after it was picked.
Whitney also came up with the idea of
interchangeable parts. Before that time
a worker who was skilled at making one
type of product would spend a great
deal of time making a single product by
hand. Whitney discovered that a
machine could make many copies of
the individual parts of a product at
once; the parts could then be assembled
by any worker. This meant that many
goods could be produced quickly. Soon
factories were set up to produce these
goods.
Factories and the machines in them
needed power sources. In the early
1700s people discovered how to build
steam engines. In the late 1700s James
Watt invented a steam engine that could
run factory machines.
The Industrial Revolution soon spread
to all kinds of production. Farmers, for
instance, began to invent new machines
to plow fields and plant crops.
Factory owners needed ways to bring
large amounts of raw materials to their
factories. They also needed ways to
deliver the products that they made to
customers in many places. Their
demands led to many improvements in
the transportation system. The U.S.
inventor Robert Fulton perfected the
steamboat in 1807. The British inventor
George Stephenson put a steam engine
on wheels and put the wheels on rails in
1825. The result was a railroad.
Before the Industrial Revolution people
made clothing and other products at home.
To make cloth they had to spin wool into
yarn on a spinning wheel and then weave
the yarn into cloth by hand.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Industrial Revolution 133
Impact on Society
By the late 1700s, many people could
no longer earn their living in the countryside.
People moved from farms and
villages into bigger towns and cities to
find work. Cities grew larger, but they
were often dirty, crowded, and
unhealthy.
Although the machines made the work
easier in some ways, factory work created
many problems for the workers.
Machines increased production. This
meant that products were cheaper to
make and also cheaper to buy. Factory
owners grew rich. Factory employees,
however, did not earn much, and the
work was often dangerous. Many
worked 12 to 14 hours a day. Men,
women, and even small children worked
in factories.
Workers sought to win improved conditions
and wages through labor unions.
These organizations helped create laws
that protected the workers. They limited
the number of hours they had to work
and guaranteed that they would be paid
a certain amount.
#More to explore
Industry Technology and Invention
Industry
An industry is a group of businesses that
make or sell similar products or perform
similar services. Farms are part of the
agricultural industry. Factories are part
of manufacturing industries. Schools are
part of the educational services industry.
Industries are important to every countrys
economy.
The first human industry was agriculture.
Most developing countries still
depend on agriculture as their main
industry.
Another early industry was mining, or
the removal of metals and other materials
from the earth. Since prehistoric
During the Industrial Revolution people
invented looms that ran on steam or other
power sources. These power looms wove
cloth faster than ever before.
Manufacturing plants produce many different
kinds of products, including foods and
beverages.
134 Industry BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
times humans have mined metals to
make tools and other goods.
Manufacturing industries make goods
from the raw materials produced by
agriculture and mining. Manufacturers
make such everyday items as clothing,
cars, computers, paper, and processed
food. Another manufacturing industry is
construction. Construction workers
build houses, office buildings, roads,
bridges, and sewers.
Service industries dominate the economies
of developed countries.Workers in
service industries do not provide actual
goods. Instead they perform actions.
Teachers, car mechanics, barbers, housepainters,
bankers, and actors are all in
service industries. One of the most
important service industries is telecommunications.
By connecting telephones
and computers, telecommunications
allows people to talk across great distances.
#More to explore
Agriculture Economics
Manufacturing Mining
Telecommunication
Indus Valley
Civilization
One of the first civilizations in the world
developed in the valley of the Indus
River in Asia. It occupied both sides of
what is now the border between Pakistan
and India. The Indus Valley civilization
lasted from about 2500 BC to about
1700 BC.
Society and Culture
The biggest cities of the Indus Valley
civilization were Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
Both were in what is now Pakistan.
Harappa might have had as many
as 35,000 people. Mohenjo-daro was
even larger. There were also at least 60
smaller settlements along the Indus
River and the Arabian Sea.
Farming was important to the Indus
Valley civilization. People ran water
channels from rivers to the fields. The
Indus people were among the first to
grow cotton and use it to make cloth.
They also might have been the first
people to raise chickens.
Indus merchants used carved stones
called seals to mark their goods. Many
seals show pictures of animals and a
form of writing. These seals have been
found in Mesopotamia (in what is now
The people of the Indus Valley carved many
objects, including mazes and dice.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Indus Valley Civilization 135
Iraq). This means that the two regions
might have traded with each other.
History
Beginning in about 5000 BC, farmers
near what is now Iran began to gather in
villages. In about 3500 BC settlers began
to move eastward into the Indus Valley.
By about 2500 BC the Indus Valley civilization
had developed at Harappa and
other sites. Scholars do not know much
about Indus Valley history because they
do not understand the writing system.
The Indus Valley civilization probably
broke down in stages between 2000 BC
and 1700 BC. Some historians blame
invaders from the west, probably a
group known as Aryans. Climate
change, floods, and diseases also might
have hurt the civilization.
#More to explore
Civilization Indus River
Influenza
Influenza, or flu, is a common illness of
the respiratory, or breathing, system.
Germs called viruses cause influenza.
The viruses invade the nose, throat, and
lungs.
The signs of influenza come on suddenly.
They include body aches, chills,
and fever. The person also may cough
and sneeze and have a sore throat.
People with influenza often become very
tired. Some may have a headache. After
three or four days most people start to
get better. But flu can be a serious danger
to people who are very old or very
young or have other health problems.
Such people can get pneumonia and
bronchitis.
Influenza viruses come in many types.
The most dangerous types can kill even
young and healthy people. Luckily, they
do not cause outbreaks very often. But
in 191819 an outbreak of influenza
A seal often had animal pictures and writing
carved into it.
Temporary hospitals took in many influenza
patients during the 191819 outbreak.
136 Influenza BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
killed more than 20 million people
throughout the world.
People with influenza should get plenty
of rest and drink lots of fluids. In the
late 20th century scientists developed
medicines to treat influenza.
People can protect themselves from
influenza viruses by getting a shot of a
substance called a vaccine. Because the
viruses change constantly, a person must
get a vaccination every year to stay protected.
#More to explore
Pneumonia Respiratory System
Vaccine Virus
Inquisition
In the 1200s the Roman Catholic
church set up a court called the Inquisition.
The Inquisition examined people
accused of heresy, or going against
church teachings.
The officials in charge of the Inquisition
were called inquisitors. Inquisitors first
gave an accused person a chance to confess.
Some inquisitors tortured people to
get them to confess. Even innocent
people often confessed under torture.
People who did not confess received
trials. Then inquisitors announced punishments
for the guilty in a big ceremony.
Punishments included fines,
prison, or death.
Pope Gregory IX started the Inquisition
in 1231. The Inquisition operated in
several countries. It was particularly
harsh in Spain in the late 1400s, under
King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. A
Spanish inquisitor named Tomas de
Torquemada burned about 2,000 people
at the stake. Torquemada also persuaded
Ferdinand and Isabella to force more
than 160,000 Jews out of Spain.
The Inquisition had some famous victims.
One of them was the French heroine
Joan of Arc. She was burned at the
stake in 1431 partly because she claimed
that she had received messages directly
from God. Another was the Italian scientist
Galileo. In the early 1600s he was
punished for teaching that Earth
revolves around the sun. Galileo was not
put in prison, but he was not allowed to
travel freely outside his house either. The
Inquisition continued in a milder form
until 1908.
#More to explore
Ferdinand and Isabella Galileo
Roman Catholicism
A painting shows inquisitors questioning a
man. Inquisitors punished people who went
against the teachings of the Roman Catholic
church.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Inquisition 137
Insect
The insects are the largest group of animals.
In fact, about 75 percent of all
animals are insects. Insects developed on
Earth long before humans did. Today
there are about 1 million known species,
or types, of insect. And scientists are
constantly discovering new species. Butterflies,
beetles, ants, flies, grasshoppers,
silverfish, and bees are all insects.
Where Insects Live
Insects live all over the world. They can
survive in almost any place where food is
available. For instance, insects can be
found in cold regions, hot rain forests,
deserts, mountains, caves, and freshwater.
A few kinds even live in salt water.
Physical Features
Insects are members of a larger group
called the arthropods. This group also
includes spiders, ticks, centipedes, lobsters,
and crabs. Like all arthropods,
insects have a body that is divided into
segments, or sections. They also lack a
skeleton inside the body. Instead, insects
and other arthropods have a covering on
the outside of the body called an exoskeleton.
This exoskeleton protects the
insects body.
Unlike other arthropods, insects have
three major body segments. Insects also
have six legs. This is one way that insects
differ from spiders, which have eight
legs. Insects also have at least one pair of
antennas, or feelers.
The three major segments of an insect
body are the head, the thorax, and the
abdomen. The head contains the insects
antennas, mouthparts, and eyes. The
adults of many species have two kinds of
eyes, simple and compound. Compound
eyes have many lenslike parts. Each of
these receives a separate image. The
images are combined into a single picture
in the insects brain.
The thorax has three pairs of legs and
usually two pairs of wings. But some
insects have only one pair of wings or no
wings at all.
Honeybees are well-known insects. They
build honeycombs to store their honey.
The body of an insect has three main segments:
the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.
The legs and the wings are connected
to the thorax.
138 Insect BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
The abdomen is made up of as many as
11 segments. It contains organs that
digest food, push out wastes, and help
the insect reproduce.
Insects vary greatly in size. Most insects
are small, usually less than 0.2 inch (6
millimeters) long. However, some
insects called walkingsticks can grow to
more than 12 inches (30 centimeters) in
length.
Behavior
Insects have a variety of ways to protect
themselves from their enemies. For
example, some insects hide by blending
in to their surroundings. Many moths
have a similar coloring to the bark of the
trees on which they rest. Beetles have a
very hard body armor to protect them.
Some insects bite or sting their enemies.
Some kinds produce poison.
Some kinds of insects live alone, while
others live in groups. Termites, ants, and
some bees and wasps live in very organized
groups. Each individual has a particular
job to do for the group. For
example, some termites are born to be
soldiers or workers. Other termites will
be the king and queen.
Insects eat a great variety of plants, animals,
and other living things. Certain
insects, such as fleas and lice, live on the
body of another animal. They get all
their food from that animals body. Such
insects are called parasites.
Life Cycle
Most insects hatch from eggs. A few
kinds are born live. An insects exoskeleton
cannot grow. Instead, as the insect
grows, this covering splits apart and falls
off from time to time. The insect grows
a new covering. This process is called
molting.
There are two basic life cycles found in
insects. Some insects are born in nearly
the same form they will have as an adult.
The insect grows and molts, eventually
becoming an adult. Grasshoppers and
cockroaches go through this kind of
growth process.
Other types undergo a complete change,
or metamorphosis. After they hatch,
they begin life in a form called a larva. It
is completely unlike the adult form. For
instance, a larva may look more like a
worm than an insect. The larva eats a
great deal and molts several times. It
then enters a resting stage in a form
Scientists who
study insects
are called
entomologists.
As an insect grows, it sheds its
exoskeleton from time to time.
The insect then forms a new,
larger exoskeleton.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Insect 139
called a pupa. The pupas body changes
greatly during this stage. It develops all
of the features of the adult, including
wings and legs. When this stage is complete,
the adult emerges from the pupa.
Bees, butterflies, and moths are some
insects that develop this way.
Helpful and Harmful Insects
Many insects are helpful to humans and
other animals. Some kinds eat other
insects that are pests. Insects are also
food for other animals. Some insects
produce valuable products such as
honey, silk, and dyes.
Many flowering plants depend on
insects such as bees to help them reproduce.
As insects feed on flowers, they
spread a substance called pollen from
the male parts of flowers to the female
parts. This allows the female parts to
make seeds.
Insects can also be pests. Some insects
sting or bite people or other animals.
Many insects can spread diseases to
people, other animals, and plants. And
some harmful insects eat crops, wood,
clothing, and carpet.
#More to explore
Animal Metamorphosis Parasite
Pollen Protective Coloration
Internal-
Combustion
Engine
Engines powered by internal combustion
run cars, airplanes, lawn mowers,
and other machines. Combustion means
burning. Fuel, usually gasoline, burns
inside an internal-combustion engine to
make it work. Compared to earlier
steam engines, internal-combustion
An internal-combustion engine goes through four strokes: intake, compression, combustion
(power), and exhaust. As the piston moves during each stroke, it turns the crankshaft.
140 Internal-Combustion Engine BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
engines are lighter and more powerful.
They made automobiles possible.
How Internal-Combustion
EnginesWork
In many internal-combustion engines a
moving part called a piston slides up and
down in a cylinder. Most car engines
have four to eight cylinders. Valves at
the top of a cylinder let in fuel and air
and allow burned fuel to escape. Also at
the top of the cylinder is a spark plug.
The spark plug ignites, or sets fire to,
the fuel.
As the engine runs, it goes through a
cycle of four strokes: intake, compression,
combustion, and exhaust. During
the intake stroke, a valve opens and the
cylinder fills with fresh fuel and air.
Next, during the compression stroke,
the piston moves toward the top of the
cylinder. The piston creates pressure by
squeezing the fuel and air into a smaller
and smaller space with both valves
closed. When the piston can go no
higher, a spark from the spark plug
ignites the fuel. Then, in the combustion
stroke (also called the power
stroke), an explosion of burning fuel
forces the piston back down. During the
exhaust stroke, a second valve opens and
the piston rises up. It pushes the hot
gases from the burned fuel out of the
cylinder.
The piston is connected to an engine
part called the crankshaft, which is outside
of the cylinder. As the piston moves,
it turns the crankshaft. The crankshaft is
connected to other parts that run the
machine.
Other types of internal-combustion
engines are two-stroke, diesel, rotary,
and turbine. Two-stroke engines go
through two strokes instead of four. In
diesel engines hot air, not a spark, causes
the fuel to burn. Rotary engines have a
spinning part instead of a piston. Turbine
engines, used in jet airplanes, continually
pull air into the front of the
engine. The exhaust leaves out the back
of the engine.
Although internal-combustion engines
are powerful, most of the energy from
the burning fuel is lost as heat. The
engines must be cooled by water or air
so they do not overheat.
History
In 1860 the French inventor Etienne
Lenoir built the first internalcombustion
engine, which he used in a
car. In 1876 the German engineer
Nikolaus Otto built a four-stroke
engine. Ottos invention was the first
successful internal-combustion engine.
Rudolf Diesel, another German engineer,
developed the diesel engine in
about 1890.
#More to explore
Airplane Automobile Combustion
Internet
The Internet is a network, or system,
that connects millions of computers
worldwide. It was one of the greatest
inventions of the 1900s. Today the
Internet helps many people communicate,
work, learn, and have fun.
Two-stroke
engines are
popular for
lawn mowers
and small
motorcycle
engines.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Internet 141
In the 1960s the U.S. government, businesses,
and colleges worked together to
make a system that would let computers
across the United States share information.
They created an early form of the
Internet called ARPANET in 1969. In
1971 electronic mail, or e-mail, was
invented as a way to send a message
from one computer to another.
By the mid-1970s many groups of computers
were connected in networks.
Machines called routers were invented to
connect the networks. This is how the
original ARPANET eventually grew into
the Internet.
In 1989 hypertext was invented. Hypertext
is a link between different parts of
an electronic document or between different
documents. Hypertext became the
basis of the WorldWideWeb, or the
Web, which was created in the early
1990s.
Information on theWeb is arranged in
sites or pages. People view Web sites
using computer programs called Internet
browsers. People createWeb sites using a
code called hypertext markup language,
or HTML. Browsers read HTML and
allow people to viewWeb sites on the
computer. EachWeb site has its own
Internet address, called a uniform
resource locator, or URL.
Since its beginnings, the Internet has
changed to keep up with the demands of
its users. Advances in technology make
using the Internet quicker and easier.
And as more and more people use the
Internet, the quantity of information
grows.
#More to explore
Computer Technology and Invention
Intestines
Intestines are organs, or body parts, that
are shaped like long tubes. They help
break down food so that the body can
use it for energy. This is part of the process
called digestion. The intestines also
remove wastes from the body. Mammals,
birds, reptiles, amphibians, and
fish have intestines.
A humans intestines fill much of the
middle part of the body below the rib
cage. The intestines are divided into two
main sections, the small intestine and
the large intestine. The small intestine is
22 to 25 feet (6.7 to 7.6 meters) long
and coils like a maze. The large intestine
is 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 2 meters) long. The
intestines have a special kind of muscle
that squeezes and relaxes in a wavelike
A family uses a computer with a camera
attached to it. The camera can take pictures
that can be sent over the Internet to other
family and friends far away.
142 Intestines BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
motion. This motion pushes food and
waste through the intestines.
The Small Intestine
Food enters the small intestine after it
leaves the stomach. At this time the food
is in the form of a thick liquid. Digestive
juices from other organs, including the
pancreas and the liver, enter the small
intestine. They work with juices from
the small intestine to break down the
food into simple chemical substances.
These substances then pass into the
bloodstream through the walls of the
small intestine. This process takes three
to six hours.
The Large Intestine
Any food material that cannot be used
by the body passes from the small intestine
into the large intestine. The large
intestine takes water and some minerals
from this leftover food material. Tiny
living things called bacteria in the large
intestine help to turn the food material
into feces, or solid waste. The feces are
stored in the large intestine until they
pass from the body. The work of the
large intestine takes between 10 and 20
hours.
#More to explore
Digestive System Stomach
Inuit
#see Eskimo.
Invention
#see Technology and Invention.
Invertebrate
An invertebrate is an animal without a
backbone. (An animal with a backbone
is called a vertebrate.) Invertebrates live
in every part of the world. In fact, most
of the animals on Earth are invertebrates.
Invertebrates come in all different shapes
and sizes. Some are so tiny that they can
be seen only through a microscope. But
the giant squid is an invertebrate, and it
can grow to a length of 65 feet (20
meters).
The simplest animals are invertebrates.
These include protozoans with just one
cell as well as sponges and other simple
animals that live in the water.
In humans, the small intestine is longer and
narrower than the large intestine.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Invertebrate 143
The invertebrate animals can be grouped
according to their features. Many of
them, such as worms, have soft bodies.
