rings of seats at different levels. One
of the most famous amphitheaters, the
Colosseum, was built in Rome in about
AD 70. A Roman basilica was a rectangular
public building with a raised platform
at one or both ends. The early
Christians adopted the shape of the
basilica for their churches.
Middle Ages
As Christianity spread throughout
Europe during the Middle Ages (about
AD 500 to 1500), many new churches
were built. In the east, Eastern Orthodox
Christianity was practiced in the
Byzantine Empire. A typical Byzantinestyle
church had a large dome on top of
a square building. Inside were marble
pillars and much decoration. The most
famous building in this style is the
Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey, completed
in 537. As the Eastern Orthodox
church spread to Greece, eastern
Europe, and Russia, domed churches
were built there too.
U.S. architects
copied ancient
Roman styles
in their
designs for
the U.S.
Capitol and
many other
government
buildings.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Architecture 169
Cordoba, Spain (700s900s). In
southern Asia, Islamic architecture came
to include Hindu and Persian elements
too. White marble and red sandstone
were often used. A famous example of
this style is the Taj Mahal, a tomb built
in Agra, India, in the 1600s.
Renaissance, Baroque, and
Later Styles
A period called the Renaissance began in
Italy in the 1300s. Renaissance architects
revived classical Greek and Roman
styles, using columns, round arches, and
domes. Among the famous Italian
Renaissance architects were Filippo
Brunelleschi, Bramante, Leon Battista
Alberti, and Andrea Palladio. The
Renaissance style spread from Italy to
the rest of Europe.
Baroque architecture became popular in
southern Europe in the 1600s. It
emphasized dramatic and elaborate
decorations, vivid colors, and luxurious
materials. In France and England the
baroque was more subdued and was
often mixed with the classical style.
In the 1700s some European architects
returned to a simpler style called neoclassicism
(or new classicism). In
England the ancient form of the Roman
villa was adapted to suburban and country
houses. In the 1800s Gothic styles
became popular again in England and
the United States. Renaissance and
baroque styles were also used in the
United States for houses and public
buildings.
Modern Developments
The growing population and rising cost
of land in cities in the late 1800s made
it necessary to put tall buildings on
small lots. As buildings got taller the
walls had to become stronger. In 1885
William Le Baron Jenney designed the
Home Insurance Company Building in
Chicago, Illinois. It was the first building
in which the exterior walls were
entirely supported on an internal steel
frame. The steel frame led to the skyscraper
age.
One of the most influential architects of
the skyscraper was Chicagos Louis Sullivan.
He believed that a buildings design
should reflect its function, and he often
used decoration based on natural forms.
His student Frank LloydWright became
one of the most influential architects of
the 1900s. He thought buildings should
be in harmony with their natural surroundings
and the people who use them.
The clean, simple lines of modernist
architecture are shown in
buildings designed by Mies van
der Rohe.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Architecture 171
His Prairie style emphasized horizontal
lines in houses with low, gently sloping
roofs.
Modernist buildings of the mid-1900s
typically had plain, rectangular forms
with no extra decoration. The architect
known as Le Corbusier designed buildings
in France with flowing interior
spaces, flat roofs, and large windows in
plain white walls. German architect
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe designed
steel and glass structures in simple geometric
forms with clean lines.
Beginning in the 1960s some architects
reacted against what they saw as the
cold, bare forms of modernism. These
architects were called postmodern. They
included Philip Johnson, Robert
Venturi, and Michael Graves. Some of
them playfully used classical features
such as arches and columns in new
ways. Starting in the late 20th century
architects such as Frank Gehry moved
away from traditional right angles. They
featured free-form curves in many of
their designs.
#More to explore
Acropolis Brick and Tile Cathedral
Concrete Church Egypt, Ancient
Greece, Ancient Iron Middle Ages
Mosque Pyramid Renaissance
Skyscraper Steel Taj Mahal
Temple
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic is the smallest of the worlds
oceans. It occupies the most northern
region of Earth. The North Pole is near
the center of the Arctic Ocean.
Physical Features
The Arctic Ocean covers an area of
5,440,000 square miles (14,090,000
square kilometers). The landmasses of
Eurasia (Europe and Asia), North
America, and Greenland surround the
ocean. The Arctic has several islands on
its edges but none in the center, where
there is a permanent cover of ice. A
narrow passage called the Bering Strait
connects the Arctic Ocean with the
Pacific Ocean. The Greenland Sea
connects the Arctic with the Atlantic
The MARTa museum in Germany was
designed by Frank Gehry.
172 Arctic Ocean BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ocean. The deepest point in Arctic
waters is 18,050 feet (5,502 meters),
but the average depth is 3,240 feet (988
meters).
Two forms of ice are found in the
Arctic Ocean: sea ice and pack ice. Sea
ice is frozen seawater that forms and
melts depending on the season. The
mass of sea ice that remains frozen year
after year is called pack ice. Pack ice is
generally smoother and less salty than
other sea ice.
The pack ice in the Arctic is hundreds of
miles across. It drifts around the ocean
in a clockwise direction. It completes
one revolution around the North Pole
every 10 years.
Climate
All Arctic waters are cold, and the climate
in the Arctic regions is among the
harshest in the world. The coldest temperatures
can drop to .85° F (.65° C),
especially at the end of the long Arctic
winter.
Economy
Because of the ice in the Arctic, there are
very few fish in the main body of the
ocean. However, some of its surrounding
seasthe Barents, Greenland, and
Bering seasare rich fishing grounds.
Whale hunting, or whaling, was once a
major Arctic industry, but governments
now limit it to protect the whales.
People still hunt seals in some areas.
Exploration
The Dutch and the English became the
leaders in Arctic exploration in the early
1500s. They were seeking a route, called
the Northeast Passage, across the Arctic
to the Far East. A Swedish explorer
finally made the trip in 187879. He
sailed from Norway, through the Russian
side of the Arctic Ocean, and out
into the Pacific. In the 1880s and 1890s
Fridtjof Nansen, a Norwegian explorer,
made more important explorations of
the Arctic Ocean.
Later explorers used dog sleds to try to
get across the ice to the North Pole. The
U.S. explorers Robert E. Peary and Matthew
Henson claimed to be the first to
reach the North Pole, in 1909.
Environmental Issues
Hunting in the Arctic has endangered
several types of animals, including
whales and walruses. Other economic
activities are also cause for concern. Oil
tankers that sail through the Arctic
waters are threatened by ice. If damaged,
they can release tons of oil into the
ocean waters.
A walrus sits on top of an iceberg in the
Arctic Ocean.
At the North
Pole the sun
does not rise
above the
horizon for six
months of the
year. For the
rest of the
year the sun
never sets.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arctic Ocean 173
Global warming may be the most serious
environmental problem for the Arctic
Ocean. Global warming is a slow rise in
Earths temperature that may be caused
by pollution. Some scientists warn that
this warming could cause the Arctic pack
ice to melt. The levels of oceans around
the world would then rise, and many
coastlines would disappear.
#More to explore
GlobalWarming Ocean Polar
Exploration
Ares
In ancient Greek mythology Ares was
the god of war. He was one of the 12
major gods believed to live on Mount
Olympus. His bird was the vulture, and
his animal was the dog. Ares is associated
with Mars, the god of war in
ancient Roman mythology.
Ares was the son of Zeus, the chief god,
and his wife, Hera. Ares was said to have
loved Aphrodite, the goddess of love.
Ares and Aphrodite had several children.
Even though Ares was one of the main
Greek gods, people did not worship him
much. The ancient Greeks thought Ares
was cruel. They believed that he enjoyed
sending war and disease to humans.
Unlike Ares, Mars was a popular and
important god. The Romans thought of
Mars as a powerful nature god, as well as
the god of war. They prayed to him to
protect their crops and farm animals.
The month of March was named after
Mars because it was the time when
farmers began to plant their crops. Mars,
the fourth planet from the sun, was also
named after him.
#More to explore
Aphrodite Mythology
174 Ares BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Argentina
The country of Argentina takes up most
of the southern part of South America.
Its name is a Spanish word meaning
Land of Silver, after the silver found
there by Spanish explorers. The capital is
Buenos Aires.
Geography
Argentina is bordered by Chile, Bolivia,
Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay. The
Atlantic Ocean lies to the east.
Argentina has four major regions: the
Andes, the North, the Pampas, and Patagonia.
The Andes Mountains run along
the western edge of the country. Their
highest peak is Mount Aconcagua, at
22,831 feet (6,959 meters). The North
includes the Gran Chaco, an area of dry
lowlands, and Mesopotamia, an area
between the Parana and Uruguay rivers.
The central Pampas are grasslands. Patagonia
is a cold, dry, windy region in the
south.
Tierra del Fuego is a group of islands off
the southern tip of the continent.
Argentina shares the islands with Chile.
Most of Argentina has a mild climate
with cool, damp winters. The northeastern
areas get the most rain.
Plants and Animals
Argentinas plants vary widely from
region to region. There are forests in the
Andes, thorny trees and cactuses in the
Parts of Patagonia are cold enough to be
covered by glaciers. Glaciers are masses of
moving ice.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Argentina 175
Gran Chaco, and rain forests in Mesopotamia.
In the Pampas there are grasses
in the humid section and scrub forests
in the dry section. Patagonia has zones
of broadleaf forests, steppe, and desert.
Argentina also has a wide variety of
wildlife. In the northwest live guanacos,
llamas, and alpacas. Deer, monkeys,
jaguars, and tapirs live in Gran Chaco
and Mesopotamia. Herds of cattle and
horses roam the Pampas. Parrots and
canaries live in the southern tip of the
country.
People
Most Argentines live in cities, especially
Buenos Aires. Most of the population
has European roots. About 10 percent of
Argentines are American Indian or mestizo
(a mixture of European and Indian).
Spanish is the national language. Roman
Catholicism is the main religion.
Economy
Banking and other services, manufacturing,
and trade are the most important
parts of the economy. Argentinas natural
resources of petroleum (oil) and
natural gas help its industries. Farmers
produce soybeans, sugarcane, grains,
beef, wool, and wine. Exported goods
include food, petroleum, and metal
products. Tourists also bring billions of
dollars to Argentina each year.
History
Native peoples of what is now Argentina
included the Tehuelche, the Querandi,
the Puelche, the Diaguitas, and the Inca.
Spaniards arrived in the early 1500s.
They founded the colony of Buenos
Aires in 1536. The Europeans forced the
native people to work for them.
Argentina was first part of Spanish Peru
and then part of a province called Rio de
la Plata. Rio de la Plata declared its independence
in 1816 but soon broke up in
a civil war. After the war, a series of dictators,
presidents, and military leaders
ruled Argentina.
In the 1900s Argentina suffered many
economic and political problems. President
Juan Peron, elected in 1946, and
his wife Eva (Evita) were popular among
workers for a time. However, the military
overthrew Peron in 1955 and his
third wife, President Isabel Peron, in
1976. The military government then
imprisoned and killed thousands of citizens
in what became known as the Dirty
War.
In 1982 Argentina went to war with the
United Kingdom over the Falkland
Islands. The United Kingdom gained
control of the islands. The defeat caused
Argentinas military leader to step down.
In 1983 the country held an election,
which ended military rule. Leaders then
worked to improve human rights and
the economy. In the late 20th and early
21st centuries, however, rising poverty
and unemployment led to protests
throughout Argentina.
..More to explore
Andes Buenos Aires Falkland Islands
Human Rights South America
Tierra del Fuego
Facts About
ARGENTINA
Population
(2008 estimate)
39,737,000
Area
1,073,400 sq mi
(2,780,092 sq
km)
Capital
Buenos Aires
Form of
government
Federal republic
Major cities
Buenos Aires,
Cordoba, San
Justo, Rosario
176 Argentina BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Arikara
The Arikara tribe of Native Americans
traditionally lived along the Missouri
River in what is now in North Dakota.
Originally their culture was related to
that of the Pawnee tribe of present-day
Nebraska. They are now associated with
the Hidatsa and the Mandan peoples.
The early Arikara lived in villages situated
along riverbanks. There they built
dome-shaped houses made of mud
packed around a wooden frame. They
also constructed larger lodges, which
they used for religious ceremonies.
Near their villages, Arikara women
tended fields. They grew corn, beans,
squash, sunflowers, and tobacco. Arikara
men fished and hunted deer, elk, and
bison (buffalo).
French and English traders regularly
visited the Arikara to trade guns and
other European goods for animal furs.
In 1823 the Arikara killed 13 members
of a white trading party, and soon afterward
they became the first plains tribe to
battle the U.S. Army.
During the 1800s, the Arikara population
declined due to warfare and exposure
to European diseases, such as
smallpox. In order to protect themselves
from their enemies, the survivors of the
Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa tribes
moved to a single village. The three
tribes became officially known as the
Three Affiliated Tribes in 1934. Today
members of this group live on the Fort
Berthold Reservation in North Dakota.
At the end of the 20th century, there
were about 900 Arikara living in the
United States.
#More to explore
Hidatsa Mandan Native Americans
Pawnee
Arithmetic
Arithmetic is the most elementary
branch of mathematics. It is the part of
mathematics that deals with counting as
well as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. All of the other
branches of mathematics use the principles
and rules of arithmetic. Everyone
uses arithmetic every day. It is used
when buying something at a store, measuring
distances, or simply counting to
10. The word arithmetic comes from the
Greek word arithmos, which means
number.
#More to explore
Abacus Mathematics Numbers and
Counting Systems
Four Arikara Native Americans take part in
a ceremony.
The abacus is
a tool for
doing arithmetic.
It was
invented hundreds
of years
before the calculating
machine.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arithmetic 177
Arizona
Arizona is known as the Grand
Canyon State because of the
amazing landform found in the northern
part of the state. The awesome size
and beauty of the Grand Canyon make
it one of the most famous natural wonders
in the world. Phoenix is Arizonas
capital and largest city.
Geography
Arizona is located in the southwestern
United States. The Colorado River separates
Arizona from Nevada and California
to the west. Arizona also borders
Utah on the north, New Mexico on the
east, and the country of Mexico on the
south.
Mountains run across the state from
northwest to southeast. To the south of
the mountains is a large area of desert
plains, valleys, and smaller mountain
ranges. Most of Arizona is very hot and
dry during the summer and pleasant
during the winter.
People
Though the majority of Arizonans are of
European origin, the state is notable for
its large Hispanic and Native American
minorities. About one quarter of the
people are Hispanic, mainly of Mexican
heritage. The Native American population
is larger than those of all states
except Oklahoma and California. The
Navajo are Arizonas largest native
group. Many of them live on a huge
reservation that covers parts of Arizona,
Utah, and New Mexico. The state also
has small African American and Asian
minorities.
Most of Arizonas people live in the
southern half of the state. Located in
south-central Arizona, Phoenix is the
states major city. Other cities include
Tucson, Mesa, Glendale, and Scottsdale.
The University of Arizona is located in
Tucson. Arizona State Universitys main
campus is in Tempe, which is near Phoenix.
In the north are Prescott and Flagstaff,
the home of Northern Arizona
University.
Economy
Businesses dealing in real estate and
tourism are important parts of Arizonas
economy. The states main manufactured
goods include computers and
178 Arizona BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
other electronic equipment, transportation
equipment, and metal goods. Cotton
and citrus fruit are major farm
products. Other crops include vegetables
and a variety of grains. Cattle are raised
on large ranches. Arizona is also a major
producer of copper.
History
Arizona has been home to Native
Americans for thousands of years. Prehistoric
peoples such as the Hohokam,
the Anasazi, and the Mogollon developed
advanced cultures in the region.
When Spanish explorers arrived in the
1500s they found Hopi, Papago, and
Pima Indians. Later the Apache, the
Navajo, and other tribes moved into the
area.
In 1539 a Roman Catholic priest
named Marcos de Niza claimed the
land for Spain. For nearly 300 years the
Spanish continued to explore and settle
in the Arizona area. After gaining
independence from Spain in 1821,
Mexico ruled the area. The United
States took control of the land in 1848,
following its victory over Mexico in the
Mexican War.
The discovery of gold, silver, and
copper in the 1850s brought many
miners to the area. The opening of
railroads in the 1880s also brought
settlers from the eastern United States
into the area. Arizona became a
territory of the United States in 1863
and a state in 1912. Copper mining
remained the states most important
industry until the 1950s.
Arizonas population grew quickly after
WorldWar II. Many of the soldiers that
had trained at military bases in Arizona
returned with their families after the war
ended.
Since the late 20th century Arizona has
been one of the countrys fastestgrowing
states. In 2000 it was the 20th
state in population. By the end of the
decade it had moved up to 14th.
..More to explore
Anasazi Colorado River Grand
Canyon Hohokam Culture Navajo
Phoenix
The Hohokam people carved many designs
into rocks hundreds of years ago. Today
these carvings can be seen at Saguaro
National Park in Arizona.
Facts About
ARIZONA
Flag
Population
(2000 census)
5,130,632
rank, 20th state;
(2008 estimate)
6,500,180
rank, 14th state
Capital
Phoenix
Area
113,998 sq mi
(295,254 sq
km)rank, 6th
state
Statehood
February 14,
1912
Motto
Ditat Deus (God
Enriches)
State bird
Cactus wren
State flower
Blossom of the
saguaro cactus
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arizona 179
Arkansas
The U.S. state of Arkansas got
its name from a word that early
French explorers used for the local Quapaw
Indians and the river along which
they settled. Arkansass official nickname
is the Natural State, which refers to the
states beautiful countryside of mountains,
lakes, and streams. The capital is
Little Rock.
Geography
Arkansas is located in the south-central
United States. It borders Missouri on the
north, Oklahoma and Texas on the west,
and Louisiana on the south. On the east
the Mississippi River separates Arkansas
from Tennessee and Mississippi.
