about six to eight weeks to

make the trip.

Native Americans had used parts of the

trail for hundreds of years. In 1821 and

1822 a trader named William Becknell

led the first trading journeys on the trail.

For 60 years afterward traders used the

trail to ship goods to Santa Fe. People in

theWest sent silver and furs back to the

East. Many settlers also used the trail to

move to New Mexico, Colorado, and

other parts of theWest. In 1880 a railroad

reached Santa Fe, and people

stopped using the trail.

..More to explore

Oregon Trail • Santa Fe

Santiago

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area,

5,700,000

Santiago is the capital of Chile, a country

in South America. It is Chile’s largest

metropolitan area. It is also the country’s

center of culture, business, and industry.

Santiago lies on the Mapocho River at

the foot of the Andes Mountains. The

river was made into a canal through the

city. The city has had many earthquakes.

Santiago, Chile, sits west of the Andes Mountains.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Santiago 33

Many of Chile’s factories are in Santiago

and its suburbs. The factories make

metal products, processed foods, cloth,

clothing, leather goods, and chemicals.

Santiago is Chile’s banking center.

Other service industries such as tourism

and insurance also bring money to the

city.

Picunche Indians lived in the Santiago

area before the Spanish arrived. Spanish

settlers took over the area in the 1500s.

The Spanish conqueror Pedro de

Valdivia founded Santiago in 1541. The

city grew slowly. Spain ruled Santiago

until the early 1800s.

In 1818 Chile became an independent

country with Santiago as its capital.

After that the city’s population and

economy grew greatly.

..More to explore

Chile

Santo Domingo

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area,

2,200,000

Santo Domingo is the capital of the

Dominican Republic, an island country

in the Caribbean Sea. The city lies where

the Ozama River flows into the sea. It is

the Dominican Republic’s largest city

and main port. It is also the oldest permanent

city that Europeans established

in the Americas.

Many people in Santo Domingo work

for the government or in tourism and

other service industries. The city is the

Dominican Republic’s center of banking,

trade, and industry. Factories in the

city make chemicals, metal products,

food products, clothing, and plastics.

The explorer Bartholomew Columbus—

the brother of Christopher Columbus—

founded Santo Domingo in 1496. He

made the city the capital of the first

Spanish colony in the Americas.

France controlled Santo Domingo from

1795 to 1809. Then Spain and later

Haiti took control of the city. In 1844

the Dominican Republic became an

independent country. Santo Domingo

was its capital.

..More to explore

Dominican Republic

The Roman Catholic cathedral in Santo

Domingo, Dominican Republic, was the first

cathedral built in the Americas.

34 Santo Domingo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sao Paulo

Population

(2007

estimate), city,

10,238,500;

urban area,

19,226,426

Sao Paulo is the largest city in Brazil, a

country in South America. The city and

its suburbs together make up one of the

largest metropolitan areas in the world.

The city’s name means “Saint Paul” in

Portuguese.

Many banks and large businesses have

their headquarters in the Sao Paulo area.

Trade, communications, and other service

industries also bring money to the

city. Sao Paulo has long been a major

manufacturing center. Factories in the

metropolitan area make clothing, cars,

computers, chemicals, electrical products,

and processed foods.

Roman Catholic priests from Portugal

established Sao Paulo in 1554. They

lived there with Indians whom they converted

to Christianity. In the 1600s the

Portuguese used the town as a base for

their travels in search of treasure and of

Indians to capture and enslave.

It was in Sao Paulo that Brazil declared

itself free from Portuguese rule in 1822.

The city grew throughout the 1800s. In

the 1900s many new cloth mills and

other factories were built. The new

industries drew many more people to

the city. By 2000 Sao Paulo was the largest

metropolitan area in the southern

half of the world.

..More to explore

Brazil

Sao Tome

Population

(2001 census),

city, 3,666;

urban area,

49,957

Sao Tome is the capital of Sao Tome and

Principe, a small island country off the

west coast of Africa. The city is located

on the coast of Sao Tome island. It is the

country’s largest city by far. It is also the

main port. Shipping cocoa and other

goods through the port brings money to

Sao Tome city.

Portuguese traders founded Sao Tome

city in about 1493. The Portuguese

kept slaves from West Africa in the city

until they could be shipped to the

Americas. French pirates and later

rebelling slaves burned the city in the

late 1500s.

In 1975 Sao Tome and Principe became

an independent country. The city of Sao

Tome was its capital.

