Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

Hibernation

Hibernation is a way that some animals

deal with the harshness of winter. They

curl up in a safe place and stay there

until winter ends. Hibernating animals

seem almost dead. They barely breathe,

and their body temperature is near the

freezing mark. In warmer weather they

return to their regular activities.

Animals that hibernate are called hibernators.

They include bats, hedgehogs,

ground squirrels, groundhogs, and marmots.

Some animals are inactive in the

winter but are not true hibernators.

How Animals Hibernate

Hibernators like dark, quiet winter

homes. Some go underground or into

Legend says

that Hiawatha

was a powerful

magician

who taught his

people how to

practice medicine

and to

write using

pictures.

A statue of Hiawatha stands in Ironwood,

Michigan.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hibernation 49

caves. They may line their hibernation

place with leaves, grass, hair, and other

materials.

Hibernators prepare for winter with

extra eating. They store fat to keep them

alive during the months when they do

not eat. The animal’s body breaks down

the fat when it needs energy. Some

hibernators collect and store food before

hibernating. At times during hibernation,

these animals arise to eat.

A hibernator’s body responds to weather

conditions. If the weather becomes too

cold, the animal needs to move around

to raise its body temperatures. An animal

that does not do this may die.

Warmer temperatures tell an animal to

come out of hibernation.

How Hibernation

Differs from Sleep

Many animals save energy in the winter

by sleeping more, but these animals are

not truly hibernating. When an animal

just sleeps, its body temperature does not

drop much. In addition, noise can wake

a sleeping animal but not a hibernator.

Bears are an example of animals that

change their activities in the winter but

are not true hibernators. They spend

most of the winter asleep, but their body

temperature barely drops. A bear will

move around if woken up. Also, females

give birth and nurse during this time.

Other Forms of Hibernation

Only certain mammals are true hibernators.

But other kinds of animals do

something similar. Many reptiles and

amphibians of mild climates become

inactive in winter. Frogs and toads rest

in holes or in mud at pond bottoms.

Snakes may crowd together in caves.

Many insects and spiders are frozen solid

during the winter.

#More to explore

Amphibian • Animal • Mammal

• Reptile

Hickory

Hickory is the name of a group of similar

trees, all belonging to the walnut

family. More than 15 different species,

or types, of hickory grow in eastern

North America. Three species grow in

eastern Asia. Some of the best-known

hickories are shagbark, shellbark, mockernut,

and pecan.

Most hickories grow to about 100 feet

(30 meters) tall. They have a long taproot,

or main root that grows downward.

Hickories have compound leaves,

A small mammal called a dormouse hibernates

in its nest.

In zoos, many

animals that

normally

hibernate stay

active during

the winter

because of

noise and

light.

50 Hickory BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

or leaves made up of several parts called

leaflets.

Hickory flowers have no petals. The

flowers grow either in spikes or in long,

thin clusters called catkins. The fruit has

a fleshy husk with a hard pit inside. The

pit contains the fruit’s seed, which is

commonly called a nut.

Many types of animals eat the nuts of

hickories. People also eat hickory nuts,

especially pecans. People grow pecan

trees for their nuts and for their lightcolored

wood. They use hickory wood

for fuel, tools, furniture, and flooring.

Hickory trees have a place in U.S. history.

Native Americans ground hickory

nuts into flour for making bread. They

also used hickory-nut oil for cooking.

Pioneers used the trees’ wood to make

ax handles, wagon wheels, and axles.

They burned hickory in their woodstoves,

both for cooking and for keeping

warm. They enjoyed the flavor of

hickory-smoked meats, just as many

people do today.

#More to explore

Nut • Tree

Hidalgo y

Costilla, Miguel

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla is known as

the Father of Mexican Independence. In

the early 1800s he led a major uprising

against Spain, which then ruled Mexico.

Early Life

Hidalgo was born on May 8, 1753, near

Guanajuato, Mexico, northwest of

The shagbark hickory grows in

the eastern half of the United

States. It grows very slowly. It

takes 200 to 300 years to grow

to 80 to 100 feet (24 to 30

meters) tall.

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel 51

Mexico City. He earned a degree in theology,

or religion. In 1778 he became a

Roman Catholic priest.

Father Hidalgo worked as a priest in the

town of Dolores. He worked to improve

the lives of the people there. He taught

them new farming techniques. He also

helped them to start pottery and brickmaking

businesses.

Fight for Independence

In 1808 France invaded Spain. The

French forced the Spanish king to step

down. These events encouraged many

poor Mexicans to begin fighting for

independence from Spain. Spanish soldiers

fought back fiercely. They

destroyed many Mexican farmlands.

Moved by the problems of his people,

Father Hidalgo joined the fight for independence.

On September 16, 1810, he

rang a church bell and called the people

to revolt against Spain. His call became

known as the Grito de Dolores (the cry

of Dolores). Thousands of Mexicans

joined Hidalgo to march against the

Spanish.

Hidalgo and his army of rebels won a

number of battles. In the end, however,

the Spanish defeated them. The Spanish

captured Hidalgo on March 21, 1811.

On July 31 they put him to death for

being a traitor.

Ten years later Mexico finally won its

independence from Spain. But Mexicans

did not forget that Hidalgo had started

it all. Mexico still celebrates its Independence

Day on September 16—the date

of Hidalgo’s cry for freedom.

#More to explore

Mexico

Hidatsa

The Hidatsa are Native Americans of

North Dakota. They have lived along

the Missouri River for hundreds of

years. Early European traders mistakenly

thought that the Hidatsa were related to

the Gros Ventre people. The traders used

the name Gros Ventre for the Hidatsa as

well. The Hidatsa are still sometimes

called the Gros Ventre of the Missouri.

The Hidatsa traditionally lived in domeshaped

homes called lodges. They built

their lodges by covering a wood frame

with dirt. The Hidatsa grew corn,

squash, and beans. They also hunted

bison (buffalo) on horseback.

Every Mexican

Independence

Day, the

Mexican president

shouts a

version of

Hidalgo’s

Grito from the

balcony of the

National

Palace.

The Hidatsa wore clothing made from bison

skins. The clothing was usually decorated

with paint.

52 Hidatsa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

By the late 1700s French and English

traders were visiting the Hidatsa. The

tribe’s villages became a major trading

center. The Hidatsa gave the Europeans

horses, animal hides, and coats and

blankets made from bison skins. In

return they received guns, knives, and

other goods.

The Europeans also brought diseases

such as smallpox and measles. In 1837

smallpox almost wiped out the Hidatsa.

The survivors came together to live in a

single village. By 1862 the Mandan and

the Arikara had joined them.

In 1870 the U.S. government set up the

Fort Berthold Reservation in what is

now North Dakota. The Hidatsa, the

Mandan, and the Arikara lived there

together. In 1934 the tribes became

known as the Three Affiliated Tribes. At

the end of the 20th century there were

about 600 Hidatsa living in the United

States.

#More to explore

Arikara • Gros Ventre • Mandan

• Native Americans

Hieroglyphics

Hieroglyphics is a writing system that

uses pictures and symbols instead of

letters and words. It is most often associated

with the ancient Egyptians. However,

other groups, including the Maya,

used similar writing systems.

Each symbol in hieroglyphic writing is

called a hieroglyph. The word hieroglyph

means “holy carving.” The Egyptians

used hieroglyphs on their temple

walls and public monuments. They

carved them in stone but also painted

them on wood and other smooth surfaces.

Hieroglyphs were used in several ways.

Some represented the objects that they

depict. For example, the word sun

would be represented by a large circle

with a smaller circle in its center. Other

hieroglyphs represented ideas that were

associated with the picture. The sign for

“sun” might serve as the sign for “day.”

Hieroglyphs could also stand for particular

sounds or groups of sounds.

Hieroglyphics developed thousands of

years ago. By 2900 BC, the Egyptians

were using hieroglyphic writing. It

remained in use for more than 3,000

years. During the AD 100s and 200s,

Hieroglyphs often decorated the tombs of

important ancient Egyptians. Queen Nefertari’s

tomb has hieroglyphs and a picture of

her playing chess.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hieroglyphics 53

many Egyptians became Christians.

Egyptian Christians used the Greek

alphabet. Slowly, people stopped using

hieroglyphics. Eventually, no one could

read hieroglyphic writing anymore.

In 1822 a French scholar rediscovered

the meaning of hieroglyphics. He did it

by studying the Rosetta Stone. Soldiers

had found the stone in 1799. The message

on it was written in both hieroglyphics

and Greek. The scholar could

read Greek, so he could figure out what

the hieroglyphs on the stone meant.

..More to explore

Egypt, Ancient •Writing

Hillary, Edmund

Edmund Hillary was a famous mountain

climber and explorer. He and Tenzing

Norgay of Nepal were the first

people to reach the top of Mount Everest,

the highest mountain on Earth.

They made their climb in 1953. Hillary

later explored Antarctica.

Edmund Percival Hillary was born in

Auckland, New Zealand, on July 20,

1919. He became interested in mountain

climbing while in his teens.

In 1953 Hillary joined a group of climbers

who planned to reach Everest’s peak.

The group left Kathmandu, Nepal, on

March 10, 1953. On May 29, Hillary

and Tenzing reached the peak.

Hillary stayed active after his historic

climb. In 1958 he led the first trip since

1912 to reach the South Pole by land. In

1967 he was among the first people to

climb Antarctica’s Mount Herschel. In

1977 he traveled by boat up the Ganges

River of India.

Hillary wrote many books about his

adventures. He returned to Nepal several

times but never climbed to the top of

Everest again. He helped build schools,

air strips, and health clinics for the

Sherpa people of Nepal. He died on

January 11, 2008, in Auckland.

..More to explore

Everest, Mount • Tenzing Norgay

Himalayas

The highest mountains on Earth are

found in the Himalayas. This great

mountain system of southern Asia

stretches for about 1,550 miles (2,500

Edmund Hillary stands in front of an airplane

that he used to explore Antarctica.

54 Hillary, Edmund BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

kilometers) from west to east. Most of

the Himalayas lie within India, Nepal,

and Bhutan. In the Sanskrit language of

India, the name Himalayas means

“abode of snow.” It refers to the vast,

year-round snowfields on the lofty

peaks.

Geography

No other mountain range on Earth

compares to the Himalayas. Nine of

Earth’s 10 highest peaks are Himalayan;

the other, K2, is in the nearby Karakoram

Range. The peak of Mount Everest,

at 29,035 feet (8,850 meters) above sea

level, is the highest point on Earth. It

lies on the border between Nepal and

Tibet. Nineteen major rivers, including

the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra,

begin in the Himalayas.

People

Few people live in the highest parts of

the Himalayas, where the climate is very

harsh. More people live on the lower

slopes and in the valleys. The people are

a mix of ethnic groups. The Sherpa, who

live to the south of Mount Everest, are

famous as guides for mountain climbers.

Economy

Most of the people of the Himalayas

support themselves by growing crops

and raising animals. Rice, corn, wheat,

millet, and sugarcane are among the

major crops. Fruit orchards in some

valleys produce apples, peaches, pears,

and cherries. The Darjeeling district of

northern India is famous for its tea.

History

Mountain climbers first turned their

attention to the Himalayas in the 1880s.

In the 1900s mountaineers climbed the

highest Himalayan peaks for the first

time. The New Zealander Edmund Hillary

and the Sherpa Tenzing Norgay

reached the summit of Mount Everest in

1953. The Himalayas challenge an

increasing number of trekkers and

climbers every year.

#More to explore

Everest, Mount

Hinduism

Hinduism is the world’s oldest major

religion. Some traditions of Hinduism

date back more than 3,000 years. Over

the centuries, however, its followers—

called Hindus—have accepted many

new ideas and combined them with the

old ones. More than 800 million people

practice Hinduism worldwide. Most of

them live in India, where Hinduism

began.

Beliefs

Hinduism has neither a founder nor a

central organization. No one has set

In Hinduism

the law of

karma says

that a person’s

actions in the

present life will

affect the

quality of the

next life.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hinduism 55

down a list of beliefs for all Hindus to

follow. But all Hindus revere the Veda,

an ancient body of sacred writings.

Hindus believe in a spiritual power

called Brahman. Brahman is the source

of all existence and is present in every

thing and every place. The human soul,

called atman, is part of the universal

Brahman. Hindus generally believe that

when someone dies, the atman is reborn

in another body. A soul may return

many times in human, animal, or even

plant form. This idea is known as reincarnation.

The cycle of rebirth continues

until one accepts that the atman and

Brahman are one. Most Hindus consider

breaking free from this cycle to be a person’s

highest purpose.

Hindus are expected to act according to

the principle of ahimsa, which means

“nonviolence.” This means that one

must never wish to harm anyone or anything.

Hindus consider many animals to

be sacred, especially the cow. Devout

Hindus eat only vegetarian food.

Hindus worship many gods. The god

Vishnu is considered the protector and

preserver of life. The god Siva represents

the forces that create life as well as those

that destroy it. The supreme goddess is

most commonly called Shakti. Like Siva,

she can be either beneficial or fierce,

depending on her form. The worship of

Vishnu, Siva, and Shakti are the three

major branches of modern Hinduism.

Brahma (not to be confused with Brahman)

is considered the creator of the

universe. In ancient times he was widely

worshipped, but his following is now

small.

Practices

In a form of worship called puja, Hindus

pray for a god to enter a home or

A shrine in a Hindu temple

honors Durga, one of the many

forms of the goddess Shakti.

Some Important Hindu Holidays

Holiday Meaning Date

Diwali festival of lights; honors Laksmi, the goddess of wealth October/November

Vasantpanchami honors Sarasvati, the goddess of learning February

Holi festival of colors; celebrates spring February/March

Dussehra celebrates the triumph of the hero Rama over September/October

the evil Ravana

Note: Actual dates depend on the Hindu lunar (moon) calendar.

56 Hinduism BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

temple and then treat the god as an honored

guest. They worship an image of

the god and offer up food, water, and

other items.

Tantrism is the search for spiritual

knowledge and for release from the cycle

of rebirth. It involves chanting sacred

sounds and words called mantras and

drawing symbols called mandalas.

Pilgrimages, or journeys to holy places,

have been common in Hinduism since

ancient times. Many pilgrimage sites lie

along the Ganges River in northern

India, which Hindus consider the holiest

of rivers.

History

In about 1500 BC people called Aryans

invaded India from what is now Iran.

The Aryans composed the oldest writings

in the Veda. They developed a religion,

called Vedism, that centered on

making animal sacrifices to the gods.

Vedism was the starting point of Hinduism.

But the influence of other peoples

and ideas over the years made Hinduism

a very different religion from Vedism.

Over time, for example, people began to

disapprove of the killing of animals as

sacrifices. From the 100s BC to the AD

300s, the older gods of Vedism were

slowly replaced by newer ones. But some

rites of Vedism have survived in modern

Hinduism.

In the 1000s Muslims invaded northern

India and Islam influenced some new

schools of Hinduism. In the late 1400s a

new religion, Sikhism, combined Hindu

and Islamic elements.

In the early 1800s Great Britain began

making India into a colony. In reaction

to foreign rule, Hinduism underwent a

revival. It helped unify Indians against

the British. Also during this period,

however, some Hindu leaders began

criticizing elements of traditional Hinduism.

The reformer Ram Mohun Roy,

for example, spoke out against the

ancient form of social organization

called the caste system. Under this system,

people were treated differently

depending on which social class they

were born into. The reformers used

someWestern ideas to make Hinduism

more modern.

The most famous Hindu leader of the

1900s was Mahatma Gandhi. He

brought the idea of ahimsa into politics.

He helped win India’s independence

from Britain using only nonviolent

methods.

Differences between Hindus and Muslims

grew after the colony of British

India was divided into the independent

Hindu children in Kolkata, India, participate

in the colorful festival of Holi. Holi is a celebration

of spring.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hinduism 57

countries of India and Pakistan in 1947.