Highlands cover northern and western
Arkansas, and lowlands cover the south
and east. The Arkansas River divides the
highlands into the Ouachita Mountains
on the south and the Ozark Mountains
(or Ozark Plateau) on the north. The
highlands are densely forested. The lowlands
are plains with good farmland and
some hills. Arkansas generally has mild
winters and hot, humid summers.
People
About four fifths of Arkansans are of
European heritage. African Americans
are the largest minority, making up more
than 15 percent of the states population.
Almost half of the people live in
rural settings. Little Rock is the largest
city. It is located in the middle of the
state on the south bank of the Arkansas
River. The main campus of the University
of Arkansas is in the northern city of
Fayetteville.
Economy
Leading farm products in Arkansas are
poultry (especially broiler chickens),
cattle, soybeans, and rice. The processing
of farm products is the states leading
manufacturing industry. Many
Arkansans are employed as service pro-
A waterfall tumbles over a rock ledge in the
Ozark Mountains in Arkansas.
180 Arkansas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
viders in such areas as government, retail
trade, and health care.Wal-Mart, the
largest chain of retail stores in the world,
began in Arkansas.
History
What is now Arkansas was originally
home to several Native American
groups, including the Caddo, the Osage,
and the Quapaw. The first Europeans to
visit the area were Spaniards. Hernando
de Soto arrived in the early 1540s in
search of gold. But the French built the
first permanent settlement, in 1686.
In 1803 the United States acquired the
region from France as part of the Louisiana
Purchase. Arkansas became a U.S.
territory in 1819 and a state in 1836. In
1861, however, it withdrew from the
Union during the American CivilWar
and joined the Confederacy. It was readmitted
to the Union in 1868.
Arkansas remained largely undeveloped
and poor for the first half of the 1900s.
During the civil rights movement the
state was a focus of national attention.
In 1957 Governor Orval Faubus tried to
prevent African American students from
entering Little Rocks all-white schools.
The federal government stepped in and
forced the schools to allow racial integration.
The economy of Arkansas began to
improve in the late 1950s. The state
worked to bring in manufacturing
plants, which created new jobs.
One of the most notable people in
Arkansas politics was Bill Clinton. After
five terms as the state governor, he
served as president of the United States
from 1993 to 2001.
..More to explore
American CivilWar Civil Rights
Movement Clinton, Bill Little Rock
A farmer in Arkansas inspects
his crop of rice.
African American students walk to school in
Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957. Troops sent
by the federal government stand by to make
sure the students are allowed to enter the
school.
Facts About
ARKANSAS
Flag
Population
(2000 census)
2,673,400
rank, 33rd state;
(2008 estimate)
2,855,390
rank, 32nd state
Capital
Little Rock
Area
53,179 sq mi
(137,732 sq
km)rank, 29th
state
Statehood
June 15, 1836
Motto
Regnat Populus
(The People Rule)
State bird
Mockingbird
State flower
Apple blossom
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arkansas 181
Arm
Humans, apes, and monkeys have two
upper limbs called arms. Each arm
hangs from a shoulder and contains
bones, joints, and muscles. These parts
work together to give the arm a wide
range of movement. The arm can bend,
rotate, swing back and forth, and move
from side to side.
Structure
There are three bones in the arm. The
upper bone is called the humerus. The
top of the humerus fits into a cuplike
socket in the shoulder. Together they
make a joint that is held together by
tough strands called ligaments. This
joint allows the upper arm to swing and
rotate. A pair of muscles is attached to
the humerus. One muscle bends the
arm. The other muscle straightens it.
The lower end of the humerus connects
to a bone called the ulna at a joint in the
elbow. The ulna and another bone, the
radius, go from the elbow to the wrist.
This part of the arm is called the forearm.
A pair of muscles in the forearm
makes it twist from side to side. The
forearm ends in the hand.
Function
Humans, apes, and monkeys use their
arms and hands to push and pull objects,
to fight and defend themselves, and to
carry their young. Apes and monkeys also
use their arms to swing on branches and
to move around on the ground.
Arms in Other Animals
Many other animals have two front
limbs, but only primates have true arms.
The two front limbs of other animals are
known as legs, flippers, or wings. Both
starfishes and octopuses have limbs that
people sometimes call arms. But these
arms have no bones or joints. Starfish
arms are also called rays, and octopus
arms are also called tentacles.
#More to explore
Bone Hand Muscle Primate
The human arm is similar to the front limbs
of other animals.
182 Arm BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Armada, Spanish
The Spanish Armada was a fleet of ships
that Spain sent to attack England in
1588. The English defeated the Spanish,
which made Spain less powerful in
Europe.
The Armada sailed in May 1588 with
130 ships and 27,000 men. They
reached the English Channel in late July
and fought a few battles. On August 8
the English won a decisive victory. They
had fewer ships, but they had big guns
and could fire at long range. This was
unusual because at the time, sea battles
were fought at close range so that soldiers
could climb aboard enemy ships.
The defeat of the Spanish Armada saved
England from invasion. It also was the
first major gun battle at sea. For hundreds
of years afterward, gun-armed
warships ruled the seas.
#More to explore
England Spain
Armadillo
Armadillos are small mammals related to
sloths and anteaters. They have a tough
armor that protects them from enemies
and other dangers. The word armadillo
is Spanish for little armored one.
There are 20 species, or types, of armadillo.
They live mainly in or near the
tropical (hot) regions of Central and
South America. One species lives in the
southern United States. Most species live
in open areas, but some live in forests.
Armadillos are stout with short legs and
strong, curved claws. They range in
length from about 6 inches (15 centimeters)
to 5 feet (1.5 meters). Armadillos
are usually brownish black with some
yellow markings. Their armor is a type
of hardened skin. It is made up of solid
plates and flexible bands. It covers most
of the body, including the head and usually
the tail.
Most armadillos have very little hair.
The pink fairy armadillo, however, has a
coat of soft, white hair on its underparts
and sides.
Armadillos are usually active at night.
They live in burrows, or holes that they
dig in the ground. Armadillos also dig to
find food. They eat mainly termites and
other insects, worms, roots, and small
animals.
Female armadillos usually bear one to 12
identical young. All develop from a
single egg inside the mother.
#More to explore
Anteater Mammal Sloth
The nine-banded armadillo is the only kind
of armadillo that lives in the United States.
Some types of
armadillo are
able to roll
themselves into
a ball to protect
their
underparts
from enemies.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Armadillo 183
Armenia
The Republic of Armenia is one of the
worlds oldest centers of civilization.
Yerevan, the capital, is also one of the
worlds oldest cities.
Geography
Armenia is located in western Asia,
between the Black Sea and the Caspian
Sea. It is bordered by Georgia, Azerbaijan,
Iran, and Turkey. Armenia is a
mountainous country. The Lesser Caucasus
Mountains stretch across the
north. Armenias highest peak, Mount
Aragats, is 13,418 feet (4,090 meters)
high. The area has experienced many
earthquakes, including one in 1988 that
killed some 25,000 people.
Armenia has a dry climate. Summers are
generally hot.Winters are generally not
very cold, except in the mountains and
on the windy plateaus.
Plants and Animals
Junipers, dog roses, and honeysuckles
grow in the lower areas of Armenia.
Thorny bushes cover the mountain
slopes. There are beech forests in the
northeast and oak forests in the southeast.
Among the animals found in Armenia
are wild boars, wildcats, jackals, Syrian
bears, lynx, ibex (a kind of wild goat),
and mountain sheep.
People
About 98 percent of the people are ethnic
Armenians. There are small numbers
of Kurds and other groups. Armenian is
the official language. Most people are
The Khor Virap monastery is an important
religious site for Armenians. It is associated
with Gregory the Illuminator. He introduced
Christianity to the Armenians more than
1,700 years ago. Behind the monastery
rises Mount Ararat, in Turkey.
184 Armenia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Christians of the Armenian Apostolic
church. Historically, the Armenian
church has been independent of both
the Roman Catholic and the Eastern
Orthodox churches.
Economy
Despite the growth of cities and industries,
agriculture is very important to
Armenias economy. Farmers raise potatoes,
wheat, tomatoes, barley, grapes,
watermelons, sheep, and cattle. Factories
make food products, metal products,
jewelry, machinery, chemicals, tobacco,
and textiles. Mines provide copper.
Transportation can be difficult because
of the mountains, but Armenia has a
network of roads and railways and an
airport.
History
Armenian civilization began as early as
the 500s BC. It reached its greatest size
and influence in the 1st century BC.
The Roman Empire conquered
Armenia in 30 BC. From the 300s to
the 1800s Persians, Byzantines, Arabs,
Mongols, Turks, Russians, and others
conquered and ruled Armenia at
different periods.
During 189596 Ottoman Turks killed
thousands of Armenians, who wanted
independence from the Ottoman
Empire. In 1915, at the beginning of
WorldWar I, another 600,000 Armenians
died of starvation or were killed by
Turks. After the war Armenia enjoyed a
brief period of independence.
In 1920 the Soviet Union invaded
Armenia and forced it to accept a Communist
government. Two years later the
Soviets formed the Transcaucasian Soviet
Federated Socialist Republic, which
included Armenia, Azerbaijan, and
Georgia. The three countries became
separate republics within the Soviet
Union in 1936.
On September 23, 1991, Armenia
declared its independence from the
Soviet Union. However, Armenia still
relied on economic and military help
from Russia.
In the 1990s Armenia fought with
neighboring Azerbaijan over control of
Nagorno-Karabakh, an area of Azerbaijan
with a largely Armenian population.
Armenia took control of the region
and other Azerbaijani territory in 1993.
The continuing conflict hurt Armenias
economy. Many Armenians left the
country.
..More to explore
Azerbaijan Ottoman Empire Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics Yerevan
Schoolchildren walk toward a monument in
Yerevan. The monument honors thousands
of Armenians who were killed in 1915.
Facts About
ARMENIA
Population
(2008 estimate)
2,996,000
Area
11,484 sq mi
(29,743 sq km)
Capital
Yerevan
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Yerevan, Gyumri,
Vanadzor
(Kirovakan)
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Armenia 185
Armor
When people think of armor, images of a
knight covered in clanking metal often
come to mind.However, the word armor
is used for any kind of clothing that is
intended to protect the wearer in combat.
As weapons have changed, armor has
changed also. An outfit that stops an
arrow might not work against a bullet.
Like early clothing, early armor came
from animals. Thousands of years ago
warriors cushioned their bodies against
the blows of clubs with layers of furry
hides. Chinese warriors in the 1000s BC
wore armor made of layers of rhinoceros
hide.
Later, people learned to use plates made
of tough material such as metal, horn,
wood, or plastic. Plate armor provided
great protection to the body. The ancient
Greeks used bronze plates made to fit the
body and limbs. The ancient Romans
favored plate armor made of iron.
Since ancient times warriors have worn armor to protect themselves during battle. Armor
has taken many different forms over the centuries.
186 Armor BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Plate armor was not very flexible, however,
and in the early Middle Ages mail,
or chain mail, became the main form of
armor. Mail was made of interlinked
rings of iron or steel. Mail was flexible
and could be worn as a shirt, as leggings,
or as a hood.
By the 1300s, plate armor was being
made in such a way that the person
wearing it could move freely. The armor
that protected the knights of Europe
during the late Middle Ages was made
of large steel or iron plates. This kind of
armor replaced mail.
As firearms became more powerful,
armor had to get heavier. Eventually
armor became too heavy and bulky to be
practical. Plate armor disappeared completely
in the 1700s.
Some forms of armor continue to be
important in modern times. Soldiers
wear helmets and other protective
clothing. A common form of modern
body armor used today is the
bulletproof vest. Worn especially by
police officers, it often has a lining of
overlapping steel disks. Fiberglass and
other light artificial materials are
sometimes used as well.
Armstrong,
Lance
U.S. athlete Lance Armstrong was one
of the greatest professional cyclists. He is
the only person to have won the Tour de
Francethe worlds most difficult
bicycle raceseven times.
Lance Armstrong was born on September
18, 1971, in Plano, Texas. He was
good at sports at an early age. After finishing
high school, he devoted himself
to cycling. In 1990 he won that sports
U.S. Amateur Championship.
Armstrong began to earn money as a
professional cyclist in 1992. The next
year he won the world championships in
mens road racing and many other competitions.
In 1996 Armstrong was ranked the top
male cyclist in the world. But later that
year he fell seriously ill with cancer. Surgery
and chemical treatments called chemotherapy
eventually saved his life.
Doctors doubted that Armstrong could
return to a sport as physically demanding
as cycling. However, Armstrong won
the Tour de France in 1999. He went on
to win every Tour de France for the next
six years. After his victory in 2005, Arm-
Lance Armstrong
was
only the second
person
from the
United States
ever to win the
Tour de
France.
Lance Armstrong (in yellow) nears the end
of the Tour de France bicycle race in 2005.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Armstrong, Lance 187
strong retired from professional cycling.
He devoted himself to raising awareness
about cancer. He returned to racing in
2009 and placed third in the Tour de
France that year.
..More to explore
Bicycle Cycling
Armstrong, Louis
U.S. trumpet player and singer Louis
Armstrong was one of the worlds
greatest jazz musicians. He influenced
nearly all jazz horn players who came
after him.
Louis Daniel Armstrong was born on
August 4, 1901, in New Orleans, Louisiana.
As a boy he earned some money
by singing in the streets. After he fired a
pistol one New Years Eve, he was sent
to a home for troubled kids in 1913.
There he learned to play cornet.
In 1922 cornetist King Oliver invited
Armstrong to Chicago to join his band.
Armstrong later joined Fletcher
Hendersons big band in New York City
for a year.
Armstrong returned to Chicago and
began playing the trumpet. By 1929 he
was famous, and he toured the United
States and Europe as a trumpet soloist
accompanied by big bands. He started
performing popular songs in addition to
jazz. He also began to sing lyrics in a low,
rough voice that was very distinctive.
After 1935 Armstrong appeared in
movies and on radio and television. In
1940 he formed Louis Armstrongs
All-Stars, a Dixieland band with six
musicians. For most of the rest of his
life, he toured with this group. He died
on July 6, 1971, in New York City.
..More to explore
Jazz Popular Music
Armstrong, Neil
In 1969 U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong
became the first person to walk on the
Moon. Millions of people watched on
television as Armstrong stepped out of
his spacecraft and said, Thats one
small step for [a] man, one giant leap for
mankind.
Neil Alden Armstrong was born on
August 5, 1930, in Wapakoneta, Ohio.
He became interested in airplanes at a
young age. He received his pilots
license on his 16th birthday. After high
school Armstrong became an air cadet
in the U.S. Navy. In the 1950s he was a
Louis Armstrong pilot in the Korean War.
Louis Armstrongs
nickname
was
Satchmo.
188 Armstrong, Louis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
In 1955 Armstrong joined the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) as a test pilot. Seven years later
Armstrong became an astronaut.
On July 16, 1969, Armstrong, Edwin E.
(Buzz) Aldrin, Jr., and Michael Collins
left for the Moon in the Apollo 11
spacecraft. Four days later, Aldrin and
Armstrong landed on the Moon in the
Eagle, a landing vehicle that separated
from the Apollo spacecraft. Armstrong
was the first to step out onto the Moons
surface. For more than two hours he and
Aldrin collected samples of Moon soil,
made measurements, and took photographs
before they began their return
trip to Earth.
Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971.
He continued to teach and to work on
committees about the space program.
#More to explore
Moon Space Exploration
Army
An army is a large, organized group of
soldiers trained to fight other armies or
groups. An armys main job is usually to
defend its country in times of war. An
army protects the country against
attacks or invasion by enemies. It may
also fight in other parts of the world.
An army is usually one of several major
branches of a countrys armed forces. In
the United States the other major
branches are the Air Force and the Navy
(which includes the Marine Corps).
Armies Today
Modern armies have ranks, or levels of
power. The soldiers who command soldiers
in lower ranks are called officers.
The officers in the highest ranks are the
generals. The generals are in charge of
the army as a whole. Beneath the generals
are the commissioned officers. They
are graduates of special military training
schools. Beneath them are the noncommissioned
officers. These are men and
women who started out as ordinary soldiers
and moved up through the ranks.
The ordinary soldiers, or privates, make
up the lowest ranks of an army.
Neil Armstrong
Soldiers stand in formation at a U.S. Army
post in Hawaii.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Army 189
Sometimes people are drafted, or
ordered by their government to join the
army. Drafts are common in times of
war when too few people volunteer. For
example, the United States, Canada, and
the United Kingdom had drafts during
WorldWar II. Today, however, volunteers
make up these countries armies.
Some countries, such as China and
Israel, still require most of their citizens
to serve time in the army.
History
The first army was probably organized
in Sumer, a civilization that began more
than 6,000 years ago in the Middle East.
The earliest soldiers fought with swords,
shields, and bows and arrows. They protected
themselves with armor.
Over the centuries, new developments
in warfare changed the way armies
fought. Arabs and Europeans invented
weapons that used gunpowder in the
1300s. Armies began using machine
guns in the 1800s and bombs in the
1900s. Armies continue to develop new
weapons. New technology also has
helped improve communications and
protect soldiers on the battlefield.
#More to explore
Air Force Armor Bomb Marines
Navy War
Artemis
In ancient Greek mythology Artemis
was the goddess of wild animals and
hunting. She was one of the 12 main
gods believed to live on Mount Olympus.
Artemis was associated with the
Roman goddess Diana because they
shared many of the same characteristics.
The cypress tree and wild animals were
sacred to Artemis.
Artemis was the daughter of Zeus, the
chief Greek god, and Leto. Leto was a
China has the
worlds largest
army.
190 Artemis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Titan, or one of the giants who once
ruled the world. Artemis was the twin
sister of Apollo, the god of music and
light. Apollo was associated with the
sun, while Artemis was associated with
the moon. Some people believed that
Artemis helped women during childbirth.
Artemis was a protector of animals,
but she also hunted them. Artists
showed Artemis with a deer or with her
hunting dog and silver bow, a weapon
used to shoot arrows.