..More to explore

Sao Tome and Principe

One of Sao

Tome’s most

impressive old

buildings is the

fort of Sao

Sebastiao. It

houses a

national

museum.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sao Tome 35

Sao Tome and Principe

Sao Tome and Principe is a small island

country off the west coast of Africa. Sao

Tome is the capital and largest city.

Sao Tome and Principe lies on the equator

in the Gulf of Guinea, a part of the

Atlantic Ocean. The country’s closest

neighbors are Gabon and Equatorial

Guinea, on the coast of Africa.

The country includes two main islands:

Sao Tome and Principe. Both islands

have lowlands in the northeast and high

mountains in the south and west.

Rain forests cover nearly half of the

land. Many rare birds and reptiles,

including sea turtles, live in the country.

The islands’ population is a mixture of

peoples descended from three main

groups: Portuguese settlers, Africans

brought to the islands to work as slaves,

and workers from Angola, Cape Verde,

and Mozambique. Portuguese is the

national language. Most people are

Roman Catholics.

Sao Tome and Principe’s economy

depends on agriculture and fishing.

Cocoa is the most important farm product.

Other crops include coconuts, coffee,

cinnamon, bananas, and vegetables.

The country also produces palm oil,

clothing, and wood. In the early 21st

century Sao Tome and Principe hoped

to start making money from petroleum

(oil) that was discovered in the Gulf of

Guinea.

No one lived on the islands until Portuguese

settlers arrived in the late 1400s.

The Portuguese soon claimed the islands

as a colony. Sao Tome and Principe

gained independence from Portugal in

1975. The country held its first free

elections in 1991.

..More to explore

Africa • Sao Tome

Buildings from colonial times still stand in

the capital of Sao Tome and Principe.

Facts About

SAO TOME AND

PRINCIPE

Population

(2008 estimate)

160,000

Area

386 sq mi (1,001

sq km)

Capital

Sao Tome

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Sao Tome, Neves,

Santana,

Trindade, Santo

Antonio

36 Sao Tome and Principe BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sarajevo

Population

(2005

estimate), city,

380,000;

(2004

estimate), urban

area, 602,500

Sarajevo is the capital of Bosnia and

Herzegovina, a country in southeastern

Europe. It is the country’s largest city

and cultural center.

Sarajevo is one of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s

centers of industry and banking.

However, a civil war in the 1990s hurt

the city’s economy. In the early 21st

century many city residents did not have

jobs.

People have lived in the Sarajevo area for

many thousands of years. Sarajevo

became part of the Turkish Ottoman

Empire in the 1400s. The Turks made

the city a center of Muslim culture.

In 1878 Austria-Hungary took over

Sarajevo. In the early 1900s Bosnia and

Herzegovina became part of the new

country of Yugoslavia.

In 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina tried

to break away from Yugoslavia. A civil

war broke out between the Serb, Croat,

and Bosniac (Muslim) ethnic groups.

Thousands of people in Sarajevo were

killed. Much of the city was destroyed.

The war ended in 1995. Bosnia and

Herzegovina became an independent

country with Sarajevo as its capital. By

the early 21st century much of the city

had been rebuilt.

..More to explore

Bosnia and Herzegovina • Yugoslavia

Sarcee

The Sarcee are Native Americans of

Canada. Their name is sometimes

spelled Sarsi. The Sarcee call themselves

Tsuu T’ina. They live near the city of

Calgary, Alberta. They may once have

been part of the Beaver people, who

lived to the north.

The Sarcee were Plains Indians. Like

other Plains tribes, they hunted bison

(buffalo) on horseback on the Great

Plains. The Sarcee ate bison meat. They

used bison hides to make tepees and

clothing. They also gathered wild plants

for food.

White traders arrived in Sarcee lands in

the late 1700s. By that time the Sarcee

lived in what are now southern Alberta

Mountains near Sarajevo, Bosnia and

Herzegovina, were the setting for some of

the events of the 1984 Winter Olympics.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sarcee 37

and northern Montana. The traders

brought guns to the tribes of the area.

Then the Sarcee started fighting more

often with other tribes. The greatest

enemies of the Sarcee were the Cree and

the Assiniboin. The Sarcee became allies

of the powerful Blackfoot tribe for protection.

Many Sarcee died in war and from

diseases brought by the white settlers.

There were outbreaks of smallpox in

1836 and 1870, and scarlet fever struck

in 1856. In 1877 the weakened Sarcee

gave up their lands to the Canadian

government. Three years later the

Sarcee settled on a reservation near

Calgary. At the end of the 20th century

there were about 1,000 Sarcee living in

Canada.