Millions of Hindus left their homes in

Pakistan for India, and millions of Muslims

left India for Pakistan. Many Hindus

and Muslims were killed. In India

and elsewhere, violence between Hindus

and Muslims continued into the 21st

century.

#More to explore

Caste • Gandhi, Mahatma • Ganges

River • India • Pilgrimage • Sikhism

• Veda

Hinton, S.E.

S.E. Hinton is an author of popular

fiction for young adults. Her realistic

way of describing teenage life has

brought her fans worldwide. Hinton has

also published books for younger children

and adults.

Hinton’s full name is Susan Eloise Hinton.

She was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma,

on July 22, 1950. As a child she loved

reading, especially animal stories. At age

16 Hinton wrote The Outsiders, the

story of two rival high school groups. A

friend’s mother helped Hinton publish

the book. It remains Hinton’s most

famous and best-loved novel.

Hinton later wrote more novels for teenagers.

They included ThatWas Then,

This Is Now; Rumble Fish; Tex; and Taming

the Star Runner. Like The Outsiders,

these novels deal with teenagers in tough

situations. Hinton’s first four novels

were later made into movies.

In the 1990s Hinton wrote Big David,

Little David and The Puppy Sister for

younger readers. She published Hawkes

Harbor, a novel for adults, in 2004.

#More to explore

Fiction

Hip-Hop

Hip-hop is a type of music. It is also a

culture, or way of life. It includes many

types of expression—for example, rapping,

deejaying, dancing, and graffiti

painting. Fans of hip-hop culture also

wear certain styles of clothing.

Hip-hop music often has heavy beats

and electronic sounds. It may also

include other musical styles, such as jazz

or rock and roll. Rap is usually set to

hip-hop music. Rap is speech that has a

rhythm and rhymes.

Another part of hip-hop music is deejay-

S.E. Hinton ing. Deejays change the sound of

58 Hinton, S.E. BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

recorded music in various ways. They

may mix songs together or speed up or

slow down a song’s beat.

New styles of dancing developed along

with hip-hop music. Break dancing was

one of the earliest styles. Break dancing

is acrobatic. It includes such moves as

spinning on the back and springing

from the ground on the arms.

Many young people copy the clothing

styles of hip-hop stars. Some popular

hip-hop styles have been oversized

T-shirts, baggy pants, gym shoes, and

large jewelry.

The hip-hop movement began in poor,

mostly African American, parts of New

York City in the 1970s. Young African

Americans gathered at parties, where

they developed rapping, deejaying, and

break dancing.

The first rap song to become a national

hit was “Rapper’s Delight” by the Sugarhill

Gang. It came out in 1979. The

song helped to spread hip-hop culture

throughout the United States and the

rest of the world. Later hip-hop artists

included Run-D.M.C., LL Cool J, De

La Soul, Queen Latifah, Ice Cube,

Snoop Dogg, the Beastie Boys, Missy

Elliott, KanyeWest, and Sean Combs

(known as P. Diddy, or Diddy).

#More to explore

Popular Music • Rap

Hippopotamus

The hippopotamus is a huge mammal

that lives in eastern Africa. It spends

most of its time in rivers, lakes, and

swamps. The hippopotamus is related to

pigs. Its scientific name is Hippopotamus

amphibius.

Hippopotamuses have a barrel-shaped

body. They are about 11.5 feet (3.5

meters) long and weigh more than

7,000 pounds (3,200 kilograms). Their

hide is very thick. It is grayish brown

and almost hairless. Their skin releases

an oily substance that looks red in sunlight.

Scientists think that this substance

acts as sunscreen.

Hip-hop artist Kanye West performs in Los

Angeles, California.

Hippopotamuses live in and around water.

The name hippopotamus is Greek for “river

horse.”

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hippopotamus 59

Hippopotamuses spend the day resting

in shallow water. They often sleep with

just their eyes, ears, and nose above the

water. A hippopotamus can also dive

down and walk on lake and river bottoms.

It can keep its head underwater

for 5 to 10 minutes before coming up to

breathe. At night hippopotamuses go

onto land to eat grasses.

The pygmy hippopotamus is a close

relative. It is very rare. It lives only in a

small part of western Africa. Pygmy hippopotamuses

are much smaller than

other hippopotamuses. The largest

weigh about 590 pounds (270 kilograms).

They spend less time in the

water than the larger hippopotamuses.

#More to explore

Mammal • Pig

Hiroshima

The city of Hiroshima is a port on the

island of Honshu in Japan. It was the

first city ever to be struck by an atomic

bomb.

Hiroshima was founded as a castle town

in the 1500s. Beginning in the 1860s it

was a military center. On August 6,

1945, in the last days of WorldWar II,

the United States dropped the atomic

bomb. Much of Hiroshima was

destroyed. More than 70,000 people

died right away. Radiation left by the

bomb killed many more people later on.

Hiroshima was rebuilt after the bombing.

It is now a large industrial city. Factories

in the city produce steel,

automobiles, rubber, chemicals, ships,

and machinery.

The place in Hiroshima where the bomb

exploded is now a park called Peace

Memorial Park. It has a museum and

monuments to the dead. The Atomic

Bomb Dome is the ruins of one building

that was left partially standing after the

blast.

#More to explore

Bomb • Japan

Hispanic

Americans

Hispanic Americans are people living in

the United States who are descendants

of Spanish-speaking peoples. Most Hispanics

are from (or have ancestors from)

Latin America. For this reason, they are

often known as Latinos. Latin America

includes Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba,

and the countries of South and Central

People leave artwork and origami (folded

paper) objects at the Peace Memorial Park

in Hiroshima, Japan. Origami in the shape

of a crane is a symbol of peace.

Because of the

oily red

substance on a

hippopotamus’s

skin,

people used to

think that the

animal

sweated

blood.

60 Hiroshima BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

America. In addition, some Hispanics

have ancestors who are African, American

Indian, or European.

Hispanics are the largest and fastestgrowing

minority group in the United

States. But Hispanics do not always

think of themselves as a single group.

Instead, many Hispanics identify with

the country or area that they or their

ancestors are from. Today more than

half of all Hispanics are Mexican Americans.

People with roots in Puerto Rico,

Cuba, El Salvador, or the Dominican

Republic make up the next largest

groups of Hispanics.

Coming to the United States

Hispanics have moved to the United

States for different reasons. Some have

come to escape poverty and find better

job opportunities. Others have fled

political problems and wars in their

home countries. In the case of many

Mexican Americans, their ancestors

were already living in the Southwest

before it became part of the United

States.

Mexican Americans

In the 1500s Spain conquered what is

now Mexico and made it a Spanish

colony. Spain also conquered what is

now the southwestern United States.

The Spanish ruled this territory as a

part of Mexico. After the Mexican War

of 1846–48, the territory became a part

of the United States. Many of the

people there spoke Spanish. Their

descendants are Mexican Americans. So

are the many Mexicans who have

immigrated, or moved, to the United

States since then.

Puerto Ricans

The United States took over the island

of Puerto Rico after the Spanish-

AmericanWar of 1898. In 1917 Puerto

Ricans became U.S. citizens. By 1940

there were nearly 70,000 Puerto Ricans

Alberto R. Gonzales, a Mexican

American lawyer, became the

U.S. attorney general in 2005.

The attorney general is the head

of the Department of Justice.

A quinceanera is a Mexican American celebration

of the 15th birthday of a girl.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hispanic Americans 61

living in the mainland United States.

Puerto Ricans can move freely between

the mainland and the island. However,

the U.S. Census Bureau counts only

those Puerto Ricans living on the mainland

as Hispanic Americans.

Cubans

Large numbers of Cubans moved to the

United States after a new leader named

Fidel Castro took power in 1959. Many

of these immigrants were middle-class

shop owners, businesspeople, and professionals.

They were afraid that Castro

would change their way of life. The U.S.

government treated these immigrants as

refugees, or people seeking protection

from their home country’s government.

After the 1950s Cubans continued to

move to the United States.

Central Americans

From the 1970s to the 1990s a new

wave of immigrants came to the United

States from Central America. These

immigrants were from countries that

were involved in civil wars, such as

Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala.

Hundreds of thousands of people

moved to the United States (and other

nearby countries) to escape violence at

home.

Important Issues

MigrantWorkers

Migrant farmworkers are people who

move from place to place to harvest

crops. Migrant workers first came from

Mexico to work in U.S. cotton fields

after the American CivilWar (1861–

65). Hispanic migrant workers soon

became an important part of U.S. farming.

However, they usually received low

pay and suffered harsh working conditions.

In the 1960s a former migrant worker

named Cesar Chavez helped migrant

workers to form groups called labor

unions. He organized a five-year strike

by migrant grape pickers in California.

This meant that the grape pickers

refused to work until they got better

treatment. Chavez also convinced many

Americans to stop buying California

grapes.

Chavez helped to improve the lives of

many Hispanic migrant workers. However,

migrant workers today still earn

less than other U.S. workers.

English and Spanish signs mark

a street corner in the Cuban

American section of Miami,

Florida. The neighborhood is

called Little Havana because

Cuba’s capital is Havana.

62 Hispanic Americans BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Illegal Immigration

Most people who have immigrated to

the United States have done so legally.

However, more people want to move to

the United States than U.S. laws allow.

Therefore, some people enter the country

without permission. These people are

called illegal immigrants or illegal aliens.

In the early 21st century there were

probably more than 10 million such

people in the United States. More than

half were from Mexico. About one quarter

were from other Latin American

countries.

Americans disagree about whether this

illegal immigration is helpful or harmful

to the United States. Some believe that

illegal immigrants help the economy.

They do this by taking low-paying jobs

that other Americans do not want. Others

think it is unfair that the states must

pay for public services for people who

immigrated illegally. For example, states

must pay for the education of children

of illegal immigrants.

Bilingualism

Many Hispanic Americans can speak

both Spanish and English. This ability

is called bilingualism. But many new

immigrants—and their children—speak

only Spanish at first. Some Americans

think that schools should teach

Spanish-speaking children in Spanish

until they learn English. Other

Americans, however, think that schools

should teach Spanish-speaking children

in English, along with the Englishspeaking

children.

Hispanic Americans Today

By 2004 there were more than 41

million Hispanic Americans in the

United States. They made up about 14

percent of the U.S. population.

Many Hispanics are proud of their

roots. They want to pass their culture

and the Spanish language on to their

children. At the same time, Hispanics

are an important part of U.S. society as

a whole. In 2009 Sonia Sotomayor

became the first Hispanic justice of the

United States Supreme Court.

..More to explore

Castro, Fidel • Census • Central

America • Chavez, Cesar • Cuba

• MexicanWar • Mexico • Migration,

Human • Puerto Rico • Refugee • South

America • Spanish-AmericanWar

History

History is the study of the past. The

study of history helps make sense of

humankind. It also helps people understand

the things that happen today and

that may happen in the future.

People trained in history are called historians.

Historians usually choose a particular

time period or a particular group

of people to study. They may write

books and articles to help other people

understand the past. They often use

written records such as diaries, letters,

and newspaper articles to learn about

the past.

Today records are easy to get. They are

mostly written on paper or stored on

Many people

believe that

studying

history is a

way to avoid

repeating past

mistakes.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA History 63

computers. But records from long ago

may have been written on stone or

drawn on buildings. These records may

be buried in the ground, partially

destroyed, or covered in layers of paint.

Historians who study ancient time periods

must uncover these records.

Historians may also use the tools of

archaeology to study ancient times.

Archaeology is the study of the things

that ancient people made, used, and left

behind. Some people a long time ago

did not have a way to write things

down. But historians and archaeologists

still learn much about the way these

ancient people lived. They do this by

studying the tools, homes, clothing,

weapons, and other objects that the

ancient peoples used or owned.

#More to explore

Archaeology •Writing

Hitler, Adolf

Adolf Hitler ruled Germany from 1933

to 1945. He called himself Fuhrer

(Leader). Hitler believed that Germans

were born to rule over other peoples.

This led toWorldWar II. He also

believed that there was no place in society

for Jewish people. This idea led to

the Holocaust, when millions of Jews

were killed.

Early Life

Adolf Hitler was born into a German

family on April 20, 1889, in Braunau

am Inn, Austria. He grew up in Linz,

Austria. In about 1913 Hitler moved to

Munich, Germany. WhenWorldWar I

began in 1914, he joined the German

army.

An English scholar named Bede was an

early historian. In the 700s he wrote a history

of the English people up to that time.

His book is now part of history itself. A

page from the work shows what books were

like at that time.

Adolf Hitler

64 Hitler, Adolf BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

After the war Hitler joined a tiny political

group in Munich. In 1921 Hitler

took control of the group. By then it was

known as the Nazi Party. In the 1920s

he published his autobiography, Mein

Kampf, meaning “My Struggle.”

The Third Reich

By 1932 the Nazi Party was the largest

party in the Reichstag (Germany’s lawmaking

assembly). Hitler became chancellor,

or leader, of Germany in 1933. In

1934 he took complete control. He created

what he called the Third Reich, or

empire.

Hitler soon put his beliefs into practice.

Soon Jews were not allowed to own

businesses or attend certain schools.

Many were arrested and sent to concentration

camps. Hitler also strengthened

Germany’s military power.

WorldWar II and the

Holocaust

Hitler then moved to enlarge the Third

Reich. He took over neighboring countries.

When Germany invaded Poland in

September 1939, WorldWar II began.

During the war Hitler stepped up his

campaign against the Jews. The Nazis

killed many in the concentration camps.

Others died while working as slave

laborers. Eventually some 6 million Jews

died in the Holocaust.

By 1944 the war was going badly for

Hitler. Hitler killed himself on April 30,

1945, in Berlin, Germany. Germany

surrendered, and the war in Europe

ended on May 8.

#More to explore

Germany • Holocaust • Nazi Party

•WorldWar II

Hobby

A hobby is a fun activity based on a person’s

interests. Many people practice

hobbies during their time off from work

or studying. Popular hobbies include

drawing, collecting baseball cards, and

buildingWeb sites. A person with a

hobby is called a hobbyist.

Types of Hobbies

Most hobbies involve collecting, creating,

observing nature, or using special

equipment. Many people collect stamps,

coins, seashells, jewelry, or even action

figures. Creative hobbyists enjoy arts

Hobbies can

lead to

careers. A

child who likes

to collect rocks

could one day

become a

geologist.

Stamp collecting is a popular

hobby. Philately is another word

for stamp collecting.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hobby 65

and crafts—for example, painting, singing,

writing, carving, sewing, or building

models. Hobbies for people who enjoy

nature include bird-watching and gardening.

Photography, ham radio (amateur

radio), and computer programming

are hobbies that require equipment.

Many hobbies are done alone, but

people often form groups or read magazines

based on their hobby. No matter

what the hobby, there is always an

opportunity to learn from it.

History

Before the 1900s most people spent

nearly all their time working and caring

for their families. Only wealthy people

could afford to have hobbies. After the

Industrial Revolution, modern technology

and machines gave people more

spare time, so more people developed

hobbies. In the late 20th century computers

created a whole new class of hobbies.

Many people today spend their

spare time surfing the Internet and playing

video games.

Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh was a powerful leader of

Vietnam during a troubled period of

that country’s history. Ho fought to

make Vietnam a united, independent,

and Communist country. After his death

this dream came true.

Early Life

Ho Chi Minh was born on May 19,

1890, in Hoang Tru, Vietnam. His

original name was Nguyen Sinh Cung.

Vietnam was then part of French

Indochina, which was a colony of

France. As a young man, Ho worked as

a seaman and traveled widely.

Career

While living in Paris, France, Ho

became a Communist. Communism is a

political system in which the common

workers are important.

In 1930 he helped organize a Communist

party in Vietnam. The French government

did not want him in Vietnam,

so he lived in other countries. In about

1940 he began to use the name Ho Chi

Minh, which means “he who enlightens.”

In 1945, duringWorldWar II, the Japanese

took Vietnam from the French.

Then the United States defeated Japan.