Corals, jellyfish, and sea anemones are
invertebrates that have stinging tentacles.
Mollusks have soft bodies as well,
but most also have a thick outside shell.
Oysters and snails are mollusks. Squid
and octopuses are also mollusks even
though they do not have shells.
Some invertebrates have a tough, spiny
skin that protects their bodies. These
invertebrates are called echinoderms.
Starfish and sea urchins are examples of
echinoderms.
Other invertebrates have a hard outside
covering on their bodies called an exoskeleton.
These invertebrates are called
arthropods. Arthropods include insects,
spiders, centipedes, millipedes, and crustaceans
such as lobsters and crabs.
#More to explore
Vertebrate
Iowa
The Native Americans known as the
Iowa (or Ioway) once lived near the
Great Lakes. By the 1700s, however,
they had moved to what is now the state
of Iowa. The state was named after the
tribe.
The Iowa lived in villages of domeshaped
houses covered with earth. They
grew corn, beans, and squash. They also
hunted bison (buffalo) and deer. After
getting horses in the 1700s the Iowa
covered greater distances while hunting
on the Great Plains. On the hunt they
lived in tepees covered with bison hides.
French traders began visiting Iowa villages
in about 1700. They carried a disease
called smallpox that killed many
Iowa. U.S. explorers led by Meriwether
Lewis andWilliam Clark passed through
Iowa territory in the early 1800s. Many
settlers followed.
In 1836 the U.S. government forced the
Iowa to move to a reservation in what
are now Kansas and Nebraska. Later in
the 1800s the United States tried to
move the Iowa to Indian Territory (now
Oklahoma). Not all the Iowa moved.
The tribe separated into two groups now
known as the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma
and the Iowa Tribe of Kansas and
Nebraska. At the end of the 20th century
there were about 1,500 Iowa.
#More to explore
Native Americans
Shauhaunapotinia was a chief of
the Iowa people.
144 Iowa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Iowa
The U.S. state of Iowa is one of the
most productive agricultural areas in the
United States. It is sometimes called the
Tall Corn State because that crop grows
well there. Iowas official nickname,
however, is the Hawkeye State, in honor
of a Native American leader named
Black Hawk. The state was named for
the Iowa (or Ioway) Indians who once
lived in the area. The state capital is Des
Moines.
Geography
Iowa lies in the north-central part of the
United States. The state is located
between the Mississippi River in the east
and the Missouri River in the west.
Iowa is bordered by Minnesota on the
north,Wisconsin and Illinois on the
east, Missouri on the south, and
Nebraska and South Dakota on
the west. There are two chief breaks in
the states level sweep of land. Steep
cliffs drop to the Mississippi River in the
northeast. Low, moundlike bluffs rise
above the prairies in the southwest.
Summers are warm and humid. The
winters are cold.
People
Whites of European heritage make up
more than 90 percent of Iowas population.
Hispanics represent about 3 percent
of the population and African
Americans about 2 percent. Iowa is a
checkerboard pattern of farms, towns,
and cities. Most Iowans live in small
communities. The states largest cities
are Des Moines, Cedar Rapids, and
Davenport. The main public institutions
of higher learning are the University of
Iowa, at Iowa City; Iowa State University,
at Ames; and the University of
Northern Iowa, at Cedar Falls.
The skyline of downtown Des
Moines provides a modern backdrop
to the Iowa state Capitol.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Iowa 145
Economy
With rich soils, mostly flat ground, and
plenty of rainfall, Iowa is an almost perfect
place to grow crops. About 90 percent
of its land is used for agriculture.
The state specializes in corn, soybeans,
and livestock (especially hogs and
cattle). Dairy production is a major
industry in the northeast part of the
state.
Despite the importance of agriculture in
Iowa, the states leading sources of
income are manufacturing and services
such as real estate, insurance, and health
care. The most important manufacturing
industries are the production of
industrial machinery and the processing
of food.
History
The earliest settlers in what is now Iowa
were Native Americans. From about AD
300 to the 1600s eastern Iowa was
inhabited by Native Americans who
built great earth mounds, some in the
shape of animals.
The French explorers Louis Jolliet and
Jacques Marquette reached Iowa in
1673. They were probably the first
Europeans to set foot in the area. No
Europeans settled there permanently,
however, until the early 1830s.
Iowa was part of the area called the
Louisiana Purchase that the United
States bought from the French in 1803.
The territory of Iowa was formed in
1838. It entered the Union as the 29th
state in 1846.
The state was strongly against slavery
and fought on the side of the Union
during the American CivilWar (1861
65). Shortly after the war Iowa became a
center of the Grange movement.
Granges were groups of farmers who
came together to find ways to solve
common problems.
Agriculture continues to be a central
feature of Iowa. In 1959 a leader of the
Soviet Union visited the state. In the
spirit of cooperation created by the visit,
Iowa began to export, or sell, some of its
grain to that country. Since then Iowa
has exported agricultural products to
many overseas countries.
In 1988 Iowa farmers had problems due
to heat and drought. The opposite took
place in 1993 as too much rain caused
the Mississippi River to flood many
farms and cities.
..More to explore
American CivilWar Des Moines
Iowa, people
An Iowa farmer checks young corn plants
for damage and disease. Corn is an important
crop in Iowa.
Facts About
IOWA
Flag
Population
(2000 census)
2,926,324
rank, 30th state;
(2008 estimate)
3,002,555
rank, 30th state
Capital
Des Moines
Area
56,272 sq mi
(145,743 sq
km)rank, 26th
state
Statehood
December 28,
1846
Motto
Our Liberties We
Prize and Our
Rights We Will
Maintain
State bird
Eastern goldfinch
State flower
Wild rose
146 Iowa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Iran
Iran is a country of southwest Asia. For
much of its history Iran was known as
Persia to the outside world. However,
the people of the region have called their
country Iran for thousands of years. Iran
means land of the Aryans. The Aryan
people settled in the region in ancient
times. Irans capital is Tehran.
Geography
Iran is part of the region called the
Middle East. It shares borders with Iraq,
Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan,
Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Iran has
coastlines on the Caspian Sea, the Persian
Gulf, and the Gulf of Oman.
Irans land is high in elevation, except
for narrow regions along the coasts.
Mountain ranges surround a large
central area of rocky highlands and
deserts. Parts of the vast deserts are
sandy, while a crust of salt covers other
parts. The highest point in Iran is
Mount Damavand in the northern
Elburz Mountains. It reaches a height
of 18,606 feet (5,671 meters). Iran has
active volcanoes, and damaging
earthquakes often occur.
The temperatures in Iran vary from very
hot to very cold, depending on location
and season. Most of the country is dry,
except for a region around the Caspian
Sea.
Plants and Animals
Forests cover only a small part of Iran.
The largest forests are in the rainy
Caspian Sea region. Oaks and other
trees grow there and in the
southwestern Zagros Mountains. In the
dry interior the vegetation is shrubby
and grassy. However, a few areas of the
desert, called oases, get water from
underground. Grape vines, oleanders,
date palms, and mulberry trees grow in
the oases.
Irans wildlife includes bears, wild boars,
gazelles, wild asses, rabbits, and many
kinds of rodents. Seagulls, ducks, and
geese are common birds.
People
Many ethnic groups live in Iran. Persians
make up the largest group. Azerbaijanis,
Kurds, Lurs, and other peoples form
smaller groups. The main language is
Farsi, or Persian. Each of the ethnic
groups has its own language as well.
Most Iranians live in cities or towns.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Iran 147
About 90 percent of the people belong
to the Shi!ah branch of Islam, which is
the state religion. (In most Muslim
countries, Sunnah is the more common
branch of Islam.) A small percentage of
Iranians practice Zoroastrianism, the
religion of ancient Persia.
Economy
Iran is one of the worlds leading producers
of petroleum (oil). Iran also produces
natural gas, chemicals, metals,
food products, cloth, and machinery.
Iran has been famous for its carpets for
hundreds of years. Traditional carpets
are still an important export. Services
including government work, banking,
and tourismare also important to the
economy.
Irans crops include grains, sugar beets,
and many kinds of fruits and nuts.
Sheep are the main livestock. Commercial
fisheries operate in the Persian Gulf
and in the Caspian Sea.
History
The Aryan people came from central
Asia to what is now Iran sometime after
2000 BC. The two main groups of Aryans
were the Medes and the Persians.
The Persians took control in about 550
BC. They conquered vast territories. The
Persian Empire soon stretched from
North Africa to the Indus River in south
Asia. The European conqueror Alexander
the Great held Persia for a time
starting in about 330 BC.
about 550 BC AD 640 1502 1925 1979 1980 1989
The Persians
begin building
a great empire.
Arabs bring
Islam to Iran.
The Safavid
dynasty takes
power.
Reza Khan
becomes shah
of Iran.
Iran becomes
an Islamic
republic.
The Iran-Iraq
War begins.
Ali Khamenei
becomes Irans
new religious
leader.
T I M E L I N E
A mosque with its welcoming courtyard
stands in the city of Esfahan in western Iran.
148 Iran BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Muslim Rule
Arab conquerors brought Islam to Iran
in 640. For about 850 years non-Iranian
Muslims ruled Iran. Then, in 1502, the
Iranian Safavid dynasty took control.
A weaker dynasty, the Qajars, ruled from
1779 to the early 1900s. During the
Qajars rule Russia and Great Britain
won control over parts of Iran.
The Pahlavi Dynasty
In 1921 Reza Khan, an army officer,
seized control of the country. In 1925 he
became shah, or king, and took the
name Reza Shah Pahlavi. His reign
started the Pahlavi dynasty. Reza Shah
built modern schools and a railroad. He
also gave Iranian women more rights.
Reza Shahs son, Mohammad Reza Shah
Pahlavi, took the throne in 1941. The
new shah continued to make Iran more
modern. However, he also used secret
police to stop those who disagreed with
him.
Many religious leaders felt that the
shahs ideas went against Islam. The
government threw one of those leaders,
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, out of
the country in 1964.
From outside Iran, Khomeini led a revolution
against the shah. Huge protests
forced the shah to leave Iran in 1979.
The Islamic Republic
Khomeini then returned to Iran. He
declared himself Irans political and religious
leader for life. He renamed the
country the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Khomeinis government enforced strict
Muslim laws. It also bannedWestern
(U.S. and European) influences.
In late 1979 supporters of the revolution
seized the U.S. embassy (a building that
belonged to the U.S. government) in
Tehran. They captured 66 U.S. citizens
and held them for more than a year.
In 1980 Iraq invaded Iran, and the Iran-
IraqWar began. The war ended in 1988.
More than a million people were killed
or injured during the war. However,
neither side won a clear victory.
Khomeini died in 1989. Iran then chose
a new religious leader, Ali Khamenei.
Khamenei continued the governments
strict policies. He worked with the
countrys presidents. However, Khamenei
and other religious leaders still controlled
much of the government.
..More to explore
Iran-IraqWar Islam Middle East
Persia Tehran
A woman weaves a carpet on a large loom
in Iran. Traditional carpets from Iran are
known for their fine quality and design.
Facts About
IRAN
Population
(2008 estimate)
72,269,000
Area
636,374 sq mi
(1,648,200 sq
km)
Capital
Tehran
Form of
government
Islamic republic
Major cities
Tehran, Mashhad,
Esfahan,
Tabriz, Shiraz
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Iran 149
Iran-IraqWar
Differences between the neighboring
countries of Iran and Iraq led to war in
1980. The fighting lasted for eight years.
The Iran-IraqWar brought terrible
destruction to both countries but ended
with no clear winner.
Background
In 1979 there was a revolution in Iran.
A strict religious leader named Ayatollah
Ruhollah Khomeini came to power.
Saddam Hussein, the leader of Iraq, did
not want the revolution to spread to his
country. He was also angry at Iran for
supporting the Kurds, a minority group,
in a rebellion against Iraq.
Iran and Iraq had disagreed for years
over an oil-producing area on their border.
Saddam Hussein wanted to take
control of the region, which is in southwestern
Iran. He used this land dispute
as an excuse to start a war.
Events of theWar
Iraq invaded Iran by surprise in September
1980. Iraq won a few early victories.
However, Iran did not give up as Saddam
Hussein had expected. By mid-
1982 Iran had won back almost all the
land that Iraq had taken. Then Iranian
forces pushed into Iraq.
For the next five years the two sides were
evenly matched. Both suffered heavy
losses. Iran and Iraq bombed each others
cities, oil fields, and tanker ships,
which were used for shipping oil. Iraq
got help from many countries, including
the Soviet Union, Great Britain, and the
United States.
Neither country obeyed the usual rules
of war. Iraq used many chemical weapons.
That had not been done by any
country sinceWorldWar I (191418).
Iran cleared minefields by forcing young
village boys to walk through them.
In 1987 Iraq started winning the war. In
1988 Iran accepted an agreement to end
the fighting. At least 1 million people
were killed or injured.
Peace talks continued until 1990. The
countries agreed to share control of a
river on their border. Iraqi troops left
Iran in 1991. The last prisoners of war
were exchanged in 2003.
#More to explore
Iran Iraq
An Iraqi soldier crouches behind cover during
the Iran-Iraq War.
150 Iran-Iraq War BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Iraq
The country of Iraq covers the ancient
region of Mesopotamia, a Greek word
meaning land between the rivers.
Those ancient rivers, the Tigris and the
Euphrates, still run through Iraq. Today
Iraq is one of the worlds leading oil
producers. Baghdad is the capital and
largest city.
Geography
Iraq is located in Southwest Asia in the
region known as the Middle East. It
borders Turkey, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,
Jordan, and Syria. Iraq has a short
coastline on the Persian Gulf.
The central and southeastern parts of
the country are plains with many lakes.
Marshy lowlands surround the area
where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
meet, near the Persian Gulf. North of
the plains, between the rivers, is a dry
area known as Al-Jazirah.Western and
southern Iraq is a vast desert. Highlands
in the northeast include the mountainous
region known as Kurdistan.
The plains and deserts have very hot
summers and mild winters. Those
regions receive little rainfall. The northeast
is cooler and wetter, especially in the
mountains.
Plants and Animals
Iraq has many date trees but very few
forests.Willows, poplars, and licorice
plants grow along the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers. Reeds and tall grasses cover
the marshlands. There are few plants in
the deserts or on the dry plains.
The wild animals of Iraq include hyenas,
pigs, jackals, foxes, and rabbits. Among
the many varieties of birds are ducks,
The minaret, or tower, of a
mosque in Samarra, Iraq, spirals
to a height of about 170 feet (52
meters).
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Iraq 151
partridges, snipes, and herons. People
raise water buffalo in the marshlands.
People
Arabs make up the majority of Iraqs
population. They speak Arabic, which is
the countrys main language. The Kurds
form the next-largest group. They speak
Kurdish and live mainly in the north
and northeast. Almost all Iraqis are
Muslims.
Most Iraqis live in cities and towns,
where they lead modern lifestyles. Many
rural Iraqis farm the land or raise livestock.
Economy
Wars in the late 20th and early 21st centuries
badly hurt Iraqs economy. However,
oil still provides almost all of Iraqs
earnings from trade. Iraq also produces
oil products, chemicals, construction
materials, and processed foods. It
imports food, medicine, and other
goods.
Farming is another important part of the
economy. Crops include wheat, dates,
potatoes, tomatoes, barley, watermelons,
oranges, grapes, and cucumbers. Iraqis
also raise sheep and cattle.
History
Iraqs history reaches back thousands of
years. In about 3300 BC the Sumerians
created one of the worlds first civilizations
in Mesopotamia. People from
Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, Macedonia,
and other nearby areas later ruled the
region.
Arab and Ottoman Rule
Muslims from Arabia conquered the
area in the AD 600s. For a time Baghdad
was the center of the Muslim world.
Many of the greatest Muslim philosophers,
poets, and writers lived there. In
1258 a group called the Mongols conquered
the city. Iraq then became a land
of small kingdoms. The Ottoman Turks
took control in the 1500s. Iraq remained
638 1534 1918 1932 1980 1991 2003
Muslim Arabs
conquer Iraq.
The Ottoman
Empire takes
control of
Baghdad.
Great Britain
occupies Iraq.
Iraq gains
independence.
Iraq invades
Iran.
Foreign troops
defeat Iraq in
the Persian
Gulf War.
U.S.-led forces
invade Iraq.
T I M E L I N E
152 Iraq BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
part of the Ottoman Empire until the
20th century.
The Republic of Iraq
DuringWorldWar I (191418) British
troops occupied Baghdad and ended
Ottoman rule. After the war Iraq
remained under British protection. In
1921 Iraq became a monarchy. The
country achieved full independence in
1932. A revolution led by a group of
army officers ended the monarchy in
1958. Iraq then became a republic.
In the 1960s and 1970s the Iraqi government
faced a rebellion by the Kurds.
The rebels wanted self-government. Iran
provided military aid to the Kurds,
which strained relations between Iraq
and Iran. The Kurdish rebellion collapsed
in 1975, but occasional fighting
continued into the 21st century.
The Iran-Iraq and
Persian GulfWars
Saddam Hussein became Iraqs
president in 1979. A year later Iraq
invaded Iran. The resulting Iran-Iraq
war lasted until 1988. Neither side won
a clear victory.
In 1990 Saddam ordered Iraqi troops to
invade the neighboring country of
Kuwait. Iraq claimed that Kuwait had
been part of its territory since 1871. The
invasion led to the Persian GulfWar of
early 1991. In less than two months, a
group of nations led by the United
States pushed Iraqs forces out of
Kuwait.
Ongoing Troubles
At the end of the Persian GulfWar,
weapons inspectors from the United
Nations entered Iraq. The inspectors
wanted to make sure that Iraq destroyed
some of its weapons and stopped making
more. Iraq refused to cooperate with
the inspectors.
The United States and Great Britain
feared that Iraq was building illegal
weapons. As a result, U.S. and British
forces invaded the country in March
2003. The foreign troops soon took
control of Iraq and captured Saddam.
The foreign forces and Iraqi leaders then
worked to set up a new government in
Iraq. However, some Iraqis continued to
fight the foreign troops and the new
Iraqi leaders. Violence also broke out
between followers of the Sunnah and
Shi!ah branches of Islam.