#More to explore

Blackfoot • Native Americans

SARS

SARS, or severe acute respiratory syndrome,

is an illness that is similar to

influenza, or the flu. In 2003 SARS

became an epidemic. An epidemic is an

outbreak of a disease that quickly infects

a large number of people.

A germ called a virus causes SARS. The

symptoms, or signs, of SARS are fever,

headache, body aches, and a cough.

People with SARS can pass the virus to

others by sneezing or coughing.

SARS first appeared in Asia in 2002. By

the end of May 2003, SARS had spread

to North America, South America, and

Europe. More than 8,000 cases of SARS

were reported. About 800 people died

from the disease. By June 2003 the

spread of SARS had been controlled so

that it was no longer an epidemic.

#More to explore

Disease, Human • Epidemic • Influenza

Students in a class in Hong Kong wear

masks to protect them against the disease

known as SARS. The masks keep them from

breathing in the germ that causes SARS.

A Sarcee man wears metal armbands and

a headdress.

38 SARS BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Saskatchewan

Saskatchewan is one of Canada’s three

Prairie Provinces. It is known for its vast

fields of wheat and its valuable minerals.

The name Saskatchewan was first used

for the province’s most important river.

It comes from a Cree Indian word

meaning “fast-flowing river.” The capital

of Saskatchewan is Regina.

Geography

Saskatchewan is bordered by Manitoba

on the east and Alberta on the west.

Manitoba and Alberta are the other two

Prairie Provinces. To the north are the

Northwest Territories, and to the south

are the U.S. states of Montana and

North Dakota.

Most of southern Saskatchewan

is prairie—flat, treeless plains

with some low hills. Wheat fields

and cattle ranches cover huge stretches

of land. North of the prairie is a rocky

region with patches of forest and many

lakes. Farther north, the forests get

thicker. The extreme north of the province,

however, is treeless tundra.

Throughout the province winters are

long and cold.

People

Most of Saskatchewan’s people have

European ancestors. People of German

origin are the most numerous, followed

by people with English, Scottish, Irish,

Ukrainian, or French heritage. Residents

with American Indian roots make up

another large group. The Cree, the

Assiniboin, and the Chipewyan are

among the major Indian groups.

Nearly two thirds of Saskatchewan’s

people live in cities or towns. Even so,

the province’s largest cities are not particularly

large. Saskatoon, the largest,

has only about 225,000 people in the

city and suburbs combined. Regina is

slightly smaller. The University of

Saskatchewan is in Saskatoon.

Economy

Saskatchewan’s economy has always

depended on products of the land. The

province is a world leader in the production

of wheat, and it also grows great

amounts of barley, canola, oats, flax, and

rye. Ranchers raise cattle and pigs.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Saskatchewan 39

Saskatchewan ranks among Canada’s

leading provinces in oil, coal, and natural

gas production. Its mineral resources

also include potash, which is used to

make fertilizer, and uranium. Much of

the industry in the province is tied to

agriculture and mining—for example,

meatpacking, flour milling, oil refining,

and the production of farm equipment.

Although farming and mining are still

very important in Saskatchewan, fewer

workers make a living in these activities

today than in the past. Many more

people now work in the cities, providing

services such as sales, government, and

health care.

History

American Indians have lived in what is

now Saskatchewan for more than 5,000

years. The first Europeans arrived late in

the 1600s. They were fur trappers and

traders. They worked for the Hudson’s

Bay Company, an English corporation

that controlled a large part of what is

now Canada for about 200 years.

In 1869 the newly formed government

of Canada bought the Hudson’s Bay

Company’s land, including the

Saskatchewan area. In the early 1880s a

railroad reached Regina from the east.

Farmers soon moved in. The Indians

and the Metis (people of mixed Indian

and European descent) who lived in the

area feared that the newcomers would

take their land. In 1885 they rebelled

against the Canadian government,

which had encouraged the settlers. The

rebellion failed, and in the years that

followed many more settlers arrived to

farm on the prairie. In 1905 the Canadian

government created the province of

Saskatchewan.

The population of the province grew

rapidly in the first decades of the 1900s.

In the mid-1900s Saskatchewan’s government

introduced many new programs.

It was the first government in

North America to pay for medical care

for all its people.

..More to explore

Assiniboin • Canada • Chipewyan

• Cree • Fur Trade • Hudson’s Bay

Company

Fields of wheat are a common sight in

Saskatchewan.

The building housing Saskatchewan’s legislative

assembly stands among colorful flowers

in Regina, the capital of Saskatchewan.