Ho declared Vietnamese independence

on September 2, 1945. However, the

While he lived

in France,

Ho Chi Minh

was known as

Nguyen Ai

Quoc

(“Nguyen the

Patriot”).

Ho Chi Minh

66 Ho Chi Minh BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

French soon took back control of southern

Vietnam. Ho’s forces finally defeated

the French in 1954. But Vietnam was

then divided into two countries, North

Vietnam and South Vietnam.

Ho was president of North Vietnam. An

anti-Communist was president of South

Vietnam. Ho wanted to reunite the two

halves of Vietnam. Starting in about

1959, he supported a Communist rebellion

in South Vietnam. The South Vietnamese

fought back. This fighting

became known as the VietnamWar.

Death and Legacy

Ho Chi Minh died on September 2,

1969, while the VietnamWar was still

being fought. The Communists won

control of all of Vietnam in 1975. They

then changed the name of South Vietnam’s

capital city from Saigon to Ho

Chi Minh City.

#More to explore

Communism • Vietnam • VietnamWar

Hockey, Ice

Ice hockey is a fast-moving team sport.

It is usually played on an ice surface

called a rink. Hockey players wear ice

skates and move with great speed and

skill across the ice. Two teams of six

players compete to score the most

points, or goals. A team scores when it

moves the puck—a small, hard rubber

disk—into the opponent’s goal. Hockey

is a rough sport, with a great deal of

body contact between the players.

Playing Area and Equipment

A hockey rink is a rectangle with

rounded corners. In international

hockey the rink is 200 feet (61 meters)

long and 98.4 feet (30 meters) wide.

Professional hockey in North America is

played on a narrower rink.

Several boundary lines run across the

width of the rink. Two blue lines divide

the rink into three zones. Between the

Children who live in cold climates often learn to play ice hockey.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hockey, Ice 67

two blue lines, at the middle of the rink,

is a red center line. At each end of the

rink is a red goal line with a goal cage in

the middle. The cage is 4 feet (1.2

meters) high and 6 feet (1.8 meters)

wide. A net encloses the sides and back.

The ice surface also includes markings

for face-offs. A face-off is used to start or

restart play after it has been stopped.

The hockey stick is the players’ main

tool. Hockey sticks are made from a

variety of materials, such as wood or

aluminum. A hockey stick is a long shaft

with a flat-faced surface, called a blade,

at one end. Players use the blade to hit

the puck. The puck is 3 inches (7.6 centimeters)

across and 1 inch (2.5 centimeters)

thick.

Hockey players wear helmets and heavy

padding to protect their bodies. The

goalkeepers, or goalies, wear extra pads

and gloves. They also wear special masks

over their faces. The skates that players

wear are specially designed for hockey.

Playing the Game

A hockey game is divided into three

periods that are 20 minutes each. The

game starts with a face-off in the center

of the rink. During the face-off an official

drops the puck between two opposing

players. The players then use their sticks

to try to get control of the puck for their

team.

The team that gets the puck starts an

offensive attack. The players may handle

the puck only with their sticks. They can

move the puck themselves or pass it to

teammates. They try to get the puck to a

player who has a good shot at the opponent’s

goal. Hitting the puck into the

goal scores one point.

There are limits on how a team may

send the puck down the ice. For

example, a player may not cross the blue

line near the opponent’s goal until after

the puck crosses the line. If this happens,

the officials stop play. The game

starts again with a face-off.

The rinks for international hockey and the National Hockey League (NHL) are similar.

However, an NHL rink is narrower than an international rink.

68 Hockey, Ice BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The team that does not have the puck

tries to get it. Its players poke their stick

at the puck. They try to steal passes and

to block shots. Players often take the

puck away from an opponent by using a

hit to the body, called a check. But some

kinds of body contact are against the

rules. For example, a player cannot

check another player from behind. This

is called a penalty. Players who commit

penalties sit in a penalty box, usually for

2 minutes. During this time their team

plays one player short.

The players on a hockey team have different

positions, or roles. In general, a

team has a goalkeeper (usually called a

goalie), two defensive players, and three

forwards. The goalie tries to keep the

puck out of his team’s goal. The main

job of the defensive players is to assist

the goalie. The forwards mostly try to

score goals.

History

Ice hockey developed in Canada from

games played with sticks and a ball. The

first use of a puck was recorded in 1860.

In 1875 students at McGill University

in Montreal, Quebec, played the first

known indoor ice hockey game.

The International Ice Hockey Federation

was started in Europe in 1908. Ice

hockey became an event in the Olympic

Games in 1920.Women’s ice hockey

was added to the Olympics in 1998.

In North America the National Hockey

League (NHL) was created in 1917. The

NHL has professional teams from

Canada and the United States. At the

end of each NHL season, the league’s

best team is awarded the Stanley Cup.

#More to explore

Olympic Games • Skating

Hohokam

Culture

The Hohokam culture was one of the

first great Native American civilizations

in what is now the United States. The

Hohokam people lived in what is now

Arizona from about 300 BC to about AD

1400.

The Hohokam got most of their food

from farming. They grew corn, beans,

pumpkins, and squash. They also grew

cotton, which they wove into cloth. The

soil where they lived was dry and sandy.

Rock carvings on a cliff in Phoenix,

Arizona, show two people

hunting animals. The Hohokam

people carved these designs into

the rocks hundreds of years ago.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hohokam Culture 69

They built wide canals from the Gila

and Salt rivers to their fields so they

would have enough water for farming.

The largest Hohokam settlement is now

known as Snaketown. It is located near

Phoenix, Arizona. Early Hohokam lived

in pit houses. They made these houses

by digging a shallow pit and covering it

with a dome of wood and mud. By

about 1100 the neighboring Anasazi had

taught the Hohokam how to build

homes from bricks made of adobe (sunbaked

clay).

During the early 1400s the Hohokam

abandoned their villages. No one knows

why they left or where they went. The

people of two modern tribes—the Pima

and the Tohono O’odham—are probably

their descendants. The name

Hohokam means “those who have gone”

in the Pima language.

#More to explore

Anasazi • Native Americans • Pima

•Tohono O’odham

Holiday

#see Festival and Holiday.

Holland

#see Netherlands, The.

Holly

Hollies are shrubs and trees with green

leaves and usually red berries. They are

popular around Christmastime in

Europe and North America. Hollies are

often used to make wreaths. There are

about 400 species, or kinds, of holly.

Many of them are evergreens. Evergreens

keep their green color throughout the

year.

Hollies grow in the mild and tropical

regions of North America, South

America, and Asia. Different types of

hollies vary in height and appearance.

Some may grow to be about 50 feet (15

meters) tall. Others are dense shrubs

that are no more than 20 feet (6 meters)

in height.

Hollies generally have single leaves that

grow on both sides of the branches. The

small, greenish flowers develop into clusters

of red, yellow, or black berries. The

berries remain on the plant through

most of the winter. Holly plants are

either male or female. Usually only

females produce berries.

Snaketown

has ruins of

large ball

courts. The

Hohokam

played a

game similar

to soccer using

small rubber

balls.

American holly has prickly leaves and usually

red fruits.

70 Holiday BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People have used holly in celebrations,

decorations, and religious ceremonies for

hundreds of years. Today holly is used

mostly for decoration. The leaves of one

type, however, are used to make a tealike

beverage called mate. In addition, the

pale wood of some hollies is used to

make furniture.

Holocaust

In 1933 the Nazi Party took control of

the country of Germany. The Nazis

hated Jewish people and tried to make

life hard for them. Later, during World

War II (1939–45), they decided to kill

as many Jews as possible. Their program

became known as the Holocaust. It took

the lives of about 6 million Jewish men,

women, and children.

Jewish people were not the only ones

who died in the Holocaust. The Nazis

also killed Roma (Gypsies), homosexuals,

mentally and physically disabled

people, and anyone who dared to speak

out against them.

Anti-Semitism

Adolf Hitler was the head of the Nazi

Party. He ordered acts of anti-Semitism

(acts against Jews) as soon as he took

power in 1933. Many Jews lost their

jobs. In 1935 Jews lost their German

citizenship.

On November 9–10, 1938, crowds

burned synagogues (Jewish houses of

worship) all over Germany. They also

broke windows of shops owned by Jews.

Instead of arresting the attackers, the

Nazis arrested thousands of Jews. They

sent the Jews to concentration camps

(large prison centers). The event was

called Kristallnacht, or Night of Broken

Glass.

By the timeWorldWar II began in

1939, Jews could not attend school or

own businesses. In many areas, the Nazis

made all Jews wear badges so they would

not blend in with non-Jews. In some

cities, the Nazis forced Jews to live in

overcrowded areas called ghettos.

By late 1941, German victories inWorld

War II put most European Jews under

Nazi control. During this time the Nazis

began to kill large numbers of Jews and

other victims. Special units of soldiers

rounded up Jews, shot them, and

dumped the bodies in mass graves.

Opposition

Many Jews tried to get away from Germany

even before the killings began.

The family of the young diary writer

Anne Frank moved to The Netherlands.

Nazis required Jews to wear identifying

badges in World War II.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Holocaust 71

The Franks hid there for two years

before the Nazis caught them. Other

Jews escaped to the United States, Palestine

(now Israel), and other countries.

Some people helped Jews to hide or to

escape. RaoulWallenberg, a Swedish

man, saved 100,000 Jews in Hungary.

Oskar Schindler, a German, protected

1,200 Jews who worked for him.

Final Solution

In 1942 the Nazis planned a “final solution”

to what they called “the Jewish

question.” They decided to kill all Jews

in all areas controlled by Germany.

The Nazis built special death camps in

Poland. Some of their names were Auschwitz,

Majdanek, Treblinka, Chelmno,

Sobibor, and Belzec. At the camps, the

Nazis killed people with poison gas.

They then burned the bodies. The Nazis

kept some people alive to work as slaves.

Many of these prisoners died of starvation

or disease.

Aftermath

The Holocaust came to an end when the

Allies—the United States, France, Great

Britain, and the Soviet Union—defeated

Germany in 1945. Allied soldiers discovered

the death camps and released

the remaining prisoners.

The Allies also set up a court to try

Nazi leaders for their crimes. The

biggest trial took place in 1945–46 in

Nuremberg, Germany. After this trial,

seven Nazi leaders went to jail, and 10

were hanged.

Today many countries have Holocaust

Remembrance days to remember the

victims. Museums like the Holocaust

Memorial Museum inWashington,

D.C., educate people about what happened.

Many people hope that learning

about the Holocaust can prevent such a

terrible thing from happening again.

#More to explore

Frank, Anne • Hitler, Adolf • Judaism

• Nazi Party •WorldWar II

Hologram

A hologram is like a three-dimensional

photograph. Photographs show only

height and width. Holograms show

height, width, and depth. By moving

from side to side, a viewer can see the

front and the sides of an object shown in

a hologram. The process of making

holograms is called holography.

A typical hologram is created with a

laser. A special mirror splits light from a

laser into two beams. One beam shines

Visitors look out from the steps of a sculptural

memorial at the Majdanek concentration

camp in Poland.

72 Hologram BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

directly onto a piece of photographic

film. The other shines on the object and

reflects onto the film. The two overlapping

beams create a pattern of closely

spaced lines. The pattern recorded on

the film is the hologram.

Some types of hologram have to be

viewed with light from a laser. Other

holograms can be viewed with ordinary

light.

Holograms have many uses. People can

make holograms of things that are hard

to see normally—for example, parts

inside the human body. Then they can

study the details recorded in the hologram.

Small holograms are commonly

found on credit cards, driver’s licenses,

and paper money. The holograms make

it difficult to produce illegal copies.

#More to explore

Laser • Photography

Holy Roman

Empire

For many centuries, beginning in AD

800, the Holy Roman Empire ruled

Holography uses no camera. Instead, two beams of light from a single laser shine on a

piece of film. One of the beams reflects from the object.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Holy Roman Empire 73

over much of Europe. The lands of the

empire originally included what are

now Germany, Austria, the Czech

Republic, Switzerland, The

Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg,

eastern France, and parts of northern

and central Italy.

In its later centuries the Holy Roman

Empire lost most of its power. Nevertheless,

it lasted for more than 1,000 years,

until 1806.

Beginnings

The western part of the Roman Empire

came to an end in AD 476. The Roman

Empire continued in the east as the Byzantine

Empire. It was ruled from Constantinople,

in what is now Turkey.

In the place of the western empire rose

many tribal kingdoms. One of the tribes

was the Franks. The modern country of

France is named after the Franks. A

Frankish ruler named Charlemagne conquered

surrounding lands and became

very powerful. In 800 Pope Leo III, the

head of the Roman Catholic church,

crowned Charlemagne emperor of the

new Roman Empire.

The pope wanted a strong new empire

with close ties to the church. However,

soon after Charlemagne’s death the

empire broke apart. The western part

became known as France. The eastern

part became known as Germany. It continued

the empire.

The title of emperor did not pass automatically

from father to son. Local German

rulers elected a German king. If the

Rudolf I was Holy Roman

emperor from 1273 to 1291.

An illustration shows the crowning of

Emperor Louis I (right). Louis was the son of

Charlemagne. Many rebellions broke out

during Louis’s reign.

74 Holy Roman Empire BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

pope agreed with the choice, he crowned

the king emperor.

Saxon Emperors

By the middle of the 900s, a German

people called the Saxons ruled the

empire. The Saxon emperor Otto III,

who reigned between 983 and 1002,

made Rome his capital. For a long time

afterward, popes and emperors quarreled

over who had the right to choose religious

leaders.

Hohenstaufen Emperors

Emperors of the Hohenstaufen family

gained power in 1138. The Hohenstaufen

emperor Frederick I Barbarossa

added the word holy to the name of the

empire. This was because he wanted to

have as much respect as the pope had.

Frederick died in 1190. Not long after

that, the empire lost some of its earlier

importance.

Hapsburg Emperors

In 1273 the Hapsburg family gained

control of Germany. They soon centered

their power in Austria. Hapsburg kings

often took the title of emperor without

being crowned by the pope. The Hapsburgs

ruled the Holy Roman Empire

almost continuously from 1452 onward.

End of the Empire

In the 1500s some people broke away

from the Roman Catholic church and

formed Protestant churches. This weakened

the empire. German leaders who

became Protestant opposed the Roman

Catholic emperors.

After about 1650 the empire was only a

loose grouping of German states. In

1806 Emperor Francis II finally ended

the Holy Roman Empire. Francis continued

to rule, however, as emperor of

Austria.

#More to explore

Charlemagne • Germany • Hapsburgs

• Roman Catholicism

Holy See

#see Vatican City.

Homeopathy

Homeopathy is a form of medical care.

It is based on the idea that “like cures

like.” This means that a drug that creates

symptoms, or signs, of illness in a

Homeopathy is popular in many parts of

the world. A store in Hong Kong has

shelves full of homeopathic medicines.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Homeopathy 75

healthy person can be used to treat the

same symptoms in a sick person.

Homeopathy started with German physician

Samuel Hahnemann in 1796.

Hahnemann did an experiment on himself.

He took large doses of a drug to

treat the disease malaria. He went from

healthy to having symptoms of malaria.

This gave him the idea of “like cures

like.”

Hahnemann also thought that large

doses of medicine made an illness worse.

He believed that small doses were more

effective. This idea is also a part of

homeopathy.

Before homeopathy, doctors sometimes

treated patients with methods that were

harsh and even dangerous. For example,

they might draw a lot of blood from a

person’s body while trying to cure a

disease. Homeopathy became popular

because it was a milder form of treatment.

But today many doctors dislike

homeopathy. They prefer to look for the

cause of an illness instead of focusing on

the symptoms.

#More to explore

Drug • Medicine

Homer

Homer was a poet in ancient Greece.

Many people believe that he created the

classic stories of the Iliad and the Odyssey.

These long poems tell of historic

events and heroic deeds during and after

the TrojanWar in ancient Greece. They

have been translated into many languages.