..More to explore
Baghdad Mesopotamia Persian Gulf
War Saddam Hussein
A rocket blasted a hole in an archway leading
to the National Museum of Iraq in
Baghdad during a war in 2003. The city
suffered heavy damage during the war.
Facts About
IRAQ
Population
(2008 estimate)
29,492,000
Area
167,618 sq mi
(434,128 sq km)
Capital
Baghdad
Form of
government
Transitional
government
Major cities
Baghdad, Mosul,
Al-Basrah, Irbil,
Kirkuk
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Iraq 153
Ireland
Known as the Emerald Isle, Ireland is
famous for its green countryside.
Throughout much of its history, Ireland
fought against rule by Great Britain.
Most of the island gained independence
in the 1920s. However, Britain continued
to control a section called Northern
Ireland. In the 1990s the independent
republic of Ireland became a successful
member of the European Union. The
capital is Dublin.
Geography
The Republic of Ireland occupies most
of the island of Ireland. Its neighbor,
Northern Ireland, occupies one sixth of
the island. The island lies off the western
coast of Great Britain, from which it is
separated by the Irish Sea. The Atlantic
Ocean borders western Ireland.
A low-lying plain spans most of eastern
and central Ireland. Hills and low
mountains rise mainly in the west.
Carrantuohill, at 3,414 feet (1,041
meters), is the highest point in the
country. The most famous of Irelands
rivers is the Shannon. The country has
mild summers and cool winters with
plenty of rain.
Plants and Animals
Grasslands, heather, and pastures cover
most of the country. Mosses and lichens
grow throughout the island. Ireland has
few trees. Most of the original forests
were cut down long ago for lumber and
to clear the land for farming.
Ireland has a wide variety of birds and
fish. Mammals include mice, hares, and
stoats (animals similar to weasels). The
only reptile in Ireland is a type of lizard.
There are no snakes. According to legend,
Saint Patrick chased all the snakes
from the island, but it is unlikely that
Ireland ever had any.
People
Most people in Ireland are ethnic Irish,
whose main ancestors were the ancient
Celts. English people form a small
group. Students learn both Irish (also
called Gaelic) and English in school, but
the everyday language is English. Most
Irish are Roman Catholics. About 40
percent of the people live in rural areas.
Beginning in the mid-1800s, large numbers
of people left Ireland because of
crop failures, a poor economy, and high
unemployment. Today more Irish
154 Ireland BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
people live outside Ireland than inside
the country.
Economy
Irelands people relied on farming for
their income for much of the 1900s.
During the 1990s, however, the country
enjoyed great economic growth. This
was due in part to the development of a
technology industry. Services, including
finance, transportation, and public
administration, are now Irelands main
economic activities. Tourism is one of
the countrys largest service industries.
Manufacturing, mining, and construction
are also very important to the
economy. Among Irelands products are
office equipment and computers, chemicals,
medicines, alcoholic beverages, and
clothing. Ireland has limited natural
resources, including zinc, lead, and silver,
as well as small reserves of natural
gas and coal.
Agriculture is now a small part of the
Irish economy. Crops include sugar
beets, barley, wheat, and potatoes. Farmers
raise cattle for meat and milk, sheep
for wool, and pigs for meat. Fishing is
another source of food.
History
The first people to live in Ireland were
hunters and fishers. They came from the
European mainland in about 6000 BC.
Later settlers brought knowledge of
farming in about 3000 BC and skills in
metalworking by about 2000 BC.
In about 300 BC invaders from Europe
known as Celts overran Ireland. The
Celts wiped out almost all the earlier
inhabitants. They set up a number of
kingdoms on the island.
In the AD 400s Saint Patrick helped to
spread Christianity among the population
of Ireland. Ireland remained peaceful
until the late 700s, when Vikings
invaded. The Irish finally defeated the
Vikings in 1014.
English Rule
In 117071 English armies conquered
large parts of Ireland. In the early 1600s
The Newgrange tomb in Ireland was built in
about 3200 BC. Ancient peoples buried
their dead inside the tomb.
Colorful houses line the street in the village
of Eyeries in southern Ireland.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ireland 155
England sent English and Scottish Protestants
to settle in northern Ireland.
Irish Catholics revolted against those
settlers in 1641, but the English crushed
the revolts. They also imposed strict
anti-Catholic laws.
By the end of the 1600s England firmly
controlled the island. In 1801 the Act of
Union joined Great Britain (England,
Scotland, andWales) and Ireland
together to form the United Kingdom.
Independence
The Irish strongly opposed British rule.
Beginning in 1919 a group called the
Irish Republican Army (IRA) fought the
British Army for independence. In 1921
Britain agreed to make the southern part
of the island the Irish Free State. Six
counties in the north remained under
direct British control, however. Those
countries were renamed Northern Ireland.
In 1937 the Irish Free State took
the name Eire, or Ireland. Ireland
adopted a new constitution, though it
kept some ties to Britain.
In 1949 Ireland became a fully
independent republic. Britain and
Ireland struggled over control of
Northern Ireland until 1973. That year
the government of Ireland
acknowledged British rule in the north.
But the IRA, now separate from the
Irish government, continued to attack
the British in the hope of reuniting
Ireland. The Irish government helped
work out a peace agreement between
the two sides in 1998.
In 1993 Ireland became one of the original
members of the European Union. At
the start of the 21st century, Ireland
welcomed growing numbers of immigrants
for the first time in its modern
history.
..More to explore
Celt Dublin European Union
Northern Ireland United Kingdom
before
300 BC AD 795 1170 1641 1845 1921 1948
The Celts settle
in Ireland.
The Vikings
invade Ireland.
England begins
conquering
Ireland.
An Irish revolt
against English
rule fails.
The Irish potato
famine begins.
Southern
Ireland
becomes the
Irish Free State.
The Irish Free
State votes to
become an
independent
republic.
T I M E L I N E
Facts About
IRELAND
Population
(2008 estimate)
4,467,000
Area
27,133 sq mi
(70,273 sq km)
Capital
Dublin
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Dublin, Cork,
Galway, Limerick,
Waterford
156 Ireland BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ireland,
Northern
#see Northern Ireland.
Iris
Irises are popular garden flowers. They
are known for their wide variety of colors
and their unique petal shapes. There
are about 300 species, or types, of iris.
They grow mostly in mild northern
regions. Some of the most beautiful species
are from central Asia and the area
around the Mediterranean Sea.
Some irises grow from bulbs. Others
grow from the rhizomes of other iris
plants. Rhizomes are vinelike stems that
spread out just beneath the surface of
the soil. New plants grow from different
points on a rhizome.
Irises have six petals. The three inner
petals stand upright and are called standards.
The three outer petals droop
down and are called falls. The petals can
be white, yellow, pink, red, blue, purple,
brown, or even black.
The best-known irises are the common
garden irises. They are also called
bearded irises. This is because each of
the falls has a fuzzy growth that looks
something like a beard. Bearded irises
grow from rhizomes. They have stiff,
swordlike leaves and long stems. They
can grow to 3 feet (90 centimeters) tall.
They usually have a strong fragrance.
#More to explore
Flower Garden
Iron
Iron is the most widely used metal on
Earth. Iron is used to make steel. In
turn, steel is used to make buildings,
bridges, railroad tracks, vehicles of all
kinds, and countless other products.
The Siberian iris grows in central
and eastern Europe. Its flowers
may be violet-blue or white.
People make some decorative railings out of
iron.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Iron 157
Iron in Earths Crust
Iron is the second most common metal
in Earths crust. Of the metals in the
crust, only aluminum is more common.
Iron is also the fourth most common
element (basic substance) in the crust.
Iron in its pure form is a heavy, silvery,
magnetic metal. But iron is almost never
found in its pure form in nature.
Instead, it is found in the form of iron
ores. Ores are minerals with mixtures of
different elements. The main iron ores
are made up of iron linked to oxygen or
to oxygen and carbon.
Separating and Using Iron
Workers separate pure iron from iron
ore by a process called smelting. Smelting
involves heating iron ore to a very
high temperature. As the iron ore melts,
the pure iron separates from the ore.
Hot lumps of iron may be pounded into
shapes. Melted iron may be poured into
molds of different shapes. As the iron
cools, it hardens. Today, however, most
iron is made into steel. Steel is a mixture
of iron and carbon. Steel is stronger than
iron alone.
Thousands of years ago people may have
gotten iron from iron meteorites. Meteorites
are chunks of rock that fall to
Earth from outer space. After ancient
peoples discovered how to smelt iron,
they learned how to make iron tools and
weapons. During a period called the
Iron Age, the knowledge of how to use
iron spread across Europe and Asia.
Iron in the Body
Iron is an important part of a persons
diet. Good sources of iron are red meat,
chicken, tuna, egg yolks, beans, whole
grains, dried fruit, and leafy green vegetables.
The body uses iron to build a
substance called hemoglobin in the
blood. Hemoglobin carries oxygen to all
the cells in the body. The cells use the
oxygen to release the energy they need
to do their jobs.
#More to explore
Iron Age Metal Steel
Iron Age
The Iron Age was a time in early human
history when people began to use tools
and weapons made of iron. The Iron
Age started and ended at different times
in different places. The earliest Iron Age
probably took place in the Middle East
Iron pounded
into a shape is
called wrought
iron. Iron
poured into a
mold is called
cast iron.
People in eastern Europe made iron tools
more than 2,400 years ago.
158 Iron Age BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
and southeastern Europe. It started there
in about 1200 BC.
Background
The earliest human beings lived during
the Stone Age. Stone Age peoples made
tools and weapons of stone. Later they
learned to make tools and weapons from
copper and from bronze, which is a mixture
of copper and tin. This time was
known as the Bronze Age. The Iron Age
started after people learned to remove
iron from rock using a very hot fire. Iron
was better than bronze for tools and
weapons because it was harder and
stronger.
Events of the Iron Age
The knowledge of how to get iron from
rock and how to make iron tools spread
quickly from the Middle East to Egypt
and Greece. The Iron Age eventually
spread as far asWest Africa, northern
Europe, India, and East Asia. Australia
and the Americas did not have an Iron
Age. European settlers brought ironworking
to those places much later.
The use of iron brought important
changes to peoples lives. People used
iron to make strong tools, which made
farming easier. They also made iron
swords and other weapons. Huge armies
of soldiers soon carried iron weapons.
These weapons made an army much
harder to defeat. Armies traveled to
other lands and took over places they
liked. Kings and other rulers gained
great power.
Other changes in technology also happened
during the Iron Age. People built
large forts and bridges. Pottery and
weaving improved. Humans dug deep
mines in the ground to find salt and
other valuable minerals.
End of the Iron Age
The Iron Age came at the end of prehistory,
or the time before humans used
writing. (In some places people were
already using early forms of writing
when the Iron Age began.) The Iron Age
ended as writing became widespread and
as civilization grew more complex.
Still, iron was the most important metal
until the 1800s. People had often mixed
iron with other materials to make it
stronger, but in the 1800s they learned
easier ways to do this. As a result steel (a
mixture of iron and carbon) became
more widely used than iron alone.
#More to explore
Bronze Age Iron Prehistoric Life
Stone Age
A museum in Great Britain shows the type
of house that people built in about 300 BC,
during the British Iron Age. The house is
made of wood, plant materials, and mud.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Iron Age 159
Iroquois
The Iroquois Confederacy was a powerful
alliance, or group, of Native American
tribes in the 1600s and 1700s. The
five original Iroquois tribes were the
Cayuga, the Mohawk, the Oneida, the
Onondaga, and the Seneca. The Tuscarora
joined later. The Iroquois lived
mainly in what is now the U.S. state of
New York. Many Iroquois still live in
New York. Others live inWisconsin or
southern Canada.
The Iroquois traditionally lived in buildings
called longhouses. They built longhouses
by covering a wooden frame with
tree bark. Each longhouse was large
enough for several families. For food,
the Iroquois planted fields of corn,
beans, and squash. They also fished and
hunted deer.
According to tradition, the Iroquois
Confederacy was founded by a chief
named Hiawatha in the late 1500s.
French explorers arrived in Iroquois territory
in the 1600s. The Iroquois fought
the French and their Indian allies. They
became allies and trading partners of the
British, who were enemies of the French.
With guns that they got in trade, the
Iroquois drove enemy tribes out of their
land.
The American Revolution (177583)
split the confederacy. The Mohawk, the
Seneca, the Onondaga, and the Cayuga
remained loyal to the British. They were
led by the Mohawk chief Joseph Brant.
The Oneida and the Tuscarora helped
the Americans.
After the war the Iroquois lost much of
their New York land. The British gave
Brant some land in Ontario, and many
Iroquois moved there. At the end of the
20th century there were about 80,000
Iroquois.
#More to explore
Cayuga Hiawatha Mohawk Oneida
Onondaga Seneca Tuscarora
Irrigation
Irrigation is what farmers do when they
add water to their fields. The water
makes their crops grow. Irrigation takes
the place of rainfall in dry regions. It can
greatly increase farm production. However,
irrigation can also cause problems
with the environment.
GettingWater
Most water for irrigation comes from
the ground or from a river. Farmers get
water from the ground by digging a
well. Then they lift or pump the water
from the well.
The Iroquois made houses out of tree bark
and carved canoes out of logs.
160 Iroquois BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Farmers may get water from a river by
digging a channel, or path, from the
riverbank. They also may collect river
water by building a dam across the river.
Water collects behind the dam in an
artificial lake called a reservoir.
After getting water, farmers move it to
the farm fields. They move it through
canals or pipelines. Gravity moves the
water if the fields lie lower than the
water source. If the water source lies
lower than the fields, then farmers use
pumps to raise the water.
ApplyingWater
The next step in irrigation is to deliver
the water to the plants in the fields.
There are many ways to do this. They
include surface, subsurface, and overhead
irrigation.
Surface irrigation systems apply water
directly onto the soil surface. One kind
of surface irrigation is called flood irrigation.
This method floods the growing
plants with water. Rice is the main crop
irrigated by flood irrigation.
A second kind of surface irrigation is
called furrow irrigation. A furrow is a
shallow ditch between two rows of
growing plants.Water flows into the
furrows and then soaks into the earth.
Potatoes, sugar beets, cotton, and corn
are often irrigated by furrow irrigation.
A third kind of surface irrigation is
called drip, or trickle, irrigation. Pipes
with holes in them drip water onto
plants. This method is good for dry
regions. Because the plants get so little
water at one time they can use it right
away. This way, no water is wasted.
Subsurface irrigation systems apply
water beneath the soils surface. Buried
pipes with holes in them deliver water to
the plants. This method is good for fruit
plants and garden vegetables.
Overhead irrigation systems spray or
sprinkle water over crops. Rotary sprinklers
are a common form of overhead
irrigation. They sprinkle water in a wide
circle while moving slowly across a field.
Irrigation allows farmers to grow crops in
dry areas such as the desert of Saudi Arabia.
Water flows through furrows in a field in
Idaho.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Irrigation 161
Not all irrigation water gets to the
plants. Some evaporates into the air,
sinks deep into the ground, or runs off
along the ground. An irrigation system
usually includes a drainage system
ditches or underground pipesto
remove excess water from the soil.
Environmental Issues
Irrigation can cause environmental
problems. Irrigation water contains
more salt than rainwater. Salt can build
up in the soil and harm plants. Salt
buildup has ruined farmland in India,
Pakistan, and other countries.
Taking too much water to use for
irrigation can cause water shortages in
other places. Irrigation now takes more
water than nature can replace from the
ground in some areas. In central Asia,
the rivers that flow into the Aral Sea are
heavily used for irrigation. The sea
(actually a salt lake) is getting smaller as
a result.
History
Ancient farmers irrigated crops by channeling
river water. The Egyptians first
used Nile River water about 7,000 years
ago. The people in Mesopotamia (what
is now Iraq) used the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers. The people of the ancient
Indus Valley civilization used the Indus
River. The ancient Chinese used the
Huang He, or Yellow River.
Native Americans were using irrigation
more than 2,000 years ago. The Inca of
Peru developed an advanced farming
civilization based on irrigation. In about
AD 1200 the Hohokam Indians built
irrigation systems in what is now the
U.S. state of Arizona.
Since then more and more land has
come under irrigation. In the 1900s the
U.S. government built many large dams
for irrigation purposes. In the early 21st
century India, China, the United States,
and Pakistan had more irrigated land
than any other countries.
#More to explore
Agriculture Water
Isabella
#see Ferdinand and Isabella.
Isis and Osiris
Isis and Osiris were among the most
important gods in ancient Egyptian
mythology. Osiris was the god of the
dead. He was also the god of crops and
plentiful growth. Isis was his wife and
An overhead sprinkler system waters the
crops on a farm in France.
162 Isabella BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
sister. She was a mother goddess believed
to have great magical powers. Isis and
Osiris had a son named Horus. The
Egyptians considered Isis and Horus to
be the perfect mother and child.
According to legend, Osiris and Isis had
a brother named Seth (or Set). Seth was
a god of violence and disorder. He
tricked Osiris into climbing into a
wooden box. When Osiris climbed in,
Seth slammed the lid shut. He threw the
box into the Nile River, sending Osiris
to his death.
Stories tell that Isis mourned her husbands
death deeply. She recovered
Osiris body and buried him. Isis then
used her great magic to give new life to
Osiris. From then on, he was considered
the ruler of the land of the dead, or
underworld. Osiris was said to grant
people life after death in the underworld.
#More to explore
Egypt, Ancient Mythology
Islam
Islam is one of the worlds major religions.
Its founder was Muhammad.
Islam has about 1.3 billion followers
worldwide. Most of the followers of
Islam, called Muslims, live in North
Africa, the Middle East, and southern
and central Asia.
Beliefs
At the core of Islam is this idea: There
is no God but Allah, and Muhammad
is the prophet of Allah. Muslims
believe that Allah created the universe
and that humans must submit to his
will. The content of the Koran, the
Muslims
consider
Adam, Noah,
Abraham,
Moses, and
Jesus to be
prophets.