Facts About

SASKATCHEWAN

Flag

Population

(2006 census)

968,157

Area

251,367 sq mi

(651,036 sq km)

Capital

Regina

Motto

Multis E Gentibus,

Vires (From Many

Peoples, Strength)

When

Saskatchewan

Became a

Province

1905

40 Saskatchewan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

(120,600 kilometers). That is nine times

larger than Earth’s diameter. However,

Saturn is very light for its size. It would

float if placed in water.

Saturn is a kind of planet called a gas

giant. It is made up mostly of gases,

mainly hydrogen and helium. What

looks like a solid surface in photographs

is actually a layer of clouds. Under Saturn’s

huge layers of gases is a smaller

area of hot liquid metal. At its center the

planet probably has a hot, rocky core.

A system of very thin rings surrounds

Saturn. The rings extend thousands of

miles out from the planet. They are

made up mostly of pieces of water ice

and dust.

Orbit and Spin

Like all planets, Saturn has two types of

motion: orbit and spin. It takes Saturn

about 29 Earth years to complete one

orbit, or path around the sun. In other

words, a year on Saturn is about 29

Earth years.

Saturn spins very quickly about its center.

It takes the planet less than 11 hours

to complete one rotation. That is the

length of a day on Saturn.

Moons

Saturn has eight major moons and many

small ones. Altogether more than 40

moons orbit the planet. Its largest moon

is Titan. Titan’s atmosphere, or the layer

of gases surrounding it, is very thick.

Titan is the only moon in the solar system

known to have a thick atmosphere

and clouds. Other major moons include

Dione, Tethys, Rhea, Hyperion, and

Mimas.

Observation and Exploration

People have observed Saturn since

ancient times because it can be seen

from Earth without a telescope. In the

1970s the United States sent three

unmanned spacecraft—named Pioneer

11, Voyager 1, and Voyager 2—to Saturn.

They were the first spacecraft to fly

by the planet.

An unmanned U.S. spacecraft named

Cassini began orbiting Saturn in 2004.

It dropped a European spacecraft called

Huygens onto Titan. Huygens was the

first spacecraft to land on a moon other

than Earth’s moon.

#More to explore

Planets • Solar System • Space

Exploration

Two of Saturn’s moons can be seen as small

dots to the left of the planet.

42 Saturn BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the

Middle East. It is also the largest producer

of oil in the world. Saudi Arabia

contains the two holiest cities in the

religion of Islam. Its capital is Riyadh.

Geography

Saudi Arabia covers four fifths of the

Arabian Peninsula, a large triangle of

land between Africa and Asia. Saudi

Arabia shares borders with Jordan, Iraq,

Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates,

Oman, and Yemen. The Red Sea

runs along the western border. The Persian

Gulf lies to the east.

Almost all of Saudi Arabia’s land is flat

desert. The Rub! al-Khali desert in the

southeast is the longest stretch of sand in

the world. Its name means “empty quarter.”

A steep wall of mountains rises in

the west.

Most of Saudi Arabia has little rainfall,

very hot summers, and mild winters.

There are no lakes or rivers that flow

year-round. The country depends on

underground water supplies.

Plants and Animals

Small shrubs and herbs are the main

plants in Saudi Arabia. Some grasses and

trees grow in the southwest, near the

Red Sea. Date trees grow in oases, which

are rare fertile spots in the desert.

Animals include foxes, wolves, hyenas,

mongooses, porcupines, and baboons.

Smaller numbers of gazelles, leopards,

and mountain goats also live in the

country. A type of white antelope called

an oryx is also found in Saudi Arabia,

though it is very rare. The country’s

birds include falcons, eagles, ravens, and

flamingos.

People

Saudis, or Arabs born in Saudi Arabia,

make up most of the population. The

rest of the people are mainly Arabs from

other countries and South Asians. Some

black Africans live along the Red Sea

coast. Arabic is the main language.

Most Saudi Arabians live in cities and

towns. The largest cities are Riyadh and

Jiddah. Saudi Arabia’s other major cities

include Mecca and Medina, the two

holiest cities in Islam. Every year millions

of Muslims from around the world

visit Mecca.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Saudi Arabia 43

Almost all Saudi Arabians practice

Islam. Following Islamic law, women

and men are separated in public areas.

Women also cover themselves with a

black veil in public. Men traditionally

wear head coverings and flowing white

robes.

Economy

Saudi Arabia’s economy depends on the

production and sale of petroleum, or oil.

The country also uses its oil to make

fuels, chemicals, and other products.

Other factories make cement, metal

products, and processed food.