People all over the world still

read them today.

Very little is known about Homer.

Scholars think that he lived in the 800s

or 700s BC in the region called Ionia

(now in Turkey).

Homer was a poet in the oral tradition.

This means that he traveled from place

to place and recited poems aloud. The

stories of the Iliad and the Odyssey were

probably not written down until centuries

after they were first recited.

Many scholars today also believe that

the stories were written by more than

one person. However, Homer is

traditionally given credit for these

works.

#More to explore

Greece, Ancient • Mythology • Poetry

Homeopathic

remedies are

believed to

help the body

heal itself.

Many artists made sculptures of

Homer long after his death.

However, no one knows for certain

what he looked like.

76 Homer BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Honduras

In 1502 Christopher Columbus became

the first European to see what is now the

Central American country of Honduras.

Columbus named the land Honduras,

meaning “depths,” because of the deep

waters off its coast. The capital of Honduras

is Tegucigalpa.

Geography

Honduras has a long northern coast on

the Caribbean Sea and a short southern

coast on the Pacific Ocean. It borders

Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua.

Most of the land is mountainous. In the

northeast is a swampy area called the

Mosquito Coast. Honduras’ weather is

warm year-round.

Plants and Animals

Evergreen forests of mahogany, balsa,

and Spanish cedar trees grow in the

lower mountains. Pines and oaks grow

on the higher slopes. Mangrove and

palm trees grow near the coast. Honduras’

wildlife includes crocodiles, snakes,

peccaries (piglike mammals), pumas,

and toucans.

People

Nearly 90 percent of Hondurans are

mestizos, or people with mixed Spanish

and American Indian roots. There are

smaller groups of Indians, blacks, and

whites. The main language is Spanish.

Roman Catholicism is the main religion.

Most people in Honduras live in the

west.

Economy

The economy of Honduras is based on

manufacturing and farming. Factories

make mainly food products and clothing.

Major crops include bananas and

coffee. Tourism is a growing industry.

History

American Indians, including the Maya,

lived in what is now Honduras when

Spanish colonists arrived in the early

1500s. Honduras gained independence

from Spain in 1821. It was part of a

political union called the United Provinces

of Central America until 1838,

when it became fully independent.

The Honduran military played a strong

role in the country during the 1900s. In

1982 an elected, nonmilitary government

came to power. Since then leaders

have struggled to improve Honduras’

economy.

..More to explore

Central America • Tegucigalpa

Facts About

HONDURAS

Population

(2008 estimate)

7,639,000

Area

43,433 sq mi

(112,492 sq km)

Capital

Tegucigalpa

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Tegucigalpa, San

Pedro Sula, La

Ceiba, El Progreso,

Choluteca

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Honduras 77

Hong Kong

Hong Kong is a region on the southeastern

coast of China. It juts out into the

South China Sea. Hong Kong’s deep

harbor makes it valuable for shipping.

Hong Kong covers an area of 425 square

miles (1,102 square kilometers). It is

made up of the main island called Hong

Kong, Lantau Island, the Kowloon Peninsula,

and some 200 small islands.

Hong Kong also includes a region called

the New Territories, to the north of

Kowloon Peninsula. Victoria, on Hong

Kong Island, is the center of business

and government.

Hong Kong has a mixed culture. The

people celebrate holidays of both the

East and theWest, such as the Lunar

(Chinese) New Year and Christmas.

Many people speak English as well as

Chinese.

Hong Kong’s economy is based on

banking, investment, and international

trade. Tourism and fishing are also

important to the economy. In addition,

Hong Kong is a major producer of

motion pictures.

People have been living in the region of

Hong Kong for more than 3,000 years.

In 1821 British merchants began to use

Hong Kong’s harbor. Great Britain and

China fought several wars in the mid-

1800s. Britain won those wars, and it

received control over Hong Kong for 99

years.

In 1984 Britain agreed to return Hong

Kong to China. The Chinese agreed to

make Hong Kong a special administrative

region of China. This means that

Hong Kong does not follow all the policies,

or rules, that the rest of China does.

Control of Hong Kong went back to

China in 1997.

#More to explore

China

Honiara

Honiara is the capital of the Solomon

Islands, a country in the Pacific Ocean.

The town is located on the coast of

Guadalcanal, the country’s largest

Hong Kong is home to many businesses

and banks. It is one of the world’s major

trade and financial centers.

78 Hong Kong BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

island. It sits at the mouth of the

Mataniko River.

Businesses in Honiara prepare and ship

the country’s goods for sale around the

world. These goods include timber, fish,

palm oil, and coconut products. The

town’s tourism industry began to grow

in the late 20th century.

Before World War II (1939–45)

Honiara did not exist. It developed

around the U.S. military headquarters

on Guadalcanal. Some of the fiercest

fighting between U.S. and Japanese

forces during the war took place on the

island.

Honiara became the capital of the

Solomon Islands in 1952. In the late

20th and early 21st centuries Honiara

suffered from crime and riots.

..More to explore

Solomon Islands

Honolulu

Population

(2000 census),

city, 371,657;

(2007 estimate)

375,571

Honolulu is the capital of the U.S. state

of Hawaii. The city is located on the

coast of Oahu Island.

Honolulu is Hawaii’s main port. It is

also the state’s center of business and

industry. Factories in the city make food

products, clothing, cement, and many

other goods.

Tourism is also important to Honolulu’s

economy. Many people go to the city to

enjoy its beaches and pleasant climate.

Polynesians from other Pacific islands

settled in Honolulu hundreds of years

ago. In the 1800s Honolulu became

wealthy as a supply port for the whaling

industry. The city became the capital of

Dancers in Honiara wear traditional

clothing during an outdoor

ceremony.

Waikiki is a popular tourist area in Honolulu.

It is especially known for its beach.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Honolulu 79

the kingdom of Hawaii in 1850. In the

1890s Hawaii became a territory of the

United States. Honolulu remained the

capital of Hawaii.

In 1941 Japanese forces bombed a U.S.

naval base at Pearl Harbor, just outside

Honolulu. The United States then

enteredWorldWar II. The U.S. military

built many bases on Oahu. When

Hawaii became a state in 1959 Honolulu

remained the capital.

#More to explore

Hawaii

Hoof

Hooves are hard coverings that protect

the toes of many animals. Hooves are

not feet. They are more like toenails.

Hooves allow animals to walk for long

distances on hard surfaces without damaging

their toes.

Horses, cattle, deer, pigs, sheep, camels,

and other animals have hooves. Some

animals, including horses and zebras,

have a single hoof at the bottom of each

foot. Other animals, including cattle

and rhinoceroses, have separate hooves

covering each toe.

Structure

Hooves are made of a protein called

keratin. Keratin also makes up hair, fingernails,

horns, and feathers. Even

though hooves are hard and tough, they

wear down with use. But like hair,

hooves continue to grow throughout an

animal’s life.

Hooves are not one solid piece. They

grow in layers. Dead cells make up the

hard, outer shell of the hoof. This part

of the hoof, called the hoof wall, supports

the animal’s weight. It also protects

the softer parts of the toe.

Inside the wall of the hoof is a spongy

growth called the frog. The frog acts as a

cushion.Without the frog, an animal’s

leg bones could be damaged by walking

on hard surfaces. The frog also pumps

blood through the hoof as the animal

walks.

The only part of the hoof that grows is

the area where it attaches to the toe. If

the hoof cracks or is damaged, it cannot

grow back together in the same way that

a cut heals. It must grow from the inside

out.

Hoof Protection

Working animals, especially horses, benefit

from having metal shoes attached to

the bottom of their hooves. These horseshoes

protect the hooves from cracks

Horses have one hoof at the end of each

leg. Horseshoes are nailed onto the hoof

wall to protect the hoof.

80 Hoof BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

and too much wear. People nail the

shoes onto the hoof wall. This does not

hurt the horse because the hoof wall is

dead tissue.

#More to explore

Hair • Horn • Horse • Nail and Claw

Hoover, Herbert

In 1929 Herbert Hoover became the

31st president of the United States.

Soon after his election the country sank

into the Great Depression. Hoover had

helped starving people in Europe during

WorldWar I. However, he could not

help the millions of U.S. citizens who

lost their jobs during the depression.

Early Life

Herbert Hoover was born on August 10,

1874, inWest Branch, Iowa. Herbert’s

father, Jesse Clark Hoover, was a blacksmith.

He died when Herbert was 6

years old. Herbert’s mother, Hulda

Minthorn Hoover, died three years later.

After his parents died, Herbert moved to

Newberg, Oregon, to live with his uncle

and aunt.

Career

Hoover graduated from Stanford University

in 1895 with a degree in geology.

He became a mining engineer and

worked in many countries, including

China. In 1899 Hoover married Lou

Henry. The couple had two sons.

Hoover eventually started his own engineering

firm with offices around the

world.

During and after WorldWar I (1914–

18), Hoover headed organizations that

sent food to soldiers and hungry people

in Europe. From 1921 to 1928 Hoover

served as secretary of commerce under

presidentsWarren G. Harding and

Calvin Coolidge. He supported efforts

by workers to improve their conditions.

He also supported major engineering

projects, including the construction of

the Hoover Dam.

Presidency

The Republican Party chose Hoover to

run for president in 1928. He easily

defeated the Democratic candidate,

Alfred E. Smith. When Hoover took

office, the economy was strong. In

October 1929, however, the stock market

crashed, and the worst depression in

U.S. history began.

Hoover

worked to

relieve hunger

in Europe,

Asia, and

South America

in the 1940s.

Herbert Hoover was the 31st president of

the United States.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hoover, Herbert 81

Hoover quickly asked companies not to

fire workers or cut wages. But many

people had already lost their jobs.

Hoover encouraged state and local governments

to join private charities in caring

for the new poor. He also approved a

program that lent government money to

states, banks, and companies. Hoover

refused to give money directly to citizens,

though. As the Great Depression

worsened, the public began to blame the

president.

Retirement

Hoover ran for reelection in 1932, but

the Democratic candidate, Franklin D.

Roosevelt, won. Hoover disagreed with

the way Roosevelt handled the

depression. He later helped reorganize

several government agencies. Hoover

died in New York City on October 20,

1964.

#More to explore

Great Depression • Roosevelt,

Franklin D. • United States

Hopewell

Culture

The prehistoric Native Americans of the

Hopewell culture lived in east-central

North America between about 200 BC

and AD 500. They lived mainly in what

is now southern Ohio.

The Hopewell Indians are best known

for the earth mounds they built. Like

the Indians of the Adena culture who

came before them, they built large

mounds in which they buried the bodies

of important people. They also created

earthworks in geometric shapes such as

circles, rectangles, and octagons.

The Hopewell Indians lived in villages

along rivers and streams. They built

dome-shaped houses covered with bark,

animal hides, or woven mats. They got

their food by hunting, fishing, and gathering

wild nuts, fruits, seeds, and roots.

August 10, October 29, October 20,

1874 1921 1928 1929 1932 1947–49 1964

Hoover is born

in West

Branch, Iowa.

Hoover

becomes

secretary of

commerce.

Hoover is

elected

president.

The stock

market crashes

and the Great

Depression

begins.

Hoover loses

the presidential

election to

Franklin D.

Roosevelt.

Hoover heads

a group that

reorganizes

U.S.

government

departments.

Hoover dies in

New York City.

T I M E L I N E

82 Hopewell Culture BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

They also grew crops such as corn and

possibly beans and squash.

By about AD 400 the Hopewell culture

began to decline. No one knows for sure

what happened to it. Some scientists

think that a long drought or change in

climate brought about a food shortage.

Others believe that the Hopewell Indians

began to fight each other over farmland

or that they were overwhelmed by

more warlike tribes.

#More to explore

Adena Culture • Mound Builder

• Native Americans

Hopi

The Hopi are one of the Native American

groups known as Pueblo Indians.

Many Hopi live on a reservation in

northeastern Arizona, in the United

States. This land is part of their traditional

homeland. Like the other Pueblo

Indians, the Hopi are descendants of the

Anasazi people. The Anasazi are also

known as the Cliff Dwellers.

The Hopi traditionally lived in homes

made of stone and adobe, or sun-baked

clay. Their houses had flat roofs and

were sometimes several stories high.

They were often joined together in

groups similar to modern apartment

buildings.

The Hopi grew corn, beans, squash,

melons, and other fruits and vegetables.

They also raised sheep. Hopi women

made baskets and fine pottery.

Spanish explorers arrived in Hopi lands

in 1540. In 1680 the Hopi joined other

Pueblo Indians in a revolt against the

Spanish. They drove the Spanish from

their lands for 12 years. The Spanish

reconquered the area in 1692. Later the

land was ruled by Mexico.

The United States took control of the

land in 1848. In 1882 the U.S. government

set up a reservation for the Hopi.

The Hopi reservation is surrounded by

Hopewell Indians shaped objects out of

copper.

Hopi dancers perform at a celebration

in Washington, D.C.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hopi 83

the much larger reservation of the

Navajo. This has led to disagreements

between the Hopi and the Navajo over

land. At the end of the 20th century

there were more than 10,000 Hopi living

in the United States.

#More to explore

Anasazi • Native Americans • Navajo

• Pueblo Indians

Hormone

Just about every living thing made up of

more than one cell produces hormones.

Hormones are chemicals that tell cells

and body parts to do certain things. For

example, hormones tell the body when

to grow and when to stop growing.

In humans and other animals, organs

called glands release hormones into the

blood. Together these glands make up

the endocrine system. Other organs,

such as the stomach and the small intestine,

also release hormones.

Types of Hormones

Plants produce hormones that control

their growth. Plant hormones also cause

flowers and fruit to grow.

Insects make hormones, too. One hormone

causes insects to molt, or shed

their exoskeletons. Others cause metamorphosis

(the change from baby to

adult).

Insects and many other animals release

hormones called pheromones into their

habitats. These pheromones can attract

mates, mark the location of food, or

warn other animals of danger.

The human body makes more than 20

major hormones. Growth hormone

helps to build muscles. Adrenaline, also

called epinephrine, makes the heart beat

fast during stressful times. Insulin controls

the level of sugar in the blood.

Estrogen causes girls to grow into

women. Testosterone causes boys to

grow into men.

How HormonesWork

In humans, hormones travel through the

blood to cells throughout the body.

Many different hormones may be in the

blood at one time. Each hormone can

affect only a certain type of cell. These

cells are known as target cells. A hormone

travels to its own target cells and

locks onto them. When this happens,

the hormone causes the cells to start or

to stop certain activities.

#More to explore

Blood • Cell • Endocrine System

One type of hormone controls how much a

person grows. A man who had too much

growth hormone grew to be more than 8

feet (2.4 meters) tall.

84 Hormone BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Horn

Many animals have hard structures,

called horns, growing from their heads.

Most horned animals also have hooves.

Sheep, cattle, goats, and antelope are

some of the most common horned

animals.

Structure

Horns are hollow and pointed. They are

attached to the bone of an animal’s

head. Horns are made of keratin, a type

of protein. Keratin is the same material

that makes up hooves, hair, fingernails,

and feathers. Animals may be born with

those things, but animals are not born

with horns. The horns grow as the animals

get older.

Horns grow in pairs, one on each side of

the head. Horns vary greatly in size and

shape. Bighorn sheep have large, curled

horns. Antelope have long, thin horns

that point upward. Oxen have long,

heavy horns that stick out from the sides

of their heads.

Uses

Animals use horns as weapons to protect

themselves from enemies. They also use

their horns in battles with other animals

of their kind. In some types of animals,

only the male has horns. In others, both

males and females have horns. A large

set of horns may impress mates. They

show that the animal has lived a long

time and can defend itself.

False Horns

Hornlike antlers grow from the heads of

deer, elk, and moose. Antlers are not

true horns, however. They are bone with

a velvety covering. Antlers fall off every

year. Horns never fall off.

Many lizards have bony stalks that look

like horns. Giraffes have knobby

growths made of bone covered with skin

and hair. The single horn of a rhinoceros

is actually made of hardened hairs that

are tightly bunched together.