The ancient Egyptians worshipped many
gods. Isis (right) and Osiris were two of the
most important gods.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Islam 163
holy book of Islam, is believed by
Muslims to be the word of Allah as told
to Muhammad.
Practices
Five duties, called the five pillars of
Islam, are expected of every Muslim.
The first is the most important: to profess
that there is one God and that
Muhammad was his prophet. The second
duty is prayer. Muslims pray five
times a day. On Fridays communities
gather at a place of worship, called a
mosque, for special prayers. The third
duty is charity. The fourth duty is to
fast, or refuse to eat, from sunrise to
sunset during the holy month of
Ramadan. The fifth duty is to make a
pilgrimage, or journey, to the holy city
of Mecca in Saudi Arabia at least once.
Divisions
There are two major branches of Islam.
Most Muslims belong to the Sunnah
branch. They are called Sunnites. Sunnites
are known as traditional Muslims.
They follow the sayings of Muhammad
and emphasize community.
Members of the smaller Shi!ah branch
are called Shi!ites. They believe that the
truths of the Koran are revealed only
through a community leader called the
imam. Interpretations by other people
are not accepted. For this reason Shi!ites
are not as open to other views as Sunnites
are.
History
Muhammad
According to Muslims, in 610 an angel
told Muhammad that Allah had chosen
him as a prophet. Throughout his life,
Muhammad continued to receive messages
that he believed came from God.
The idea that there is only one God was
unusual for Arabs at the time. Many
people in Muhammads hometown of
Muslims pray at a mosque in India.
Some Important Islamic Holidays
Holiday Meaning Date
Ramadan a month of fasting, or not eating, during ninth month of the Islamic calendar
daylight hours
!Id al-Fitr celebration of the end of Ramadan first three days of the 10th month
of the Islamic calendar
!Id al-Adha end of the time of the hajj, or the journey begins on the 10th day of the
to Mecca last month of the Islamic calendar
and lasts for four days
Note: The Islamic calendar is based on the Moon, so the holidays may occur in different seasons.
164 Islam BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Mecca disliked the new religion because
of that belief. To avoid their hostility,
Muhammad encouraged his followers to
move to the nearby city of Medina.
Muhammads journey to Medina ended
on September 24, 622, which is considered
the starting point of Islamic history.
Division and Spread of Islam
Muhammad eventually persuaded most
of the people of Arabia (including
Mecca) to practice Islam. But after his
death in 632, Muslims disagreed as to
who should lead them. Muhammads
son-in-law !Ali became the Muslim
leader, or caliph, in 656. But he was
murdered in 661. Some Muslims maintained
that Muslim leadership belonged
to !Alis descendants alone. They formed
the Shi!ah branch of Islam. The Muslims
who disputed this claim became the
Sunnites.
During the 600s and 700s, Islam spread
far beyond Arabia, from the western
Mediterranean region to central Asia.
Holy wars called jihads were fought to
gain political control over societies so
that they could be run using Islamic
principles.
In the 11th century the Turks began
their rise as an Islamic power. The Seljuk
Turks conquered vast territories in the
Middle East. In 1071 they captured
Jerusalem. The Seljuks refused to allow
Christians to visit holy sites in the land
they controlled. Over the next two centuries,
Muslim powers fought off Christian
attempts to win back the Holy
Land in a series of wars known as the
Crusades. In the 1200s another group of
Muslim Turks, the Ottomans, began an
empire. The Ottomans eventually ruled
over North Africa, the Middle East, and
southeastern Europe for hundreds of
years.
Islam in Modern Times
During the 1800s and 1900sWestern
powers established colonies in Muslim
nations for the purpose of trade. Islamic
leaders lost political power. However,
Muslims drew together more as a community
in the face of colonization. In
the 1900s this sense of unity helped
many Muslim countries in their
struggles for political independence.
In the late 1900s Islam became one of the
fastest-growing world religions. Some
Muslims have resisted the influence of
theWest, which they view as leading to a
loss of traditionalMuslim values. In Iran
a revolution brought Islamic religious
Many Muslim women and girls wear head
scarves.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Islam 165
leaders to power in 1979. Islam has had a
strong influence on the governments of
other countries as well.
#More to explore
Arabs Caliphate Crusades
Jerusalem Koran Mecca Middle
East Mosque Muhammad
Ottoman Empire Pilgrimage
Ramadan
Islamabad
Population
(1998 estimate)
529,180
Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan, a
country in southern Asia. Meadows, low
mountains, and hilly plains surround
the city. Its name means City of Islam
or City of Peace.
Islamabad is a carefully planned city. It
was built during the 1960s to be the
new capital of Pakistan. Some of the
buildings in Islamabad were designed
using traditional Islamic styles. The city
has wide, straight streets and many gardens
and parks. The University of
Islamabad and the Open University are
located in Islamabad.
The city of Karachi was Pakistans first
capital. Islamabad became the capital in
1969. Pakistan and India fought a war
in 1971. The war slowed the citys
development for a time.
#More to explore
Pakistan
Island
An island is an area of land that is surrounded
by water. Islands can be found
in all bodies of water, from streams and
rivers to lakes, seas, and oceans. The two
main types of islands are oceanic islands
and continental islands.
The Grand National Mosque in Islamabad
stands in front of the Margalla Hills, which
are part of the Himalayas.
An oceanic island in the South Pacific rises
from the ocean floor.
166 Islamabad BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oceanic Islands
Oceanic islands are the tops of underwater
volcanoes. An oceanic island forms
when a volcano erupts deep under the
ocean and pushes the ocean floor
upward into a mountain. The island is
the top of that mountain. The Hawaiian
Islands are examples of oceanic islands.
Atolls are another type of island in the
ocean. An atoll is a ring of land around a
shallow body of water called a lagoon.
Atolls form when corals build a colony,
or reef, around the top of an underwater
volcano. Eventually the reef reaches the
surface of the water and becomes land.
Atolls make up the country of the Marshall
Islands.
Continental Islands
Continental islands are close to the continents.
They are parts of the same land
that makes up the continents. One way
that continental islands form is by the
flooding of valleys close to the coast.
The valleys fill with seawater, and the
tops of nearby hills then become islands.
Long Island, which lies off the coast of
the U.S. state of New York, is a continental
island.
The islands in rivers and lakes are also
continental islands. The city of Paris,
France, began as a settlement on an
island in the Seine River.
Archipelagoes
An archipelago is a group of islands. The
islands in archipelagoes may be oceanic
or continental. Japan and the Aleutian
Islands in the U.S. state of Alaska are
archipelagoes. Indonesia is the largest
archipelago in the world.
An atoll is a ring of land surrounding a pool of water called a lagoon. This kind of island
forms from a volcanic island circled by a coral reef.
A small continental island lies in the Seine
River near the town of Les Andelys, France.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Island 167
Israel
The country of Israel, located in the
Middle East, was founded in 1948. It
was the first homeland for the Jewish
people in nearly 2,000 years. Because
Israel lies in territory claimed by Arabs,
it has faced conflict with neighboring
Arab countries. Israel has also experienced
violence between Jews and Arabs
(known as Palestinians) living within its
borders. Israel claims Jerusalem as its
capital.
Geography
Israel borders Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and
Lebanon. The Mediterranean Sea lies to
the west. Israelis and the Arabs of the
region have long disagreed about the
limits of Israels territory.
Along the coast is a narrow plain. Hills
rise in northern and central Israel. The
countrys highest point, Mount Meron,
is in the mountains of Galilee in the
north. Several valleys run the length of
Israel in the east. In the south is a dry,
rugged region called the Negev.
In the east the Jordan River flows southward
into the freshwater Sea of Galilee
and the salty Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is
the lowest place on Earth. It is 1,312
feet (400 meters) below sea level. Israel
generally has mild, wet winters and hot,
dry summers.
Plants and Animals
Modern Israelis have planted millions of
trees to replace forests that were cut
down long ago. Shrubs cover the hills.
Desert scrub grows in the Negev. Citrus
trees grow on the coastal plain.
Israels animals include wildcats, wild
boars, gazelles, ibex, jackals, hyenas, and
badgers. Among its reptiles are lizards
and vipers. Birds include partridges,
tropical cuckoos, and desert larks.
The dry region known as the Negev takes
up a large part of Israel.
168 Israel BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
People
Jews make up more than three fourths
of the population. Jews from all over the
world began settling in the region even
before Israel became an independent
country in 1948. Most of the rest of the
people are Arabs. Judaism is the main
religion, but the majority of the Arabs
follow Islam. Hebrew and Arabic are the
main languages. Many people also speak
English. Most people live in cities,
mainly along the coast.
Economy
The economy of Israel is based on services,
including banking, government
work, and tourism. Manufacturing is
also important. The country is a top
producer of cut and polished diamonds.
Other products include electronics,
computer software, machinery, transportation
equipment, chemicals, metals,
processed foods, paper products, and
clothing.
Only a small number of people work in
agriculture, but Israels farms produce
much of the countrys food. Crops
include potatoes, tomatoes, citrus fruit,
wheat, grapes, apples, olives, and cotton.
The main livestock are sheep and cattle.
History
The territory now known as Israel is part
of a region called Palestine. The area was
the ancient homeland of the Jews. Long
ago it came under the control of other
rulers, though some Jewish people continued
to live there. In the 600s it
became part of the Muslim world. In the
late 1800s Jews began a movement,
called Zionism, to re-create a Jewish
state. The Arabs in Palestine opposed
the movement.
In 1918 the British occupied Palestine.
AfterWorldWar II (193945) the British
asked the United Nations to help
settle the disagreements between the
Jews and the Palestinian Arabs. In 1947
the United Nations voted to divide the
region into separate Jewish and Arab
states. Arab leaders refused to accept that
decision. The State of Israel declared its
independence in 1948.
The Arab-IsraeliWars
Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq
immediately declared war on Israel.
Israel won the war. It was the first of
several Arab-Israeli wars. In 1949 Israel
took control of three fourths of Palestine,
twice as much land as proposed by
the United Nations.
Israel gained more territory in the Six-
DayWar of 1967. It took the eastern
A worker unloads a bucket full of melons on
a moshav in Israel. A moshav is a kind of
cooperative farm. This means that many
people work together to farm the land. A
kibbutz is another form of cooperative farm
in Israel.
Facts About
ISRAEL
Population
(2008 estimate)
7,018,000
Area
8,367 sq mi
(21,671 sq km)
Capital
Israel claims
Jerusalem as its
capital
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Jerusalem, Tel
Aviv-Yafo, Haifa,
Rishon LeZiyyon,
Ashdod,
Beersheba
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Israel 169
part of Jerusalem and theWest Bank
from Jordan, the Sinai Peninsula and the
Gaza Strip from Egypt, and the Golan
Heights from Syria. In 1973 Egypt and
Syria launched a surprise attack on
Israel. Israel lost many soldiers but eventually
won the war.
In 1979 Israel and Egypt signed a peace
treaty. However, Israels relations with
other Arab countries remained poor. In
1982 Israel invaded Lebanon. It wanted
to drive out Palestinian fighters
belonging to a group known as the
Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO). In 1987 Palestinians living in
the West Bank and the Gaza Strip
began a violent protest (intifada in
Arabic) against Israel.
The Troubled Peace Process
Peace talks between Israel, the Arab
countries, and Palestinians began in
1992. The following year Israel agreed
to give the Palestinians some control of
the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.
Soon after that Israel signed a peace
treaty with Jordan. In 2000 Israeli
troops pulled out of Lebanon. Five
years later Israel pulled its troops and
settlers out of the Gaza Strip. The peace
process continued to face difficulties,
however.
#More to explore
Arab-IsraeliWars Dead Sea Jerusalem
Jordan River Middle East Palestine
1897 1918 1948 1967 1987 1993 2000
Jews from
around the
world meet to
plan a Jewish
state.
Great Britain
occupies
Palestine.
Israel
declares its
independence;
the Arab-Israeli
wars begin.
Israel gains
more land in
the Six-Day
War.
Palestinians
begin a violent
uprising
against Israel.
Israel gives
Palestinians
some control of
the land.
New violence
breaks out
between Israel
and
Palestinians.
T I M E L I N E
Haifa is Israels main port. The city overlooks
the Mediterranean Sea.
170 Israel BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Istanbul
Population
(2007 estimate)
10,757,327
Istanbul is the largest city in the country
of Turkey. A channel of water called the
Bosporus divides the city into two parts.
One part of Istanbul is in Europe, while
the other part is in Asia.
For more than 1,500 years Istanbul was
the capital of a series of powerful empires.
Today Ankara, not Istanbul, is the capital
ofTurkey.However, Istanbul is the center
ofTurkeys economy and culture.
Places of Interest
A former church in Istanbul called the
Hagia Sophia is considered one of the
worlds greatest buildings. The church
was built in the 500s. It later became a
mosque and then a museum.
The Topkapi Palace in Istanbul was
home to the rulers of the Islamic Ottoman
Empire. Many mosques were built
in the city during their rule. They
include the large Mosque of Suleyman
and the Blue Mosque.
Economy
Istanbul is Turkeys center of trade,
banking, tourism, and other service
industries. The city is also an industrial
center. Factories in Istanbul make fabrics,
clothing, processed foods, chemicals,
and cement.
History
The Greeks founded the city as a
colony in about the 600s BC. They
named it Byzantium. In AD 330 the
Roman emperor Constantine made the
city the capital of the Roman Empire.
He renamed the city Constantinople.
The eastern part of the Roman Empire
later became the Byzantine Empire.
Constantinople was its capital for many
centuries.
The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople
in 1453. They made it the capital
of the huge Ottoman Empire. Under
Ottoman rule the city became known as
Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire ended in
1918. Istanbul soon became part of the
new country of Turkey.
..More to explore
Ankara Byzantine Empire Ottoman
Empire Rome, Ancient Turkey
The Blue Mosque (front) is one of several
magnificent mosques in Istanbul.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Istanbul 171
Italy
The European country of Italy is shaped
like a high-heeled boot. Two thousand
years ago the capital of Italy, Rome,
ruled one of historys largest empires.
Today Italy is an important member of
the European Union.
Geography
Most of Italys land is a peninsula that
extends from southern Europe into the
Mediterranean Sea. Sicily and Sardinia
also belong to Italy. They are two large
islands in the Mediterranean. Italy shares
borders with France, Switzerland, Austria,
and Slovenia. The Adriatic Sea lies
to the east. Italys longest river, the Po,
flows into the Adriatic.
Italys land is mountainous. The Alps
rise in the north, and the Apennines run
through the peninsula. Italys highest
point, Monte Rosa, lies in the central
Alps. Southern Italy has some active
volcanoes, including Mount Vesuvius
and Mount Etna. The south is generally
warmer than the north.
Plants and Animals
At the foot of the Alps, the most common
trees are evergreen cork oaks,
olives, and cypresses. Beech trees grow
slightly higher up. At still higher elevations
grow larches and spruces. Holm
oaks grow in the Apennines.
Most of Italys animals live in the
mountains. Wolves hunt in the remote
Apennines. Brown bears, lynx, ibex, and
other animals are protected in parks
and preserves in the Alps and the
Apennines.
People
Nearly all the people in Italy are ethnic
Italians. Almost everyone speaks Italian.
Most Italians are Roman Catholics. The
majority of the population lives in cities.
The largest city is Rome. In the western
part of Rome is Vatican City, an independent
state and the headquarters of
the Roman Catholic church.
A man in Italy harvests grapes that will be
used to make wine.
172 Italy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Economy
Servicesincluding tourism, banking,
and communicationsare Italys main
economic activities. Manufacturing is
also very important. Italys main products
include iron and steel, machinery,
automobiles, electrical appliances, textiles,
chemicals, ceramics, and shoes.
Italy has few natural resources. It must
import many of the raw materials
needed for industry.
Agriculture is a smaller part of the
economy. Some leading farm products
are wheat, olives, and grapes. Wheat
flour is used in making bread and pasta,
one of the main Italian foods. Olives
provide olive oil for cooking. Grapes are
used to make wine. Other crops include
sugar beets, corn, tomatoes, potatoes,
rice, and various fruits. Farmers also
raise sheep, pigs, cattle, and chickens.
Fishing is another important source of
food.
History
More than 2,500 years ago a group of
people known as the Etruscans began
building a civilization in west-central
Italy. The Etruscans later fell under the
control of the Romans, their neighbors
to the south. Rome became the chief
power in the Mediterranean world. By
AD 117 the Roman Empire stretched
from Britain to North Africa to what is
now the Middle East.
Later, groups of people from the north
invaded the Roman Empire. By AD 476
they had destroyed the empire. After
that the region was divided into many
small kingdoms. Various rulers tried to
control the different kingdoms. The
most important of these local rulers,
however, was the pope. The pope was
the leader of the Roman Catholic
church and was based in Rome.
City-States and the Renaissance
During this period some cities in northern
Italy developed into small but powerful
states. They were called city-states.
Among them were Florence, Venice, and
Milan. These city-states competed
intensely for the control of trade
between Europe and Asia.
As the city-states gained wealth from
trade, they became centers of art. Their
rulers and merchants encouraged architecture,
painting, sculpture, and literature.
This growing interest in the arts is
known as the Renaissance. It made Italy
the cultural center of theWestern world
from the 1300s to the 1500s.
From Foreign Rule to Unification
In the late 1400s France invaded Italy.
Until the 1800s rulers from France,
Spain, and Austria controlled the various
parts of Italy.
The Italian city of Florence is known for its
many famous museums and churches.
Facts About
ITALY
Population
(2008 estimate)
59,760,000
Area
116,343 sq mi
(301,328 sq km)
Capital
Rome
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Rome, Milan,
Naples, Turin,
Palermo, Genoa
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Italy 173
In the 1800s three men began to fight
against the foreign rulers. Their names
were Giuseppe Mazzini, Giuseppe
Garibaldi, and Camillo Cavour. They
forced the rulers to leave. They then
brought all the parts of Italy together as
one country. By 1861 most of Italy was
united under Victor Emmanuel II, who
became king. The pope still controlled
Rome, but in 1870 Italian troops
invaded the city and took control. This
completed the unification of Italy.