Services—including tourism, banking,

and communications—are also important

to Saudi Arabia’s economy.

Agriculture is limited in Saudi Arabia.

Crops can be grown only in oases or by

using artificial watering systems called

irrigation. The crops include wheat,

alfalfa, dates, tomatoes, and melons.

Sheep, goats, and camels are the main

livestock.

History

Humans have lived near the coasts of

the Arabian Peninsula for thousands of

years. In ancient times kingdoms on the

peninsula controlled trade routes

between Africa and Asia.

Birth of Islam

Muhammad, the founder of Islam, was

born in Mecca in about AD 570. In 622

he moved from Mecca to Medina. This

is said to mark the start of Islam. Before

Muhammad died in 632, he brought

most of the Arabian Peninsula under

Islamic rule. In the following centuries

Islam spread far beyond the peninsula.

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

In 1517 the Ottoman Turks made the

Arabian Peninsula part of the Ottoman

Empire. The Ottomans held only loose

control, however. Saudi ruling families

held most of the real power.

In the 1700s the Sa!ud family joined

with religious leaders to take control of

the peninsula. By the end of the 1920s

the leader Ibn Sa!ud had conquered all

of what is now Saudi Arabia. In 1932 he

Camel racers compete in the King’s Camel

Race, an annual event in Riyadh, Saudi

Arabia.

Saudi men use computers at an Internet

cafe in Saudi Arabia.

Facts About

SAUDI ARABIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

24,780,000

Area

830,000 sq mi

(2,149,690 sq

km)

Capital

Riyadh

Form of

government

Monarchy

Major urban

areas

Riyadh, Jiddah,

Mecca, Medina,

Ad-Dammam

44 Saudi Arabia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

formed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Sa!ud kings ruled Saudi Arabia into the

21st century.

Oil

Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia in

1938. The country became a major

supplier of oil to the United States and

the rest of the Western world. The sale

of oil allowed the Saudi government to

build many new roads, schools,

hospitals, and other buildings. Saudi

Arabia became a leading power in the

Middle East.

Modern Saudi Arabia

King Fahd took the Saudi throne in

1982. In 1990 Iraq invaded the neighboring

country of Kuwait. King Fahd

feared that Iraq might next invade Saudi

Arabia. He invited the United States and

other countries to put together a huge

military force in his country. The military

force defeated Iraq during the Persian

GulfWar in 1991.

In the late 1990s King Fahd passed

much of his power to his half brother,

Crown Prince Abdullah. After King

Fahd died in 2005, Abdullah became

king.

#More to explore

Arabian Peninsula • Arabs • Islam

• Mecca • Middle East • Persian Gulf

War • Petroleum • Riyadh

622 1517 1932 1938 1982 1991 1996

Islam begins on

the Arabian

Peninsula.

The Ottoman

Empire takes

over the

peninsula.

Ibn Sa!ud

founds the

Kingdom of

Saudi Arabia.

Oil is found in

Saudi Arabia.

King Fahd

becomes the

Saudi ruler.

Saudi Arabia

helps defeat

Iraq in the

Persian Gulf

War.

Crown Prince

Abdullah takes

over the

government.

T I M E L I N E

The Kingdom Centre towers above the surrounding

buildings in Riyadh, the capital of

Saudi Arabia. The building contains offices,

apartments, shops, and a hotel. At the top

is an observation deck.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Saudi Arabia 45

Sauk

The Sauk (or Sac) are a Native American

group that probably once lived in what

is now Michigan. By the 1600s, the

Sauk had moved to what is nowWisconsin.

They are closely related to a

group of Native Americans called the

Fox.

The Sauk traditionally grew corn,

squash, and beans. They lived in

villages in houses made from bark.

After the harvest each year, the Sauk

moved to their hunting grounds to fish

and hunt animals, including bison

(buffalo).

In the late 1700s the Sauk moved into

what is now Illinois. In 1804 one Sauk

group gave up its land to the United

States. Many other Sauk became angry

with this. Some Sauk people moved to

what is now Iowa in 1830, but other

Sauk refused to leave their lands.

Among them was Black Hawk, a war

chief. His people stayed in their village

while U.S. settlers began to move onto

their land.

The United States finally sent in troops

to drive the Sauk from the village. The

fighting that followed became known as

the Black HawkWar of 1832. The Sauk

were quickly defeated.

Settlers continued to move onto Sauk

land. In the late 1800s the Sauk moved

to what is now Oklahoma, where they

shared a reservation with the Fox. They

are sometimes considered one group

called the Sauk and Fox tribe.