#More to explore

Hair • Hoof • Nail and Claw

Horse

The horse is a mammal that people have

valued for thousands of years. In the

past people commonly used horses to

get from place to place and to pull heavy

loads. People still use horses in sports

and recreation. The scientific name of

the horse is Equus caballus.

Where Horses Live

Horses once roamed free over grasslands

in North America, South America,

Europe, Asia, and Africa. Today, however,

almost all horses are domesticated,

or tamed. Domesticated horses are kept

Animal horns grow in many different shapes. by people all over the world.

People make

horns into

tools, containers,

musical

instruments,

and even

traditional

medicines.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Horse 85

The only surviving type of horse that

has never been tamed is called Przewalski’s

horse. It now lives mostly in zoos.

Other horses that roam free came from

horses that were raised by people. These

horses include the mustangs of western

North America.

Physical Features and Breeds

Horses are large and very strong. A typical

domesticated horse stands 5 feet (1.5

meters) tall at the shoulder. It weighs

about 1,150 pounds (520 kilograms).

A horse’s legs are strong even though

they look very slender. A horse’s foot is

actually a single toe protected by a hard

covering called a hoof. The hoof is made

of the same material as a human toenail

or fingernail.

Over the centuries people have bred

horses to have features that they considered

useful or desirable. The breeds can

be grouped into three general types:

light horses, heavy horses, and ponies.

Light horses are used mostly for riding.

They include the Thoroughbred, a

breed that is used for racing. Heavy

horses, also called draft horses, can pull

heavy wagons. Some heavy horses weigh

more than 2,000 pounds (900 kilograms).

The smallest breeds are called

ponies. Some ponies weigh only 385

pounds (175 kilograms) or less.

Behavior

Horses eat grass. Most free-living horses

graze and wander in groups called

bands. One type of band is called a

breeding band. A breeding band usually

has one adult male, several adult

females, and their young. A bachelor

band consists of males only.

Horses have several gaits, or ways of

stepping. The fastest gait is called a gallop.

A slower gallop is called a canter.

The trot is slower than the canter. The

walk is slowest of all.

Life Cycle

About 11 months after mating, a female

horse usually gives birth to a single

Przewalski’s horse has a short mane that

stands upright.

A pony ride is a treat for a child.

86 Horse BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

young, or foal.Within a few hours after

birth, a healthy foal is on its feet. Horses

usually live between 20 and 35 years,

but some have survived past age 40.

Horses and Humans

People hunted horses until they learned

to tame them. Scientists believe that

people first tamed horses in central Asia,

probably long before 2000 BC.

Warhorses

Ancient people used horses in wars. By

about 1,600 BC people in southwestern

Asia were fighting on horseback. They

also fought in chariots, which were

wheeled vehicles pulled by horses. About

800 years later Asians brought horses to

Europe. The army of ancient Rome

included troops on horseback.

During the Middle Ages (AD 500 to

1500) warriors called knights rode heavy

horses. When warriors stopped wearing

armor, they switched to lighter and

faster horses.

Workhorses

At first horses could not pull heavy loads

without hurting themselves. Then, in

the 1100s, people started using padded

horse collars. A horse with a collar could

pull a plow. Horses also pulled railroad

cars and other vehicles. Horses were a

major source of power until the 1900s,

when machines took over the work.

Horses in Sports

Horse racing is an ancient sport. As early

as 700 BC the Olympic Games of

ancient Greece featured horse races.

Today horses race on oval tracks or

straight courses. Some courses have

obstacles that the horse must jump over.

In harness racing the horse pulls a twowheeled

vehicle with a driver.

Horses and riders also compete in jumping

or riding sports known as equestrian

events. The Olympic Games feature

equestrian events. Other sports that use

horses include polo and rodeo.

#More to explore

Hoof • Knight • Mammal • Sports

• War

Hospital

A hospital is a place where people go for

medical attention and treatment. Someone

needing help for a serious illness or

injury may go to a hospital.Women also

go to hospitals to have babies. People

may stay in a hospital for a few hours or

for many days.

The Kentucky Derby is the most important

Thoroughbred horse race in the United

States.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hospital 87

Types of Hospitals

General hospitals handle most medical

problems. Special hospitals focus on

certain diseases, such as cancer. Others

care for specific groups, such as older

people or people with mental illnesses.

Medical schools run teaching hospitals

to train doctors.

Religious and educational groups own

many hospitals in the United States and

Canada. They do not keep any money

made by the hospital. Some U.S. hospitals

are owned by companies that do try

to make money. Governments own and

run most hospitals in the rest of the

world.

Hospital Divisions

Most hospitals are divided into areas

with different purposes. The emergency

room handles sudden illnesses and injuries.

Patients with breathing problems or

bad burns go to the intensive care unit.

For surgery, patients go to an operating

room.Women having babies go to the

labor and delivery department. The

laboratory does medical tests. The pharmacy

prepares medicines.

Doctors guide the care of hospital

patients. Nurses follow doctors’ instructions

and make patients comfortable.

History

In the 400s BC Hindus in what is now

Sri Lanka created the first known hospitals.

The ancient Romans also treated

patients in hospitals. Christians later

created many hospitals in Europe. The

first medical hospital in the United

States was founded in 1751. It treated

mainly poor people.

As medicine got better, more middleclass

and wealthy people went to hospitals.

Today most people in developed

countries are born in a hospital, and

many die in one.

..More to explore

Disease, Human • Medicine • Nursing

• Surgery

Houston

Population

(2000 census),

city, 1,953,631;

(2007 estimate)

2,208,180

Houston is the largest city in the U.S.

state of Texas. It is also the fourth largest

city in the United States. The city owes

A girl greets her newborn sister in the nursery

of a hospital.

88 Houston BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

much of its growth to its large oil and

natural gas industries.

The Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in

Houston is home base for U.S. astronauts.

The center controls space flights

and does research for the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration

(NASA).

Several large oil and energy companies

have headquarters in the Houston area.

Many factories in the city process oil

into gasoline, diesel fuel, and chemicals.

Houston is the second busiest port in

the United States. Ships reach the city

from the Gulf of Mexico through a

waterway called the Houston Ship

Channel.

Health care also fuels the Houston

economy. The Texas Medical Center is

one of the largest medical centers in the

United States.

Houston was founded in 1836, the year

that Texas won its independence from

Mexico. It was named for Sam Houston,

a hero of Texas’ war for independence.

#More to explore

Texas

Huang He

The Huang He is the second longest

river in China. (The Yangtze River is the

longest.) The name Huang He means

“Yellow River” in Chinese. The river got

its name from the color of its muddy

waters. A great Chinese civilization

developed along its banks by about the

1700s BC.

The Huang He is 3,395 miles (5,464

kilometers) long. It begins in mountains

that rise from the Plateau of Tibet in

western China. There the river drops

rapidly through deep mountain gorges.

The middle course of the river is a great

loop. Much of it runs through the Loess

Plateau. This region is named for its

crumbly soil, called loess. Large amounts

of soil wash into the river.

The lower course stretches east across

the North China Plain. The river empties

into the Yellow Sea, which is a part

of the Pacific Ocean.

Floodwaters from the Huang He deposit

silt (soil particles) on the North China

Plain. Crops grow well in silty soil.

People have grown crops on the North

China Plain for thousands of years.

Since before 500 BC, people have built

earth barriers called levees to protect

villages near the Huang He from floods.

A break in a levee can cause a major

disaster. The river now has large dams

that control floods, provide electric

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Huang He 89

power, and hold back water for use in

farming.

#More to explore

China • River • Soil • Yangtze River

Hudson Bay

Hudson Bay is a large sea in northeastern

Canada. It is named for Henry Hudson,

an English explorer. Hudson

discovered the bay in 1610 while looking

for a way to sail west from Europe to

Asia.

The weather at Hudson Bay is harsh.

Snowstorms and strong winds are common

in winter. Floating sheets of ice

cover much of the bay during the coldest

months.

Most of the coast of Hudson Bay is

lined with marshes. The marshes sit on

top of permafrost, or permanently frozen

soil. Mosses, lichens, and small trees

and bushes grow along the shore. Some

pine forests grow near the shore in the

south.

Hudson Bay was once very important to

the economy of Canada. The Hudson’s

Bay Company built and operated furtrading

posts along the shore. Today the

Canadian government does not allow

much economic activity on the bay. It

wants to protect the area. Native people

who live in small villages around the bay

are allowed to fish and hunt sea mammals.

#More to explore

Canada • Hudson’s Bay Company

• Marsh

Hudson’s Bay

Company

The Hudson’s Bay Company is the oldest

company in Canada. It was started in

1670 as a fur-trading company. Today

the company runs department stores

throughout Canada.

In the 1600s both rich Europeans and

poor settlers in North America wore

clothing and hats made of fur. Explorers

The Hudson’s Bay Company had many

small buildings called stations in the Canadian

Arctic region.

90 Hudson Bay BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

in North America searched for animals

that could provide this fur.

Two French traders found many beavers

as they traveled along the coast of Hudson

Bay, in Canada.With the help of

the king of England, they formed a

company to trade beaver pelts, or skins,

for other goods.

The Hudson’s Bay Company built trading

posts along the coasts of Hudson

Bay, James Bay, and the Arctic Ocean.

The company traded with Native

Americans, who brought pelts from beavers,

foxes, bears, and wolves. In

exchange for the pelts, the company

gave the Indians such goods as weapons,

gunpowder, beads, fishhooks, axes, sewing

needles, scissors, cooking pots, and

wool blankets.

In the late 1800s the demand for beaver

pelts began to fall. The Hudson’s Bay

Company had to find new goods for

trade. By the early 1900s the Hudson’s

Bay Company had turned its trading

posts into shops. It also built department

stores in Canadian cities. By the

late 20th century the company no

longer traded in furs.

#More to explore

Canada • Fur Trade

Hughes,

Langston

The writer Langston Hughes was an

important figure of the Harlem Renaissance.

This was a period of great creativity

among African American artists.

Hughes wrote about the joys and sorrows

of ordinary blacks. He is known

especially for his poetry.

James Mercer Langston Hughes was

born on February 1, 1902, in Joplin,

Missouri. He lived in many different

places as a child. He started writing

poetry while in high school in Cleveland,

Ohio.

In 1921 Hughes entered Columbia University

in New York City. He was so

unhappy that he left school after a year.

Then he took time to explore Harlem, a

mostly black New York City neighborhood.

There he met other people interested

in writing about the experiences of

African Americans.

Hughes’s career as a writer took off in

1925. He was working as a busboy at a

hotel inWashington, D.C. He showed

his poems to U.S. poet Vachel Lindsay

while Lindsay dined at the hotel. Lind-

Langston Hughes

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hughes, Langston 91

say helped call the country’s attention to

Hughes’s work. Hughes then received a

scholarship to attend Lincoln University

in Oxford, Pennsylvania. He graduated

in 1929.

Hughes published his first book of

poetry, The Weary Blues, in 1926. His

most famous work may be Montage of a

Dream Deferred (1951). This booklength

poem describes the challenges

faced by African Americans living in

cities.

In addition to poetry, Hughes also wrote

novels, plays, essays, short stories, and

children’s books. He died in New York

City on May 22, 1967.

#More to explore

African Americans • Poetry

Huguenots

Beginning in the early 1500s, many

Christians left the Roman Catholic

church and started new churches. They

were known as Protestants. The Protestants

of France were called Huguenots.

Many Huguenots suffered cruel treatment

because of their religion.

The Huguenots were also known as

French Calvinists. This was because they

followed the teachings of the Protestant

leader John Calvin. Many Huguenots

were poor people, but others were

wealthy nobles. A few became powerful

leaders of the Protestant movement in

France.

A period of wars between Huguenots

and Catholics began in about 1560. On

the night of August 24, 1572, Roman

Catholics killed almost all the

Huguenot leaders in Paris. This was

called the Massacre of Saint

Bartholomew’s Day. Catholics killed

thousands of Protestants all over France

during this time.

In April 1598 King Henry IV gave the

Huguenots some rights. In 1685, however,

King Louis XIV took away the

Huguenots’ rights. More than 400,000

Huguenots then left France. Some went

to England. Others went to the Netherlands

or America. Protestants did not get

the same rights as Catholics in France

until the beginning of the French Revolution

in 1789.

#More to explore

Calvin, John • Protestantism

Human Origins

The study of human origins, or beginnings,

involves figuring out how and

when human beings began to exist. Sci-

After the Huguenots lost their rights in

1685, they had to meet in secret.

92 Huguenots BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

entists have many different theories

about human origins. In fact, they form

new theories about this all the time. But

scientists agree that humans developed

over many millions of years from early

ancestors that were like apes. The process

by which one type of living thing

develops into another type is called evolution.

Modern humans evolved in stages from

a series of ancestors, including several

earlier forms of humans. The bodies of

these ancestors changed over many

years. In general, their brains became

much larger. Their jaws and teeth

became smaller. Human ancestors also

began walking upright on two feet and

using tools. As this happened, the shape

of their legs, feet, hands, and other body

parts changed.

Fossils

Scientists have a fairly small amount of

evidence to use in studying human origins.

Most of this evidence comes from

fossils, or the remains of living things

preserved in the ground. The study of

The earliest forms of humans evolved from apelike animals. Modern humans evolved from

these early humans.

Neanderthal fossils were found in Israel.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Human Origins 93

fossils is called paleontology. In Africa,

Asia, and Europe scientists have found

the bones and tools of human ancestors

who lived millions of years ago. And

scientists continue to find new clues as

to how humans developed.

Apes and Humans

Humans did not evolve from apes.

Instead, modern humans and apes both

developed from the same apelike ancestor.

The ancestors of humans became

separate from the ancestors of apes

between about 8 million and 5 million

years ago. After that each group developed

on its own.

Modern humans and apes are still

closely related. In fact, most scientists

consider humans and great apes—

chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and

orangutans—to belong to the same scientific

family.

But there are a number of important

differences between humans and apes.

For this reason scientists have divided

the family into three smaller groups: the

Ponginae, Gorillini, and Hominini.

Orangutans belong to the Ponginae

group. Gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos

belong to the group called the

Gorillini tribe. Humans belong to the

Hominini tribe. The term hominin

refers to modern humans and all their

ancestors from the time they began

developing separately from those of

apes.

It took millions of years for modern humans to evolve from an apelike ancestor. Great apes

evolved separately from the same apelike ancestor.

94 Human Origins BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Hominins

Today only one species, or type, of

hominin exists—modern humans. In

the past two or more species of hominin

often lived at the same time. Scientists

do not always agree about which species

are the direct ancestors of other species.

But all hominins are closely related.

Australopithecines

Some of the earliest hominins are

known as australopithecines. There were

several different species of this group.

Fossils show that they lived in Africa

from roughly 4 million to 2.5 million

years ago. One of the most famous such

fossils is “Lucy”—a partial skeleton

found in Ethiopia. These bones are

about 3 million years old.

The australopithecines had some apelike

features. For instance, their brains were

much smaller than modern human

brains. They could also climb trees easily.

But, like humans, they walked on

two feet. Scientists know this from

studying leg, knee, foot, and pelvis fossils.

In addition, they found a set of

footprints preserved in the ground in

Tanzania.

Humans

Early forms of humans first existed

about 2 to 1.5 million years ago. All

species of humans belong to a scientific

group within the hominin tribe called

Homo. The scientific names of all

human species begin with the word

Homo, which means “man.” These early

humans had larger brains and mostly

smaller teeth and jaws than the australopithecines.

Their behavior was probably

also more like that of modern humans.

For instance, an early human species

called Homo habilis used stone tools to

butcher animals. Later human species

included Homo erectus and Homo heidel-

Australopithecine individuals left

their footprints in Tanzania

about 3.5 million years ago.