According to one story, Artemis loved
the giant huntsman Orion and lived
with him in the forest. Eventually, Artemis
became jealous. She thought that
Orion loved another woman. In
revenge, Artemis shot Orion with an
arrow. Orion was placed in the sky after
his death. There he became a constellation
(a group of stars).
#More to explore
Apollo Greece, Ancient Mythology
Zeus
Arthritis
Arthritis is a common medical problem
for older people. Sufferers of arthritis
experience swelling, pain, and redness in
the jointsthe places where the bones
meet. Arthritis commonly affects the
spine, hips, knees, and hands. It may
also attack many other parts of the body.
In severe cases, people may find it difficult
or even impossible to move the
joints at all.
Arthritis seems to run in families. People
whose parents or grandparents had
arthritis often get it themselves. Infections
and injuries can cause rarer types
of arthritis.
In most cases, arthritis is a lifelong condition
without a cure. However, aspirin,
ibuprofen, or other drugs may help to
relieve the pain and swelling. Exercise
may help to increase movement. In
some cases doctors may perform surgery.
They can remove unhealthy tissue or
replace severely damaged joints with
ones made of plastic or metal.
#More to explore
Bone Medicine
Arthur, Chester
When President James A. Garfield was
assassinated in 1881, Chester A. Arthur,
the vice president, rose to the highest
office of the United States. Because
many people did not believe that Arthur
would make a good president, he
worked hard to gain the publics respect.
Arthritis can bend fingers out of shape.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arthur, Chester 191
Early Life and Career
Chester Alan Arthur was born on October
5, 1829, in the village of Fairfield,
Vermont. He was the son ofWilliam
Arthur, a Baptist minister, and Malvina
Stone. Chester entered Union College in
Schenectady, New York, when he was
only 15. After graduating at age 18, he
studied law while teaching. In 1859
Arthur married Ellen Lewis Herndon.
The couple had three children.
Beginning in 1854, Arthur worked as a
lawyer in New York City. He became
known for his antislavery principles.
Arthur won the case of slaves who
demanded their freedom after coming to
the free state of New York. Arthur also
represented an African American woman
who had been forced off a streetcar
reserved for whites. His success led to a
New York law against discrimination in
public transportation.
Political Career
In the 1850s Arthur helped to organize
the new Republican Party in New York
State. In 1868 he worked on Ulysses S.
Grants successful presidential campaign.
In 1871 President Grant appointed
Arthur customs collector for the port of
New York City. In 1880 the Republicans
nominated Garfield for president and
Arthur for vice president. The Republi-
October 5, November 18,
1829 1854 1880 1881 1883 1885 1886
Arthur is born
in Fairfield,
Vermont.
Arthur becomes
a lawyer. In his
law career he
defended the
rights of African
Americans.
Arthur is
elected vice
president under
President James
A. Garfield.
Arthur
becomes
president after
President
Garfield dies.
Arthur reforms
the civil
service, the
system of
government
employees.
Arthur retires
and Grover
Cleveland
becomes
president.
Arthur dies in
New York City.
T I M E L I N E
Chester A. Arthur
192 Arthur, Chester BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
cans won the election, and Arthur took
the countrys second highest office.
Presidency
On July 2, 1881, a man with a history
of mental illness shot President Garfield.
Upon Garfields death in September,
Arthur became the countrys 21st president.
The public considered him
unqualified for the post.
However, Arthur surprised everyone by
reforming the civil service, the system of
government employees. Until that time
many politicians gave jobs in the government
to friends, party members, and
people who paid them money or gave
them gifts. In 1883 Arthur signed the
first civil-service law, the Pendleton Act,
which required that government
employees be hired for their skills.
Arthur vetoed, or rejected, a law that
would have banned the immigration of
Chinese people for 20 years. However,
he signed the Chinese Exclusion Act of
1882, which stopped Chinese immigration
for 10 years. Arthur also helped to
modernize and expand the U.S. Navy.
Arthurs popularity grew with each year
of his presidency. In 1884, however, the
Republicans nominated James G. Blaine
for president. (Blaine lost the election to
Grover Cleveland.) Arthur finished his
term as president and then returned to
New York City. He died at his home on
November 18, 1886.
#More to explore
Garfield, James A. United States
Arthur, King
Arthur was a legendary king of ancient
Britain. He appears in a group of stories
that are together known as the
Arthurian legend. The stories are a
combination of history, myth, romance,
fairy tale, and religion. They have
captured peoples imagination for many
hundreds of years.
Some scholars believe that Arthur was a
real person who lived in Britain in the
AD 400s or 500s. According to these
scholars he led the Christian Celts in
wars against Saxon invaders. After
Arthur was killed in battle, his people
fled toWales and to Brittany in France.
There they told stories of Arthurs bravery
and goodness. Eventually he was
remembered as a hero and a wise and
all-powerful king.
King Arthurs followers were known as the
Knights of the Round Table. They used a
round table so that each would have an
equally important place at the table.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arthur, King 193
The Legend of Arthur
According to the stories, Arthur was the
son of King Uther Pendragon. As an
infant, Arthur was given to Merlin the
magician. The young Arthur pulled the
sword Excalibur from the stone in which
it had been magically fixed. This proved
that he should be king because no one
else had been able to pull the sword
from the stone. In another version of the
story, the Lady of the Lake handed
Arthur the sword, with only her arm
visible above the water.
King Arthur married Guinevere and
held court at Camelot. He and his
strong and brave knights all sat as equals
around a great round table. They came
to be known as the Order of the Round
Table. Sir Lancelot was the greatest of
the knights; Sir Galahad, the most
noble; and Perceval, the most innocent.
Knights were soldiers who swore loyalty
to a lord. The real Arthur, if he existed,
lived long before the age of knighthood.
Nevertheless, knights and poets of that
period depicted him as a knight like
themselves.
King Arthur was a mighty warrior.
However, his traitorous nephew, Mordred,
rose in rebellion. Arthur was badly
wounded in battle. His body was carried
to the island of Avalon to be healed. At
some future time, according to legend,
he will return to rule again.
In some stories about Arthur he and his
knights sought theHoly Grail. In
Christian legend, the Grail is the cup
used by Jesus at the Last Supper.
According to legend, only the pure could
see the Grail.
Books about Arthur
Many French and English writers of the
Middle Ages wrote down Arthurian
legends. Sir Thomas Malory, an English
writer of the 1400s, brought together
many tales in his book Le Morte Darthur
(The Death of Arthur). Most modern
versions are based on Malorys book.
#More to explore
Celt Folktale Knight
Articles of
Confederation
The Articles of Confederation served as
the first constitution of the United
States. The articles went into effect on
An English
writer named
T.H. White
wrote four
novels about
King Arthur
and his court.
The novels
were published
in one
volume called
The Once and
Future King in
1958.
The Articles of Confederation
were printed for everyone to
read.
194 Articles of Confederation BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
March 1, 1781. Soon afterward,
however, the people realized that there
were problems with the document. On
March 4, 1789, the articles were replaced
by the U.S. Constitution.
The articles were written by the representatives
of the American Colonies who
made up the Second Continental Congress.
When the colonies declared their
independence from Great Britain in
1776, they realized they needed a new
plan of government. The colonies deeply
resented the laws that the British Parliament
had imposed on them, so they set
up a weak central government. The only
branch of government was a Congress
with one house. Congress had power
over military and foreign affairs but not
over the affairs of each state. It could not
enforce its powers or collect taxes.
Because of these problems, state leaders
wrote a new constitution in 1787. The
new constitution strengthened the federal
government. It provided for executive
and judicial branches and a
legislature with two houses.
#More to explore
Continental Congress United States
Constitution
Artificial
Intelligence
Intelligence is the ability to learn and to
deal with new situations. When a computer
or a robot solves a problem or uses
language, it may seem to be intelligent.
However, this type of intelligence is different
from human intelligence. It is
called artificial intelligence, or AI.
Artificial intelligence comes from sets of
instructions that people write. These
instructions are called programs. Computers
use programs to analyze, or study,
large amounts of information quickly.
Then they pick answers or actions from
among many choices. Computer programs
can be used for playing games,
making medical decisions, and translating
languages.
But analyzing information is not the
same as understanding a problem as
humans do. Computers can only use
logic, or the relationships among facts,
to figure out problems. Humans use
many skills besides logic when making
decisions. They use such things as imagination,
awareness, emotion, and values.
No one knows yet whether these abilities
can be programmed into a computer.
#More to explore
Computer Robot
Russian chess player Garry Kasparov thinks
about a move during a match against a
computer. The computer, named Deep Junior,
was programmed to play chess.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Artificial Intelligence 195
Arts
Before the 1700s the word art was often
used to describe any skill that produced
something. At the time both painting
and farming were thought of as arts.
Today people think of the arts more as
forms of expression. An artist uses skill
and imagination to create a product.
This product often draws a response
from others. These responses can
include admiration of a beautiful sculpture,
feelings of sadness from a moving
poem, or pleasure from a funny play.
Individual arts are often grouped into
categories based on similarities. Theater,
dance, and music are examples of performing
arts. Poetry, short stories, and
novels are literaturewords crafted to
express ideas. Painting, drawing, sculpture,
and photography are examples of
visual art, or art that is enjoyed through
sight. Some arts, such as architecture
(the design of buildings) and motion
pictures (movies), are harder to classify.
An art form may include combinations
of several other forms. For instance, an
opera brings together a dramatic plot,
music that is both played and sung,
scenery and costumes, acting, and perhaps
dance.
Art forms that result in useful products
are sometimes called decorative arts
or crafts. Furniture design, metalworking,
basketry, and pottery are a few
examples of decorative arts.
#More to explore
Architecture Dance Decorative Arts
Drawing Literature Movie Music
Opera Painting Photography
Poetry Pottery Sculpture Theater
Arts, Decorative
#see Decorative Arts.
Asante
#see Ashanti.
Ash
Several types of ash tree are valued for
their hardwood or their beauty. There
are about 70 different species, or types,
of ash tree. They are members of the
same scientific family as olive trees, jasmines,
and lilacs.
Most ash trees grow in the northern half
of the world. They grow best where it is
neither extremely hot nor cold. They
usually need plenty of sunshine.
Several different types of art are on display
in the Hermitage museum in Saint Petersburg,
Russia.
196 Arts BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Some ashes are considered shrubs, but
most are trees. Ash trees are typically
small to medium in height. However,
some types may grow taller than 100
feet (30 meters). Most ashes have a
strong, straight trunk with gray bark.
The spreading branches usually form a
rounded shape. The green leaves are
made up of several parts called leaflets.
In autumn the leaves of most ashes turn
yellow or purple before they are shed for
the winter. The flowers are usually small
and grow in clusters. Each seed has a
papery wing shaped like a dragonfly
wing.
Several kinds of ash tree have strong,
tough wood. These hardwood ashes
include the white, green, black, blue,
and Oregon types in North America
and the European type in Europe.
Their wood is used to make such
products as baseball bats, hockey sticks,
tennis rackets, oars, furniture, tool
handles, and barrels. Ash trees are also
often planted in cities to provide shade
and color.
#More to explore
Olive Tree
Ashanti
The Ashanti, or Asante, people formed a
powerfulWest African kingdom in the
1700s and 1800s. The kingdom grew
wealthy from the slave trade and conquered
many peoples. In 1874, however,
the kingdom became a colony of Great
Britain. The Ashanti territory is now
part of the country of Ghana.
The rise of the Ashanti began in the
1670s, when Ashanti ruler Osei Tutu
crushed all opponents in the region. He
then declared himself Asantehene, or
king. The next ruler, OpokuWare, continued
the Ashantis conquests. During
his reign, from 1720 to 1750, the
empire reached its peak.
An Ashanti chief wears fine
clothing and gold jewelry.
The spreading branches of an ash tree give
the tree a rounded shape.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ashanti 197
Throughout the 1700s, the Ashanti supplied
captives to British and Dutch slave
traders on the coast. In return, the Europeans
provided the Ashanti with firearms
that they used to make more
conquests. Great Britain outlawed the
slave trade in 1807. After that, the
Ashanti had to rely more heavily on
other trade items, such as gold, ivory,
and cocoa.
Serious trouble came when Britain
expanded its own empire inland. In
1874 British forces captured Kumasi,
the capital of the Ashanti. The Ashanti
soon lost their hold over the groups they
had ruled over. In 1902 Ashanti lands
were made part of a British colony called
the Gold Coast. In 1957 the Gold Coast
became the independent country of
Ghana.
The Ashanti people still live in a region
centered on Kumasi. Kumasi is a busy
and prosperous city. But most Ashanti
live in villages. They are mainly farmers
who produce plantains, bananas, cassava,
yams, and cacao.
#More to explore
Ghana Slavery
Ashe, Arthur
Tennis champion Arthur Ashe was an
African American who triumphed in a
traditionally white sport. He was ranked
among the top 10 players in the world
for 12 years.
Arthur Robert Ashe, Jr., was born in
Richmond, Virginia, on July 10, 1943.
He started playing tennis as a child.
Between 1955 and 1963, Arthur won
11 national youth championships. At
the same time, he worked hard in
school. He won a scholarship to attend
the University of California at Los Angeles
(UCLA).
Arthur Ashe returns a ball during
the U.S. National Championships
in 1965.
198 Ashe, Arthur BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
In 1968 Ashe won the U.S. Open tournament.
The tournament is one of the
four major events in tennis each year.
The others areWimbledon (in
England), the French Open, and the
Australian Open. Ashes win was the
first ever for an African American man
in one of these tournaments. Afterward,
he regularly reached the semifinals and
finals of the tournaments. Ashe won the
Australian Open in 1970. In 1975 he
won the top prize at Wimbledon.
Ashe retired after suffering a heart attack
in 1979. In 1983 he had another heart
attack and required surgery. It is thought
that blood that he received at this time
was infected with HIV. HIV is the virus
that causes the disease AIDS. As a result
he contracted the disease. However, he
continued to display the same determination
he showed on the tennis court.
He took the side of refugees, underprivileged
children, and people with AIDS.
He died of AIDS on February 6, 1993.
..More to explore
AIDS Tennis
Ashgabat
Population
(2007 estimate)
744,000
Ashgabat is the capital of the central
Asian country of Turkmenistan. The city
lies at the foot of a mountain range. It is
also at the edge of a desert, in an area
called an oasis. An oasis is a part of a
desert that has enough water for people
to live.
Ashgabat is one of Turkmenistans centers
of industry and transportation. The
city is famous for its carpet-weaving
industry. It also has glassworks, cotton
mills, and metalworking shops.
The city was founded in 1881 as a Russian
military fort. It was called Ashkhabad.
During much of the 1900s it was
the capital of a republic of the Soviet
Union. An earthquake destroyed much
of the city in 1948, but it was rebuilt. In
1992 Turkmenistan became an independent
country with Ashkhabad as the
capital. The city then adopted the Turkmen
version of its nameAshgabat.
..More to explore
Oasis Turkmenistan
A statue of a horseman stands in
front of a monument in downtown
Ashgabat.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ashgabat 199
Asia
The largest and most populated continent
is Asia. It has nearly one third of
the worlds total land area and is home
to more than half Earths people.
Land and Climate
Because Asia is so vast and varied, it is
often discussed in terms of six general
regions: Southwest, South, Southeast,
East, North, and Central Asia. Southwest
Asia consists mainly of countries on
or near the Arabian Peninsula, such as
Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, and Israel.
Most of Turkey is also included in this
group. (Some of Turkey is considered
part of Europe.) The countries of Southwest
Asia are also part of a region known
as the Middle East. Much of the land in
Southwest Asia is desert.
The main geographic features of South,
Southeast, and East Asia are great
mountains, high plains, and islands.
India and Pakistan are major countries
in South Asia; Indonesia, Malaysia,
Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam
are in Southeast Asia; and China, Japan,
and North and South Korea are in East
Asia.
Northern Asia, also called Siberia, is part
of Russia. (Russias Ural Mountains
separate Asia and Europe, so Russia is
partly in Asia and partly in Europe.)
Siberia has mostly frozen plains and
swampy forest. Because of the extreme
cold, few people live there. Most of Central
Asia consists of desert, but in the
north are vast grasslands.
200 Asia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asia 201
The continents largest deserts are the
Gobi and the Takla Makan Desert in
East Asia and the Thar Desert in South
Asia. Many of the worlds highest peaks
are found in the Himalayas of South
Asia. The continents other major
mountain ranges include the Hindu
Kush, the Tian Shan, and the Altai, all
in Central Asia. Major Asian rivers
include the Yangtze and Huang He in
China; the Mekong and Irrawaddy in
Southeast Asia; the Ganges in India; and
the Ob in Russia. Some of the worlds
earliest civilizations developed along the
Indus River in India and the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers in Southwest Asia.
The climate of Asia varies greatly. The
continent has some of the hottest and
coldest places on Earth, as well as many
areas in between. Cherrapunji, India, is
one of the worlds wettest places, averaging
nearly 400 inches (1,000 centimeters)
of rain per year. Southwest Asia has
some of the worlds driest deserts. South
and Southeast Asia are hot, wet regions
with two distinctive seasons: a relatively
cool and dry winter and a rainy and hot
summer.
Plants and Animals
Because of the wide variety of climates
and physical features, there are many
types of plants. In northern Siberia
lichens, mosses, and some wildflowers
grow. To the south are evergreen forests
and grasslands. China has the most varied
vegetation of any country in the
world. Palm trees and bamboo grow in
the southern parts of China, South
Korea, and Japan. In South and Southeast
Asia rain forest is the main natural
vegetation, though large areas of trees
have been cut down to make room for
farming. In the mountains of Southwest
Asia there are forests of beech trees, evergreens,
hollies, and creepers.
Asias animals are as varied as its plants.