Mussolini andWorldWar II
Italy joined the AlliesRussia, France,
and Great Britainduring WorldWar I
(191418). After the war Italians were
divided on many issues. Many wanted a
strong leader to take charge. The dictator
Benito Mussolini and his Fascist
party soon rose to power. (Fascists
believe that the strength of the country
is all-important.) Mussolini ruled
harshly. People who criticized him were
imprisoned, sent far away, or killed.
Italy formed an alliance with Nazi Germany
in 1936. In 1940 Mussolini
brought Italy intoWorldWar II on Germanys
side. When the Allies invaded
Italy in 1943, Mussolini escaped. Italy
surrendered to the Allies and then joined
the war against Germany.
Postwar Italy
After the war, in 1946, the Italian people
voted to make the country a republic. (A
republic is a country not ruled by a king
or queen.) Italy developed many political
parties and had more than 50
changes in government by the 21st century.
Nevertheless, the economy grew to
be one of the strongest in the world.
Italy was a founding member of the
European Economic Community, which
became the European Union in 1993.
#More to explore
European Union Fascism
Renaissance Rome Rome, Ancient
Vatican City
about 476 about 1350 1870 1922 1940 1946 1993
The Roman
Empire falls.
The
Renaissance
begins in Italys
city-states.
Italy becomes a
united
kingdom.
Fascist leader
Benito
Mussolini
comes to
power.
Italy sides with
Germany in
World War II.
The Italian
Republic is
founded.
Italy becomes
part of the
European
Union.
T I M E L I N E
174 Italy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ivan IV
Ivan IV ruled the country of Russia
from 1533 to 1584. In 1547 he became
Russias first tsar. The tsar was the countrys
highest leader at that time.
Although Ivan made improvements to
his country during his reign, he is
remembered mostly for his cruelty. He is
also called Ivan the Terrible.
Ivan was born in 1530 to Grand Prince
Vasily III of Moscow and his second
wife, Yelena Glinskaya. On December 4,
1533, Ivans father died. The 3-year-old
Ivan then became grand prince of Moscow.
Ivans mother ruled for him until
her death in 1538.
As Russias leader, Ivan hoped to make
the country more powerful. He created
new laws and reorganized the government.
He also improved the military and
encouraged the development of Russian
culture. But he mistreated many people
who opposed him. He had more than
3,000 people killed. He even struck and
killed his son Ivan. After Ivan IV died in
1584, his son Fyodor became tsar.
Ivory Coast
#see Cote dIvoire.
Ivy
Ivy is a vine that is known for clinging
to walls and trees. It grows in cool, moist
regions. There are several types of ivy,
but the most common is English ivy.
Ivy is native to Europe, Asia, and North
Africa. Many varieties of ivy have been
introduced throughout the world.
Ivy clings to walls and trees with disks
that grow from the stems. As the stems
reach the top of their support, they
either grow to the side or hang. Leaves
with three to five sections grow from the
stems. Ivy does not harm trees as long as
the plant is not allowed to grow too
much. If it does grow wildly, it may
strangle the tree. Ivy is also used as a
ground cover beneath large trees where
grass has difficulty growing. It is also a
popular houseplant.
Some ivy growing on brick walls can be
good. It encourages dryness and
warmth. It also protects the wall from
bad weather and adds beauty. However,
if the ivy starts growing through cracks
in the wall, the wall may be damaged.
Several other plants are called ivy though
they are not related to the true ivies.
These include poison ivy and Virginia
creeper.
Ivy often covers brick buildings.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ivy 175
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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7
eBook edition January, 2010
Jakarta is the capital of
Indonesia, a country in
Southeast Asia.
(See Jakarta.)
Jamestown was the first permanent
English colony in North
America.
(See Jamestown.)
During the 1100s in Japan,
warriors called samurai set up
a military government.
(See Japan.)
In 1917 the Original Dixieland
Jass Band made the first jazz
recording.
(See Jazz.)
Thomas Jefferson wrote the
famous line all men are created
equal.
(See Jefferson, Thomas.)
Some jellyfish are more than 6
feet (2 meters) across.
(See Jellyfish.)
J
Jackal
Jackals are wolflike animals that are
related to dogs. At night jackals howl to
communicate with each other. The howl
can be quite bothersome to humans.
People often describe the noise as sounding
like loud crying or a siren.
There are three species, or types, of
jackal. The golden jackal is found from
eastern Europe and North Africa to
southern Asia. The black-backed jackal
and the side-striped jackal are found in
southern and eastern Africa. Jackals live
in open spaces such as grasslands.
An adult jackal is about 3 feet (1 meter)
long, including the tail. It weighs about
1524 pounds (711 kilograms). A jackals
fur color depends on what species it
is. The golden jackal is usually yellow to
pale gold. The black-backed jackal is
rusty red with a black back. The sidestriped
jackal is grayish with a whitetipped
tail and a stripe on each side of
the body.
Jackals live alone, in pairs, or in groups
called packs. They hide during the day
and come out at dusk to hunt. They eat
small animals and plants. Packs of jackals
can catch sheep and antelope. Jackals
also follow lions that are hunting. Once
the lion has eaten and gone, the jackals
move in and eat the scraps that are left.
..More to explore
Dog
Jackson
Population
(2000 census)
184,256;
(2007 estimate)
175,710
Jackson is the capital of the U.S. state of
Mississippi. It is the states largest city. It
lies along the Pearl River.
Jackson is a center of manufacturing and
transportation. Goods made in the surrounding
areas are shipped out from
Jackson. Many residents work for the
government or in communications.
A French Canadian named Louis Le
Fleur built a trading post on the site of
Jackson in 1792. It was called Le Fleurs
Bluff. In 1822 it became the capital of
Mississippi. It was then renamed after
Andrew Jackson, the seventh president
of the United States.
During the American CivilWar, Union
troops burned down Jackson. The city
Black-backed jackals are widespread in
southern Africa.
4 Jackal BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
then became known as Chimneyville.
Jackson recovered slowly after the war. It
grew rapidly during the 1900s.
#More to explore
Mississippi
Jackson, Andrew
Known as Old Hickory, Andrew Jackson
served two terms as the seventh president
of the United States. Jackson was
the first president to have grown up
poor and on the western frontier. He
made the presidency more powerful and
helped to found the Democratic Party.
Early Life and Career
Andrew Jackson was born on March
15, 1767, in the western Carolinas,
probably in what is now South
Carolina. A few days before Andrew
was born, his father died. His mother
and two brothers died during the
American Revolution.
Jackson studied law at an office in Salisbury,
North Carolina. After 1788 he
worked as a lawyer in a what later
became Tennessee. Jackson married
Rachel Donelson Robards in 1791.
They later adopted Robards nephew
and named him Andrew Jackson, Jr.
In 1796 Jackson helped write the
constitution for the new state of
Tennessee. The states voters elected
him as their first representative to the
U.S. House of Representatives. In
179798 he served as a U.S. senator.
Jackson then became a judge for the
highest court in Tennessee.
Military Career
In 1802 Jackson became major general
of the Tennessee militia. During the War
of 1812 with Great Britain Jackson
fought the Creek Indians, who were
British allies. He defeated them in the
battle of Horseshoe Bend, in Alabama.
Jackson later forced the British to leave
New Orleans, Louisiana. He became a
national hero.
The state Capitol in Jackson, Mississippi, is
nestled between high-rise buildings.
Neither Jackson
nor the
British knew
that the War
of 1812 was
officially over
when they
fought the
battle of New
Orleans.
Andrew Jackson was the seventh
president of the United States.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jackson, Andrew 5
After the war Jackson went to the
Alabama-Georgia region. He was supposed
to defend settlers against attacks
by Seminole Indians from Florida. In
1818, without orders, he led his troops
to Florida, which belonged to Spain.
The next year, Spain agreed to give up
Florida.
Presidential Elections
In 1823 Jackson returned to the Senate.
The next year he ran against three other
candidates for president. Jackson won
the highest number of votes but not a
majority. The decision went to the
House of Representatives, which chose
John Quincy Adams.
Jackson ran for the presidency again in
1828. His war record and background
attracted voters. They saw him as a man
of the people, not a rich politician from
the East.With the support of the western
states, Jackson defeated President
Adams. Jacksons supporters formed the
new Democratic Party, which helped
him win a second term in 1832.
Presidency
Jackson relied on the advice of some of
the journalists and politicians who had
helped elect him. That informal group
came to be known as his kitchen cabinet.
(The Cabinet is the presidents
official group of advisers.)
As president, Jackson ended the powerful
Bank of the United States. He also
strengthened the central government by
opposing the rights of states to make
their own decisions in certain cases.
When South Carolina threatened to
ignore a federal law, Jackson said he
would send soldiers to enforce it.
In another case, however, Jackson
allowed Georgia to ignore the U.S.
Supreme Court. The state had taken
lands from the Cherokee people. The
Supreme Court ruled against Georgia,
but Jackson did nothing to enforce the
March 15, June 8,
1767 1796 1815 1818 1828 1837 1845
Jackson is
born in the
Carolinas.
Tennessee
elects Jackson
as its first
representative
to Congress.
Jackson defeats
the British in
the battle of
New Orleans.
Jackson
invades
Spanish
Florida.
Jackson is
elected
president.
Jackson retires
at the end of
his second
term.
Jackson dies at
his home near
Nashville,
Tennessee.
T I M E L I N E
6 Jackson, Andrew BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
ruling. Georgia later forced about
15,000 Cherokee to leave. Their march
west became known as the Trail of
Tears.
Retirement
In 1837 Jackson retired to his home, the
Hermitage, near Nashville, Tennessee.
His wife had died after his election in
1828. Jacksons health grew worse until
he died at home on June 8, 1845.
#More to explore
Adams, John Quincy Trail of Tears
United States War of 1812
Jackson, Jesse
Jesse Jackson fought for the rights of
African Americans during the civil rights
movement of the 1960s. Later on he
became involved in politics and world
affairs.
Jesse Jackson was born onOctober 8,
1941, in Greenville, South Carolina.He
went to college at the University of
Illinois and at North Carolina
Agricultural andTechnical College. Then
he studied religion in Chicago, Illinois.
In 1968 he became a Baptist minister.
Jackson joined the civil rights movement
while he was a student. In 1965 he
began working for the Southern Christian
Leadership Conference (SCLC).
The SCLC was a civil rights group led
by Martin Luther King, Jr.
In 1971 Jackson founded the group
People United to Save [or Serve]
Humanity (PUSH). This group helped
African Americans to get jobs and to
open businesses. In 1984 Jackson
founded the National Rainbow Coalition
to help all kinds of people, not just
African Americans. (These two groups
joined in 1996 to form the Rainbow/
PUSH Coalition.)
Jackson ran for U.S. president as a
Democrat in 1984 and 1988. He did
not win. But he did better than any
African American presidential candidate
who had come before.
Jackson also gained a lot of attention for
his role in world affairs. He spoke out
against apartheid (separation of the
races) in South Africa. He took part in
peace talks in the Middle East. He also
worked with several countries to free
U.S. citizens being held as prisoners.
#More to explore
Civil Rights Movement King, Martin
Luther, Jr.
In 1990
Washington,
D.C., residents
elected Jackson
as a
statehood
senator. His
job was to try
to get statehood
for the
city.
Jesse Jackson
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jackson, Jesse 7
Jaguar
The jaguar is the largest cat that lives in
the Americas. It is found mainly in the
Amazon rain forest of South America.
The scientific name of the jaguar is Panthera
onca.
The jaguar looks much like the leopard.
But the jaguar is larger and has bigger
black spots. The average jaguar is
between 5 and 6 feet (1.5 and 1.8
meters) long, not including the tail.
Males weigh between 220 and 350
pounds (100 and 160 kilograms).
Females are usually smaller. The jaguar
has a large head and big legs. Its coat
ranges from deep yellow to golden
brown.
The jaguar hunts alone at night. It is a
swift animal that climbs and swims well.
The jaguar preys on piglike animals
called peccaries. It also eats rodents,
deer, birds, crocodiles, and fish.
The jaguar once lived in forests ranging
from the southern United States to
Argentina. Today there are far fewer
jaguars scattered over a much smaller
area. Some of the forests have been
destroyed. The animals therefore have
fewer places to live. People hunt jaguars
for sport and for their fur. People also
kill jaguars because the animals sometimes
eat cattle.
#More to explore
Cat Leopard
Jail
#see Prison.
Jainism
Along with Hinduism and Buddhism,
Jainism is one of the three major religions
that started in ancient India. Its
followers are called Jains. In the early
21st century there were more than 4
million Jains, most of them in India.
Jains believe that after people die, they
are reborn as other beings. By purifying
their souls, they believe, they can eventually
free themselves from repeated
rebirth. Jains believe that 24 men, the
Tirthankaras (saviors), have escaped
rebirth.
For Jains, purifying the soul involves
practicing ahimsa, or nonviolence. This
means that they should not harm any
living thing, including humans, animals,
and insects. Also, Jains believe that no
group of people is above or below any
other group.
The jaguar gets its name from the American
Indian word yaguar, meaning he who kills
with one leap.
8 Jaguar BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
To avoid harming living things, Jains do
not eat any meat. In temples and at
shrines they pay respect to the 24
Tirthankaras. At certain times they fast,
or refuse to eat, to help purify the soul.
Jain monks and nuns follow Jainism
more strictly. They dedicate their lives to
purifying their souls.
Jainism began during the 600s400s BC
in eastern India. Hinduism was the
main religion there. But some people
rejected certain Hindu beliefs, including
the idea that only the highest group of
people could perform religious ceremonies.
Some of these opponents of Hinduism
founded Jainism.
Jains believe their religion started with
the 24 Tirthankaras. Mahavira, who
probably lived in the 500s or 400s BC,
was the last savior. Mahavira taught
people how to purify their souls. He
converted many Hindus to his ideas,
later called Jainism.
..More to explore
Buddhism Hinduism Monk
Jakarta
Population
(2005 estimate)
8,603,349
Jakarta is the capital of Indonesia, a
country of Southeast Asia. It is one of
the largest cities in the world. Jakarta is
located on the coast of the island of Java.
Jakarta is a major center of education,
industry, banking, and trade. It is the
countrys largest port. Its factories make
soap, cloth, food, and machines.
Jakarta was founded in 1527 after a local
ruler defeated Portuguese troops there.
He called the city Jayakerta, meaning
glorious fortress.
Dutch traders captured and destroyed
the city in 1619. They then built their
own town, named Batavia, there. It
became the capital of the Dutch government
in Indonesia.
Indonesia became an independent country
in 1949. The city was renamed
Djakarta, and it became the capital. In
1972 the city was renamed Jakarta.
..More to explore
Indonesia
Jain people in India celebrate a
festival by pouring holy water
over a statue.
Jakarta has
many citizens
of Chinese,
Indian, and
Arab ancestry.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jakarta 9
Jamaica
Jamaica is part of theWest Indies in the
Caribbean Sea. Jamaica is known for
reggae, a type of music. The capital is
Kingston.
Geography
Jamaica lies south of Cuba and west of
Haiti. The island is mountainous with
plains along the coast. Jamaica has warm
weather year-round. Hurricanes sometimes
cause severe destruction.
Plants and Animals
Ebony, mahogany, and rosewood trees
grow in some valleys. Other plants
include bamboo, orchids, and ferns.
Jamaica is home to birds, bats, frogs,
and crocodiles.
People
Most of Jamaicas people are of African
origin. A smaller group has mixed African
and European roots. There are also
small numbers of East Indians, Chinese,
and whites. Most people speak English
or Jamaican Creole. More than half of
Jamaicans live in cities.
Economy
Jamaicas economy is based mainly on
services, especially tourism. Mines provide
the mineral bauxite, from which
aluminum is made. Factories make
cement, processed foods, and clothing.
Farmers grow sugarcane to make raw
sugar, molasses, and rum. Other crops
are citrus fruits, bananas, and coffee.
History
The Arawak people lived on the island
when Christopher Columbus sighted it
in 1494. The Spanish took control in
the early 1500s and enslaved many
Arawak. The British seized Jamaica in
1655. They brought in Africans to work
as slaves on sugar plantations. Jamaica
gained independence in 1962.
..More to explore
Arawak Kingston West Indies
Many people visit Jamaica for its beautiful
beaches and mild weather.
Facts About
JAMAICA
Population
(2008 estimate)
2,688,000
Area
4,244 sq mi
(10,991 sq km)
Capital
Kingston
Form of
government
Constitutional
monarchy
Major cities
Kingston, Portmore,
Spanish
Town, Montego
Bay, May Pen
10 Jamaica BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Jamestown
Jamestown was the first permanent
English colony in North America. It was
located on a piece of land in the James
River, near what is nowWilliamsburg,
Virginia.
The people who founded Jamestown
were members of the Virginia Company
of London. King James I of England
gave them the right to settle along the
east coast of North America. Their goal
was to find ways to make money.
The 105 colonists, all men, arrived in
North America in May 1607. Life in the
colony was hard. Many colonists died
from illness and lack of food.
Conditions in Jamestown improved
under the leadership of Captain John
Smith. Under his direction, the colonists
built houses and forts and dug a well.
They also fished and planted crops.
After being injured, Smith returned to
England in the autumn of 1609.
The Native Americans of the region,
called the Powhatan confederacy, sometimes
gave the colonists food. But the
two groups did not always trust each
other.
After Smith left, the Native Americans
stopped sharing food with the colonists.
They also attacked colonists who left
Jamestown. As a result more than 80
percent of the colonists died during the
winter of 160910. This period was
called the Starving Time.
More colonists arrived in 1610. In 1612
a colonist named John Rolfe began
growing tobacco. The colonists sold
tobacco to England, which helped
Jamestown to survive.
In 1614 Rolfe married Pocahontas, the
daughter of the chief of the Powhatan
confederacy. This brought eight years of
peace between the colonists and the
Native Americans.
The colonists formed a democratic government
in 1619. In the same year the
first Africans arrived. The colonists
treated Africans first as servants and later
as slaves.
In 1624 Virginia became a royal colony,
ruled by the king of England. Jamestown
was Virginias capital at first. In
1699 the capital was moved toWilliamsburg.
Today the site of Jamestown
is part of Colonial National Historical
Park.