There were about 4,500 Sauk and Fox

people in the United States at the end of

the 20th century. They lived in Kansas,

Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Iowa.

#More to explore

Black Hawk • Fox • Native Americans

Sault Sainte

Marie Canals

The Sault Sainte Marie canals form one

of the world’s major canal systems. Ships

use the canals to travel between Lake

Superior and Lake Huron.

The system is made up of two canals

along the Saint Marys River. This river

connects Lake Superior and Lake

Huron. Part of the river is very dangerous.

The canals were built so that ships

A Sauk warrior wears war paint on his face. could get around this area. The United

46 Sauk BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

States operates one of the canals. Canada

runs the other one.

The Canadian canal is 1.4 miles (2.3

kilometers) long. It has a special device

called a lock. The lock raises or lowers

ships to the water level of the lake they

want to enter. The U.S. canal is 1.6

miles (2.6 kilometers) long. It has four

locks. They are nicknamed the Soo

Locks.

The canals are very important to the

economies of two cities. These cities are

both named Sault Sainte Marie. They

are located on either side of the Saint

Marys River. One city is in the Canadian

province of Ontario. The other is

on Michigan’s Upper Peninsula.

In 1669 French missionaries gave the

name Sault Sainte Marie to the area

around the Saint Marys River. The name

means “the rapids of Saint Mary.” The

first large locks on the Michigan side

opened in 1855. Large locks on the

Canadian side opened in 1895.

#More to explore

Canal • Huron, Lake • Superior, Lake

Scald

#see Burn and Scald.

Scarlet Fever

Scarlet fever is a disease named for the

scarlet (red) rash it causes. Once common

among children, scarlet fever is

now rare.

The first symptoms, or signs, of scarlet

fever are a high fever and a sore throat.

The person may vomit and ache. About

two days later a red, rough rash appears.

It usually starts on the neck and chest

and then spreads. The face also looks

red, often with a pale area around the

mouth. The tongue may have a whitish

coating at first. When the coating disappears,

the tongue is swollen and bumpy.

The arm of a young person shows the red

rash of scarlet fever.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Scarlet Fever 47

Symptoms last for about a week. Afterward

the skin may peel.

Tiny living things called bacteria cause

scarlet fever. The kind of bacteria that

causes the disease also causes strep

throat. The bacteria produce poisons

that cause the red rash. The bacteria

easily spread between people through

contact. Hand washing helps to prevent

the bacteria from spreading.

People with signs of scarlet fever should

go to a doctor. Doctors treat scarlet fever

with a type of drug called an antibiotic.

Rest also helps. Cold foods can ease

throat pain.

#More to explore

Disease, Human • Strep Throat

Schulz, Charles

Charles Schulz was the creator of the

long-running “Peanuts” comic strip.

Charlie Brown, Snoopy, and the other

“Peanuts” characters made Schulz

famous all over the world.

Early Life

Charles Monroe Schulz was born in

Minneapolis, Minnesota, on November

26, 1922. He loved to draw as a child.

His first published cartoon was a drawing

of his small black-and-white dog,

Spike. This drawing appeared in a newspaper

in 1937. Spike later was the model

for Snoopy of “Peanuts.”

Schulz joined the Army after leaving

high school. He served in Europe during

WorldWar II (1939–45).

“Peanuts”

In 1947 Schulz began drawing a comic

strip called “Li’l Folks.” “Li’l Folks” ran

in a newspaper and a magazine. In 1950

Schulz sold “Li’l Folks” to a company

that sells comic strips to newspapers.

The company renamed the strip “Peanuts,”

even though Schulz did not like

the name.

“Peanuts” appeared in seven U.S. newspapers

in 1950. By 1958 “Peanuts”

appeared in 355 U.S. newspapers and

40 newspapers in other countries. “Peanuts”

eventually ran in about 2,600

newspapers in 75 countries. Some 355

million people around the world read

the comic strip.

Schulz’s characters later appeared in

several animated television specials. The

first of these was A Charlie Brown

Christmas in 1965. In 1967 the stage

musical You’re a Good Man, Charlie

Brown opened in New York City. It

Charles Schulz became a favorite with audiences.

48 Schulz, Charles BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Retirement and Death

Schulz announced his retirement from

drawing “Peanuts” in December 1999.

He died in his sleep on February 12,

2000, the night before the final “Peanuts”

strip appeared in newspapers.

#More to explore

Animation • Cartoon

Science

Science is a huge field of study. It deals

with the search for knowledge about the

universe and all that is in it. People who

work in science are called scientists.