The brains of human ancestors increased in

size over time. The large, complex brains of

modern humans make them the most intelligent

animals on Earth.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Human Origins 95

bergensis. Scientists believe that these

humans used fire to cook food.

The humans called Neanderthals were

alive for part of the same time as modern

humans. The Neanderthals died out

about 28,000 years ago. They were

closely related to modern humans. But

most scientists think that these humans

were not the direct ancestors of modern

humans.

Modern humans probably developed

between 200,000 and 100,000 years

ago. The scientific name of the species

is Homo sapiens. Many scientists believe

that the first modern humans evolved

in Africa and then spread through Asia

and Europe and later the Americas.

Exactly how modern humans emerged

is a question that scientists are still

studying.

#More to explore

Ape • Evolution • Fossil • Paleontology

Human Rights

A right that all people are born with is

called a human right. Many people now

agree that there are a number of human

rights. Some of the most basic rights are

the right to live and the right to believe

what one chooses. Many people also

think that a government should protect

the human rights of all its people.

Civil Rights and Human

Rights

Governments grant civil rights in their

constitutions and laws. Human rights

are slightly different. Some people

believe that God grants human rights.

Other people believe that human rights

are a part of nature. The right to get a

driver’s license is a civil right. The freedom

to travel is a human right.

Kinds of Human Rights

People believe in many kinds of human

rights. Some kinds of rights put limits

on the power of government. Examples

of these rights include the right to

freedom, the right to equal treatment

under the law, and the right not to be

tortured.

Other kinds of rights sometimes require

governments to provide services. They

include the right to a free education, the

right to be protected from unemployment,

the right to food, and the right to

housing.

Still other rights require world cooperation.

These include the right to peace

and the right to live in a healthy environment.

Children in India carry candles to mark

International Human Rights Day.

Many Neanderthal

bones

were found in

caves. This

caused some

people to think

of Neanderthals

as “cavemen.”

96 Human Rights BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Human Rights

Through the Ages

Early Times

People in many early societies had no

rights. They had only duties that they

owed to their ruler.

The ancient Greeks and Romans were

probably the first people to think much

about rights. A Roman group called the

Stoics believed in something that they

called natural law. They said that natural

law gave some rights to everyone, even

people who were not citizens of Rome.

The Enlightenment and Afterward

The 1600s and 1700s were a time in

European history that is called the

Enlightenment. John Locke of England

was an Enlightenment thinker who

wrote that individual rights are older

than governments. Jean-Jacques Rousseau

of Switzerland argued that the purpose

of governments is to protect those

rights. Other thinkers called such rights

“the rights of man.”

The American Revolution (1775–83)

and the French Revolution of 1789 grew

out of these ideas. The U.S. Declaration

of Independence lists “Life, Liberty, and

the pursuit of Happiness” as rights that

“all men” get from God. French people

wrote the Declaration of the Rights of

Man and of the Citizen.

But even in the United States, many

people did not enjoy full human rights.

Slaves had almost no rights, and women

had limited rights. Most slaves did not

gain the basic human right of freedom

until the 1800s.Women in most countries

did not gain the same rights as men

until the 1900s.

Human Rights Since WorldWar II

AfterWorldWar II (1939–45), the

world learned that Nazi Germany had

killed millions of Jews and other civilians

(people not fighting the war). This

crime is called the Holocaust. An international

court at Nuremberg, Germany,

put Nazi leaders on trial for “crimes

against humanity.” The Holocaust convinced

many countries that it was necessary

to protect the basic rights of people

everywhere.

A number of these countries formed an

organization called the United Nations

(UN) in 1945. In 1948 the UN issued a

document called the Universal Declaration

of Human Rights. The declaration

calls for “human rights” instead of “the

rights of man” because it includes women’s

rights. The declaration has 30

articles, or sections. They mention many

different rights.

Lawyers march for human rights in the African

country of Zimbabwe.

Amnesty International

is a

group that

works to protect

human

rights. The

organization

was awarded

the Nobel

peace prize in

1977.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Human Rights 97

The Office of the United Nations High

Commissioner for Human Rights investigates

abuses of human rights throughout

the world. The office works with

several other UN groups to protect the

rights of men, women, and children

everywhere.

#More to explore

Civil Rights • Holocaust • Slavery

• United Nations •Women’s Rights

Hummingbird

A hummingbird is a small bird with a

long, slender bill. Many hummingbirds

have brightly colored, glittery feathers.

Often the males are more colorful than

the females. The birds are named for the

humming sound made by the rapid

beating of their wings.

There are about 320 kinds of hummingbird.

They live only in the Americas.

Most of them live in the warmer parts of

South America. About 12 kinds are

found regularly in the United States and

Canada.

All hummingbirds are small, and many

are tiny. The largest of these birds is only

about 8 inches (20 centimeters) long. It

is called the giant hummingbird. The

bee hummingbird is slightly longer than

2 inches (5 centimeters). It is the smallest

living bird of any kind.

Hummingbirds have long wings and

muscular bodies. They can fly forward,

sideways, straight up or down, and even

backward. Hummingbirds also hover, or

hang in one place while beating their

wings. Some small hummingbirds beat

their wings 80 times per second.

Hummingbirds feed mainly on nectar, a

sweet liquid made by flowers. The bird

hovers in front of the flower and reaches

inside with its long, curved bill. Hummingbirds

drink nectar at the rate of

about 3 to 13 licks per second.

Former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt holds a

copy of the Universal Declaration of Human

Rights. Roosevelt helped to create the declaration.

A green violet-ear hummingbird feeds on

nectar from an orchid.

98 Hummingbird BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Grains of pollen often stick to hummingbirds

while they are feeding. They

carry the pollen from flower to flower.

This helps the plant to reproduce.

#More to explore

Bird

Hun

The Huns were one of the most feared

groups of their time. They were fierce

warriors who fought skillfully with bow

and arrow on horseback. In the AD 300s

and 400s they controlled a huge empire

in Europe.

The Huns came from a place in eastern

Asia known as Mongolia. They were

animal herders who had no settled

homes. They moved westward across the

grasslands of central Asia with their animals.

The Huns arrived in southeastern

Europe in about AD 370. During the

next 70 years they conquered peoples

there and in central Europe. They

attacked both the eastern and western

parts of the Roman Empire.

For many years the Huns did not have a

central leader. The first known king to

rule the Huns was Rugila, or Rua. He

took control sometime before 432. After

he died in 434 his nephews Bleda and

Attila took over. The two shared power

until 445, when Attila killed Bleda.

Attila became one of the world’s most

famous warriors. He attacked the Byzantine

Empire and greatly damaged it. In

451 he invaded Gaul but was defeated.

During his reign Attila expanded the

Hun Empire.

After Attila died in 453 his many sons

divided up the Hun Empire. They began

fighting among themselves. Then the

people of the empire rebelled. The Huns

were defeated in 455. By the end of the

century the Huns were no longer a

united group.

#More to explore

Rome, Ancient

A painting shows Attila the Hun and his men on horseback.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hun 99

Hungary

Foreign powers controlled the central

European country of Hungary for more

than 600 years. After moving away from

a Communist form of government in

1989, Hungary drew closer to the countries

of western Europe. The capital is

Budapest.

Geography

Hungary borders Slovakia, Ukraine,

Romania, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, and

Austria. The Danube and the Tisza are

Hungary’s major rivers. Lake Balaton, in

the west, is the largest lake in central

Europe.

A low plain, called the Great Alfold,

covers the central and eastern parts of

Hungary. A smaller plain, the Little

Alfold, is in the northwest. The plains

are separated by highlands. Transdanubia

is a region of hills in the southwest.

In the northeast are the Northern

Mountains. They contain the country’s

highest point, Mount Kekes, at 3,327

feet (1,014 meters).

Hungary has a continental climate,

meaning that summers are hot and

winters are cold. The Great Alfold

contains the driest part of the country.

The southwestern highlands are the

wettest.

Plants and Animals

Over the years most of Hungary’s forests

have been cleared for farming. Today

forests cover about one fifth of the land.

Beech trees grow at the highest elevations.

Poplar and oak trees are common,

and willows grow along many riverbanks.

The building where Hungary’s government

makes laws is near the Danube River in

Budapest.

100 Hungary BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Deer and wild pigs live in the forests at

high elevations. Partridges, pheasants,

hares, and rodents are common in the

lowlands. Bream, pike, perch, and many

other kinds of fish are found in the rivers

and lakes.

People

Most of the people are ethnic Hungarians.

They are descended from the

ancient Magyars, who came from an

area near the Ural Mountains more than

a thousand years ago. There are small

groups of Roma (Gypsies), Germans,

Slovaks, Jews, and others. Because Hungary

is much smaller than it once was,

many ethnic Hungarians live in neighboring

countries.

Most of the people speak Hungarian, or

Magyar, which is the official language.

More than half of the people are Roman

Catholics. A large number of people are

not religious. The majority of Hungarians

live in cities or towns.

Economy

Services—including banking, education,

and tourism—are the main economic

activities. Manufacturing is also important.

Products manufactured in Hungary

include computers, motor vehicles,

food and beverages, machinery, and

chemicals. The country’s major mineral

resource is bauxite, which is used to

make aluminum.

Agriculture is a smaller part of the

economy. Hungary’s leading crops are

wheat, corn, sugar beets, grapes, sunflower

seeds, potatoes, and apples. Farmers

also raise cattle, sheep, pigs, and

poultry.

History

The western part of what is now Hungary

became a province of the Roman

Empire in 14 BC. Germanic and Asian

peoples lived in the eastern part. In the

AD 400s the Magyars began migrating

toward Hungary from the east. Under

their leader Arpad, they began to settle

along the middle part of the Danube

River in the late 800s and early 900s.

The Magyars’ most celebrated leader,

Stephen, was crowned king in about

1000. He spread Christianity in Hungary.

He also organized the kingdom

into a strong and independent state.

Hungary was the leading power in eastcentral

Europe in the 1100s.

Foreign Control

An invasion by the Mongols in 1241

killed half of Hungary’s population. For

most of the next six centuries, foreign

The Danube Bend is a popular resort area

along the Danube River in northern Hungary.

Tourism is an important part of the

country’s economy.

Facts About

HUNGARY

Population

(2008 estimate)

10,032,000

Area

35,919 sq mi

(93,030 sq km)

Capital

Budapest

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Budapest, Debrecen,

Miskolc,

Szeged, Pecs,

Gyor

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hungary 101

kings or foreign empires ruled Hungary.

The Turks made Hungary part of the

Ottoman Empire in the 1500s. In the

late 1600s the Hapsburg family of Austria

took control of the region.

Hungarians started a revolution against

Hapsburg rule in 1848, and a year later

Hungary declared its independence.With

Russian help, theHapsburgs regained

control. TheHapsburgs realized,

however, that their empire could not

continue withoutHungarian support. In

1867 they agreed to establish the double

monarchy of Austria-Hungary.

WorldWars and Communist Rule

Austria-Hungary was defeated inWorld

War I (1914–18). Afterward, Romania,

Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria,

Poland, and Italy all received parts of

Hungary. Hungary was left with only

the areas where the Magyars were dominant.

In an attempt to regain some of its

lost territory, Hungary cooperated with

the Germans against the Soviet Union

duringWorldWar II (1939–45). Hungary

was defeated, however, and Soviet

troops took control by April 1945.

In 1947 a Communist government

came to power in Hungary. Hungarians

rose up against the Communists in

1956, but Soviet troops crushed the

revolt. Thousands of people died, and

about 200,000 people fled the country.

Communist rule later became less harsh,

and living conditions in Hungary

improved. Soviet control also relaxed in

the late 1980s.

Recent Events

Hungary’s Communists voluntarily gave

up their power in 1989. Hungary held

free elections in 1990. The country drew

closer to western Europe. It joined the

North Atlantic Treaty Organization in

1999 and the European Union in 2004.

#More to explore

Budapest • Europe

about 1000 1526 1699 1867 1918 1947 1990

Stephen is

crowned king

of Hungary.

The Ottoman

Turks defeat the

Hungarian

army.

The Austrian

Hapsburgs take

over Hungary.

The Hapsburgs

form the

empire of

Austria-

Hungary.

Austria-

Hungary

collapses after

World War I.

Communists

take power in

Hungary.

Hungary holds

free elections.

T I M E L I N E

102 Hungary BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Huron

#see Wyandot.

Huron, Lake

Lake Huron is the second largest of the

five Great Lakes of North America. It

covers an area of 23,000 square miles

(59,570 square kilometers). French

explorers named the lake after the

Huron Indians.

Lake Huron lies along the border

between the United States and Canada.

The U.S. state of Michigan is to the

west. The Canadian province of Ontario

is to the north and east.

Water flows into Lake Huron from two

main sources. The first is Lake Superior.

Its water flows into Lake Huron through

the Saint Marys River. The second

source is Lake Michigan. The Straits of

Mackinac connect Lake Michigan with

Lake Huron. At its southern end Lake

Huron empties into Lake Erie.

Lumbering and fishing are major economic

activities in the Lake Huron

region. International shipping is also

important. Goods are shipped through

the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The seaway

links the Great Lakes with the Atlantic

Ocean.

Many resorts line Lake Huron’s shores.

Georgian Bay, in the northeastern part

of the lake, is a popular summer resort

area. Many tourists visit Georgian Bay

Islands National Park and the Thirty

Thousand Islands.

#More to explore

Great Lakes • Saint Lawrence River and

Seaway •Wyandot

Hussein, Saddam

#see Saddam Hussein.

Hydra

A hydra is a tiny animal that lives in

water. Hydras can regrow parts of their

bodies. They are named after an imaginary

creature from Greek mythology,

the nine-headed hydra. According to the

myth, this monster could grow two new

heads for each head that was cut off.

The real-life hydra is only about 1.2

inches (3 centimeters) long. It has a thin,

tubelike body with an opening at the

top. The opening is used both to eat

food and to get rid of waste. Long,

fingerlike tentacles grow around this

opening. The hydra uses its tentacles to

Lake Huron

was the first of

the Great

Lakes to be

visited by

Europeans.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hydra 103

sting and paralyze its food. It eats tiny

animals.

The hydra can reproduce in two ways. It

can release eggs, which are then fertilized

in the water. The fertilized eggs grow

into new hydras. It can also reproduce

by budding. During budding, a hydra

grows a new body that finally nips off at

its base to make a new hydra.

Hyena

Hyenas are mammals of Africa and Asia.

They look something like dogs, but they

are not related to them. There are three

species, or types, of hyena: spotted,

striped, and brown. The spotted hyena

is known for its hunting cry, which

sounds like human laughter.

Hyenas are gray, brown, or yellowish.

Some have stripes or spots. Their front

legs are longer than their hind legs. The

spotted hyena is the largest species.

Female spotted hyenas are larger than

males. Females measure about 6 feet

(1.8 meters) long and weigh 175 pounds

(80 kilograms).

Hyenas have large heads with jaws and

teeth that are strong enough to crush

bones. Their excellent senses of hearing

and smell help them to find prey.

Hyenas live on dry grasslands with few

trees. They find shelter in caves or

empty underground tunnels, or

burrows. Hyenas are most active at

night. They live alone or in packs.

Spotted hyenas may form packs of 80

or more animals. Within groups spotted

hyenas communicate using signals and

sounds.

Hyenas are often seen waiting to feed on

what is left of a zebra or gazelle after lions

are done with it. Sometimes the prey

animal was actually killed by the hyenas

and then stolen by the lions.

#More to explore

Mammal

Spotted hyenas make many sounds, including

yells, giggles, and whoops. These

sounds may travel for several miles.

A new hydra can be seen budding from an

existing one. The new hydra is a smaller

and paler version of the first one.

104 Hyena BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Iditarod is a dogsled race

that takes place in Alaska each

year.

(See Iditarod.)

The Inca Empire included about

12 million people at its peak in

the early 1500s.

(See Inca.)

There are about 1 million types

of insect. They make up about

75 percent of all animals.

(See Insect.)

German engineer Rudolf Diesel

developed the diesel engine in

about 1890.