#More to explore
Americas, Exploration and Settlement of
the Colony Pocahontas Virginia
The first colonists built Jamestown on a
marshy piece of land on the James River.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jamestown 11
Japan
The Asian country of Japan is marked
by contrast between old and new. The
country values its complex and ancient
cultural traditions. Yet Japan is known
for its powerful, modern economy and
its advanced technology. Japans capital
is Tokyo.
Geography
Japan is located off the east coast of Asia.
It consists of four large islands and more
than 3,900 smaller islands. The islands
form an arc that stretches across about
1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers). From
north to south the main islands are
Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and
Kyushu. The largest is Honshu, which is
considered the Japanese mainland.
The Pacific Ocean borders Japans eastern
shores. On the west the Sea of Japan,
also called the East Sea, separates Japan
from North Korea, South Korea, and
Russia. China is to the southwest, across
the East China Sea.
Mountains cover most of the land. Some
mountains are active volcanoes. Mount
Fuji, in central Honshu, is Japans highest
point. It is 12,388 feet (3,776
meters) high.
The southern islands are generally
warmer than the northern ones. All the
islands receive plenty of rain. Japan also
experiences hundreds of earthquakes
every year.
Plants and Animals
Forests cover a large part of Japan. The
countrys evergreen trees include pines,
cypresses, hemlocks, cedars, firs, and
spruces. Numerous broad-leaved trees
include oaks, maples, ashes, birches,
beeches, and poplars. Bamboo and
palms grow in southern and central
Japan. Cherry trees are known as sym-
Cherry flowers surround a pagoda in
Kyoto, Japan. A pagoda is a tower that
may serve as a temple or a memorial.
12 Japan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
bols of Japan. The Japanese plant them
throughout the country. They also grow
wild in the mountains.
Many animals live in the forested
mountains. Mammals include bears,
foxes, deer, wild boars, antelope, hares,
and wild monkeys. The seas are home
to whales, dolphins, porpoises, and a
wide variety of fish. The raising of
goldfish and colorful carp is a Japanese
specialty.
People
Most Japanese people share the same
ethnic and cultural background. They
are closely related to the other peoples of
East Asia. One group of Japanese, the
burakumin (people of the village), often
live in poorer conditions than other
Japanese. Their ancestors belonged to
the lowest class in traditional Japanese
society. Koreans form the largest minority
group. There are also small numbers
of Ainu, a native people of northern
Japan.
The countrys main language is Japanese.
Shinto and Buddhism are the
major religions. Most Japanese live in
cities, mainly on Honshu.
Economy
Most Japanese work in services, including
banking, health care, and communications.
Manufacturing and
international trade are also strong parts
of the economy. Japan is a leading maker
of ships, automobiles, watches, and
electronicsespecially cellular phones,
television sets, computers, cameras, photocopiers,
and robots. Japan also produces
steel, chemicals, plastics, cement,
fabrics, and paper.
Farming and fishing are small parts of
the economy. Nevertheless, Japan produces
large amounts of food. Its leading
crops include rice, potatoes, sugar beets,
fruits, vegetables, and tea. Japan also
catches more fish than most other countries
do.
History
People lived in Japan at least 10,000
years ago. According to legend, the
emperor Jimmu founded the Japanese
state in 660 BC. Historical records, however,
show that Japan was not united as
one state until the late AD 300s or early
400s.
For many centuries the Japanese borrowed
heavily from Chinese culture.
The Japanese adopted Chinese characters
to write the Japanese language. They
also used some Chinese ideas about government.
Japans culture became more
Japanese after the 800s.
Japanese Kabuki plays are colorful combinations
of singing, dancing, mime, and
drama.
Facts About
JAPAN
Population
(2008 estimate)
127,674,000
Area
145,903 square
miles (377,887
square
kilometers)
Capital
Tokyo
Form of
government
Constitutional
monarchy
Major cities
Tokyo, Yokohama,
Osaka,
Nagoya,
Sapporo
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Japan 13
Military Government
During the 1100s a class of warriors
called samurai rose to power. The samurai
often managed the estates of wealthy
people, and sometimes they held land
themselves. The samurai developed
advanced military skills.
In 1185 a samurai named Minamoto
Yoritomo took control of Japan. In 1192
he took the title of shogun. His military
government was called a shogunate.
Japan had an emperor, but he held less
power than the shogun.
From the 1300s to the 1500s powerful
families fought each other for control of
Japan. The country was divided into
private estates ruled by the landowners.
The shogun and the emperor became
less powerful.
Meanwhile Japan was developing trade
contacts with the outside world. Trade
missions to China began in 1404. In
1543 Portuguese traders arrived in
Japan. Spanish, English, and Dutch
traders followed.
The division and disorder in Japan
ended in the late 1500s. Powerful leaders
defeated the local landowners and
united the country.
During the 1600s and 1700s strong
shoguns of the Tokugawa family ruled
Japan. Japan enjoyed peace, stability,
and a growing economy. At the same
time, the shoguns began to fear conquest
by foreign powers. They banned
Christianity (a foreign religion), stopped
foreign travel, and cut back on foreign
trade.
By the mid-1800s the Tokugawa shogunate
was unable to keep European
and U.S. traders away. The shoguns
support among the Japanese people collapsed.
In 1868 the shogun was forced
to step down.
about 400 1192 1635 1868 1941 1945 2001
Japan becomes
a unified
kingdom.
The samurai set
up a military
government, or
shogunate.
Japan bans its
people from
traveling
overseas.
The emperor
Meiji takes
power and
modernizes
Japan.
The Japanese
attack Pearl
Harbor,
Hawaii.
The United
States drops
atomic bombs
on Japan.
Junichiro
Koizumi
becomes
Japans 87th
prime minister.
T I M E L I N E
14 Japan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
The Japanese Empire
Japan set up a new government under an
emperor who took the name Meiji,
meaning enlightened government. The
transfer of power from the shogunate to
the Meiji emperor was the start of
Japans modern era.
Japan soon started to build an empire. It
defeated China and Russia in war. It
made Korea into a Japanese colony in
1910. During WorldWar I (191418),
Japan fought on the side of the Allies
(mainly Great Britain, France, and Russia).
Japan seized additional territory in
East Asia during the war.
WorldWar II
In 1931 Japan seized the region called
Manchuria from China. Japan moved
troops into China in 1937 and into
Southeast Asia in 1940. The Japanese
also formed an alliance with Germany
and Italy. The three countries were
known as the Axis powers. They fought
against the Allies duringWorldWar II
(193945).
In 1941 Japan attacked U.S. forces at
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack pulled
the United States into the war. In 1945
the United States dropped atomic
bombs on the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bombs
destroyed large parts of the cities and
killed more than 100,000 people. The
Japanese then surrendered.
Postwar Japan
After the war Japan had to give up all
the territory it had acquired since 1895.
It also broke up its military. In addition,
U.S. forces occupied Japan until 1952.
A new constitution in 1947 took power
away from the emperor and made Japan
more democratic.
Japan rebuilt its ruined economy with
the help of new technology. By 1990
Japan had one of the worlds largest
economies. Although economic growth
slowed in the 1990s, Japan remained
one of the richest countries in the world.
#More to explore
Fuji, Mount Hiroshima Samurai
Shinto Tokyo WorldWar II
Girls wear traditional clothing at a festival
in Kanazawa, Japan. Many Japanese cities,
towns, and temples hold local festivals.
Crowds of people cross a street in a busy
Japanese city. Japan has many large cities.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Japan 15
Jazz
Jazz is a type of music. It began among
African Americans. Today jazz is popular
all over the world.
Features
There are many different kinds of jazz
music. But most jazz is at least partly
improvised. This means that a jazz
musician composes (makes up) the
music while playing it, rather than
beforehand.
Jazz bands can have many different types
of instruments. They often feature
drums, piano, bass, trumpet, trombone,
and saxophone. Jazz often includes singers,
too.
History
In the 1700s and 1800s enslaved people
from Africa brought their music to the
United States. Jazz grew from a mix of
African and European music. Ragtime, a
form of piano music, and blues music
also influenced jazz.
New Orleans, Louisiana, is often called
the home of jazz. Many important early
jazz musicians, such as pianist Jelly Roll
Morton, were from New Orleans. In
1917 the Original Dixieland Jass Band,
a New Orleans band, made the first jazz
recording.
In about 1918 many musicians from
New Orleans began heading north. Chicago,
Illinois, quickly became the jazz
capital of the United States. New York
City became an important center for
jazz, too.
Louis Armstrong was an important jazz
musician from this time. Armstrongs
style of jazz became known as swing. It
was popular throughout the 1930s and
1940s. Other famous swing musicians
included orchestra leader Benny Goodman
and singer Billie Holiday.
Another popular type of jazz music was
called big-band jazz. Large orchestras
with many musicians played this kind of
jazz. Duke Ellington was a famous jazz
musician, composer, and big-band
leader. Count Basie was another wellknown
bandleader.
Jazz music continued to grow and
change throughout the 1950s and
1960s. Some famous jazz musicians
from this time include saxophonist
Charlie Parker and trumpeter Miles
Davis.
During the 1970s and 1980s musicians
from many countries created new kinds
of jazz. The result was fusion music.
The Preservation Hall Jazz Band performs
in New Orleans, Louisiana.
16 Jazz BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
This kind of music combined jazz, rock,
and Latin American music.
#More to explore
Armstrong, Louis Blues Music
Jefferson,
Thomas
Thomas Jefferson was the chief author
of the Declaration of Independence and
the third president of the United States.
Many people praise Jefferson as someone
who believed strongly in the ideas of
democracy, equality, and freedom. At
the same time, however, he owned
slaves, and that has caused some people
to question his beliefs.
Early Life
Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,
1743, in Shadwell, Virginia. His parents
were Peter Jefferson, a land surveyor,
and Jane Randolph, a member of a rich
family. The Jeffersons lived on a plantation
with slaves. Jefferson studied at a
boarding school and atWilliam and
Mary College inWilliamsburg, Virginia.
In 1767 he became a lawyer. The next
year he designed his own home, named
Monticello, near Shadwell.
Jefferson married MarthaWayles Skelton
on New Years Day in 1772. They
had six children. Skelton died after 10
years of marriage, and Jefferson never
remarried.
Political Career
Jefferson was elected to the Virginia
legislature in 1769. He became a strong
supporter of American independence
from Great Britain. He served as Virginias
delegate to the Continental Congress
in 1775 and 1776. In 1776 he was
the main author of the Declaration of
Independence. He wrote the famous
lines that said all men are created
equal and have the rights of life, liberty
and the pursuit of happiness.
Jefferson then returned to the Virginia
legislature. There he proposed ending
the privileges of the wealthy, making
education available to all citizens, and
separating church and state. In 1779
Jefferson was elected governor of Virginia.
Many criticized him for not
defending the state from a British attack
in 1780. In 1782 Jefferson reentered the
Continental Congress. After the American
Revolution ended, he replaced Benjamin
Franklin as U.S. minister to
France.
Thomas Jefferson was the third president of
the United States.
Thomas
Jefferson and
John Adams
both died on
the same
daythe 50th
anniversary
of U.S.
independence.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jefferson, Thomas 17
During 179093 Jefferson was the first
U.S. secretary of state, under President
George Washington. Jefferson clashed
with Alexander Hamilton, the secretary
of the treasury. Jefferson and his
supporters, called Republicans (or
Democratic-Republicans), believed that
the states should have the power to
make their own decisions in most
matters. Hamilton led the Federalists,
who believed in a powerful central
government. In 1796 Jefferson was
elected vice president under President
John Adams.
Presidency
In 1800 Jefferson and Aaron Burr ran
for president against President Adams.
Jefferson and Burr received the same
number of electoral votes. The House of
Representatives eventually chose Jefferson
as the winner.
The most important event of Jeffersons
first term was the purchase of a large
area of land known as the Louisiana
Territory from France in 1803. The territory
doubled the size of the United
States. The president launched the Lewis
and Clark Expedition to explore the new
territory. Jefferson easily won reelection
in 1804, but his second term was less
successful than the first. A war between
Britain and France hurt U.S. trade with
Europe.
Retirement
In 1809 Jefferson retired to Monticello,
where he wrote, looked after his estate,
and entertained friends. His last great
project was founding the University of
Virginia at Charlottesville. Jefferson died
on July 4, 1826.
#More to explore
Adams, John American Revolution
Declaration of Independence
Democracy Hamilton, Alexander
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Louisiana Purchase Slavery United
States
April 13, July 4,
1743 1776 1796 1800 1803 1809 1826
Jefferson is
born in
Shadwell,
Virginia.
Jefferson
writes the
Declaration of
Independence.
Jefferson is
elected vice
president under
President John
Adams.
Jefferson is
elected
president.
The Louisiana
Purchase
doubles the
size of the
United States.
Jefferson retires
after a second
term.
Jefferson
dies at his
home near
Charlottesville,
Virginia.
T I M E L I N E
18 Jefferson, Thomas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Jefferson City
Population
(2000 census)
39,636; (2007
estimate)
40,564
Jefferson City is the capital of the U.S.
state of Missouri. The city is located on
the Missouri River.
Farmers from the surrounding area sell
crops and livestock in Jefferson City.
Many people in the city work for the
government or in health care or education.
Factories in Jefferson City make
shoes, books, electrical appliances, and
food products.
The city began as a small settlement
called Lohmans Landing. In 1821 the
settlement was selected as the site for the
capital of Missouri. A son of the famous
American pioneer Daniel Boone laid out
the city in 1822. It was named after
Thomas Jefferson, the third president of
the United States. Jefferson City officially
became the state capital in 1826.
..More to explore
Missouri Missouri River
Jellyfish
Jellyfish are sea animals with a soft, jellylike
body and no bones. They have tentacles,
or feelers, that they use to sting
their prey. Sometimes they sting swimming
people, too.
Jellyfish are related to corals and sea
anemones. There are about 200 species,
or types, of jellyfish. They are found in
all oceans. Most live at or near the surface
of the water.
A typical jellyfish is shaped like a bell or
an umbrella. Some jellyfish are hardly
large enough to be seen. Others are
more than 6 feet (2 meters) across. Jellyfish
can be transparent (see-through),
white, brown, pink, blue, or maroon.
Some jellyfish have eyes around the edge
of the body. The mouth and stomach are
in the middle of the body.
A jellyfish may have a few or many tentacles.
Thin tentacles run around the
edge of the body. Four or more larger
tentacles hang down from the middle of
the body, below the mouth. The tentacles
are lined with stinging cells that
make poison. The poison can stun small
animals. The tentacles then pull the animals
into the mouth.
Tourists leave the Governors Mansion in
Jefferson City, Missouri.
Jellyfish are
not fish. They
are a much
simpler form
of living thing.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jellyfish 19
Certain jellyfish can be very dangerous
to humans. Even a small sting from the
jellyfish called sea wasps can kill a person
within a few minutes.
#More to explore
Coral Sea Anemone
Jemison, Mae
Mae Jemison was the first African
American woman to become an astronaut.
She was a part of the crew of the
space shuttle Endeavor, which orbited
Earth for more than a week in 1992.
Jemison was born on October 17, 1956,
in Decatur, Alabama. She was the
youngest of three children. When she
was 3, the family moved to Chicago,
Illinois. Even as a young girl Jemison
was deeply interested in science.
Jemison graduated from high school at
age 16. She then received a scholarship
to attend Stanford University in California.
She graduated from there in 1977
with a degree in chemical engineering.
After Stanford, Jemison attended medical
school at Cornell University in New
York. She received her medical degree in
1981. She worked as a doctor first in
Los Angeles, California, and then with
the Peace Corps inWest Africa.
Then Jemison applied to the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) to become an astronaut. She
was one of only 15 out of 2,000 applicants
accepted by NASA. Jemison
entered NASAs astronaut program in
1987. In 1992 Jemison flew aboard the
shuttle Endeavor as the science mission
specialist. At the time she was the only
female African American astronaut.
After retiring from NASA in 1993,
Jemison founded her own company, the
Jemison Group. The company created
new technologies, especially to help
developing countries. Jemison also cre-
Jellyfish swim by opening and closing their
bodies like an umbrella.
Mae Jemison works aboard the space
shuttle Endeavor.
20 Jemison, Mae BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
ated an international science camp for
teenagers.
..More to explore
African Americans Science Space
Exploration
Jerusalem
Population
(2006 estimate)
729,100
Jerusalem is an ancient city in the
Middle East. Three major religions
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
regard the city as holy. In modern times
the country of Israel and the Palestinian
Arabs have fought for control of Jerusalem.
Israel claims the city as its capital.
However, the Palestinians have protested
that claim.
Major Holy Sites
The part of Jerusalem called the Old
City has many important religious sites.
Jews consider the Western Wall to be a
holy place of prayer. It is all that
remains of the Second Temple of
Jerusalem, which was destroyed in
ancient times.
Christians consider Jerusalem holy
because of its connections with Jesus.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is in
Jerusalem. Christians built it over the
place where they believe Jesus was killed,
buried, and then raised from the dead.
The holiest Muslim site in Jerusalem is a
monument called the Dome of the
Rock. Muslims believe it marks the place
where an angel carried Muhammad, the
founder of Islam, up to heaven.
Economy
Many people in Jerusalem work at jobs
serving the public, such as in
government, health care, or education.
The city is also a center of tourism and
banking. Factories in the city make
electronics, processed foods, and other
products.
History
People have lived in Jerusalem for at
least 5,000 years. In about 1000 BC King
David made Jerusalem the capital of the
Jewish kingdom of Israel. The Jews built
the First Temple of Jerusalem in the
900s BC. Troops from Babylonia
Jews pray at the Western Wall in the Old
City of Jerusalem. Behind the Western Wall
is the Dome of the Rock.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jerusalem 21
destroyed the temple in 586 BC. They
also forced many Jews to leave Jerusalem.
About 50 years later the Jews
returned and built the Second Temple.
Jesus was killed in Jerusalem in about AD
30. At that time Jerusalem was part of
the Roman Empire. In AD 70 the
Romans destroyed much of the city,
including the Second Temple.
Various Muslim leaders ruled Jerusalem
for most of the 600s to the early 1900s.