Northern Asia has polar bears, walruses,
moose, and reindeer, while wild camels
roam the Gobi. Asias reptiles include
crocodiles, king cobras, and Komodo
dragons. Animals found only in Asia
include the orangutan, giant panda,
Asian elephant, Siberian tiger, Bengal
tiger, and Indian rhinoceros. However,
the population of many animals in Asia
has been reduced because of the destruction
of animal habitats and uncontrolled
hunting.
The Tian Shan Mountains are a
major feature of Central Asia.
202 Asia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
People
Many different groups of people live in
Asia. Arabs, Jews, Iranians, and Turks
are among the peoples of Southwest
Asia. South Asia is home to Indian
peoples. Southeast Asias wide variety of
peoples and cultures has been
influenced by India and China. The
main peoples in East Asia are the
Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans.
Northern Asia includes various Asian
groups, as well as Russians and other
Europeans.
Hundreds of different languages can be
heard throughout the continent. More
than 250 languages are spoken in Indonesia
alone. Some of the most widely
used languages in Asia include Arabic,
which is spoken in parts of Southwest
Asia; Hindi, spoken in India; and Chinese
(Mandarin), spoken in China. Russian,
English, and French are also
spoken.
The worlds major religionsBuddhism,
Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and
Christianityall started in Asia.Today,
many people in Southeast and East Asia
follow Buddhism.Hinduism is the main
religion in India and Nepal, while Islam
is practiced in much of Southwest Asia
and in Indonesia,Malaysia, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh. Judaism is the main religion
in Israel. Christianity is practiced
throughout the continent, but only in
the Philippines, Russia, and Armenia is it
the main religion.
Hong Kong, Israel, Japan, Singapore,
and South Korea have excellent
education and health care systems. But
most of the rest of Asia is still
developing. The living standards of
many people are behind those in the
Western world. In general, problems
with nutrition are common. Health and
education services are limited and are
generally more available in cities than in
rural areas.
Economy
Agriculture is an important part of the
economy in many Asian countries. In
much of Asia the main food crop is rice.
Wheat is important in parts of Northern,
Central, Southwest, and South Asia.
Crops grown for sale include tea, sugarcane,
coconuts, and rubber. Sheep and
goats are raised for meat and wool in
most of Asia. China, Japan, Indonesia,
India, and Russia catch large amounts of
fish.
Asia has large reserves of almost every
important mineral. The continent has
more than half the worlds reserves of
The religion of Buddhism was founded in
India and soon spread throughout Asia.
The Kiyomizu Temple is one of the most
famous Buddhist temples in Japan.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asia 203
coal, mostly in China, Siberia, and
India. Major deposits of oil are found
in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, the United
Arab Emirates, and Qatar. Asia also
produces large amounts of iron ore, cast
iron, tin, tungsten, and refined zinc.
Asias industrialized areas, including
Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and
Singapore, make a wide variety of
products. China and parts of South and
Southeast Asia began developing their
manufacturing in the late 20th century.
South and Southeast Asia produce
traditional goods such as textiles as well
as technology products such as
computers. Oil and gas are processed in
Southwest and Central Asia.
History
Asia was home to three of the worlds
first civilizations, which developed
written languages and built large cities.
The first such society developed in
Southwest Asia in a region called
Mesopotamia in about 35003000 BC.
A civilization developed in the Indus
River valley in what is now Pakistan by
about 2500 BC. Historians believe that
Chinese civilization began in about
2500 BC as well.
Over time these civilizations changed as
they were taken over by other groups.
The Mesopotamian kingdoms became
part of the Greek and Persian worlds. In
the AD 600s Islam was founded in Arabia.
Arab Muslims took over Mesopotamia
and then moved into other parts of
Asia.
The Indus Valley civilization died out
in about 1700 BC. At about this same
time, a people known as Aryans
invaded what is now India. Their
religion eventually evolved into
Hinduism. The Mauryan Empire
united South Asia in about 300 BC,
though others eventually took over
from them. In the late AD 1100s
Muslim rulers took over part of the
region.
Chinese culture dominated East Asia.
China was ruled by a series of dynasties
for thousands of years, from about the
1700s BC to the AD 1900s. The Mongols,
a people from Northern and Central
Asia, ruled much of Asia during the
AD 1200s and 1300s.
To take control of Asias vast wealth,
Europeans conquered many Asian countries
and made them into colonies in the
1800s. By the end ofWorldWar II, the
colonies began to seek independence.
India became free of British rule in
1947. France fought to keep control of
its colonies in Southeast Asia but finally
withdrew from the region in 1954. Most
A fisherman casts his net into the Mekong
River in Southeast Asia.
204 Asia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Central Asian countries were part of the
Russian Empire and later the Soviet
Union. They became independent after
the breakup of the Soviet Union in
1991.
China also underwent major changes.
In 1912 the last dynasty came to an
end, and the country became a
republic. Chinas government became
Communist after Communists won a
civil war in 1949.
Communists in Korea and Vietnam also
fought for control of those countries.
The KoreanWar, from 1950 to 1953,
resulted in the separation of Korea into
two countries: North Korea and South
Korea. North Korea had a Communist
government, but South Korea did not.
The VietnamWar ended in 1975 with
Vietnam united under a Communist
government.
In 1948 the country of Israel was created
in the Middle East as a homeland for the
Jewish people. Arab countries opposed
the creation of Israel, however, and they
and the Israelis fought a series of wars.
Southwest Asia was the site of several
other conflicts, including the Iran-Iraq
War (198088), the Persian GulfWar
(1991), and a U.S.-led invasion of Iraq
(2003).
In the last half of the 1900s, many
Asian countries had to deal with
problems left over from the period of
European rule. The boundaries of the
European colonies did not always
match the natural divisions of peoples,
cultures, and physical regions. When
the colonies gained independence they
kept those boundaries, but there were
often tensions between the people who
had been forced to live together. At the
same time, however, many Asian
countries worked hard to improve their
economies.
..More to explore
Arabian Peninsula Buddhism
Christianity Himalayas Hinduism
Indus Valley Civilization Islam
Judaism Mesopotamia Middle East
Mongol Empire Persia Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics
Facts About
ASIA
Area
17,291,121 sq mi (44,783,797 sq km)
Population
(2008 estimate) 4,056,802,260
Largest Country by Area
Asian portion of Russia: 5,051,400 sq mi
(13,083,065 sq km)
Smallest Country by Area
Maldives: 115 sq mi (298 sq km)
Largest Country by Population
China (2008 estimate) 1,324,681,000
Smallest Country by Population
Maldives (2008 estimate) 386,000
Largest Cities
Beijing, China; Mumbai (Bombay), India;
Seoul, South Korea; Delhi, India; Tokyo,
Japan
Longest River
Yangtze River, China: 3,915 mi (6,300 km)
Largest Lake
Caspian Sea (Asia/Europe): 143,000 sq mi
(370,000 sq km)
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asia 205
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is the place where the continents
of Asia and Europe meet. It is also
known by its Greek name, Anatolia. In
the past Asia Minor was a meeting point
for travelers passing between Asia and
Europe. Today it is part of the country
of Turkey.
Asia Minor is a peninsula, or a piece of
land surrounded by water on three sides.
The Black Sea lies to the north. The
Aegean Sea lies to the west. The Mediterranean
Sea is to the south. The peninsula
extends westward from Asia toward
Europe.
#More to explore
Asia Europe Turkey
Asian Americans
Asian Americans are people in the
United States whose ancestors came
from Asia. Many Asian Americans were
born in Asia and later moved, or immigrated,
to the United States. However,
many other Asian Americans were born
in the United States. Their families often
have been in the country for several generations.
Asian Americans have roots in many
different countries. The largest groups of
Asian Americans have ancestors from
China, the Philippines, India, Vietnam,
Korea, or Japan. Many other Asian
Americans have ancestors from Cambodia,
Laos, Pakistan, or Thailand. Smaller
groups of Asian Americans have roots in
many other Asian countries. (A tiny
group has roots in the part of Asia called
the Middle East. However, many of
these people are better known as Arab
Americans.)
Early Asian Immigrants
Asians did not start immigrating to the
United States until the 1800s.Workers
from China began arriving in the United
States in about 1820. A gold rush in
California in the mid-1800s brought
many more Chinese people to theWest
Coast. In the 1860s about 15,000 Chinese
workers helped to build the transcontinental
(cross-country) railroad.
Almost all the early Chinese immigrants
were young men. Many came to earn
money but planned to return to China.
Others decided to stay.
Meanwhile, in the 1850s and 1860s,
people from China and Japan began
arriving in Hawaii. They came mainly to
work on sugar plantations, or large
farms. Thousands more Japanese arrived
in Hawaii during the 1880s. In the early
1900s workers from Korea and the Philippines
also came to work on Hawaiis
plantations.
People called
the Hittites
lived in Asia
Minor from
about 1700 to
1180 BC. After
that many different
groups
ruled the area.
It became part
of the Republic
of Turkey in
1923.
206 Asia Minor BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
During the late 1800s and early 1900s,
many immigrants from Japan, Korea,
and the Philippines settled on theWest
Coast. Smaller numbers came from
India. Many Asian immigrants worked
on farms in California.
Discrimination
Asian immigrants often faced discrimination,
or unfair treatment, from whites.
In addition, the U.S. government did
not allow them to become U.S. citizens.
This meant that Asian immigrants did
not have the same rights as immigrants
from Europe.
Eventually, the government passed laws
to stop Asians from immigrating to the
United States. In 1882 the U.S. Congress
passed the Chinese Exclusion Act.
This law stopped Chinese people from
immigrating to the United States. The
Immigration Act of 1924 stopped all
immigration from Asia.
Despite this discrimination, many Asian
Americans started families, set up businesses,
and built communities in the
United States. Their children, born in
the United States, became U.S. citizens.
Many Asian Americans served in the
U.S. military.
Japanese Internment
In 1941 Japan bombed the U.S. military
base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The
United States then joinedWorldWar II.
During the war, the U.S. government
saw all Japanese Americans as possible
Chinese New Year festivities attract crowds to the neighborhood called Chinatown in
Chicago, Illinois.
A Japanese American family has their bags
packed for their move to an internment camp.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asian Americans 207
enemies. It distrusted even those who
had been born in the United States and
were citizens.
The government forced Japanese Americans
on theWest Coast to move to special
camps, called internment camps.
These Japanese Americans lived in the
camps until the war ended in 1945.
They lost their jobs and often their land,
homes, and businesses. Even so, thousands
of Japanese Americansand other
Asian Americansserved in the U.S.
military during the war.
In 1989 Congress apologized to Japanese
Americans for their treatment duringWorldWar
II. The government also
gave 20,000 dollars to each surviving
internee.
New Laws and New
Immigrants
FollowingWorldWar II Congress
passed laws that led to fairer treatment
of Asian Americans. A law called The
Immigration and Nationality Act of
1952 gave all Asian immigrants the right
to become U.S. citizens. The Immigration
Act of 1965 allowed people from
any Asian country to immigrate to the
United States.
After 1965, many new Asian immigrants
came to the United States. Many came
from Korea and countries in Southeast
Asia, especially Vietnam. These immigrants
often were escaping wars in their
homelands. But Asian immigrants also
came to find work. For example, great
numbers of Indians came to work in the
United States as doctors, scientists, engineers,
or computer specialists.
Asian Americans Today
By 2000 there were more than 10 million
Asian Americans in the United
States. They made up about 4 percent of
the U.S. population. About half of them
lived in theWest, especially in Hawaii
and California. In the East, New York
had the highest number of Asian Americans.
More than 65 percent of the Asian
Americans in 2000 were U.S. citizens.
Some Asian Americans today feel that
other Americans still treat them as outsiders.
Nevertheless, many Asian Americans
have achieved high levels of
economic and educational success. Asian
Americans continue to be an important
part of U.S. society, as they have been
for more than 150 years.
#More to explore
Asia California Citizenship
Discrimination Hawaii Migration,
Human United States
Asian American architect and artist Maya
Lin stands beside one of her works. Lin is
famous for designing the Vietnam War
Memorial in Washington, D.C.
Norman Y.
Mineta was
the first Asian
American to
head a U.S.
government
department.
He served as
Secretary of
Commerce
and later as
Secretary of
Transportation.
208 Asian Americans BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Asmara
Population
(2002 estimate)
500,600
Asmara is the capital of the East African
country of Eritrea. It is also the countrys
largest city. Located in a highlands
region, Asmara is more than 7,500 feet
(2,300 meters) above sea level.
Asmara is a major market for farm products.
It is also a center for tanning hides.
Factories in the city make textiles, footwear,
and soft drinks. Roads, railroads,
and airplane routes connect Asmara to a
port on the Red Sea.
Asmara was once a small village of the
Tigre people. In 1900 it became the
capital of the Italian colony of Eritrea.
In 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia. The
Italians made Asmara the main base for
the attack. Afterward Asmara was the
leading city in the territory called Italian
East Africa. Later the British and then
the Ethiopians controlled Eritrea. In
1993 Eritrea won its independence, and
Asmara became its capital.
#More to explore
Eritrea
Asparagus
People have been eating asparagus as a
vegetable since ancient times. The vegetable
is also called garden asparagus.
This helps to separate it from the hundreds
of other types of asparagus plants.
All asparagus plants belong to the lily
family, along with onions and garlic.
Asparagus grows wild in parts of Europe,
Africa, and Asia. Farmers and gardeners
grow the vegetable in areas where the
winters are cool or cold. The worlds
leading asparagus producers are China,
Peru, and the United States.
People eat the young shoots of the
asparagus plant, which are called spears.
The spears shoot up from the roots during
the spring and early summer. They
must be picked by hand, not by
machine. That makes asparagus an
expensive crop to grow.
The spears of the asparagus plant are
normally green. That is because they
contain chlorophyll, the substance that
uses light energy to make food for
plants. Some growers in France and
other places bury the growing spears in
Tender asparagus spears shoot up from the
ground in spring and early summer.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asparagus 209
soil. This shields them from the sun and
prevents them from making chlorophyll.
Spears grown this way are white. White
asparagus is known for its delicate flavor.
People usually eat asparagus spears
cooked. They are often served hot with
melted butter or a rich sauce. The spears
are also eaten cold in salads.
#More to explore
Garden Lily Plant
Aspen
The trees called aspens are known for
their fluttering leaves. Their leaf stalks
are long, weak, and flattened. They
allow the leaves to move in even the
slightest breeze.
Aspens belong to the group of trees
called poplars. The poplars are closely
related to willow trees. There are three
species, or types, of aspen. The European
aspen grows in Europe, northern
Africa, and Asia. The quaking, or trembling,
aspen and the big-tooth aspen are
found in North America.
The bark of aspens is usually smooth
and greenish gray or white. Aspen leaves
are rich green. In autumn the leaves turn
bright yellow before they fall off the tree.
The European aspen and the quaking
aspen can reach a height of 90 feet (27
meters). The big-tooth aspen can grow
to about 59 feet (18 meters).
Aspens can reproduce both by producing
seeds and by growing new sprouts. A
single aspen can produce more than 50
million seeds each season. Aspens also
grow sprouts from their own roots.
These sprouts grow into new trees. Root
reproduction makes it hard to get rid of
aspens. If people cut down a batch of
aspens, new aspen sprouts will shoot up
if the roots still exist.
People use aspens to make paper. They
also value aspens for their shade and
beauty.
#More to explore
Poplar Tree Willow
Assassination
The murder of a public figure is called
assassination. Many world leaders have
been killed in this way, mostly for political
reasons. In the 1900s ordinary citizens
and military personnel also became
targets of assassins.
Assassination is an ancient crime. The
Roman ruler Julius Caesar was killed on
March 15, 44 BC, by political enemies.
However, the word assassin was not used
until the Middle Ages. It comes from a
word that means hashish smokers and
The quaking aspen grows in more areas of
North America than any other kind of tree.
210 Aspen BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
refers to an Islamic group that existed
between the 1000s and the 1200s.
According to legend, the members of
this group were given the drug hashish
to make them into fearless killers of
their religious rivals.
Assassins strike for various reasons.
Some feel that they were mistreated in
some way. For example, U.S. president
James A. Garfield was killed in 1881 by
a man who was angry that he did not
get a political job. Others disagree with
the victims beliefs or with a public
stand that the victim has taken on a
particular issue. The Egyptian leader
Anwar el-Sadat was assassinated by
people who were angry with him for
signing a peace treaty with Israel. The
U.S. civil rights leader Martin Luther
King, Jr., was killed by a man who disagreed
with the cause of civil rights.
Still other assassins want to call attention
to a cause or make a political statement.
U.S. president William McKinley died
after being shot on September 6, 1901.
His killer was an anarchista person
who wanted to do away with governments.
Anarchists also killed several
heads of state in Europe in the early
1900s. Some hoped to change the
course of history.
One particular assassination had farreaching
effects. The assassination of
Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-
Hungary in 1914 helped to bring about
WorldWar I.
#More to explore
Caesar, Julius Garfield, James A.
King, Martin Luther, Jr. McKinley,
William Sadat, Anwar el- WorldWar I
Assiniboin
The Assiniboin (or Assiniboine) tribe of
Native North Americans were originally
Both Indira Gandhi and her son Rajiv
served as prime ministers of India. Indira
Gandhi was assassinated in 1984. Rajiv
Gandhi became prime minister after her
assassination. Later he was also killed.
An Assiniboin chief wears the traditional
clothing of his tribe.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Assiniboin 211
part of the Yanktonai Dakota (Sioux)
people. In the 1600s, they split from the
Yanktonai and moved west into what are
now the states of Montana and North
Dakota and the Canadian provinces of
Saskatchewan and Manitoba.
The Assiniboins name came from an
Ojibwa Indian word meaning one who
cooks with stones. This was because
they used stones heated in a fire to boil
cooking water.
The Assiniboin spent much of their time
hunting bison (buffalo). Bison meat was
their main source of food, and they used
bison hides to make their clothing and
shelter.
By the late 1600s, the French and the
English began building trading posts
near the Assiniboins territory. The
Europeans brought with them diseases
such as measles and smallpox, which
killed many members of the tribe.