(See Internal-Combustion Engine.)

E-mail was invented in 1971.

(See Internet.)

A human’s small intestine is

about 22 to 25 feet (6.7 to 7.6

meters) long.

(See Intestines.)

II ii

Ibis

Ibises are birds with long, slender bills

that curve downward. They are wading

birds, meaning that they typically walk

through shallow water when feeding.

They usually feed, fly, and breed in huge

groups. The ancient Egyptians believed

that one particular type of ibis was holy.

After these birds died, the Egyptians

carefully preserved them as mummies.

There are about 20 species, or types, of

ibis. They belong to a scientific family

that also includes spoonbills. As its name

suggests, a spoonbill has a beak with a

rounded tip that looks like a spoon.

Ibises are also related to herons, storks,

and flamingos.

Ibises are found in most of the world’s

warm and hot regions. They tend to live

near shallow bodies of water, including

marshes, lagoons, lakes, and bays.

Ibises are usually about 22 to 30 inches

(55 to 75 centimeters) long. Their legs,

neck, and bill are long. The tail is short.

Most ibises have white, black, or brown

feathers. However, the scarlet ibis is

bright red. The hadada ibis has greenish

feathers, and the glossy ibis has dark

brown and shiny purple feathers. In

many ibises part of the face lacks feathers

but has brightly colored skin.

An ibis uses its long bill to search the

mud for food. Ibises eat such animals as

shellfish, insects, worms, and small fish.

#More to explore

Bird • Flamingo • Heron • Mummy

• Stork

Icarus

#see Daedalus.

Ice Age

An ice age is a time when thick ice

sheets called glaciers cover huge areas of

land. An ice age may last for millions of

years and can cause big changes to

Earth’s surface. Ice ages have happened a

number of times throughout Earth’s

history.

The Latest Ice Age

The latest ice age began more than 1.8

million years ago and ended about

10,000 years ago. During this period

huge glaciers formed and spread south

from the North Pole. Several times these

glaciers partly melted so they covered

less area. At times glaciers covered all of

Canada, much of the United States, and

The white ibis lives in North and Central

America. Its pink face is bare of feathers.

106 Ibis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

most of northwestern Europe. The ice

was hundreds or even thousands of feet

thick.

The lands just south of the glaciers were

colder than they are today. The ground

near the edges of the glaciers was permanently

frozen. Nevertheless, there was a

variety of plant and animal life. Few

trees could grow, but grasses and some

flowering plants covered the land during

warmer seasons. Many large mammals,

including reindeer, musk-oxen, and

woolly mammoths, roamed the land. By

the end of the latest ice age, modern

humans were living south of the glaciers

as well.

Causes and Effects

Scientists are not sure what caused the

ice ages. Changes in Earth’s orbit

around the sun may be one cause. These

changes would have caused parts of

Earth to receive less heat from the sun at

certain times. Another possible cause is

changing amounts of dust and gases in

the air. More dust and fewer gases could

have caused Earth’s surface to cool.

Whatever its cause, the latest ice age left

lasting marks on the land. The creeping

ice carried gravel, sand, soil, clay, and

even boulders. When the ice melted,

these materials were left behind in

ridges, piles, and other formations.

Many lakes formed in places where the

ice melted.

#More to explore

Earth • Geology • Glacier • Prehistoric

Life

Iceberg

A huge chunk of ice floating in the

ocean is called an iceberg. Many icebergs

are the size of houses or large buildings.

Most of their size, however, is hidden

underwater. Icebergs can easily damage

or destroy passing ships.

Icebergs come from glaciers, or large

masses of slowly moving ice. In a process

called calving, pieces of a glacier break

off into the ocean. The pieces, or icebergs,

can drift for thousands of miles.

When they reach waters that are warm

enough, they melt.

The largest icebergs ever seen were miles

across and hundreds of feet high.

Although icebergs are extremely heavy,

they float for the same reason that an ice

cube floats in a glass of water: ice is less

dense, or lighter, than water.

#More to explore

Glacier

Ice Hockey

#see Hockey, Ice.

Only a small part of a giant iceberg shows

above the surface of the ocean.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ice Hockey 107

Iceland

The island country of Iceland is a scenic

land of volcanoes and glaciers. Though

its closest neighbor is Greenland, it is a

part of Europe. The capital is Reykjavik.

Geography

Iceland lies in the Atlantic Ocean just

south of the Arctic Circle. About 200

volcanoes dot the island. Iceland is also

known for its glaciers, or large sheets of

ice.Winters are mild and windy, and

summers are damp and cool.

Plants and Animals

Plant life covers only about one fourth

of Iceland. Bogs, moors, and sparse

grasslands are common. Animals include

foxes and reindeer. Many fish, whales,

and seals live in Iceland’s waters.

People

Nearly all the people are Icelandic,

mainly descendants of early settlers from

Norway. The main language is Icelandic.

Most people are Christians. Most of the

people live in cities and towns along the

coast.

Economy

Transportation, tourism, and technology

are vital to the economy. Fishing is also

important. Manufacturers make food

products and aluminum. Farmers raise

sheep and dairy cattle.

History

Iceland was one of the world’s first independent,

democratic republics. Its

mainly Nordic settlers formed a legislature

called the Althing in AD 930. Norway

ruled Iceland from 1262 to 1380,

when Denmark took over. Iceland

regained independence in 1944. In 1980

Iceland elected Vigdis Finnbogadottir as

the world’s first woman president.

..More to explore

Glacier • Reykjavik • Volcano

A volcano formed Crater Viti in Iceland.

Facts About

ICELAND

Population

(2008 estimate)

315,000

Area

39,741 sq mi

(102,928 sq km)

Capital

Reykjavik

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Reykjavik,

Kopavogur,

Hafnarfjordhur,

Akureyri,

Gardab.r

108 Iceland BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ice Skating

Ice skating is both a pleasant hobby and

a competitive sport. Ice skaters glide

across ice wearing skates—shoes or

boots with metal blades attached to the

bottom. People skate for fun both outdoors

and indoors. They skate on all

kinds of ice surfaces, from a small frozen

pond to a large indoor arena.

Competitive skating consists of two

sports: figure skating and speed skating.

Both are events at theWinter Olympic

Games. Figure skaters also perform in

ice shows around the world. The team

sport of ice hockey involves skating as

well. Ice hockey is played in schools, in

professional leagues, and at the Olympic

Games.

Ice Skates

There are three basic types of ice skates:

figure skates, speed skates, and hockey

skates. Figure skates are the best type of

skate for pleasure skating. A figure skate

has a tall boot that extends above the

ankle. The blade on a figure skate is

about as long as the boot. Each skate has

a toe pick, a jagged-toothed edge at the

front of the blade. Figure skaters use toe

picks to brace themselves when they leap

into the air.

Speed skates are designed for racing. A

speed skate has a long blade attached to

a low-cut boot.

A hockey skate has a shorter blade that is

curved at the ends. This design allows

hockey players to make quick turns at

high speed. A hockey boot is hardened

to protect the player’s foot. A stiff toe

box in the front provides extra protection

for the toes.

Figure Skating

Figure skating has been an Olympic

event since 1908. That was before there

were separate summer and winter Olympic

Games. Figure skating has become

one of the most popular sports in the

Winter Games.

Figure skaters perform routines that

involve jumps, spins, and dance moves.

They perform the routines to music.

Judges decide the winner in contests of

figure skating. The skaters are judged on

how well they do their routines. They

are also judged on how artistic they are.

Hockey players, figure skaters, and speed

skaters wear different types of skates.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ice Skating 109

Until the 1990s figure skaters were also

judged on figures, or patterns, that they

had to make with their skates on the ice.

This was how figure skating got its

name.

Figure skaters compete as individuals or

in male and female pairs. Ice dancing is

another event that features a man and a

woman skating together. It became a

separate Olympic event in 1976. Ice

dancing is similar to ballroom dancing.

Speed Skating

Speed skating and short-track speed

skating are racing events. Speed skating

has been an Olympic sport since 1924.

Short-track races were first held at the

1992 Olympics. Speed skaters race two

at a time around a track, but they do not

race each other. Instead, after all the

competitors have skated, the skater with

fastest time wins. Short-track racers

compete against each other. Several skaters

race around a short track in a highspeed

dash to the finish line. Teams of

four compete in short-track relay races.

History

Ice skating probably started in northern

Europe as early as 1000 BC. The first

skates were made from the bones of elk,

oxen, reindeer, and other animals. Skating

became especially popular in the

Netherlands, which has many artificial

waterways called canals. In the winter

skaters used the canals to get from place

to place. Skating on frozen ponds was

popular in England during the 1600s.

The English later introduced skating to

North America.

The first indoor skating building, called

an ice rink, opened in London, England,

in 1876. It had artificially frozen ice.

Three years later the first indoor ice rink

in the United States opened at Madison

Square Garden in New York City.

Indoor ice rinks provide a place for

people to skate even during warm

weather. They also host large ice shows

featuring well-known skaters.

#More to explore

Hockey, Ice • Olympic Games • Skating

Figure skaters perform artistic routines on

the ice.

Speed skating is a type of ice skating.

Speed skaters wear smooth, close-fitting

clothing to cut air resistance at high speed.

110 Ice Skating BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Idaho

Most of the U.S. state of Idaho lies in

the highlands of the Rocky Mountains.

The state is known for its natural beauty.

In addition to towering mountains it

features evergreen forests, high waterfalls,

and steep canyons.

There has been much confusion surrounding

the origin of the state’s name.

Many people now think that the name

was made up by a politician. Idaho is

nicknamed the Gem State. Its official

gemstone is the Idaho Star Garnet. Boise

is the capital.

Geography

Located in the northwestern United

States, Idaho is bordered by six other

states. Montana andWyoming

lie to the east, Utah and Nevada

to the south, and Oregon andWashington

to the west. The Canadian province

of British Columbia lies to the north.

The Rocky Mountains cover most of the

northern half of the state. They also run

along the state’s southeastern border. In

the southern part of the state a large

plain covers the area around the Snake

River. In the west the Snake River flows

through Hells Canyon. It is the deepest

gorge in the United States.

At 12,662 feet (3,859 meters), Borah

Peak in the Rocky Mountains is the

state’s highest point. In general, Idaho’s

climate is mild. The mountain areas are

cooler than the southern plains area.

The mountains sometimes receive large

amounts of snow.

People

The state was settled by people who

moved from the eastern United States.

Whites of European heritage still represent

more than 90 percent of Idaho’s

population. Hispanic Americans make

up more than 7 percent of the state’s

population.

Boise is the largest city in Idaho.

Located in southwestern Idaho, it is the

state’s center of business and government.

Nampa is a large city not far from

Boise. The cities of Pocatello and Idaho

Falls are located in southeastern Idaho.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Idaho 111

Economy

Tourism is a major part of Idaho’s

economy. Sun Valley is one of the

state’s many winter skiing resorts. The

Boise area is the site of high-technology

firms. These companies manufacture

computer parts and laser printers.

Idaho’s farms yield dairy products,

cattle, potatoes, and wheat. Food

processing is an important industry.

Many of Idaho’s famous potatoes are

processed into french fries and then

packaged for shipping.

History

Native Americans had lived in the area

that is now Idaho for at least 10,000

years before white explorers arrived. In

the early 1800s the largest Native

American groups in the area were the

Nez Perce and the Shoshone.

In 1805 explorers led by Meriwether

Lewis andWilliam Clark were the first

white people to explore the region. For

much of the early 1800s, fur trappers

were the main visitors. In the 1830s a

fur-trading company known as the Hudson’s

Bay Company built forts in Idaho.

The forts became stopover points on the

Oregon Trail, a famous wagon route to

the Northwest.

The discovery of gold on Orofino

Creek in northern Idaho in 1860

started a gold rush. The population

increased sharply as many miners

arrived. Soon silver and lead mining

began in the mountains.

The Idaho Territory was established in

1863. At first the territory was larger

than Texas. It included the land that is

now Idaho and Montana and all of

Wyoming except the southwestern corner.

Later in the 1860s Montana and

Wyoming were separated from it, leaving

Idaho with its present borders.

Idaho was admitted to the Union in

1890 as the 43rd state. Federal troops

were called in during the new state’s

early years to help break up a series of

mining strikes. Southern Idaho faced

problems between Mormons and other

religious groups.

During the 1900s Idaho developed its

agriculture, forestry, and manufacturing

industries. In the early 21st century one

of the issues of concern to the state was

how to protect the quality of its scenic

land.

..More to explore

Boise • Fur Trade • Lewis and Clark

Expedition • Nez Perce • Oregon Trail

• Shoshone

Idaho’s Bitterroot Mountains attract hikers

and others who enjoy the beautiful scenery.

The Bitterroots are part of the Rocky Mountain

range.

Facts About

IDAHO

Flag

Population

(2000 census),

1,293,953—

rank, 39th state;

(2008 estimate)

1,523,816—

rank, 39th state

Capital

Boise

Area

83,570 sq mi

(216,446 sq

km)—rank, 14th

state

Statehood

July 3, 1890

Motto

Esto Perpetua (It

Is Forever)

State bird

Mountain

bluebird

State flower

Syringa

112 Idaho BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Iditarod

Every March the excitement of the Iditarod

Trail Sled Dog Race grips Alaska.

The race covers about 1,100 miles

(1,770 kilometers) between the cities of

Anchorage and Nome. Each sled is

pulled by 12 to 16 dogs. The person

driving the sled is called a musher.

The course length and route vary

slightly from year to year. The race partially

follows an old dogsled mail route.

It crosses mountains and frozen rivers.

Sled teams face cold temperatures and

blowing snow. Champions have finished

the race in less than 10 days. Most

teams, however, take much more time

than that.

Most mushers are from Alaska. The race

also draws competitors from other states,

Canada, and other countries. Men and

women of all ages compete together.

Susan Butcher and Rick Swenson are

two of the most famous champions.

Sled dogs are chosen from breeds that

do well in cold weather. Common

choices include Eskimo dogs, Siberian

huskies, Samoyeds, and Alaskan Malamutes.

Mushers train the dogs from

puppyhood.

The Iditarod began in 1967 as a short

race. It started as a way to celebrate the

100th anniversary of the U.S. purchase

of Alaska. It developed into the current

race in 1973.

#More to explore

Alaska • Dog

Iguana

Iguanas are reptiles that belong to a large

family of lizards. They are often seen

sunning themselves on branches overhanging

water. If disturbed, they plunge

into the water.

Most species, or kinds, of iguana live in

the Americas. The best-known kind is

the common, or green, iguana. It is

found from Mexico south to Brazil. Two

Dogs and a musher leave Anchorage at the

start of the Iditarod race.

Two iguanas cling to branches.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Iguana 113

kinds of iguana live on the Galapagos

Islands. Most iguanas like dry habitats,

but some live in rain forests.

Most iguanas are green. Many have

unusual sawlike teeth. They also have a

scaly back and a fold of skin under the

neck. The male common iguana grows

up to 6.5 feet (2 meters) long and

weighs up to 13 pounds (6 kilograms).

The female is about half that weight.

Iguanas eat leaves, fruits, insects, small

mammals, and birds. The marine iguana

of the Galapagos Islands eats seaweed.

Iguanas are not as common in the wild

as they once were. People have built on

land where iguanas once lived. They also

hunt iguanas and capture them to sell as

pets. In rural areas some people eat iguanas.

Cats, large birds, and other animals

also eat young iguanas and iguana eggs.

#More to explore

Lizard • Reptile

Iguanodon

The second dinosaur ever to be discovered

was Iguanodon. The name Iguanodon

means “iguana tooth.” Scientists

chose this name because the teeth of

Iguanodon looked very similar to the

teeth of modern iguanas. Scientists

determined that dinosaurs were reptiles

after the discovery of Iguanodon.

When and Where

Iguanodon Lived

Iguanodon lived about 159 to 99 million

years ago. Remains of Iguanodon have

been found in Europe, Africa, Australia,

Asia, and North America.