Christian soldiers called Crusaders captured
the city a few times during the
1000s to 1200s.
In 1948 the country of Israel was created.
The United Nations was supposed
to rule Jerusalem as an international city.
However, war broke out. During the
fighting the country now called Jordan
captured Jerusalems eastern section.
Israel captured Jerusalems western section.
Israel took control of the entire city
in 1967.
..More to explore
Christianity Crusades Islam Israel
Jesus Christ Judaism Muhammad
Palestine
Jesus Christ
The teachings of Jesus, or Jesus Christ,
are the basis of Christianity. Christians
believe that Jesus was the Messiaha
savior sent to deliver people from sin.
The word Christ comes from Khristos,
the Greek word for Messiah.
Early Life
Nearly everything known about Jesus
comes from the Bible, in the four books
of the New Testament known as the
Gospels. According to the Bible, the
angel Gabriel visited a woman named
Mary and told her she would give birth
to the Son of God. Her son, Jesus, was
born in about 6 BC in Bethlehem, a city
in the Middle Eastern region of Palestine.
Mary and her husband, Joseph,
were from Nazareth, and that is where
Jesus grew up.
Ministry
Jesus began preaching when he was
about 30 years old. He gathered a group
of 12 followers, or disciples, called the
apostles, who helped him spread his
message. Jesus was a Jew, and many of
his teachings grew out of Judaism. He
taught people to forgive others, to live a
good life, and to honor God so as to
A painting shows an artists idea
of what Jesus looked like. The
halo around Jesus head is a
symbol of holiness.
The Old City
is surrounded
by a stone
wall built in
153840.
Newer parts
of Jerusalem
were built
outside the
wall.
22 Jesus Christ BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
enter Gods kingdom. He often taught
by using parables, or short stories that
illustrated his message. The Gospels also
describe various miracles he performed,
such as raising the dead, turning water
into wine, and healing the sick. Jesus
attracted many followers.
Opposition to His Ministry
Jesus welcomed all types of people, even
those whom Jewish religious leaders
considered to be sinners. Some religious
leaders thought that Jesus teaching was
wrong and that it was leading people
astray. Others feared that he might start
a political uprising and that this would
lead to great trouble.
Death and Resurrection
Jesus knew that opposition to him was
growing and that one of his disciples,
Judas Iscariot, was turning against him.
Jesus gathered the apostles together for a
meal, later known as the Last Supper.
He told them that his death was necessary
because it would establish a new
bond between God and humans. Jesus
took bread and wine, blessed them, and
shared them with his disciples. Christians
remember this in a ceremony
known as Holy Communion or the
Lords Supper.
Later that night, Judas brought men to
arrest Jesus, and Jesus was sentenced to
death. He was crucified, or nailed to a
cross. He died on the cross and was buried
nearby.
On the third day after that, a group of
women went to Jesus tomb and found
the body gone. The Gospels tell that
Jesus then appeared to one of the
women, Mary Magdalene, and to the
disciples. He spent 40 days on Earth
after his Resurrection, or return from
the dead, and then was taken up to
heaven.
The story of Jesus Resurrection is central
to Christian belief. His apostles continued
to teach his message after his
death, and as that message spread,
Christianity was born.
..More to explore
Bible Christianity Judaism Palestine
Jewelry and
Gems
Jewelry is any object other than clothes
that is worn to decorate the body. People
use many different materials in making
jewelry. Fine jewelry is made of valuable
A girl wears a necklace made of beads and
shells.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jewelry and Gems 23
metals, such as gold and silver, and
beautiful stones called gems. Jewelry
that is made of plastic, steel, ceramics,
glass, or other less costly materials is
called costume jewelry. People who still
live as their ancient ancestors did make
jewelry from bone, claws, animal hair,
wood, and shells.
The Importance of Jewelry
People wear jewelry for many reasons.
Kings, queens, and other leaders have
often worn fine jewelry at important
ceremonies and events. Some people
wear jewelry for religious reasons. Many
people wear jewelry to mark an important
life event. For example, many men
and women give each other rings at their
weddings.
Types of Gems
Most gems are hard minerals that are
found naturally in the earth. However,
a few gems come from animals or
plants. Pearls form inside the shells of
oysters, clams, and other animals called
mollusks. Amber is tree sap that has
fossilized, or turned to stone. Jet is a
hard form of brown coal, which is
made from fossilized plants. Coral
comes from the skeletons of sea animals
called corals.
The color of gems ranges from colorless
to pure black. Gems may be transparent
(see-through) or opaque, which means
that light cannot shine through them.
Among the rarest and most valuable
gems are diamonds, rubies, emeralds,
and sapphires. These gems are all transparent
minerals. Diamonds may be yellow,
pink, blue, or black. Rubies are red,
and emeralds are green. Sapphires may
be blue, violet, yellow, green, or almost
black.
Other valuable gems include jade, carnelian,
and lapis lazuli. These gems are
opaque. Jade is usually green, but it can
also be pink, white, or lavender. Carnelian
is red or reddish brown. Lapis lazuli
is blue with gold-colored flecks in it.
The crown of Queen Victoria, who ruled the
United Kingdom from 1837 to 1901, is
filled with diamonds.
Some pearls form naturally inside the shells
of mollusks. Other pearls, called cultured
pearls, form after people stick beads or
other tiny objects inside a mollusks shell.
24 Jewelry and Gems BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
History
People have been making jewelry for
tens of thousands of years. Ancient
peoples made jewelry from teeth and
animal bones. People began making
jewelry from gold more than 4,000 years
ago. In ancient times and in the Middle
Ages people shaped and polished gems
to make them round and shiny. In the
1400s people discovered how to cut
gems to give them many flat surfaces
called facets. Facets make gems sparkle.
In the 1800s people learned how to
make artificial, or fake, gems.
#More to explore
Mineral
Joan of Arc
Joan of Arc is a national heroine of
France. Born a peasant, she became a
military leader while just a teenager.
Joan of Arc was born in Domremy,
France, probably in 1412. At the time
France and England were fighting the
Hundred YearsWar. Reims, the city
where French kings traditionally were
crowned, was in enemy hands. As a
teenager Joan claimed that the voices of
saints commanded her to drive the
English out of northern France. Charles
VII, heir to the French throne, could
then be crowned king in Reims.
Joan traveled far to visit Charles at his
castle. Some of Charless advisers were
suspicious of her. Church officials
thought she might be a witch. They
asked her many questions. Finally they
advised Charles to use Joans services.
Joan inspired the French troops with her
great spirit. In 1429 she led them to
victory over the English in a battle in the
French city of Orleans. The army then
entered Reims. Joan stood beside
Charles VII as he was crowned king.
Joan fought other battles, too. In 1430
she got separated from her soldiers and
was forced to surrender. The English put
her on trial. She was charged with
witchcraft and other crimes against the
church. She had to confess to wrongdoing
or be put to death.
Joan confessed but then changed her
mind. She said that saints had criticized
her for confessing. On May 30, 1431,
she was burned to death at the stake.
She was just 19 years old. Years later a
church court canceled the judgment
Joan of Arc watched as Charles VII was
crowned king of France in 1429.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Joan of Arc 25
against Joan. In 1920 the Roman
Catholic church made Joan a saint.
#More to explore
France Saint
Johnson, Andrew
Andrew Johnson became president of
the United States in 1865, when Abraham
Lincoln was assassinated. Johnsons
biggest challenge was the rebuilding of
the Southern states, which had just lost
the American CivilWar.
Early Life
Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh,
North Carolina, on December 29, 1808.
His father, Jacob Johnson, died when
Andrew was young. His mother, Mary
McDonough Johnson, worked as a spinner
and a weaver.
In 1826 the poor family moved to
Greeneville, Tennessee, where Johnson
opened a tailor shop. At age 18 he married
Eliza McCardle. The couple had
five children.
Political Career
Johnson served as mayor of Greeneville.
In 1835 he entered the Tennessee legislature.
In 1843 he began the first of five
terms in the U.S. House of Representa-
December 29, July 31,
1808 1853 1864 1865 1868 1869 1875
Johnson is born
in Raleigh,
North
Carolina.
Johnson
becomes
governor of
Tennessee.
Johnson is
elected vice
president under
President
Abraham
Lincoln.
Johnson
becomes
president after
Lincoln is killed.
Congress
impeaches
Johnson but
finds him not
guilty.
Johnson retires
from the
presidency.
Johnson dies
in Tennessee.
T I M E L I N E
Andrew Johnson was the 17th president of
the United States.
26 Johnson, Andrew BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
tives. Afterward he served two terms as
governor of Tennessee. In 1857 he
entered the U.S. Senate.
After Abraham Lincoln became president
in 1860, Johnson was the only
Southern senator who did not resign in
protest. Many people in the South disagreed
with Lincoln over the issue of
slavery. They were afraid that Lincoln
would try to end slavery. This soon led
to the CivilWar. Johnson, however,
sided with the Union, not the Southern
states. Lincoln appointed him military
governor of Tennessee in 1862.
Johnson was a Democrat, but in the
1864 election the Republicans chose
him to run as Lincolns vice president.
The party hoped to win the votes of
Democrats who supported the Union.
Lincoln and Johnson won easily.
Presidency
When Lincoln was assassinated on April
14, 1865, Johnson became president.
The CivilWar was over, and Johnson
had to rebuild the Uniona process
called Reconstruction. He spent much
of his term struggling with the Republicans
in Congress.
The Republicans set harsh rules for letting
Southern states back into the
Union. They also wanted to ensure civil
rights for freed slaves. Johnson did not
want to punish the South or give blacks
the right to vote. He vetoed, or rejected,
Congresss acts. However, Congress
overrode the vetoes, or passed the acts
with a large majority of votes.
Congress also passed a law preventing
the president from firing government
officers. When Johnson fired his secretary
of war, the House of Representatives
voted to impeach Johnson (put
him on trial) for breaking the law.
Johnson was the first U.S. president to
be impeached. The Senate found
Johnson not guilty.
Last Years
Johnson left office in 1869 and returned
to Tennessee. In 1875 he reentered the
U.S. Senate. He died soon afterward, on
July 31, 1875.
#More to explore
American CivilWar Lincoln, Abraham
Reconstruction United States
Johnson, Jack
Jack Johnson was the first African
American to win the heavyweight boxing
championship of the world. He was
famous during a time of great uneasiness
Jack Johnson
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Johnson, Jack 27
between blacks and whites. Many white
people hated Johnson for being successful.
They criticized him unfairly.
John Arthur (Jack) Johnson was born in
Galveston, Texas, on March 31, 1878.
He dropped out of school after the fifth
grade. He began boxing professionally in
1897.
Johnson won the heavyweight title in
1908. He defeated Tommy Burns in a
fight in Australia. Johnson lost the title
in 1915, when JessWillard knocked him
out after 26 rounds.
Johnsons professional career lasted until
1928. In that time he fought more than
100 matches. He was knocked out only
three times.
In 1912 Johnson broke a law by crossing
a state line with his bride before they
were married. He was sentenced to a
year in prison. To avoid jail, he fled to
Canada disguised as a member of a
black baseball team. Johnson returned to
serve his sentence in 1920.
After his release from prison, Johnson
boxed sometimes. He also performed in
carnival acts. He eventually owned his
own supper club.
On June 10, 1946, Johnson was killed
in an automobile accident in Raleigh,
North Carolina. He was inducted into
the Boxing Hall of Fame in 1954.
#More to explore
Boxing
Johnson,
Lyndon B.
Lyndon B. Johnson became president of
the United States in 1963, when John F.
Kennedy was assassinated. During his
presidency Johnson introduced important
social laws, including a civil rights
bill. He is also remembered for expanding
U.S. involvement in the Vietnam
War.
Early Life
Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on
August 27, 1908, on a farm near
Stonewall, Texas. He was the oldest of
five children. His father, Sam Ealy
Johnson, Jr., was a businessman and a
member of the Texas legislature. His
mother, Rebekah Baines Johnson, was a
daughter of a state legislator.
Lyndon B. Johnson was the 36th president
of the United States.
Jack Johnson
continued to
box in nonchampionship
matches until
he was about
67 years old.
28 Johnson, Lyndon B. BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
After graduating from college in 1930,
Johnson taught at a Houston high
school. The next year he went toWashington,
D.C., as an assistant to a Democratic
congressman. In 1934 Johnson
married Claudia Alta Taylor, known as
Lady Bird. The couple had two daughters.
Political and Military Career
In 1937 Johnson entered the U.S.
House of Representatives. He joined the
U.S. Navy in 1941. After fighting in
WorldWar II, Johnson was elected to
the U.S. Senate in 1948. During his 12
years there he became the leader of the
Democratic senators. He had a heart
attack in 1955 but soon went back to
work.
Presidency
In 1960 Johnson ran for vice president
under the Democrat John F. Kennedy.
The Republican presidential candidate
was Richard M. Nixon. Johnsons influence
in the South helped the Democrats
to win. On November 22, 1963,
Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas,
Texas. Johnson was sworn in as president
that afternoon.
Johnson helped to calm the mourning
nation. He urged Congress to pass laws
that Kennedy had proposed. In July
1964 Johnson signed the historic Civil
Rights Act. The acts goal was to end
racial discrimination.
In the presidential election of 1964
Johnson defeated Republican Barry
Goldwater. In his second term Johnson
continued his program of reforms called
the Great Society. He signed laws to
fight poverty and to improve education,
medical care for the aged, and housing.
In 1965 Congress passed the Voting
Rights Act, which outlawed the many
ways that people had tried to prevent
African Americans from voting.
Despite those successes, many people
criticized Johnson for sending hundreds
August 27, November 22, January 22,
1908 1960 1963 1964 1965 1969 1973
Johnson
is born near
Stonewall,
Texas.
Johnson is
elected vice
president under
President John
F. Kennedy.
Kennedy is
killed; Johnson
becomes
president.
Johnson
signs the
Civil Rights
Act.
Johnson begins
sending
thousands of
troops to
Vietnam.
Johnson retires.
Johnson dies in
San Antonio,
Texas.
T I M E L I N E
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Johnson, Lyndon B. 29
of thousands of U.S. troops to fight in
the VietnamWar. Many also complained
that racism and poverty were
still huge problems. Beginning in the
mid-1960s, several cities experienced
severe rioting. In 1968 Johnson decided
not to seek reelection.
Last Days
In 1969 Johnson retired to his ranch in
Texas. On January 22, 1973, just a few
days before the end of the VietnamWar,
Johnson died of a heart attack in San
Antonio.
#More to explore
Civil Rights Kennedy, John F. United
States VietnamWar
Johnson, Magic
Magic Johnson was a basketball player
who led the Los Angeles Lakers to five
National Basketball Association (NBA)
championships. He was known especially
for his expert passing and for his
leadership on the court.
Early Life
Earvin Johnson, Jr., was born in Lansing,
Michigan, on August 14, 1959. As
a young boy he practiced basketball for
many hours at the playground. In high
school he earned the nickname Magic
for his skills in handling the ball. In
1977 he helped his high school team
win the state championship. Later he
played for Michigan State University. He
led the Michigan State Spartans to the
college championship in 1979.
Professional Career
That same year Johnson joined the Los
Angeles Lakers. He was the teams point
guard from 1979 to 1991. He was
named the NBAs most valuable player
six times. He also earned a gold medal as
a player on the 1992 U.S. Olympic basketball
team.
In 1991 Johnson found out that he had
HIV. HIV is the virus that causes the
disease AIDS. He left the NBA, but he
returned for the 199596 season. In
2002 he was named to the Basketball
Hall of Fame.
Beyond Basketball
In 1991 Johnson started the Magic
Johnson Foundation. The foundation
gives money to HIV/AIDS clinics in
U.S. cities. It also builds computer centers
and provides money for city chil-
Magic Johnson of the Los Angeles
Lakers makes a hook shot
during the 1992 NBA All-Star
Game.
People often
called Lyndon
Johnson by his
initials: LBJ.
His Texas
home was
called the LBJ
Ranch.
30 Johnson, Magic BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
dren to go to college. Johnson became
part owner of the Lakers in 1994.
#More to explore
Basketball
Jolliet, Louis
Louis Jolliet was a French-Canadian
explorer and mapmaker. He and Father
Jacques Marquette were the first white
men to explore the upper Mississippi
River in North America.
Louis Jolliet was born in about September
1645 in Beaupre, Canada. He went
to France to study science. After returning
to Canada, he made his living trading
furs near the Great Lakes.
In 1672 the French governor in North
America asked Jolliet and Marquette to
explore the great river west of the Great
Lakesthe Mississippi. They set out
with five other men on May 17, 1673,
in two canoes made of bark. They left
from Saint Ignace in what is now the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan. From
Lake Michigan they entered the Fox
River at Green Bay. They portaged, or
carried their canoes and supplies, from
the Fox to theWisconsin River. Then
they continued to the Mississippi.
In July Jolliet and Marquette reached the
mouth of the Arkansas River in what is
now Arkansas. The Quapaw people
there told them that the river flowed
into the Gulf of Mexico. The explorers
had hoped that the river would take
them all the way to the Pacific Ocean.
Jolliet and Marquette turned back and
returned by way of the Illinois River.
They became the first white men to visit
what is now Illinois.
Jolliet later explored Hudson Bay and
some Canadian rivers. He died in the
summer of 1700 near Quebec, Canada.
#More to explore
Marquette, Jacques Mississippi River
Jones, John Paul
John Paul Jones was a hero of the colonial
navy during the American Revolution.
He defeated a British ship in one
of the most famous sea battles in history.
Early Life
John Paul Jones was originally named
John Paul. He was born on July 6, 1747,
near Kirkcudbright, Scotland. At about
age 12, he began working on ships that
carried goods for trade.
Jolliet took
notes on and
drew maps of
the Mississippi
River. All were
lost when his
canoe overturned.
Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette
sometimes had to portage, or carry their
canoes, while exploring the Mississippi River.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jones, John Paul 31
Career
By 1766 Paul had sailed to places as far
away as North America and Jamaica. In
1768 a fever spread through the ship he
was on. When the ships commanders
died, Paul took charge and brought the
ship safely into port. The ships owners
quickly appointed him captain of the
ship.