Weakened by disease and warfare, in
1851 the Assiniboin agreed to give up
much of their traditional territory to the
U.S. government in exchange for reservation
lands. The Assiniboin in the
United States eventually settled on two
reservations in Montana. Those in
Canada moved to several reserves in
Alberta and Saskatchewan. By the end of
the 20th century, there were about
5,000 Assiniboin living in the United
States and about 3,000 in Canada.
..More to explore
Native Americans
Astana
Population
(2006 estimate)
550,440
Astana is the capital of the central Asian
country of Kazakhstan. The city lies
along the Ishim River.
Astana is a railway hub. Many of its
people work for the railroads. The city
also has factories that finish metals,
process foods, and make farm
machinery.
The city was founded in 1824 as a Russian
military outpost. It was originally
called Akmolinsk. It has had several
names over the years. For many years it
was the capital of a province in the
Soviet Union. Kazakhstan became an
independent country in 1991. The city
became its capital in 1997. The next
year the citys name was changed from
Akmola to Astana.
..More to explore
Kazakhstan
Asteroid
Asteroids are small, rocky bodies that
orbit, or travel around, the sun. They
are also called minor planets or
planetoids. In general, they are
materials left over from when the
planets formed. They are also created
The Assiniboin
were friendly
with the Cree.
Their enemies
were the
Blackfoot and
the Dakota
Sioux.
212 Astana BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
when other bodies in space collide and
break apart. Most asteroids travel
around the sun in a loose path that falls
between the orbits of the planets Mars
and Jupiter. Astronomers identified the
first asteroids in 1801.
Asteroids are much smaller than planets.
The largest asteroids are between 62
miles (100 kilometers) and 620 miles
(1,000 kilometers) across. Millions of
asteroids are the size of large boulders.
Asteroids can be almost any shape. Some
are nearly round while others are irregularly
shaped chunks. Asteroids are made
up of stone and metal.
Many small asteroids enter Earths
atmosphere each day. Almost all burn up
before they hit the ground. As they burn
they create a streak of light called a
meteor. An asteroid that survives the fall
through the atmosphere and reaches
Earths surface is called a meteorite.
#More to explore
Planets
Asthma
Asthma is a long-term medical condition
that affects a persons lungs. From
time to time people with asthma suffer
attacks, or episodes of sickness, in which
they find it difficult to breathe. People
can get asthma at any age. It is one of
the most common long-term health
problems in children. Asthma in children
usually begins by the age of 5.
Symptoms
The symptoms, or signs, of an asthma
attack include coughing and the feeling
of not getting enough air. Wheezing, or
breathing that makes a whistling sound,
is also common. Asthma attacks usually
last from about 30 minutes to several
hours. The symptoms can range from
mild to serious. In rare cases an asthma
attack can lead to death.
A child uses an inhaler. An
inhaler is a device that quickly
delivers medicine to the lungs of
a person with asthma.
The asteroid called Gaspra is about 12
miles (20 kilometers) long.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asthma 213
Causes
An asthma attack results from changes
in the small tubes in the lungs that carry
air. During an attack the muscles around
these airways tighten. This makes it
harder for air to pass through. The tubes
also swell up. This leaves less space
inside for the airflow. In addition, the
tubes fill up with extra amounts of a
thick fluid called mucus.
Scientists do not know exactly why
people get asthma. But once people
have the condition, their bodies tend to
overreact to certain things called
triggers. The triggers vary from person
to person. For some it may be
exercising. For others, breathing
polluted air or getting a cold may bring
on an asthma attack. Sudden weather
changes can cause attacks, too.
Asthma attacks are also often associated
with allergies. Allergies are a bodys
negative reactions to certain substances.
Things that cause allergic reactions may
trigger asthma attacks, too. These things
include plant pollen, mold, and tiny
insects that live in house dust.
Treatment
There is no cure for asthma. However,
several medications can help prevent
asthma attacks. Other medicines can
quickly relieve the symptoms of an
attack. People with asthma also try to
avoid the things that trigger their
attacks.
#More to explore
Allergy Lung Medicine
Astronomy
Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences
in the world. The study of astronomy
involves all of the objects outside Earths
atmosphere. These include the sun,
Moon, planets, stars, galaxies, and all
other matter in the universe. People
known as astronomers have studied
these objects for thousands of years.
Study of Astronomy
Astronomers study the universe in different
ways. Some are professionals,
meaning that they make their living at
the work. Others study objects in space
as a hobby. They are known as amateur
astronomers.
Some astronomers work in laboratories.
There they study actual samples of
objects that have been collected by
spacecraft. These include meteorites,
An astronomer points a telescope toward
the evening sky.
214 Astronomy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
rock samples from the Moon, and dust
particles.
Many astronomers observe distant
objects with the help of telescopes. Telescopes
range in size. Some are small
enough to be carried by hand. Large
telescopes are often housed in buildings
known as observatories. The Hubble
Space Telescope is in orbit around Earth
as a floating observatory. The Hubble
magnifies and records images of distant
space objects. It then sends the information
to astronomers on Earth.
Astronomers also use cameras and other
instruments to record information about
distant objects. Photographs provide
astronomers with a visual record of their
observations. Other instruments can
help reveal faint, hard-to-detect objects
in outer space. These instruments measure
the light and other radiation coming
from the objects.
Some Early Astronomers
Thousands of years ago there were no
calendars or clocks. People kept track of
time by watching the sun and the stars.
It was important for them to know the
time in order to sow their crops and reap
their harvests. These people were the
first astronomers.
The most influential ancient astronomer
was Ptolemy of Alexandria in Egypt. He
lived in the AD 100s. He developed the
idea that Earth occupies the center of
the universe. He thought that the other
objects revolved around Earth. Most
people believed this idea of Ptolemys
for more than a thousand years.
In 1543Nicolaus Copernicus published a
revolutionary new theory.He believed
that Earth and the other planets revolve
around the sun. Copernicus was criticized
because he challenged Ptolemys theory.
Galileo Galilei, a great Italian scientist
and astronomer, supported Copernicus
theory with his observations.
Later astronomers made new discoveries
that also supported Copernicus idea. In
the early 1600s Johannes Kepler
explained how the planets travel around
the sun. In 1687 Isaac Newton learned
about gravitation and motion. His work
reinforced Keplers laws. Today astrono-
Astronomers study everything
they can see or detect in the sky.
Some astronomers study the
oddly shaped clouds of gas and
dust called nebulas.
Chinese
astronomers
noticed an
explosion in
the sky on July
4, 1054. This
was a supernova,
or the
explosion of a
star. Its
remains can
be seen today
in the Crab
Nebula.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Astronomy 215
mers know that Copernicus was correct.
But there are still many questions about
the universe. Astronomers continue to
try to answer those questions.
..More to explore
Solar System Telescope Universe
Asuncion
Population
(2006
estimate), city,
519,361;
(2007
estimate), urban
area,
1,870,000
Asuncion is the capital of Paraguay, a
country in South America. It is Paraguays
largest city. Asuncion is located
on the Paraguay River. From the citys
port, ships can travel to the Atlantic
Ocean.
Asuncion processes and ships much of
the food grown throughout Paraguay.
Factories in the city also process cotton
and make cloth, shoes, and tobacco
products. The government employs
many people in Asuncion. Others work
in service industries such as health care,
tourism, and trade.
The Guarani Indians moved into the
area hundreds of years ago. In the 1500s
people from Spain settled among the
Guarani and created a colony. The Spanish
named the city Asuncion in 1537.
Paraguay became independent from
Spain in 1811. Asuncion then became
Paraguays capital. During a war in the
late 1800s Brazil took control of Asuncion.
But the city was returned to Paraguay
about 10 years later.
..More to explore
Paraguay
Athapaskan
The Athapaskan (or Athabascan) were a
large group of Native American tribes
who spoke similar languages. They traditionally
lived in northwestern North
The presidential palace in Asuncion is
brightly lit at night.
An Athapaskan child shows his drawings of
reindeer.
216 Asuncion BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
America. Before 1400 some Athapaskans,
including the Navajo and the
Apache, moved to what is now the
southwestern United States. Others
migrated to the Great Plains or the
Pacific coast. Today the name Athapaskan
is usually used for tribes who stayed
in northern Canada and Alaska. They
include the Chipewyan, the Han, and
the Kutchin.
The Athapaskan lived in forests in areas
with long, snowy winters. They fished
and hunted for animals such as deer,
moose, rabbits, and squirrels. They
prized the reindeer for its skin and fur as
well as its meat. The Athapaskan also
gathered plants.
Living in such a cold environment, the
Athapaskan spent most of the year in a
constant search for food. They traveled
in small family groups. While hunting
they lived in portable, cone-shaped
dwellings that resembled the tepees
made by Plains Indians. They used
dogsleds to carry their belongings over
snow and ice.
For many years only a few French,
English, and Russian fur traders entered
Athapaskan lands. In the late 1800s
many more people arrived in search of
gold. The newcomers brought change,
but traditional ways survived. In the late
20th century more than 40,000 Athapaskan
lived in Alaska and northern
Canada, where they are called Dene.
#More to explore
Apache Chipewyan Native
Americans Navajo Plains Indians
Athena
In ancient Greek mythology Athena was
the goddess of war, wisdom, and handicrafts.
She was one of the 12 gods
believed to live on Mount Olympus. She
is associated with the Roman goddess
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Athena 217
Minerva because they shared many of
the same characteristics. Athenas symbols
were the olive tree, which represents
peace, and the owl, which represents
wisdom.
According to legend, Athena was the
favorite daughter of Zeus, the chief god.
She was said to have sprung from his
head fully grown and clothed in a suit of
armor. Like Zeus, Athena wore the aegis,
which was a magical breastplate fringed
with snakes. It produced thunderbolts
when shaken.
Athena was very different from the war
god Ares, who was a powerful fighter.
Athena used her great wisdom to advise
soldiers during wartime. She believed
that war should be used only to protect
people and to provide justice. In addition,
she was known for inventing the
plow, taming wild horses, and teaching
farmers to yoke oxen. It was also
believed that she invented the flute and
the trumpet.
The city of Athens was associated with
Athena. According to legend, Zeus
decided to give the Greek city to the god
who offered the most useful gift to the
people. Poseidon, the god of the sea,
gave the city a water spring. Athena
struck the ground with her spear and
caused an olive tree to grow. The people
were delighted with this gift. Zeus
awarded the city to Athena. He named it
Athens in her honor.
#More to explore
Ares Athens Greece, Ancient
Mythology Zeus
Athens
Population
(2001 census),
city, 745,514;
metropolitan
area,
3,187,734
Athens is the capital of Greece, a country
of southern Europe. The city is
located on the Greek mainland. Mountains
surround Athens on three sides.
Athens was the most important of the
city-states of ancient Greece.
Places of Interest
Parts of many ancient buildings still
stand in Athens. On top of a high hill is
an ancient fortress known as the
Acropolis. It once held temples to Athena,
the ancient Greek goddess of wisdom.
The city of Athens was named for
Athena.
Ruins of ancient monuments stand near
modern neighborhoods in the city of Athens,
Greece.
218 Athens BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Economy
Athens is the main center in Greece for
business, trade, and transportation. The
city has a busy port on a bay of the
Aegean Sea. Most of Greeces manufactured
goods are made in Athens. Some
of the main factories process food and
beverages. Other factories make cloth,
soap, chemicals, pottery, ships, and cars.
Tourism and publishing also are major
industries.
History
People have lived in the Athens area for
at least 5,000 years. The earliest surviving
buildings date from about 1200 BC.
Ancient Greece was made up of many
independent city-states. Athens reached
its peak as one of the most powerful
city-states in the 400s BC. The leader of
Athens during that period was Pericles.
He helped develop the form of government
known as democracy. Athens also
thrived in the 400s BC as a center of
culture and learning. The city was home
to great playwrights, historians, and
scholars.
After Athens lost a war in 404 BC, its
power began to decline. Later the Macedonians
and then the Romans controlled
the city.
The Turkish Ottoman Empire took control
of Athens in AD 1456. The Turks
ruled the city until 1833. In that year
Greece became an independent country,
with Athens as its capital. In the second
half of the 1900s the city grew rapidly.
In 2004 Athens hosted the Summer
Olympics.
..More to explore
Acropolis Athena City-State Greece
Greece, Ancient
Athletics
..see Track and Field.
Atlanta
Population
(2000 census),
city, 416,474;
(2007 estimate)
519,145
Atlanta is the capital and largest city of
the U.S. state of Georgia. It is located
in the foothills of the Blue Ridge
Mountains.
The Fountain of Rings is part of Atlantas
Centennial Olympic Park. The park was
built for use during the 1996 Summer
Olympic Games.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Atlanta 219
Atlanta is the main trade and transportation
center for the southeastern United
States. The city is also an important
financial center. The U.S. government
has several offices in Atlanta.
The city had its beginnings in 1837.
That year the site was selected as the end
stop on a new rail line. A settlement
soon grew up around the site. In 1845 it
was named Atlanta.
During the American CivilWar Atlanta
became a rail center for the Confederate
states. In 1864 Union troops captured
Atlanta and burned most of its buildings.
After the war ended, Atlanta recovered
quickly. The city became the capital
of Georgia in 1868.
In the 1900s Atlanta was the home of
the civil rights leader Martin Luther
King, Jr. It was also the first major
Southern city to elect an African American
man (in 1973) and African American
woman (in 2001) as mayor. The
1996 Summer Olympics were held in
Atlanta.
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest
ocean on Earth, after the Pacific Ocean.
However, the Atlantic drains more of
the worlds land area than any other
ocean. This means that much of the
worlds river water flows into the Atlantic.
The ancient Greeks named the ocean
after Atlas, a character in Greek mythology.
Atlas stood on pillars in the ocean
to hold up the heavens.
Physical Features
The Atlantic Ocean reaches the continents
of Europe and Africa to the east. It
extends to North America and South
America to the west. It also extends from
the Arctic Ocean in the north to Antarctica
in the south. The equator divides
the Atlantic Ocean into parts called the
North Atlantic and the South Atlantic.
The surface area of the Atlantic is about
31,830,000 square miles (82,440,000
square kilometers). This is roughly half
the size of the Pacific Ocean. The Atlantics
deepest point, at 27,493 feet (8,380
meters), is the bottom of the Puerto
Rico Trench, north of the island of
Puerto Rico.
Beneath the middle of the Atlantic is a
long, undersea mountain range called
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Along the ridge,
hot, liquid rock, called magma, rises
from beneath Earths crust. The magma
The Jimmy
Carter Library
and Museum
opened in
Atlanta, Georgia,
in 1986.
It houses the
official documents
as well
as letters and
photographs
of the 39th
president of the
United States.
220 Atlantic Ocean BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
cools and hardens as it spreads out on
both sides of the ridge. Volcanoes and
earthquakes are common near the ridge.
Undersea volcanoes have formed some
of the Atlantics islands. Examples
include the Cape Verde Islands, near
Africa, and Bermuda, near North
America. Iceland is a volcanic island that
rises from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Other Atlantic islands are parts of the
same land as nearby continents.
Examples include the islands of Great
Britain, near Europe, and the Falkland
Islands, near South America.
Currents and Climate
The waters of the ocean move in patterns
called currents. Currents carry heat
and affect climate. In general, the main
currents of the Atlantic Ocean move in a
clockwise direction in the northern part
of the ocean. In the southern part they
move in a counterclockwise direction. At
the equator, the currents move from east
to west. There the water picks up heat.
The water then slowly cools as the currents
move away from the equator.
Large, circular storms called hurricanes
often develop in the warm parts of the
Atlantic. Hurricanes usually hit coastal
areas in the Caribbean Sea and southeastern
North America.
Economy
The Atlantic produces much of the
worlds fish. The ocean is also a source
of many minerals. Large deposits of oil,
natural gas, and coal are found in the
Atlantic. In addition, many cargo ships
use the ocean as a trade route.
Exploration
The ancient Egyptians, Celts (Europeans),
Phoenicians (Middle Easterners),
and Romans sailed on the Atlantic. No
one knows how far west they went, however.
In about AD 1000 Vikings from
northern Europe crossed the Atlantic.
They probably reached the island of
Newfoundland, off the coast of North
America.
In 1492 Christopher Columbus made
his famous voyage across the Atlantic in
search of a new trading route to Asia. In
1520 Ferdinand Magellan sailed around
South America. He discovered the strait
(passage), now named after him, that
links the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
Environmental Issues
Humans have heavily polluted some
areas of the Atlantic Ocean. This pollution
includes sewage from cities, waste
from factories, and fertilizers and pesticides
from farms. Oil spills from ships or
offshore oil wells are sources of pollution,
too.
A hurricane swirls off the eastern coast of
the United States. Hurricanes often form
over the warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Atlantic Ocean 221
Overfishing is another important environmental
issue in the Atlantic. So many
fish have been caught that some types
are in danger of disappearing entirely.
Some countries have set limits on how
many fish can be caught in certain areas.
They have also set up programs to protect
the fish that are left and to rebuild
the fish populations.
#More to explore
Ocean Pacific Ocean
Atlas
In ancient Greek mythology Atlas was
doomed to carry the heavens on his
shoulders. In some stories, he had to
support the pillars that separate heaven
and Earth. Artists often pictured him
carrying the heavens or a globe.
Atlas mother was Clymene, a minor
goddess known as a nymph. His father
was Iapetus, a Titan. The Titans were
giants who ruled the world. Atlas fought
with the Titans in a war against Zeus.
When Zeus won the war, he became
chief god. Zeus punished Atlas by making
him hold up the sky.
Another story told that Atlas was the
father of nymphs called the Hesperides.