Branches of Science

Science includes a wide range of subjects.

These subjects can be grouped into

three branches: the physical sciences, the

life sciences, and the social sciences.

Physical Sciences

The physical sciences deal with nonliving

things—from the tiny particles that

make up an atom to the universe itself.

Physics is the study of matter and the

forces that act on it. Chemistry is the

study of substances. Astronomy is the

study of stars, planets, and other objects

in outer space. The Earth sciences are

the study of Earth’s features. Mathematics,

the study of numbers, is a physical

science, too. It is also a tool used in

almost every other area of science.

Life Sciences

The life sciences deal with living things

and their surroundings. Biology is the

study of the natural world and everything

that lives in it. Botany, the study

of plants, and zoology, the study of animals,

are fields within biology. Medicine

is the science of health.

Social Sciences

The social sciences deal with human life

and culture. Sociology is the study of

societies, or the groups that people form.

Psychology is the study of the human

mind and emotions. Geography is the

study of Earth’s surface. Anthropology is

the study of humans through history.

Economics is the study of wealth.

The Scientific Method

Scientists believe there is a natural explanation

for most things. For any problem

they see, they try to understand the

cause so they can come up with a solution.

By learning what causes a disease,

for example, scientists can work to control

its spread.

The process that scientists use to solve

problems is called the scientific method.

Scientists start by finding out as much as

possible about a problem. They usually

Medical researchers work in a laboratory in

Ghana.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Science 49

read articles and books. They want to

discover what other scientists have

learned about it. Then they make a

hypothesis, or an educated guess, to

explain it. They test the hypothesis with

an experiment. If the hypothesis fails to

explain the problem, the scientists revise

the hypothesis and test it again.

If the hypothesis is correct, other scientists

repeat the experiment. They want

to make sure that they get the same

results. If they do, the hypothesis is

accepted as a theory, or an explanation

for why something happens. A theory

may later need to be changed if scientists

discover new information about the subject.

#More to explore

Anthropology • Astronomy • Biology

• Botany • Chemistry • Economics

• Geography • Mathematics • Medicine

• Physics • Psychology • Sociology

• Zoology

Science Fiction

Science fiction is a special type of fiction,

or story. Humans have long wondered

what life on another planet might

be like. People have also wondered how

different kinds of technology might

affect life on Earth. Made-up stories that

address such questions are called science

fiction.

These stories may discuss ideas about

scientific facts or real technology. But

they also involve a lot of imagination.

For example, a story might describe

people meeting with space aliens for the

first time. Another story might imagine

what would happen if robots or

computers could think and feel like

humans. Many science fiction stories

present different possible futures for

human society.

Science fiction seeks largely to entertain.

However, many science fiction stories

also imagine different ways people might

act and relate to one another. In this way

A student explains his science fair project to

a judge. Students who participate in science

fairs use the scientific method to solve a

problem or answer a question.

The science fiction movie Star Trek III: The

Search for Spock shows what future spacecraft

might look like.

50 Science Fiction BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

science fiction may help reveal important

things about human nature and

society.

A few authors, such as Jules Verne and

H.G.Wells, wrote science fiction in the

1800s or even earlier. But science fiction

did not become a major type of writing

until the 1900s. The first rockets sent

into space and rapid advances in technology

helped create an interest in this

writing. Authors such as Isaac Asimov,

Arthur C. Clarke, and Robert Heinlein

helped establish the style as a form of

serious literature.

Science fiction stories have also been the

subject of television shows and movies

in the 20th and 21st centuries. Popular

examples include the Star Trek television

shows and movies and the StarWars

series of movies.

#More to explore

Fiction • Literature

Scorpion

Scorpions are small animals with a

curved tail that can deliver a poisonous

sting. Of the 1,400 species, or kinds, of

scorpion, about 25 can kill people with

their poison. Most scorpions will not

sting unless bothered. Scorpions are

members of the group of animals called

arachnids. They are relatives of spiders.

Scorpions are found throughout the

world except in Antarctica. Many live in

the desert, but they also can be found in

grasslands, in caves, and in forests. They

range in length from 0.5 inch to 8.3

inches (1.3 to 21 centimeters). The

longest scorpion is the rock scorpion of

South Africa. Most desert species are

yellowish or light brown. Other species

tend to be dark brown or black.

Like spiders, scorpions have four pairs of

legs. They also have claws, which help

the scorpion grasp prey. A scorpion carries

its tail arched over its back. The tip

of the tail has a sharp, hollow stinger.