In 1772 Paul bought a ship in theWest
Indies. The following year he killed a
sailor who challenged his authority. To
escape trial Paul fled to North America,
where he changed his name to John Paul
Jones.
When the American Revolution began,
the leaders of the American colonies
made Jones a senior lieutenant in the
Continental Navy. During the war Jones
and his crew destroyed and captured
many enemy ships.
In 1779 Jones fought his most famous
battlea fierce clash with the British
ship Serapis. The battle took place off
the east coast of England. The Serapis
was larger and better-armed than Joness
ship, the Bonhomme Richard. But when
the British captain called to Jones to
surrender, Jones yelled back, I have not
yet begun to fight! After a long battle,
the Serapis surrendered. However, the
Bonhomme Richard was badly damaged,
and it sank soon afterward. In 1787
Jones received a Congressional gold
medal.
Retirement and Death
After serving briefly in Russias navy,
Jones retired to Paris, France. He died
in that city on July 18, 1792. More
than 100 years later, U.S. warships
carried Joness body back to the United
States. He was reburied in a tomb at
the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis,
Maryland. His grave was made a
national shrine.
#More to explore
American Revolution Navy
John Paul Jones
John Paul Joness ship the Bonhomme Richard
is pictured in battle with the British ship
Serapis on September 23, 1779.
32 Jones, John Paul BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Jordan
The Middle Eastern nation of Jordan is
a small state with an ancient history. The
countrys full name is the Hashimite
Kingdom of Jordan. The capital and
largest city is Amman.
Geography
Jordan borders Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia,
Israel, and the Palestinian territory of
theWest Bank. The Jordan River flows
along Jordans western border to the
Dead Sea. Jordan has a short coastline
on the Gulf of Aqaba, an arm of the Red
Sea.
A fertile valley runs along the Jordan
River. East of the valley are rocky highlands.
Beyond the highlands is a desert,
which covers more than 80 percent of
Jordans land. The country is generally
dry, with hot summers and cool winters.
Plants and Animals
Banana, date palm, and citrus trees grow
in the valley. The highlands have small
trees, sagebrush, and grasslands. Few
plants grow in the desert.
The animals found in Jordan include
wild boars, hares, jackals, foxes, wildcats,
hyenas, wolves, mongooses, and gazelles.
Birds include golden eagles, vultures,
pigeons, and partridges.
People
Most of Jordans people are Arabs.
About a third of the Arabs are Palestinians
from Israel and theWest Bank.
Most of the people practice Islam. There
is also a small number of Christians.
Arabic is the main language, but many
people also speak English. About three
fourths of the people live in cities.
Economy
Unlike some other countries in the
Middle East, Jordan does not have much
petroleum (oil) or other natural
resources. The economy is based on services,
including banking, government
work, and tourism. Many tourists come
to see the biblical cities near the Jordan
River.
Manufacturing and mining are also
important. Factories produce chemicals,
cement, clothing, and food products.
The country refines petroleum and
mines potash and phosphates, which are
used to make fertilizers. Limited farming
produces tomatoes, olives, vegetables,
and citrus fruits.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jordan 33
History
People have lived in Jordan for more
than 200,000 years. Ancient Jordan was
part of the area known as Palestine.
Early kingdomsincluding Ammon,
Moab, and Edomruled from the
1200s BC.
Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Seleucids,
and the Roman Empire later controlled
the region. In the AD 600s Arab
invaders brought Islam to the area. The
Ottoman Empire ruled from the 1500s
until 1918.
In 1920 Great Britain took control of
what is now Jordan. The territory, then
called Transjordan, gained full independence
in 1946. Abdullah of the Hashimites,
a powerful Arab family, became
king.
Jordan soon became involved in conflicts
with its neighbors. In 1948 the
country of Israel was created out of part
of Palestine. Jordan joined other Arab
nations in a war against Israel. A large
number of Palestinians were forced out
of Palestine and into Jordan.
In 1967 Jordan fought another war with
Israel. Jordan lost theWest Bank and the
eastern part of Jerusalem to Israel. The
losses increased the number of Palestinians
who moved to Jordan.
Jordan began moving toward peace and
stability in the 1980s. In 1988 Jordan
gave up its claims to theWest Bank. In
1994 Jordan signed a peace treaty with
Israel. In the early 21st century Jordan
continued to work for peace in the
Middle East.
..More to explore
Amman Jordan River Middle East
Palestine
A large tomb, called the Treasury, was cut
into the sandstone cliffs in Petra, Jordan,
thousands of years ago.
Jordans Queen Rania visits with
local children.
Facts About
JORDAN
Population
(2008 estimate)
5,844,000
Area
34,495 sq mi
(89,342 sq km)
Capital
Amman
Form of
government
Constitutional
monarchy
Major cities
Amman,
Az-Zarqa#, Irbid,
Ar-Rusayfah,
Wadi Essier,
Al-!Aqabah
34 Jordan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Jordan, Michael
Michael Jordan was one of the best basketball
players of all time. He led the
Chicago Bulls to six National Basketball
Association (NBA) championships. He
was called Air Jordan because of how he
soared toward the basket for spectacular
slam dunks.
Early Life
Michael Jeffrey Jordan was born on February
17, 1963, in Brooklyn, New York.
He grew up inWilmington, North
Carolina. In 1981 he entered the University
of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill. As a freshman he scored the winning
basket in the 1982 college championship
game. Jordan was named college
basketball player of the year in 1983 and
1984. He left North Carolina after his
junior year.
Olympics
Jordan led the U.S. basketball team to a
gold medal at the 1984 Summer Olympic
games in Los Angeles, California. In
1992 he earned another gold medal at
the Summer Olympics in Barcelona,
Spain. He and the other U.S. players
were called the Dream Team.
Success with the Bulls
Jordan first played for the Bulls in the
198485 season. In 1985 he was named
Rookie of the Year.With his help the
Bulls won the NBA championship three
years in a row, from 1991 to 1993. Jordan
was named most valuable player
(MVP) of each championship series.
Jordan retired from basketball in 1993
to play professional baseball. He
returned to the Bulls in March 1995.
Again he led the team to three NBA
championships in a row, from 1996 to
1998. Jordan was the MVP of each
championship series.
WashingtonWizards and
Retirement
Jordan retired from basketball again in
1999, but in 2001 he returned to the
NBA. He played two seasons for the
WashingtonWizards.
Jordan retired for a third and final time
in 2003. His career totals included
32,292 points, 2,514 steals, 5 MVP
awards, and 10 scoring titles. He played
in 13 NBA All-Star games.
#More to explore
Basketball
Jordan helped
the Bulls win
72 games in
the 199596
season.
Michael Jordan of the Chicago
Bulls tries to slam-dunk a ball
during an NBA All-Stars competition
in 1987.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jordan, Michael 35
Jordan River
The Jordan River, in the Middle East, is
the lowest river in the world. It ends in
the Dead Sea, at a depth of 1,312 feet
(400 meters) below sea level. The river is
important to Christians, Jews, and Muslims
because of its location in an area
that is holy to all three.
The Jordan River is more than 223
miles (360 kilometers) long. It starts on
the slopes of Mount Hermon, on the
border of Lebanon and Syria. It flows
southward through northern Israel to
the Sea of Galilee. There the river drops
sharply, to 686 feet (209 meters) below
sea level.
South of the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan
divides Israel and the Israeli-occupied
West Bank on the west from Jordan on
the east. It flows through a deep, narrow
valley with steep sides. Finally it empties
into the Dead Sea.
Little rain falls in the Jordan River valley.
This makes the rivers water very
important to farmers in the region. Irrigation
systems pump water from the
Jordan River to farm fields in Jordan
and Israel.
#More to explore
Dead Sea Irrigation River
Judaism
The religion of the Jewish people is
Judaism. Judaism has more than 14 million
followers throughout the world,
more than a third of whom live in the
United States. Many other Jews live in
Israel, a country at the eastern edge of
the Mediterranean Sea.
Beliefs
Like Christianity and Islam, Judaism
teaches that there is only one God and
that God created the world. God
The distance between the
beginning and end of the
Jordan River is less than 124
miles (200 kilometers). Because
the river winds a lot, however,
its length is more than 223
miles (360 kilometers).
36 Jordan River BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
expressed what he expects of people in
the Ten Commandments and other
laws.
Jews believe that God chose them to
have a special relationship with him.
They must devote themselves to God
and love one another because God
selected them to bring knowledge of
him to the rest of the world. They
believe that, in return, God has promised
to make the Jews (Israel) a great
nation that will eventually draw other
nations together in a worldwide community
of justice and peace.
The sacred book of Judaism is the
Hebrew Bible. Particularly important to
Judaism are the first five books, which
are known as the Torah. These writings
explain and interpret Gods laws. The
Talmud is a collection of traditional
Jewish laws along with stories and comments
about those laws.
Practices
In Judaism the lives of individuals are
closely connected to the larger community.
The Jewish house of worship, called
a synagogue, also serves as a community
gathering place. Its leader is known as a
rabbi. At the heart of synagogue worship
is the public reading of the Torah.
An important time during each week is
the Sabbath. Jews observe this period of
Jewish children study the teachings of their
religion. Jews sometimes wear skullcaps
called yarmulkes.
Some Important Jewish Holidays
Holiday Meaning Date
Passover remembrance of the early Jews escape March/April
from slavery in Egypt
Purim celebration of the survival of early Jews usually in March
living under the rule of the Persians
Shavuot remembrance of the day that God gave 50 days after Passover
the Ten Commandments to Moses
Rosh Hashana Jewish new year September/October
Yom Kippur day of asking forgiveness for sins eight days after Rosh Hashana
Sukkot festival of thanksgiving September/October
Hanukkah celebration of a miracle at the Second usually in December
Temple of Jerusalem
Note: Actual dates depend on the Jewish calendar.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Judaism 37
holiness and rest from sunset on Friday
to nightfall on Saturday.
Divisions
Judaism has three main divisions. The
most traditional is Orthodox. Orthodox
Jews believe that Judaism today should
be practiced just as it was in ancient
times. In the 1800s two groups broke
away. They believed that Judaism should
adapt to new situations. Reform Jews
made the most changes. They do not
participate in all the ceremonies that are
observed by Orthodox Jews. Conservative
Jews uphold many ancient traditions
but have made some changes in
their religious practices.
History
Abraham
Judaism is thought to trace back to
about 2000 BC. A man named Abraham
is considered the founder. According to
the Torah, God told Abraham to leave
his home in Mesopotamia (now Iraq)
and take his people to Canaan (Palestine).
God promised that if Abraham
obeyed, he and his offspring would
become a great nation in this new land.
This is the first covenant, or agreement,
that God made with the Jews.
Moses
Long after the days of Abraham, a famine
caused the Israelites to move to
Egypt. They were later turned into slaves
there. After more than 400 years, the
Jews were freed from slavery under the
leadership of Moses in about the 1200s
BC. As instructed by God, Moses led the
Israelites back to Canaan. Jews believe
that God gave Moses the Ten Commandments
and promised that if the
Israelites followed these rules, he would
look after them.
Rise and Fall of Israel
Over the next several centuries, Israel
became a fairly powerful nation in the
Middle East, particularly under its first
three kingsSaul, David, and Solomon.
David conquered Jerusalem and established
it as the capital city. His son,
Solomon, built the first great Temple of
Jerusalem in the 900s BC.
In the 700s BC the Assyrian Empire captured
northern Israel. Early in the 500s
BC, Babylonians conquered southern
Israel, destroyed the Temple, and sent
some of the Jews away into slavery. This
event marked the beginning of the
Diaspora, which means scattering.
From then on, the Jewish people were
no longer together in one place.
A Jewish service takes place inside a synagogue.
38 Judaism BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Some Jews later returned to their homeland
and rebuilt the Temple. But the
region remained under the control of
one foreign power after another. The
Roman Empire took control of the area
in the 1st century BC. Jewish revolts
against the Roman Empire in the 1st
and 2nd centuries AD were unsuccessful.
During this period the Romans
destroyed the second Temple. Many
Jewish people moved away and eventually
settled in other countries.
Establishment of Modern Israel
In the late 1800s a movement called
Zionism began in Europe. It was named
for Mount Zion, a hill in Jerusalem. The
Zionists wanted to create a new Jewish
country in Palestine. In the early 1900s
many Zionists moved to Palestine to
escape harsh conditions in Europe. By
1935 the Jewish population in Palestine
was about 300,000.
This Jewish immigration increased
greatly when Adolf Hitler came to
power in Germany in the early 1930s.
Hitler and his Nazi Party hated the Jews.
First the Nazis made life hard for Jews,
and later they decided to kill them. This
crime became known as the Holocaust.
The Holocaust ended with the defeat of
Germany inWorldWar II in 1945.
Three years later the modern country of
Israel was founded as a homeland for the
Jews.
..More to explore
Abraham Bible Holocaust Israel
Jerusalem Moses Palestine
Synagogue Talmud Torah
Juneau
Population
(2000 census)
30,711; (2007
estimate)
30,690
Juneau is the capital of the U.S. state of
Alaska. It has the largest area of any U.S.
city. The city covers more than 3,000
square miles (8,000 square kilometers).
Juneau lies on the Gastineau Channel, a
narrow passage of the Pacific Ocean.
The city has no road connections with
most of the rest of Alaska. It must be
reached by air or water.
Many people in Juneau work for the
government. Tourism, fishing, forestry,
and mining are also important to the
citys economy.
The Juneau area was once a fishing
camp of the Tlingit Indians. In 1880
gold was discovered there. Gold miners
Juneau, Alaska, lies at the foot of Mount
Roberts and Mount Juneau.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Juneau 39
then founded Juneau. For many years
the city was the mining center of Alaska.
Juneaus gold mine closed in 1944.
Juneau became the capital of Alaska in
1900. In 1959 Alaska became a U.S.
state. Juneau was then the state capital.
#More to explore
Alaska
Juniper
Junipers are evergreen trees and shrubs
with fragrant wood and flavorful berries.
They belong to the cypress family. Some
junipers are called cedars, but they are
not true cedars. True cedars belong to
the pine family.
Junipers are found throughout the
northern parts of the world. They grow
well in shallow, rocky soil. The roots are
often aboveground, and they can curl
around boulders and other objects.
Junipers can grow as a low, spreading
shrub or as an upright tree. Some trees
are as tall as 60 feet (18 meters). The
bark is brownish red or gray. The leaves
are flat and look like needles. They can
be bright green, golden, silvery, or bluish
green. Juniper berries can be white, pale
green, blue, purple, or black.
Junipers grow very slowly and can live a
long time. Some junipers growing in the
western United States are estimated to
be more than 2,000 years old.
Juniper wood is used to make fence
posts, pencils, and storage chests. The
berries are used to flavor meats, sauces,
and drinks. Oil from junipers is used in
perfumes and soaps.
#More to explore
Cedar Cypress Tree
Juno
#see Hera.
Jupiter
Jupiter is one of the planets that orbit,
or travel around, the sun in the solar
system. It is the largest planet in the
solar system. In fact, it is bigger than all
the other planets put together. Jupiter is
the fifth planet from the sun. It travels
around the sun at an average distance of
about 484 million miles (780 million
kilometers).
Physical Features
Jupiter is so huge that it could contain
more than 1,000 Earths. Its diameter, or
distance through its center, is about
89,000 miles (143,000 kilometers).
Juniper berries are used to flavor foods and
drinks.
40 Juniper BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Jupiter is a kind of planet called a gas
giant. It consists almost entirely of gases,
mainly hydrogen and helium. The
planet has no solid surface.
Jupiters clouds appear in colored spots
and bright and dark stripes. These markings
show the planets weather patterns.
One of the spots is a huge storm called
the Great Red Spot. The storm is more
than twice as wide as Earth. It has lasted
hundreds of years.
Deep inside Jupiter is an area of hot,
thick liquid. The planets center may
reach temperatures of 45,000° F
(25,000° C).
A system of thin rings surrounds Jupiter.
The rings consist of tiny rocks and dust.
They are much smaller and dimmer
than the planet Saturns rings.
Orbit and Spin
Like all planets, Jupiter has two types of
motion: orbit and spin. Jupiter orbits, or
travels around, the sun very slowly. It
takes about 12 Earth years to complete
one orbit. In other words, a year on
Jupiter lasts about 12 Earth years.
Jupiter also spins rapidly about its center.
The planet takes less than 10 hours
to complete one rotation. That is how
long a day lasts on Jupiter.
Moons
More than 60 moons orbit Jupiter. Most
of them are very small. However, Jupiter
has four very large moons: Io, Europa,
Callisto, and Ganymede. Ganymede is
larger than the planet Mercury.
Observation and Exploration
People have observed Jupiter from Earth
since ancient times. Scientists sent the
first unmanned spacecraft to the planet
in the 1970s. The spacecraft, called Pioneer
10 and 11 and Voyager 1 and 2,
flew by the planet and collected information
about it.
Later the unmanned U.S. Galileo spacecraft
orbited Jupiter. In 1995 it dropped
an object called a probe toward the
planet. The probe sailed through the
upper layers of Jupiters gases and measured
their properties. It was the first
man-made object to make contact with
a gas giant.
#More to explore
Planets Solar System Space
Exploration
Jupiter, god
#see Zeus.
Though Jupiter appears solid, it is made up
mostly of gases.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Jupiter, god 41
The famous Mexican artist Frida
Kahlo was seriously injured in
a bus crash when she was 18.
(See Kahlo, Frida.)
Some kangaroos stand 6 feet
(1.8 meters) tall.
(See Kangaroo.)
U.S. president John F. Kennedy
wrote a book called Profiles in
Courage.
(See Kennedy, John F.)
People flew the first kites about
3,000 years ago.
(See Kite.)
The Koran is the holy book of
Islam.
(See Koran.)
The name of the African
American holiday Kwanzaa
comes from the African language
Swahili. It means first
fruits.
(See Kwanzaa.)
Kk
Kabul
Population
(2006 estimate)
2,536,300
Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan, a
country in central Asia. It is Afghanistans
largest city and center of economy.
The citys economy, however, was hurt
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