They guarded a tree that bore golden
apples. The hero Heracles (Hercules)
had to perform 12 tasks to make up for
killing his children. One of these tasks
was to steal the golden apples. Heracles
asked Atlas to help. He offered to carry
the heavens for Atlas while Atlas got the
apples. Atlas agreed and fetched the
apples. He planned to refuse to take
back the heavens. But Heracles tricked
Atlas into picking up his burden again.
In another story Perseus turned Atlas into
a mountain by showing him the head
of the monsterMedusa. The Atlas
Mountains of Africa were named for him.
#More to explore
Greece, Ancient Heracles Mythology
Titans Zeus
222 Atlas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Atlas
An atlas is a bound collection of maps.
Atlases vary in size and in the information
presented. Some travelers carry
small atlases that give road and street
directions. Other atlases are huge, very
detailed books that need a reading stand
for support. A general reference atlas
focuses on place locations. A specialsubject
atlas deals with a single subject,
such as agriculture or climate.
In Greek mythology Atlas was a giant
condemned to hold up the heavens. In
the 1500s a man named Gerardus Mercator
put together a collection of maps.
His collection included a picture of Atlas
holding a globe on his shoulders. From
then on, the word atlas was commonly
used to describe a collection of maps.
#More to explore
Map and Globe
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the layer of gas that
surrounds Earth. It is often called air.
Other planets, and some of their larger
moons, also have atmospheres.
Earths atmosphere consists of several
different gases. The gases are held close
to Earth by a force called gravity. Near
Earths surface, the atmosphere is about
three fourths nitrogen and one fifth oxygen.
At higher elevations, the atmosphere
is mostly hydrogen and helium.
Surprisingly, air has weight. It is heaviest
at sea level. There the gas particles are
pressed together by the weight of the air
above them. Air becomes lighter away
from Earths surface.
Scientists divide the atmosphere into
five regions, or layers. The layer closest
to Earth is the troposphere. It extends
up to about 6 miles (10 kilometers)
above Earths surface. Most of Earths
weather, including the wind and most
clouds, exists in the troposphere.
The second layer, the stratosphere,
extends to about 30 miles (50 kilometers)
above Earths surface. The stratosphere
includes the ozone layer. Ozone
blocks much of the suns radiation that
would harm plants and animals if it
reached Earth.
The third layer is the mesosphere. It
extends up to about 50 miles (80 kilometers)
above Earths surface.
The fourth layer, the thermosphere,
ranges from about 50 to 300 miles (80
to 480 kilometers) above Earth.
The fifth and highest layer of the atmosphere
is the exosphere. This layer ends
An atlas can teach children about the world.
The atmosphere
protects
Earths
surface from
being hit by
objects from
outer space.
These objects
are called
meteoroids.
Most burn up
as they enter
the atmosphere.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Atmosphere 223
where Earths gravity is too weak to prevent
particles of gas from drifting into
space.
Atom
The tiny particles called atoms are the
basic building blocks of all matter.
Atoms can be combined with other
atoms to form molecules, but they cannot
be divided into smaller parts by
ordinary means.
The word atom comes from the Greek
word atomos, meaning indivisible. The
ancient Greeks were the first to think of
the atom as the basic unit of all matter.
It was not until the early 1800s, though,
that scientists began to understand how
atoms work.
Structure
Each individual atom is made up of
smaller particleselectrons, protons,
and neutrons. These are called
subatomic particles. At the center of an
atom is a nucleus. The nucleus consists
of protons and neutrons. Protons carry
a positive electrical charge, while
neutrons carry no electrical charge.
Together, protons and neutrons are
called nucleons. Surrounding the
nucleus is a cloud of negatively charged
electrons.
Scientists believe that subatomic
particlesprotons, neutrons, and
electronsare themselves made up of
smaller substances. The substances are
called quarks and leptons.
224 Atom BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Properties
The single most important thing to
know about an atom is how many protons
it has in its nucleus. This is known
as its atomic number. The atomic number
determines what kind of atom it is.
Every atom is associated with a specific
chemical element. An atom is the smallest
unit of an element, and each chemical
element has a unique atomic
number. For instance, hydrogen has an
atomic number of 1 because every
hydrogen atom has one proton in its
nucleus. No other element has an
atomic number of 1.
Another property of atoms is their
atomic weight. This is roughly equal to
the total number of protons and neutrons
in an atom. Atoms that have the
same atomic number but different
atomic weights are called isotopes.
Carbon-12, the ordinary form of carbon,
has six protons and six neutrons
per atom. Carbon-14 is an isotope with
eight neutrons per atom. It still has six
protons. If it did not have six protons, it
would not be carbon.
An ordinary atom has an equal number
of protons and electrons. This means that
the positive and negative charges are
balanced. Some atoms, however, lose or
gain electrons in chemical reactions or in
collisions with other particles.Ordinary
atoms that gain or lose electrons are called
ions. If a neutral atom loses an electron, it
becomes a positive ion. If it gains an
electron, it becomes a negative ion.
#More to explore
Chemical Element Chemistry Matter
Molecule
Atsina
#see Gros Ventre.
Attucks, Crispus
An event called the Boston Massacre
helped to turn American colonists
All atoms have the same basic parts. These
are a nucleus and at least one particle
called an electron. The nucleus contains
protons and neutrons. Diagrams of two
kinds of atoms show that each kind of atom
has a different number of electrons.
One proton is
about as
heavy as
2,000 electrons.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Attucks, Crispus 225
against British rule, leading to the
American Revolution. Crispus Attucks
was killed by British soldiers during the
massacre, and many consider him to be
the first person to lose his life in the
struggle for independence.
Crispus Attucks was of African and
Native American ancestry. He was born
in about 1723 and probably grew up in
a Natick Indian settlement. He may
have escaped from slavery in 1750. Most
likely he became a sailor on whaling
ships.
By 1770 many people in Boston, Massachusetts,
were unhappy with British
rule. When a crowd gathered on March
5 to challenge British troops, Attucks
quickly came to the front of the group.
As the Americans waved their weapons
and shouted, the British opened fire.
Attucks was shot twice. He was the first
to die, but four others were also killed
and six were injured.
Attucks was immediately recognized as
a hero. It is said that 10,000 people
joined his funeral procession. In 1888
Attucks was honored with a monument
in Boston.
..More to explore
American Revolution Boston
Augusta
Population
(2000 census)
18,560; (2007
estimate)
18,367
Augusta is the capital of the U.S. state of
Maine. The city lies along both banks of
the Kennebec River. Ships travel on the
Crispus Attucks
Buildings of Augusta, Maine, look out onto
the Kennebec River.
226 Augusta BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
river from Augusta to the Atlantic
Ocean, about 40 miles (65 kilometers)
away.
Some of Augustas factories process foods.
Others make paper products, computer
products, steel, and shoes.Many people
in Augusta work for the state government
or in education or tourism.
Traders first came to the area in the
1600s. They established a trading post
on the site because of its location on the
river. In 1754 a company built Fort
Western to protect the site from Indian
attacks. A village soon grew up around
the fort. In 1797 the village was named
Augusta. Augusta was chosen as the
capital of Maine in 1827.
#More to explore
Maine
Augustus
The first emperor of Rome was Augustus.
During his long reign the Roman
world entered an era of wealth, peace,
and cultural achievement that became
known as the Augustan Age.
Augustus was born on September 23, 63
BC. His original name was Gaius
Octavius. He was related to Julius Caesar,
the Roman leader who was murdered
in 44 BC. After Caesars death he
found out that Caesar had chosen him
to be the next leader. From then on he
was called Octavian.
Other leaders challenged Octavian for
power. He finally defeated the last of
theseMark Antonyin 31 BC.
According to historians, Octavians victory
over Antony marked the beginning
of the Roman Empire. Octavian then
controlled the whole Roman world. In
27 BC the Senate gave him the title
Augustus (the exalted or sacred one).
Augustus armies conquered more territory
for the Roman Empire until the
Germans stopped them in AD 9. Augustus
then focused on improving Rome.
He founded cities, built roads, encouraged
agriculture, and promoted the arts.
Augustus died on August 19, AD 14.
Tiberius, his adopted son, then took
over as emperor.
#More to explore
Caesar, Julius Rome, Ancient
Aurora
Auroras are dazzling displays of colored
light that sometimes appear in the night
sky. They occur in Earths far northern
and far southern regions. In the Northern
Hemisphere such a display is known
as aurora borealis, or the northern lights.
An aurora lights up the sky over Churchill,
Manitoba, a city in northern Canada.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Aurora 227
In the Southern Hemisphere it is called
aurora australis, or the southern lights.
Auroras take many shapes and forms,
with arcs and rays of colored light being
the most common. The light may also
look like shimmering curtains, bands,
waves, or clouds. An aurora constantly
changes shape as the light moves across
the sky. The light also may brighten and
fade.
Auroras are caused by the sun. The sun
sends out a stream of electrically charged
particles called the solar wind. The solar
wind travels from the sun toward Earth
at great speed.
Earth is a huge magnet surrounded by a
magnetic field. Earths magnetic field
forces the charged particles in the solar
wind toward the planets northern and
southern polar regions. The particles
move downward through Earths upper
atmosphere. As they do, they crash into
atoms and molecules of gases such as
oxygen and nitrogen. These collisions
cause the atoms and molecules to give
off light. This light is an aurora.
An auroras colors are determined by the
different gases that give off the light.
They also depend on the height of the
gases. An aurora usually begins as white
light. Then the light turns yellowish
green. This color is produced by oxygen.
Higher up, oxygen gives off red light.
Nitrogen produces blue or violet light.
..More to explore
Atmosphere Light Sun
Austin
Population
(2000 census),
city, 656,562;
(2007 estimate)
743,074
Austin is the capital of the U.S. state of
Texas. The city is located on the Colorado
River.
Companies that make computers and
other high-technology products are
important to Austins economy. Other
companies in Austin provide business
services. Many city residents work in
government offices or in health care or
education.
Austin began as the village ofWaterloo
in the 1830s. In 1839 the village became
the capital of the Republic of Texas. It
was then renamed in honor of Stephen
Austin, who started early settlements in
Texas. In 1845 Texas became a U.S.
state, with Austin as its capital.
The first railroad service to Austin began
in 1871. That helped the city grow as a
trading center for ranchers and farmers.
In the early 1900s people started building
factories in Austin. Later many hightechnology
industries moved to the city.
As a result, the citys population grew
rapidly.
..More to explore
Texas
Auroras are
named after
Aurora, the
ancient Roman
goddess of the
dawn.
228 Austin BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Australia
Australia is the only country that takes
up a whole continent. It is known for its
vast Outback, the Great Barrier Reef,
and its unique wildlife. The capital of
Australia is Canberra.
Geography
Australia is one of the largest countries
in the world, but it is also the smallest
continent. Located south of Asia,
Australia lies between the Indian Ocean
and the Pacific Ocean. Off the
southeastern coast is the island of
Tasmania. It has more than 4,000 lakes.
Along Australias northeastern coast is
the worlds largest coral reef, the Great
Barrier Reef.
The western half of the continent is a
plateau with several deserts, including
the Great Victoria Desert. East of the
plateau is a lowland area that rises to the
Great Dividing Range, a range of mountains
on the east coast. In the southeast
are the Australian Alps. There, Mount
Kosciusko, Australias tallest mountain,
stands 7,310 feet (2,228 meters) high.
The Darling and Murray rivers also run
through the southeast.
Australia is very dry. Most areas have hot
summers and mild winters. Because
Australia is in the Southern Hemisphere,
summer starts in December, and winter
starts in June.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Australia 229
Plants and Animals
Australias plants vary from region to
region. The rain forests of the northeast
include flowering plants, palms, and
laurels.Woodlands and forests cover
eastern Australia. Eucalyptus trees are
common in the highlands of the south
and at the edges of the deserts. Desert
shrubs and grasses grow in dry areas.
The country is home to many unique
animals, including emus (large flightless
birds), dingoes (wild dogs), and platypuses
(egg-laying mammals). Many of
the worlds marsupials live in
Australiafor example, kangaroos,
koalas, and wallabies. Crocodiles, lizards,
snakes, turtles, and parrots also live
there.
People
More than 90 percent of Australians
have European roots. Australia welcomed
many immigrants, or people
from other countries, over the years.
However, entry tests were set up to make
it very hard for nonwhites to settle there.
This changed in 1973. Since then, many
Asians have immigrated to the continent.
Aborigines, the native people of
Australia, make up a small percentage of
the population.
Almost 70 percent of Australians are
Christians. There are also small groups
of Buddhists and Muslims. Many people
do not follow any religion.
Few people live in the central region,
called the Outback or bush. About 85
percent of all Australians live in cities,
mostly along the coasts. The official
language is English.
Economy
Australia is a prosperous country. Most
people work in trade, businesses that
serve the public, and manufacturing.
Manufacturers make food, print, and
metal products; chemicals; and
machinery.
Australias rich natural resources include
oil, coal, and natural gas. Mines provide
Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park is located in
Australias Northern Territory. The area is
sacred to Australian Aborigines.
A bridge crosses the Yarra River in Melbourne.
The city is Australias second largest,
after Sydney.
230 Australia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
iron, bauxite, copper, opals, and
sapphires.
Agriculture and fishing are small parts of
Australias economy. Still, Australia is
one of the worlds largest producers of
wool. The wool comes from more than
100 million Australian sheep. Farmers
grow wheat, vegetables, fruits, nuts, cotton,
and other crops.
History
Aborigines lived in Australia for at least
40,000 years before Europeans arrived.
They came from Asia by boat or by land
that is now underwater.
European Explorers
Portuguese and Spanish explorers may
have landed in Australia in the 1500s. In
the 1600s several Dutch explorers
reached the continent. They included
Dirck Hartog and Abel Tasman. Hartog
discovered the west coast, and Tasman
sailed along the southern tip of what is
now called Tasmania. Because of all
these voyages the Dutch named the continent
New Holland in 1644. But they
did not settle there.
William Dampier, an English pirate
turned explorer, landed on the west
coast twice in the late 1600s. In 1770
Captain James Cook landed in southeastern
Australia and claimed it for
Great Britain. He named the region
New SouthWales.
First Fleet and Settlement
Captain Cook thought that New South
Wales was a good place for settlement.
At the time, Englands prisons were
overcrowded. So the English government
decided to send prisoners to Australia
to start a penal colonya place
where criminals are sent to live.
Captain Arthur Phillip was in charge of
the First Fleet. He led 11 ships carrying
about 200 marines, a few free settlers,
1644 1770 1788 1851 1901 1992 2000
Dutch explorers
name the
continent New
Holland.
James Cook
claims
Australia for
Great Britain.
Britain sets up
the first colony
in Australia.
A gold rush
brings many
settlers to
Australia.
Australia
separates from
Britain.
Aborigines
win the right
to claim their
traditional
lands.
Sydney hosts
the Summer
Olympic
Games.
T I M E L I N E
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Australia 231
more than 700 convicts, food stores, and
farm animals. The trip took eight
months and conditions were very hard.
They reached Australia in January 1788
and settled in a bay that they named
Sydney Cove. Phillip became the first
governor of the colony.
Convicts and settlers worked to clear
land and to establish farms. They were
not used to the climate, which was
different from Englands, so the
colonists struggled to survive. But soon
more convicts and settlers arrived. The
settlement grew bigger and stronger.
In the 1800s other parts of the country
were settled. Some were also penal colonies.
In 1851 the discovery of gold drew
thousands of new immigrants to Australia.
The settlements grew and became
colonies separate from New South
Wales. They became Tasmania,Western
Australia, Victoria, Queensland, and
South Australia.
The flood of settlers nearly wiped out
the aboriginal population. Many
Aborigines died while fighting for their
land or from diseases brought by the
Europeans.
Independence andWar
By the late 1800s the six separate colonies
each had an elected parliament, or
group of lawmakers. In 1901 they
became states when they joined together
to form a federation. The new Commonwealth
of Australia had a national
parliament and six state parliaments. It
kept ties with Britain, however, as part
of the British Commonwealth (a group
of former British colonies).
WhenWorldWar I began, Australians
fought alongside the British Army.
Many Australians died during the battle
of Gallipoli in 1915. Australia also supported
Britain whenWorldWar II
began in 1939. In the 1940s the Japanese
attacked several Australian cities.
Their airplanes bombed Darwin, and
submarines fired on Sydney. After the
war Australias population grew rapidly.
Many immigrants came from war-torn
Europe.
Recent Events
In the 1970s Australia started to focus
less on Europe and more on its Asian
neighbors. Many Asian immigrants
arrived, and trade increased between
Australia and Asian countries.
In the 1990s Aborigines won some
rights to land. They also won more
respect from white Australians. Many
still face hardships, however.
The British monarch is still the head of
state in Australia. Some Australians have
called for change. They want the country
to become a republic with a president
as head of state. In 1999, however,
Australians voted against a complete
separation from Britain.
..More to explore
Aboriginal Peoples Canberra Cook,
James Eucalyptus Great Barrier Reef
Great Victoria Desert Marsupial
Parliament Platypus Tasmania
Facts About
AUSTRALIA
Population
(2008 estimate)
21,338,000
Area
2,969,978 sq mi
(7,692,208 sq
km)
Capital
Canberra
Form of
government
Federal parliamentary
state
Metropolitan
areas
Sydney, Melbourne,
Brisbane,
Perth, Adelaide
232 Australia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Austria
Located in central Europe, Austria is a
small, mountainous country. The capital
of Austria is Vienna.
Geography
Austria is bordered by Switzerland,
Liechtenstein, Germany, the Czech
Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy, and
Slovenia. Some of the highest
mountains of the Alps are in central
and western Austria. Grossglockner, the
highest peak, is 12,460 feet (3,798
meters) tall.
The major lowland areas lie in northern
and eastern Austria. The northern lowland
is the valley of the Danube River.
Many other rivers, including the Enns,
Inn, and Drava, flow through the valleys
of the Alps. They form several passes
through the mountains. Brenner Pass is
the most important pass. It connects
Austria with Italy.