Poison is squeezed through the stinger to

paralyze larger prey. For humans, medicine

may be able to stop the effects of

the poison if given shortly after the

sting.

Scorpions hide for much of the day and

come out at night to eat. They feed on

insects and spiders, but larger species

may eat lizards, snakes, mice, and other

scorpions. Scorpions spend most of their

time alone.

#More to explore

Spider

A scorpion carries its stinger arched above

its head.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Scorpion 51

Scotland

Scotland is a part of the United Kingdom,

a country of western Europe. The

other parts of the United Kingdom are

England,Wales, and Northern Ireland.

Scotland covers the northern third of the

island of Great Britain. It borders

England to the south. The capital of

Scotland is Edinburgh.

Geography

Scotland has three land regions. The

Highlands, in the north, have rocky

mountains and many lakes. The Central

Lowlands are hilly and have Scotland’s

best farmland. The Southern Uplands

have narrow, flat valleys between low

mountains. Many small islands also

belong to Scotland. These include the

Orkney Islands, the Shetland Islands,

and the Hebrides. Scotland’s climate is

mild and cool.

Heather, grasses, and shrubs cover much

of Scotland. Peat bogs are common, too.

These are swampy areas with wet,

spongy soil.

People

The people of Scotland mostly belong to

two groups. The Scots are descendants

of the ancient people called Celts. They

live in the Highlands. The rest of the

people mainly have Anglo-Saxon roots,

like the people of northern England.

Scotland also has people with Irish,

Lithuanian, Italian, Polish, Jewish, and

South Asian roots. Almost all of the

people speak English. A few people

speak old languages called Scottish

Gaelic and Scots. The main religion is

Christianity.

Economy

Scotland’s economy depends mainly on

service industries such as tourism,

finance, government, and real estate.

Manufacturing businesses make computers,

metals and metal products,

clothing, chemicals, and foods. The oil

and natural gas industries are also

strong. Farmers raise cattle, sheep, pigs,

and chickens. They grow wheat, barley,

and potatoes. Fishing and forestry are

important industries, too.

Urquhart Castle overlooks Loch Ness in

Scotland. “Loch” means “lake” in the Scottish

Gaelic language.

52 Scotland BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

History

By the 1st century AD several different

peoples had settled in what is now Scotland.

The Romans invaded in about AD

80. Though the Romans had conquered

England andWales, they could not

defeat the peoples of Scotland.

By the 400s four peoples had established

kingdoms in the region: the Picts, the

Britons, the Angles, and the Scots. The

Scots were a group of Celts from Ireland.

Between the 800s and the 1000s

the kings of the Scots unified the

peoples into one kingdom.

In 1296 the king of England invaded

Scotland and declared himself its king.

The Scottish people fought English rule.

WilliamWallace and Robert the Bruce

were heroes of the war for independence.

In 1328 Scotland became independent

with Robert as its king.

Scotland continued to clash with

England for more than 250 years. But in

1603 Scotland and England were united

under one king. Then, in 1707, Scotland’s

Parliament, or lawmaking body,

was merged with England’s. The entire

island of Great Britain was then one

kingdom, which was called Great Britain.

In 1801 Ireland joined the union,

creating the United Kingdom. (Most of

Ireland later broke away from the

union.)

In the 1900s many people in Scotland

wanted more of a say in their government.

In 1997 the people voted to create

a new Scottish Parliament. It took

control of many of Scotland’s affairs.

The national Parliament in England still

governed the United Kingdom as a

whole.

#More to explore

Anglo-Saxon • Celt • Edinburgh

• England • Heather • Ireland

• Northern Ireland • Parliament

• United Kingdom •Wales

Scouting

The Boy Scouts and the Girl Scouts

(also called Girl Guides) are groups that

teach useful skills and good citizenship

to boys and girls. Scouts often hike,

camp out, and take part in other outdoor

activities. Many countries around

the world have scouting groups.

Boy Scouts

A British Army officer named Robert

Baden-Powell started the Boy Scouts in

1907. In 1908 he published the first

A Cub Scout in the United States

gathers newspapers for recycling.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Scouting 53

Boy Scout handbook. This book introduced

the Boy Scouts’ motto, “Be Prepared.”

Scouting soon spread around the world.

The Boy Scouts of America started in

1910. It has several programs to serve

different age groups. Tiger Cubs are 7

years old. Cub Scouts are 8 to 10, and

Boy Scouts are 11 to 17. A Venturing

program serves older youths.

The Boy Scouts have several ranks, or

levels. A scout rises from one rank to the

next by learning skills and performing