Western Austria gets more rain and
snow than eastern Austria. The east also
has a greater range of temperatures. In
some mountainous regions there is snow
all year.
Plants and Animals
Austria is the most densely forested
country in central Europe. Beech, birch,
and oak trees grow in the warmer zones.
Firs, larches, and pines grow in the hills
and mountains.
Wild animals include brown bears, deer,
hare, foxes, badgers, eagles, falcons,
owls, cranes, swans, storks, and turkey
vultures. In Austrian rivers live trout,
grayling, pike, perch, and carp.
People
German is the official language of Austria.
More than 90 percent of the people
are Austrian. Small minority groups
include Slavs, Turks, and Hungarians.
Most of Austrias mountains are part of a
large mountain chain called the Alps.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Austria 233
Most Austrians are Roman Catholic.
About two thirds of Austrians live in
cities and towns. Vienna is the largest
city.
Economy
Services, or businesses that serve the
public, and manufacturing are the most
important parts of Austrias economy.
Tourism and banking are major areas of
the service industry. Tourists come for
Austrias famous skiing resorts, cultural
events, and scenic beauty. Manufacturers
make machinery, food products, metals,
and chemicals.
Austrias natural resources include lignite
(brown coal), iron ore, petroleum
(oil), natural gas, and magnesite (used to
make magnesium). Austria is one of the
worlds leading producers of natural
magnesite.
Austria uses less than half its land for
farming and grazing. The major crops
are sugar beets, corn, wheat, barley,
potatoes, apples, grapes, and rye. Pigs,
cattle, and chickens are the main livestock.
History
Romans, Germans, Slavs, Hungarians,
and others have invaded Austria during
its long history. A German family called
the Hapsburgs ruled Austria and other
parts of Europe from 1282 until 1918.
In the 1800s the Hapsburgs joined with
Hungary to form an empire called
Austria-Hungary, which controlled
much of central and eastern Europe.
After the collapse of the empire in 1918,
the country was reduced to one eighth
of its original size.
German leader Adolf Hitler invaded
Austria and made it a part of Nazi Germany
in 1938. Austria was divided into
four zones in 1945, after Germanys
defeat inWorldWar II. The United
States, Great Britain, France, and the
Soviet Union each occupied one of the
zones. Austrias government had limited
powers.
In 1955 Austria gained independence
after its leaders promised to keep neutral,
or stay out of foreign affairs. The
country became stable, both politically
and economically, in the 1970s. In the
1990s, however, some politicians began
to blame immigrants for crime and economic
problems. Others opposed these
views.
..More to explore
Alps, The Germany Hapsburgs
Vienna WorldWar II
A street in the Austrian city of Salzburg is
lined with shops and cafes.
Facts About
AUSTRIA
Population
(2008 estimate)
8,338,000
Area
32,383 sq mi
(83,871 sq km)
Capital
Vienna
Form of
government
Federal republic
Major cities
Vienna, Graz,
Linz, Salzburg,
Innsbruck,
Klagenfurt
234 Austria BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
The air-fuel mixture that enters the
engine cannot ignite by itself. It needs
an electric spark. This comes from
devices called spark plugs. They get their
electric current from a battery. The battery
also powers the automobiles lights,
horn, turn signals, windshield wipers,
starter, and instruments such as the
gasoline gauge.
An exhaust system carries burned gases
from the engine to the muffler. The
muffler cools the gases. It also reduces
their pressure. This reduces the noise
coming from the tailpipe. Modern cars
are also equipped with a device called a
catalytic converter. The catalytic converter
uses chemicals to reduce exhaust
pollution.
Power Train
The engine provides power to make a
car go, but something else must turn the
wheels. The parts of the car that transmit,
or deliver, power from the engine to
the wheels are together called the power
train. When a car is starting or moving
uphill the engine must deliver more
power than when it is cruising on level
ground. The transmission uses gears to
reduce or increase the speed and power
of the engine. The drive shaft carries the
power from the transmission to the axle,
which connects the wheels.
Other Mechanical Parts
Once a car is moving it is important to
be able to make it stop. When a driver
presses the brake pedal, pistons force
fluid through small, flexible pipes to
brakes at each wheel that stop the
vehicle.
The wheels of an automobile are part of
a system called the suspension system.
This consists of springs that absorb
bumps and shock absorbers that cushion
the spring movement. The air-filled tires
of an automobile also cushion the ride.
History
The first true automobile was a machine
that had three wheels and was powered
by steam. It was built by Nicolas-Joseph
Cugnot of France in 1769. It was heavy
and moved very slowly. Many manufacturers
produced steam-driven automobiles
during the late 1890s and early
1900s. A disadvantage of steam was that
water had to be brought to a boil before
the car could go.
During this same period other manufacturers
produced cars run by electric
motors. Electric cars ran smoothly and
were easy to operate. However, they did
not run well at high speeds. They also
had to have their batteries recharged
every 50 miles (80 kilometers) or so.
British and
American
people use
different
words for
certain parts
of cars. For
example, the
part called the
hood in the
United States
is the bonnet
in Great
Britain.
Two men ride an early automobile in about
1901. The first cars looked very different
than the cars of today.
236 Automobile BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gas Engines
Etienne Lenoir of France developed a
gasoline-powered internal-combustion
engine in 1860. In 1876 the German
Nikolaus Otto built an improved gasoline
engine. Gasoline engines proved to
be more reliable than the other kinds.
The brothers Charles E. and J. Frank
Duryea built the first successful
gasoline-powered car in the United
States in 1893. Soon several people set
up factories to produce cars.
Development of the Automobile
Industry
Henry Ford made his first automobile in
Detroit in 1896. Ford introduced the
assembly line in 1913. This made it easy
to produce many cars very quickly.
Assembly-line workers stay in one place
and do only a single task as the parts
pass by on a conveyor. Ford soon sold
millions of cars. Several other companies
were established at this time as well.
Innovations
In the period afterWorldWar I (1914
18), automobiles became easier to operate
and more comfortable. Steel bodies
and heaters became common.
AfterWorldWar II (193945) automakers
began using power steering, power
brakes, and automatic controls for windows
and seats. Air conditioning also
became available.
In the late 1950s, European compact
cars like the Volkswagen Beetle caused a
sensation. U.S. makers built their own
compact cars starting in 1959.
The Problem of Oil
The gasoline used in automobiles comes
from petroleum (oil). As the United
States began to use up its own oil
supplies, it looked to other countries for
more. In 1973 the oil-producing
countries stopped shipping as much oil
to the countries that needed it. This
caused high prices and long lines at gas
stations. It also made automakers work
to produce cars that did not use as much
gasoline. Japanese companies were
especially successful at this.
Automobiles also cause air pollution. As
gasoline is burned it produces harmful
gases. Some scientists blame these gases
for a problem called global warming. By
the 21st century some automakers had
created vehicles that combined gasoline
and electric power.
Safety
Early cars were very dangerous to ride
in. Since then automobile manufacturers
have worked to create safer cars. They
installed such devices as seatbelts and air
Hybrid cars use less gasoline than other
cars. They rely on an electric motor for part
of their power.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Automobile 237
bags to protect riders in a crash. They
have also tried to improve the way cars
are built so that the cars will survive a
crash better.
#More to explore
GlobalWarming Internal-Combustion
Engine Petroleum Pollution Road
Avalanche
An avalanche is a large amount of snow
that quickly moves down a slope. An
avalanche can be deadly because it will
bury or sweep away anything in its path.
Large amounts of sliding earth or other
materials may also be called avalanches.
But these are often known as landslides.
Many different conditions make an avalanche
possible. An avalanche is more
likely to happen on a slope without trees
or large rocks. These things help to keep
snow in place. A weak layer of snow also
makes an avalanche likely. For example,
melting and refreezing may cause a layer
of snow to become slick. Snow piling on
top of this weak layer can easily slide off.
Heavy snowfall, strong wind, and rising
temperature all can start an avalanche.
Falling rocks or ice also can cause snow
to slide. Even the movement of a skier
or a snowmobile can begin an avalanche.
#More to explore
Landslide Snow
Avocado
Although many people think that avocados
are vegetables, they are actually
fruits. An avocado is a berry with one
large seed, or pit, in the center.
There are more than 1,000 varieties of
avocado. Avocado trees grow wild in
Mexico and in Central and South
America. American Indians in those
areas developed some avocado varieties
thousands of years ago. Today farmers
grow avocados in many places with mild
winters and plenty of sun.
Avocado trees have broad, shiny leaves
that stay green all year. The trees can
grow up to about 65 feet (20 meters)
tall. Their fruits are round or pearshaped.
They vary widely in size. On the
outside the fruits are green or dark
purple. The greenish or yellowish flesh
inside turns soft after picking.
Avocados are rich in fat, protein, and
several vitamins. They can be eaten raw.
Mashed avocado is the main ingredient
in the Mexican sauce called guacamole.
Axum
#see Aksum.
People in
mountainous
areas protect
themselves
from avalanches
in several
ways.
Special fences
hold snow in
place. Barriers
also help to
stop sliding
snow.
The avocado is a fruit with a large seed
inside.
238 Avalanche BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Azerbaijan
The country of Azerbaijan sits at the
crossroads between central Asia, Europe,
and the Middle East. The capital is
Baku.
Azerbaijan is bordered by Russia, Georgia,
Armenia, and Iran. The Caspian Sea
lies to the east. A part of Armenia separates
the Azerbaijani republic of
Nakhichevan from the rest of Azerbaijan.
The Caucasus Mountains run through
northern and southern Azerbaijan. The
central area is a large plain crossed by
the Kura River. Most of Azerbaijan is
dry, with hot summers and mild winters.
The region has many earthquakes.
Most of the countrys people are Azerbaijani,
though there are a few Russians,
Armenians, and other minority groups.
Most people speak Azerbaijani, a Turkic
language. More than 90 percent are
Muslims. However, the people of the
Nagorno-Karabakh region (an area also
claimed by Armenia) are mostly Eastern
Orthodox Christians. About half of the
people live in cities.
Azerbaijans economy is based on its
natural resources and agriculture. Its
major resources are petroleum (oil) and
natural gas. Crops include grains, vegetables,
fruit, sugar beets, cotton,
tobacco, and tea. Sheep, goats, and
cattle provide wool and meat. Manufacturers
make mainly food and petroleum
products.
Azerbaijans written history is more than
2,000 years old. At various times Arabs,
Persians, Turks, and Mongols dominated
the land. Russia took over Azerbaijan in
the early 1800s. In 1918 Azerbaijan
declared its independence. In 1920,
however, the new Soviet Union invaded
Azerbaijan. At first the Soviets combined
Azerbaijan with Georgia and Armenia.
In 1936 Azerbaijan became a separate
Soviet republic.With the breakup of the
Soviet Union, Azerbaijan gained independence
again in 1991.
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries
Azerbaijan fought with Armenia over
control of the Nagorno-Karabakh
region. Armenia seized control of some
Azerbaijani land.
..More to explore
Baku Caspian Sea Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics
Facts About
AZERBAIJAN
Population
(2008 estimate)
8,178,000
Area
33,400 sq mi
(86,600 sq km)
Capital
Baku
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Baku, Ganca,
Sumqayit (Sumgait),
Mingacevir
(Mingechaur), Ali
Bayramli
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Azerbaijan 239
Aztec
In the 1400s and early 1500s the Aztec
people controlled a large empire in the
area that is now central and southern
Mexico. At its most powerful, the Aztec
Empire spread over 80,000 square miles
(207,000 square kilometers). Montezuma
II, the last great Aztec emperor,
ruled over 5 to 6 million people.
How the Aztec Lived
The capital city of the Aztec was
Tenochtitlan. It was built on land that
today is part of Mexico City. Tenochtitlan
reflected the power and wealth of
the empire. It had gleaming white palaces
and temples on top of pyramids.
City officials lived in houses made from
stone and adobe, or sun-dried clay.
Farmers lived in huts made of woven
rods and twigs covered with clay.
Most Aztec were farmers. They grew
corn, beans, peppers, squash, tomatoes,
tobacco, and cotton. Other Aztec were
traders and craftsmen.
The Aztec spoke a language called
Nahua. They had no alphabet of their
own, but they used picture writing to
record their history.
Religion was very important to the
Aztec. They worshipped several gods
who represented the forces of nature,
such as rain or sun. The god of war was
important, too.
The Aztec often used human sacrifice to
get help from the gods. This practice
involved killing a person to honor a god.
The Aztec believed that because life was
humankinds most precious possession,
it was the best gift for the gods. They
sacrificed thousands of prisoners captured
in war.
History
The Aztec probably moved into central
Mexico from the north in about AD
1200. There they took on parts of the
cultures of earlier peoples, including the
Toltec, the Maya, and the Zapotec. They
founded Tenochtitlan in about 1325.
They conquered neighboring peoples to
build up their empire.
The Aztec were at the height of their
power when Hernan Cortes and his
Spanish soldiers arrived in 1519. The
Spanish put the emperor Montezuma II
in prison, where he died. In 1521 the
Spanish took control of Tenochtitlan,
ending the Aztec Empire. Many of the
Indians living in the Mexico City region
today are descendants of the Aztec.
#More to explore
Cortes, Hernan Maya Mexico
Mexico City Toltec
An Aztec drawing shows Aztec and Spanish
soldiers just before a battle. The Spanish
are in a building.
240 Aztec BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
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eBook edition January, 2010
Johann Sebastian Bachs music
did not become popular until
about 50 years after his death.
(See Bach, Johann Sebastian.)
Some kinds of bamboo can
grow as much as 1 foot (0.3
meter) per day.
(See Bamboo.)
Boats were once made of wood
or other natural substances.
Today they are often made of
metal, fiberglass, or plastic.
(See Boat.)
Bonobos, a type of ape, live
only in the rain forests of the
Democratic Republic of the
Congo.
(See Bonobo.)
People have been making
bronze, a mixture of copper
and tin, for more than 5,000
years.
(See Bronze.)
Bb
Bach, Johann
Sebastian
German musician Johann Sebastian
Bach is considered one of the worlds
greatest composers of music. He was
also a gifted player of the organ and the
harpsichord (another keyboard instrument).
Bach created hundreds of musical compositions,
including works for choir,
orchestra, and individual instruments,
especially the organ. Among his many
masterpieces are the six Brandenburg
concertos, which have parts for both an
orchestra and solo instruments. Bach
composed many works for Lutheran
church services. He also wrote longer
sacred pieces, such as the Mass in B
Minor (1749), for choir, soloists, and
orchestra.
Early Life
Bach was born on March 21, 1685, in
Eisenach (now in central Germany). His
eldest brother, who was an organist,
probably gave him his first keyboard
lessons. Bach attended school in Luneburg,
where he sang in a boys choir. By
the time he left, he was a skilled organist
and composer.
Career
Bach worked as a musician and composer
in churches and in the service of
German noblemen in various cities. His
first major position was as the official
organist for a duke atWeimar. Later he
also became director of the dukes
orchestra. His duties included composing
a sacred cantataa type of music for
use during church servicesevery
month.
In 1723 Bach became the director of
church music for the city of Leipzig.
During his early years in this job, he
composed many cantatas, sometimes up
to one per week. At Leipzig he also
directed an orchestra off and on from
1729 into the early 1740s. Bach died in
Leipzig on July 28, 1750.
During his lifetime Bach was known
mainly for his skill as a musician. After
his death his compositions were mostly
forgotten until the early 1800s. Then
people began to rediscover his works.
Today the music of Bach is highly
acclaimed and is performed frequently.
#More to explore
Classical Music Musical Instruments
Orchestra
A painting from 1720 shows Johann
Sebastian Bach.
4 Bach, Johann Sebastian BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bacteria
Bacteria are small organisms, or living
things, that can be found in all natural
environments. They are made of a single
cell. Most bacteria can be seen only with
a microscope.
Bacteria do not have most of the structures
found in the cells of other organisms.
They are much simpler and
smaller than all other cells of living
things.
Bacteria take in food and send out waste
through their cell walls. Most bacteria
reproduce by dividing down the middle
to form two separate cells. These each
divide again to form a total of four cells.
Through this process, billions of bacteria
may form from a single bacterium in
only 24 hours.
Bacteria that cause diseases can get into
the human body through the nose, the
mouth, and cuts in the skin. Once
inside, these bacteria quickly reproduce
and cause illness, called an infection.
The infection may result from the bacteria
themselves or from their poisonous
waste products, called toxins. Luckily,
the immune system of the human body
can fight these threats.
Sometimes the immune system needs
help in fighting off bacteria. Doctors
may inject dead or weakened bacteria
into the human body. This is called a
vaccine. A vaccine prepares the body to
fight off the same bacteria in the future.
Doctors may also use medicines called
antibiotics to kill bacteria in the body.
#More to explore
Antibiotic Cell Immune System
Vaccine
Badger
Badgers are mammals known for their
powerful digging. They are related to
weasels, skunks, otters, and mink.
Badgers live in many habitats, including
grasslands and forests. There are eight
species, or types, of badger. The American
badger lives in the western part of
North America. The Eurasian badger
can be found in Europe and Asia. The
other types live in Southeast Asia. They
include hog badgers, ferret badgers, and
stink badgers.
Badgers are heavily built animals with
short legs. The different species range
from 13 to 32 inches (33 to 81 centimeters)
long, not including the tail. They
Most bacteria are so small that they can be
seen only by using a microscope. This bacteria
sample has been magnified 2,000
times.
Scientists have
found remains
of bacteria
that are more
than 360 million
years old.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Badger 5
are about 9 to 12 inches (23 to 30 centimeters)
high. The American badger
sometimes looks wider than it is high.
Most badgers have gray or brown fur.
Many types have black-and-white marks
on the face and back.
Badgers have strong front feet with
heavy claws that are excellent for digging.
Badgers dig to make underground
homes called burrows. They may also
dig to find small animals such as squirrels,
mice, and rabbits to eat. Many
kinds eat insects, lizards, birds, and
plants, too. Badgers feed mainly at
night.
Badgers are strong for their size. They
can fight fiercely when threatened. All
badgers have scent glands near the tail.
Like skunks, stink badgers shoot a foulsmelling
liquid from these glands at
their enemies.
..More to explore
Mammal Mink Otter Skunk
Weasel
Baghdad
Population
(2007
estimate), urban
area,
5,054,000
Baghdad is the capital of the Middle
Eastern country of Iraq. It is also Iraqs
largest city. Baghdad lies on both banks
of the Tigris River.
Most of Iraqs industries are located in
and around Baghdad. At one time the
city produced a wide variety of goods,
including cloth, furniture, chemicals,
and electrical equipment. The economy
of the city was disrupted by wars in the
late 20th and early 21st centuries.
People have lived on the site of Baghdad
for some 4,000 years. In AD 762 an Arab
Muslim ruler moved the capital of his
large empire there. Baghdad reached its
greatest power in the late 700s and early
800s. It also became a center of learning.
In 1258 the Mongols captured Baghdad.
Later several other foreign powers
invaded the city.
In 1921 Iraq became an independent
country with Baghdad as its capital. The
city began to grow again in size and
importance.
Iraqs long war with Iran in the 1980s
hurt Baghdads development. During
The American badger is usually found in
open, dry areas of western North America.
Like other badgers it has large front claws
that it uses for digging.
6 Baghdad BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
the Persian GulfWar of 1991, the
United States and its allies dropped
bombs on the city. Baghdad suffered
further damage when forces led by the
United States invaded the city in 2003.
#More to explore
Iraq
Baha#i Faith
In the middle of the 1800s a religion
called the Baha#i faith started in what is
now Iran. It later spread around the
world. Its followers, called Baha#is, seek
to bring together all people in one religion.
Beliefs and Practices
Baha#is believe that all religions are one
and all people are one. They also believe
that God is beyond understanding. They
teach that people should worship God
and try to make the world a better place.
At services, members listen to readings
from the scriptures of all religions.
Baha#is have no priests or special ceremonies.
There are rules about prayer
and fasting, however. Also, a person is
supposed to marry only once and should
not use alcohol or tobacco.
History
A man named Mirza !Ali Mohammad
started a group called the Babi in Persia
(now Iran) in 1844. He believed that a
new prophet, or messenger of God,
would soon appear. Muslim leaders and
the government opposed his ideas. He
was arrested, and in 1850 he was killed.
One of the first Babis was Mirza
Hoseyn !Ali Nuri. After he joined the
group, he called himself Baha# Ullah.
He was arrested in 1852. While in jail,
he realized that he was the new
prophet. In 1853 he was released and
sent to Iraq. He led the Babi
community there. The Babis who
believed that he was the new prophet
were called the Baha#is.
Baha# Ullah died in 1892. After his
death, his oldest son led the group. He
helped spread the faith to North
America, Europe, and other continents.
By the end of the 1900s, it had about 7
million followers around the world.
#More to explore
Iran
All Baha#i houses of worship
have nine sides and a dome.
The House of Worship in Wilmette,
Illinois, is the only one in
the United States.
The Baha#i
calendar has
19 months of
19 days each
because the
religion
started with
19 followers.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Baha#i Faith 7
Bahamas, The
Located just southeast of Florida, the
country of The Bahamas is a chain of
islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The capital
is Nassau on New Providence Island.
The Bahamas includes about 700 islands,
but people live on only about 30 of them.
The islands are low and flat. There are no
rivers. The climate is tropical, with warm
weather year-round. From July to
November, hurricanes may occur.
Forests of pine, broadleaf, and palm
trees grow on some islands. Animals of
The Bahamas include frogs, lizards, and
snakes. The surrounding waters are filled
with fish, conchs, crayfish, and other
marine animals.
Most people in The Bahamas trace their
roots to slaves fromWest Africa. Smaller
groups include mulattos (people with
both black and white ancestors), British
and U.S. whites, and Haitians.
The economy of The Bahamas depends
on tourism. Tourists come to enjoy the
beaches and crystal blue waters. Banking
is another important industry. Crayfish,
poultry, and fruit are the main agricultural
products. Bahamians also mine
limestone, harvest salt from the sea, and
make rum.
The peaceful Arawak people lived on the
islands before Europeans arrived.
Christopher Columbus landed in The
Bahamas in 1492 and claimed the islands
for Spain.Within 30 years the Arawak
had completely disappeared fromThe
Bahamas.
British settlers arrived on Eleuthera
Island in 1648. Except for brief control
by both the United States and Spain in
the late 1700s, The Bahamas stayed
British until 1973. That year the islands
gained independence.
..More to explore
Arawak Columbus, Christopher
Nassau
Many tourists arrive in The Bahamas on
cruise ships.
Facts About
THE BAHAMAS
Population
(2008 estimate)
335,000
Area
5,382 sq mi
(13,939 sq km)
Capital
Nassau
Form of
government
Constitutional
monarchy
Major cities
Nassau, Freeport,
West End, Coopers
Town,
Marsh Harbour
8 Bahamas, The BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bahrain
Bahrain is a small country in the Persian
Gulf. It is made up of one main island,
called Bahrain Island, and about 30
smaller islands off the coast of Saudi
Arabia. The capital is Manama.
Fruit trees grow on the northwestern
coast of Bahrain Island. Desert plants
grow in the dry areas. Animals include
gazelles, hares, lizards, jerboas (desert
rats), and mongooses.
The majority of the countrys people are
Arabs. There are also groups of South
Asians and Persians. Arabic is the official
language, and Islam is the official religion.
Most of the people live in cities.
Bahrain is a center for more than 60
foreign banks. Its major industries
depend on its reserves of petroleum (oil)
and natural gas. Bahrain also manufactures
aluminum products and clothing.
Tourism is a growing industry. Agricultural
goods include dates, other fruits,
vegetables, eggs, and milk.
Bahrain was likely the site of ancient
Dilmun, a trading center in about 2000
BC. Arab Muslims have lived in Bahrain
since the AD 600s. Portugal ruled from
1521 to 1602, followed by the Persians.
In 1783 the Khalifah family drove out
the Persians. A sheikh, or chief, of that
family has ruled Bahrain ever since.
Great Britain took control of Bahrains
foreign affairs in the 1800s. Bahrain
declared itself independent in 1971.
Disagreements between two Muslim
groups soon caused problems. About
half of Muslims are Shi!ites, but Sunnites
hold most of the political and economic
power.
..More to explore
Arabs Islam Manama
The desert sun shines down on a mosque in
the city of Madinah !Isa, Bahrain.
Facts About
BAHRAIN
Population
(2008 estimate)
1,084,000
Area
277 sq mi (718
sq km)
Capital
Manama
Form of
government
Constitutional
monarchy
Major urban
areas
Manama, Al
Muharraq,
Ar-Rifa!, Madinat
Hamad, Madinat
!Isa
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bahrain 9
Bairiki
Bairiki is the capital of Kiribati, an
island country in the central Pacific
Ocean. Bairiki is a small coral island. It
is part of a group of coral islands called
Tarawa Atoll.
Bairiki is a center of government,
business, and education for Kiribati.
The office of the president and the
Parliament building are on Bairiki. The
island also has a branch of the
University of the South Pacific. Dried
coconut meat and other products are
shipped from Bairikis port.
People have lived on Tarawa Atoll for
thousands of years. In 1892 the British
took over Tarawa and many nearby
islands. The Japanese controlled the
islands briefly in the 1940s, during
WorldWar II. Kiribati became an independent
country in 1979. Bairiki
became its capital.
..More to explore
Coral Kiribati
Baku
Population
(2006 estimate)
1,132,800
Baku is the capital and largest city of
Azerbaijan, a country of southwestern
Asia. The city lies on Baku Bay, which
is part of the Caspian Sea. Baku has the
best harbor on the Caspian Sea. It is a
center of education, culture, and
industry.
Petroleum (oil) drilling in the Caspian
Sea is a major industry. Processing the
petroleum is the basis of Bakus
economy. In addition, several factories
in the city make equipment for the
petroleum industry. Others produce
electrical equipment, appliances, cloth,
and shoes. Shipping at Bakus port also
brings money to the city.
Tarawa Atoll is a long, narrow chain of tiny
islands. Bairiki is at the southern end of the
chain.
A mosque stands near the Caspian Sea in
Baku. In the background is equipment that
drills for petroleum in the sea.
10 Bairiki BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
People have lived in the Baku area for
thousands of years. Oil was first taken
from the area in the 900s. Persians ruled
the region for many years. Russia captured
Baku in 1806. In 1918 Azerbaijan
became an independent country with
Baku as its capital. The Soviet Union
took over Azerbaijan in 1920. Baku
became the national capital again when
Azerbaijan became independent in
1991.
#More to explore
Azerbaijan Caspian Sea
Balboa, Vasco
Nunez de
The Spanish conquistador (conqueror)
Vasco Nunez de Balboa was the first
European to see the Pacific Ocean. He
also helped to found the first successful
European colony on the mainland of the
Americas.
Balboa was born in Spain in 1475. He
left for America in 1500 and settled on
the island of Hispaniola, in theWest
Indies. In 1510 he sailed with a group
headed for a colony in what is now
Colombia. When they arrived they discovered
that the colony had been abandoned
except for a few people. Balboa
persuaded them to go with him to
Darien, in what is now Panama. There
they established a stable colony.
Indians told Balboa about a great ocean
with gold on its shores. Balboa asked for
a large expedition from Spain to search
for this ocean, but before it arrived he
set out on his own with a smaller group.
In September 1513 he reached the
Pacific, which he called the South Sea,
and claimed it for Spain.
The expedition from Spain arrived in
1514, with Pedro Arias Davila at its
head. Balboa and Davila competed for
power. As governor of Darien, Davila
eventually charged Balboa with various
crimes. Balboa was found guilty and
beheaded in January 1519.
#More to explore
Pacific Ocean
Balkan Peninsula
The Balkan Peninsula is a large piece of
land in southeastern Europe. It is
divided into many countries, including
Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herze-
Vasco Nunez de Balboa govina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia,
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Balkan Peninsula 11
Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania,
Kosovo, Greece, and the European part
of Turkey. Sometimes the region is called
the Balkans. The history of the Balkans
includes many invasions and wars.
Geography
Mountains cover most of the peninsula.
The name Balkan means mountain in
the Turkish language. The only large
lowland regions are plains in Romania
and Bulgaria. The Danube River is the
most important waterway of the Balkans.
The northern part of the peninsula
has cold, snowy winters and warm summers.
The south has mild winters and
hot, dry summers.
People
Many different peoples live in the Balkans.
Most of the peoples belong to a
larger group called Slavs. The main
Slavic peoples include Serbs, Croats,
Slovenes, and Macedonians. The other
peoples of the Balkans include Romanians,
Albanians, Bulgarians, Hungarians,
Turks, Germans, and Roma
(Gypsies). Each group has its own language.
Christianity and Islam are the
main religions. Religion has been a
source of conflict in the Balkans.
History
Peoples called Illyrians, Thracians, and
Dacians lived in the Balkans in ancient
times. In 229 BC the Romans invaded
the peninsula. They controlled the Balkans
for many centuries. Christianity
spread through the Roman Empire in
the 300s AD. In 395 the empire divided
in two. The dividing line ran through
the Balkans. The western part of the
empire was ruled from the city of Rome.
The peoples who lived there became
Roman Catholics. The east was ruled
from the city of Constantinople (now
Istanbul, Turkey). The peoples who lived
there became Eastern Orthodox Christians.
At about the same time different
peoples began invading the Balkans
from the north. The Slavs were among
them. By the 500s the Slavs had spread
over much of the peninsula.
The Slavs then started to separate into
different peoples. Religion was a major
force in those separations. The Slavs
who lived in the western part of the Balkans
mostly became Roman Catholics.
Those who lived in the east mostly
became Eastern Orthodox Christians.
Some Balkan peoples created their own
kingdoms. The Bulgarians and the Serbs
built up empires. But in the late 1300s
and 1400s the Ottoman Turks conquered
the Balkans. They made the
whole region part of the Ottoman
Empire. The Turks converted some Slavs
and other peoples to Islam.
12 Balkan Peninsula BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
During the 1800s Balkan peoples
formed states that rebelled against the
Turks. In 1912 the states of Serbia, Bulgaria,
Greece, and Montenegro joined
together to defeat the Turks in war.
Soon, though, the Balkan states began
fighting each other. They disagreed over
who should control the land that had
been won from the Turks. DuringWorld
War I (191418) the Balkan states were
split between the two sides.
AfterWorldWar I a new Balkan country
was created. It combined the Slavic
lands of Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia,
Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and
Macedonia. Each became a republic of
the new country. In 1929 the country
was named Yugoslavia.
For many years after World War II
most of the Balkan countries were ruled
by strict Communist governments. In
1989 the Communists began to lose
power. The Balkan countries then made
their governments more democratic.
In 1991 and 1992 Croatia, Slovenia,
Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina
broke away from Yugoslavia to
form separate countries. That led to
fighting that lasted for several years. The
two republics that stayed in Yugoslavia
were Serbia and Montenegro. In 2003
they dropped the name Yugoslavia.
Then, in 2006, Serbia and Montenegro
split into separate countries. In 2008
another split occurred. The province of
Kosovo declared itself independent from
Serbia. Serbia refused to recognize
Kosovo as an independent country, however.
..More to explore
Europe Ottoman Empire Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics Yugoslavia
Ballet
Ballet is a dance form that began in the
1500s. It is a theatrical art, meaning that
it is performed to music and with costumes
and scenery.
Positions and Steps
Ballet is based on a formal system of
poses and steps that have been changed
only slightly through the years. There
are five basic positions of the feet. In all
of them the legs are turned out, or
rotated from the hips so the feet point
outward. The foot positions in ballet are
balanced by matching positions of the
arms. In addition to the position of the
feet and arms, there are two major body
positions. In an arabesque one leg supports
the bodys weight while the other
leg extends backward with the knee
A church stands on an island in the middle
of Lake Bled in Slovenia.
.
When people
say that a
region or
group is balkanized,
they
mean that it
has been split
up into many
small units.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ballet 13
straight and the foot pointed. In a similar
position called an attitude, the knee
of the raised leg is bent.
Among the basic steps of ballet are various
jumps, turns, and quick gliding or
sliding steps. Female dancers, called ballerinas,
dance part of the time on the
tips of the toes. This often gives their
movements a floating quality.
History
Ballet developed from dances performed
in the late 1500s for and by members of
the French royal court, including the
king. These court ballets used many
steps of the social dances of the time. In
1661 the French king Louis XIV established
the Royal Academy of Dance for
the study of ballet. Soon only trained
professionals danced in ballets. The
academys first director created the five
basic ballet positions. Over the next
several decades, its dancers developed
many of ballets basic steps.
Many early ballets combined dancing
with opera or scenes from a play. The
dramatic ballet, which tells a story
through dance, was developed in the
1700s. Choreographers (who create a
dances steps and movements) and dancers
of the time also began to use new,
more expressive steps and gestures.
In the mid-1800s French dancer and
choreographer Marius Petipa moved to
Russia and established Saint Petersburg
as the major center for ballet. Petipa and
composer Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky created
several famous ballets, including
Swan Lake, Sleeping Beauty, and The
Nutcracker.
In the early 1900s Sergey Diaghilev
founded a company called the Ballets
Russes. Among his associates were
famous composers and artists and such
great choreographers and dancers as
Ballet dancers use five basic positions of the feet and arms in all of their dancing.
Dancers perform the ballet Swan Lake.
14 Ballet BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Michel Fokine, Leonide Massine, Vaslav
Nijinsky, Anna Pavlova, and George
Balanchine. The Ballets Russes toured
widely and greatly influenced dancers in
theWest. Many of its artists later moved
to the United States.
Balanchine founded what became the
New York City Ballet in the 1940s. He
choreographed more than 150 works for
the company, several featuring music by
Igor Stravinsky. The company that
became the American Ballet Theatre
began performing in 1940. It is also
based in New York City.
Other great companies, such as the
Royal Ballet of England and the Royal
Danish Ballet, also flourished in the
1900s and beyond. In Russia the
Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Kirov
Ballet in Saint Petersburg continued to
uphold the highest standards.
#More to explore
Dance
Balloon
Like airships, balloons are lighter-thanair
craft. They are filled with a gas or
heated air that makes them float in the
air. Early experiments with balloon
flight led to the development of the
motor-powered airship and later the airplane.
Types of Balloons
Balloons come in all shapes and sizes,
from small toy balloons to large
passenger balloons. They can be used
for advertising purposes, for scientific
experiments, for entertainment, or for
recreation. Giant balloons of cartoon
characters and other entertaining
subjects are familiar sights in parades.
These are controlled by people on the
ground, who carry them along the
parade route. Scientific balloons and
those used for recreation are free to
move through the air as they are guided
by a pilot.
How Balloons Fly
A balloon rises because it is filled with a
gas that is lighter than air. The lightest
gas is hydrogen. Hydrogen, however,
catches fire and explodes easily. Helium
is almost as light as hydrogen, and it
does not burn. Helium is used for balloons
that are held down with ropes,
such as the ones seen in parades. Some
free passenger balloons are also filled
with helium or with hydrogen. Others
are filled with heated air, which is lighter
than unheated air. For long-distance
Balloons are popular features of
many parades.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Balloon 15
balloon flights a combination of helium
and hot air is used.
A free passenger balloon has a huge gas
bag, or envelope. It is filled through an
opening at the bottom, called the neck
or appendix. In a hot-air balloon, a propane
burner at the neck keeps the air
inside the bag hot. The entire bag is
enclosed in a strong net. A basket is
attached to the net and hangs underneath
the bag. This holds the passengers.
At the top of the bag is a valve for releasing
gas. This valve is connected to a cord
that usually runs through the bag and
out the neck. It hangs within reach of
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