Physical Features

Iguanodon reached a length of about 30

feet (9 meters) and stood up to 16 feet

(5 meters) tall. It weighed between 4

and 5 tons. The most distinctive feature

of Iguanodon was its front feet with five

fingers. The feet were something like

hands. The dinosaur’s back legs were

long and sturdy. The teeth of Iguanodon

were ridged inside its large cheek

pouches. A bony beak at the end of its

snout replaced the front teeth.

Behavior

Iguanodon was a plant eater. Most of the

time Iguanodon ate from plants that

grew along streams and rivers. To reach

At first scientists thought that Iguanodon rested on its hind legs with its tail on the ground.

Now scientists think that it usually stood on all four legs.

114 Iguanodon BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

leaves in trees, it stood up on its two

back legs, balancing itself with its tail.

The spiked thumb of Iguanodon remains

a mystery to scientists. It may have been

used to tear down plants, as a weapon

for self-defense, or against rival males

during the breeding season. Remains of

Iguanodon have been found in groups,

which suggests that they roamed prehistoric

Earth in herds.

#More to explore

Dinosaur

Illinois

The Illinois were a group of small

Native American tribes that shared the

same territory, language, and way of life.

The tribes included the Cahokia, the

Kaskaskia, the Michigamea, the Peoria,

and the Tamaroa.

These groups originally lived in a large

part of what is now Illinois. They also

lived in parts of what are nowWisconsin,

Missouri, Iowa, and Arkansas.

The Illinois built their villages along

rivers. Their bark-covered homes were

large enough to house many families.

The Illinois grew corn, beans, and

squash. After the planting season they

left their villages to hunt bison (buffalo)

on the prairies. They returned in late

summer to harvest their crops.

French explorers and traders came to

their lands in the 1670s. The Illinois

soon became trading partners of the

French.

The Illinois began to decline soon after

meeting the French. They suffered from

diseases that the Europeans carried with

them. The Illinois also fought with several

neighboring tribes. In 1769 an Illinois

killed Pontiac, a chief of the Ottawa

people. This brought more attacks. The

Illinois lost both land and people. In

1832 most of the remaining Illinois

moved to what is now Kansas.

In the 1860s the U.S. government

moved the Illinois from Kansas to a reservation

in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma).

They became known as the

Peoria Tribe of Oklahoma. At the end of

the 20th century there were about 1,400

Peoria living in the United States.

#More to explore

Native Americans • Pontiac

A member of the Peoria Tribe of

Oklahoma poses for a photographer

during the 1880s.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Illinois 115

Illinois

The state of Illinois lies in the

Midwestern heartland of the

United States. It presents a striking contrast

between city and small-town life.

Illinois is generally thought of in two

parts—Chicago and the rest of the state.

Chicago is the country’s third largest

city. The city and its surrounding counties

have a population of more than 8

million. Because Chicago is in the

northern part of the state, the rest of the

state is often referred to as Downstate. It

consists of a mix of cities, farmland, and

small towns. The Downstate population

is about 4 million. Springfield is the

state capital.

Illinois was named for the Illinois Indians.

The state is popularly called the

Land of Lincoln. Illinois was where

Abraham Lincoln became a lawyer,

entered politics, married, served as a

congressman, and was nominated for

the U.S. presidency in 1860.

Geography

Wisconsin borders Illinois on the north.

To the west the Mississippi River separates

Illinois from Iowa and Missouri.

On the south the Ohio River forms the

boundary with Kentucky. To the east is

Indiana, with theWabash River forming

part of the boundary. The northeastern

part of the state stretches along Lake

Michigan for 63 miles (101 kilometers).

Illinois was called the Prairie State by its

early explorers because of its vast grasslands.

It is one of the most level states,

with an average elevation of about 600

feet (180 meters). Gradually sloping hills

and shallow river valleys cover most of

the state. The Ozark Mountains extend

into Illinois from Missouri in the southwest

corner. Another area of low plateaus

enters Illinois from Indiana and

Kentucky in the southeast. Illinois has

warm summers and cold, sometimes

snowy, winters.

People

Whites of European heritage make up

the majority of the state’s population.

African Americans represent about 15

percent of Illinois’s population. Hispanics

make up 12 percent of the state’s

people.

116 Illinois BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Chicago is the leading metropolitan area

of the Midwest. It is a center of finance,

industry, and culture. Because of its

location in the middle part of the country,

it is also a center for air and rail

travel. Several suburbs of Chicago,

including Aurora, Naperville, and Joliet,

are also among Illinois’s largest cities.

About one fifth of the state’s people live

in rural areas.

The main institutions of higher education

are the University of Chicago;

Northwestern University, in Evanston;

and the University of Illinois, with campuses

in Urbana-Champaign, Chicago,

and Springfield.

Economy

The economy of Illinois is diverse. The

state is strong in finance, services, trade,

manufacturing, government, transportation,

and agriculture.

Illinois is a leading manufacturer of

machinery. It also ranks among the top

states in the manufacture of food products,

fabricated metal products, and

chemicals. The state is also a leader in

printing, publishing, broadcasting, and

telecommunications.

Illinois has ranked among the chief

farming states since about 1850. The

most valuable crops are corn and soybeans.

More than one fifth of Illinois’s

farm production comes from the sale of

livestock, especially hogs and cattle, and

livestock products.

The city of Chicago accounts for a large

share of Illinois’s population and economy.

Cornfields and other farmland cover large areas of the state of Illinois. Corn and soybeans

are the state’s leading crops.

Facts About

ILLINOIS

Flag

Population

(2000 census),

12,419,293—

rank, 5th state;

(2008 estimate)

12,901,563—

rank, 5th state

Capital

Springfield

Area

57,914 sq mi

(149,998 sq

km)—rank, 25th

state

Statehood

December 3,

1818

Motto

State Sovereignty,

National Union

State bird

Cardinal

State flower

Violet

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Illinois 117

History

Native American settlement in Illinois

dates from about 8000 BC. Beginning in

about AD 800 Indians known as the

Mississippian people lived in the region.

They left behind thousands of earth

mounds that they had built up from the

prairie. The largest of these is Monks

Mound, in Cahokia in southwestern

Illinois. A number of Native American

peoples lived in the area when Europeans

arrived.

The French explorers Louis Jolliet and

Jacques Marquette entered the region in

1673. Illinois was controlled by the

French until 1763, when it passed to the

British. In 1778 George Rogers Clark

claimed the region for the United States.

The first settlement on the site of Chicago

was made in 1779 by black pioneer

Jean-Baptist-Point du Sable.

Illinois was officially given over to the

United States in 1783, at the end of the

American Revolution. It became the

21st state on December 3, 1818. Some

250,000 Illinoisans fought for the

Union during the American CivilWar.

In 1871 fire swept through Chicago,

destroying a third of the city. However,

the fire proved only a temporary

setback in the city’s rapid growth.

Many people moved there to help

rebuild the city. The workers were not

always treated well. Soon they began to

ask for better working conditions. By

the end of the 1800s Illinois was a

main focus of the labor movement.

Chicago was the site of several violent

confrontations between workers and

police. The two most famous events

were the Haymarket Square Riot of

1886 and the Pullman Strike of 1894.

In spite of this, Chicago and the rest of

Illinois underwent tremendous

economic and cultural growth.

The two parts of the state did not always

grow equally, however. The interests of

the big city and the small towns were

not always the same. This is reflected in

the state’s politics. Since the CivilWar,

the Republican and Democratic parties

have competed for power in Illinois.

Chicago is strongly Democratic. Much

of the rest of the state is Republican.

Most of Chicago’s suburbs are Republican

as well.

#More to explore

American CivilWar • Chicago • Du

Sable, Jean-Baptist-Point • Illinois,

People • Jolliet, Louis • Labor • Lincoln,

Abraham • Marquette, Jacques

• Springfield

The Lincoln Home National Historic Site is

located in Springfield, Illinois. It features the

house that Abraham Lincoln lived in for 17

years before he became president of the

United States.

118 Illinois BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Immigration

#see Migration, Human.

Immune System

Most living things try to protect themselves

from harm. Animals have a special

protection called the immune system.

The immune system protects the body

from substances called antigens. Some of

the most harmful antigens are germs like

viruses and bacteria, which cause illness.

Parts of the immune system block antigens

from entering the body. Other

parts destroy the antigens that do enter.

The protection given by the immune

system is called immunity. Humans and

some animals have two basic types of

immunity: natural and acquired.

Natural Immunity

All animals, including humans, have

natural immunity. It works against any

antigen that enters or tries to enter the

body. Skin is a part of natural immunity.

It blocks many things from entering the

body. Mucus in the nose also blocks

antigens. In addition, most animals produce

special chemicals and cells that

attack antigens inside the body.

Acquired Immunity

Only human beings and other animals

with backbones have acquired immunity.

With this kind of immunity, certain

cells in the body can “remember”

the types of antigens they have attacked

in the past. This “memory” allows the

acquired immune system to attack these

antigens more strongly the next time

they enter the body.

Certain white blood cells, called lymphocytes,

are important parts of the

acquired immune system. There are two

different kinds of lymphocytes: B cells

and T cells. B cells release products

called antibodies, which attack antigens.

T cells are divided into helper cells and

killer cells. Helper T cells produce substances

that help new lymphocytes grow.

Killer T cells destroy cells in the body

that are infected by antigens.

Because of acquired immunity, people

get certain diseases, like chicken pox,

only once. Acquired immunity is also

what makes vaccines work.

The spleen is

part of the

human

immune system.

It is a

small organ

that removes

bacteria from

the blood.

Special cells that eat antigens are a part of

natural immunity. B cells that release antibodies

are a part of acquired immunity.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Immune System 119

Problems with the

Immune System

The two types of immunity normally

work together to protect the body from

harmful invaders. But sometimes the

immune system does not work properly.

It may spot and try to destroy cells that

a doctor has put into the body on purpose.

For example, the immune system

may attack a healthy kidney that has

been transplanted into a patient.

The immune system may also overreact

to antigens that are not really harmful

to the body. Allergies are an example of

this type of problem. When some

people breathe in pollen from plants or

eat certain foods, the immune system

attacks the pollen or food particles. The

attack causes sneezing, itching, or other

symptoms.

Another possible problem with the

immune system is called an autoimmune

response. This happens when

lymphocytes see normal, healthy cells as

antigens and attack them. Rheumatoid

arthritis is an example of an autoimmune

disease. In this disease, lymphocytes

attack the joints between bones.

A serious disease of the immune system

is AIDS, or acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome. It is caused by a virus that

attacks the immune system’s helper T

cells. As the T cells die, the immune

system cannot protect the body from

other dangerous infections.

#More to explore

AIDS • Allergy • Vaccine

Impeachment

Impeachment is a process by which a

government official is charged with a

crime. A legislature, or lawmaking body,

handles an impeachment.

In the United States the two houses of

Congress carry out impeachments. First,

the House of Representatives impeaches,

or brings charges against, an official.

When the House impeaches an official,

it does not mean that he or she is guilty

of a crime. It means that there is evidence

that the official may have committed

a crime.

The Senate then holds a trial and acts

as the judge. After hearing the evidence,

the senators vote on whether the official

is guilty or not guilty. Two thirds of the

senators must vote guilty for the official

to be convicted, or found guilty. If

convicted, the official must leave his or

her job.

The impeachment process is rarely used

in the United States. The only U.S.

presidents to be impeached were

Andrew Johnson, in 1868, and Bill

Fever, pain,

redness, and

swelling are

signs that the

immune system

is fighting

antigens.

When a U.S. government official is

impeached the Senate holds a trial to

decide if the official is guilty.

120 Impeachment BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Clinton, in 1998. The Senate found

both of them not guilty.

In the United Kingdom the two houses

of Parliament handle impeachments.

The House of Commons impeaches an

official, and the House of Lords serves as

the judge. Impeachment was once fairly

common in England. However, there

have been no impeachments in the

United Kingdom since 1806.

#More to explore

Clinton, Bill • Congress of the United

States • Johnson, Andrew • Legislature

Imperialism

#see Empire.

Inca

The Inca people once ruled a vast

empire in the Andes Mountains of

South America. Their capital was Cuzco,

in what is now Peru. The Inca Empire

included about 12 million people at its

peak in the early 1500s.

How the Inca Lived

The Inca grew such crops as corn,

squash, tomatoes, peanuts, and cotton.

Inca farmers were the first to grow potatoes.

They also raised guinea pigs, ducks,

alpacas, and dogs. The Inca rode animals

called llamas and also used them as work

animals.

The Inca made clothing from llama

wool and cotton. They made pottery

and musical instruments. They also

made things out of metal.

The Inca built their houses using stone

or adobe (sun-baked clay). The ruins of

the Inca city of Machu Picchu are

famous for their well-made buildings.

The Inca spoke a language called Quechua.

They had no form of writing.

However, they kept records using a complicated

system of colored knotted cords

called quipus.

History

According to the traditional belief of the

Inca, they originally came from a village

called Paqari-tampu. In the 1100s they

moved north and settled in Cuzco. In

the early 1400s the Inca began to attack

neighboring peoples and take control of

their lands.Within 100 years the Inca

Empire was at the height of its power.

The Spanish began to explore Peru in

the 1520s. By 1533 Spanish soldiers led

by Francisco Pizarro had captured

Cuzco. They brought the Inca Empire

The remains of an Incan fortress stand on a

hilltop near Cuzco, Peru.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Inca 121

under Spanish control. Today the

descendants of the Inca live in the Andes

Mountains. They make up almost half

of Peru’s population.

#More to explore

Andes • Machu Picchu • Peru

Independence

Day

Many countries celebrate the day that

they became independent. In the United

States that day is the Fourth of July,

which is also called Independence Day.

Independence Day marks the birth of

the United States as a new country. On

July 4, 1776, the leaders of the new

country signed the Declaration of Independence.

How Independence Day Is

Celebrated

Everywhere in the United States, Independence

Day is an all-day celebration.

Many people have the day off from

work. They spend time with family and

friends. They attend picnics, barbecues,

and parades during the day. At night

many Americans gather to watch fireworks.

Some also go to concerts where

patriotic music is played.

Some people wear red, white, and blue

clothes on July 4. Many people hang

U.S. flags outside their homes.

History

In the 1700s Great Britain ruled the 13

American colonies that would become

the United States. Many American colonists

were unhappy with the British government.

The colonists did not want to

pay taxes unless they had a say in the

government. They protested against

what they called “taxation without representation.”

In 1775 the colonists began to fight for

their freedom from Great Britain. In

June 1776 Thomas Jefferson wrote the

first draft of the Declaration of

Independence. He gave it to the

members of the Continental Congress,

who made a few changes. The members

then signed the new version on July 4,

1776.

The first Independence Day celebrations

included parades and political speeches.

By the late 1800s people were celebrating

the holiday in the same ways that

Americans do today. Independence Day

is now a major summer holiday.

#More to explore

Declaration of Independence • United

States

People carry a huge U.S. flag in an Independence

Day parade in Atlanta, Georgia.

122 Independence Day BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

India

More people live in India than in any

other country in the world except

China. India’s culture is one of the oldest

and richest in the world. The capital

is New Delhi.

Geography

Much of India’s territory is a peninsula

that extends into the Indian Ocean. To

the west of the peninsula is the Arabian

Sea, and to the east is the Bay of Bengal.

India shares borders with Pakistan,

China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and

Myanmar.

The high Himalayas rise in the north.

South of the mountains is a plain of soil

left behind by the Indus, Ganges, and

Brahmaputra rivers. The Indus River

gave the country its name. The Ganges

is sacred to followers of Hinduism. In

the northwest is the Thar Desert. Most

of the south is fairly flat. Along the

coasts are low mountains called the

Western and Eastern Ghats.

India’s climate is controlled by monsoons,

or winds that change direction

each season. Most of the country has

three seasons: a hot, dry spring; a hot,

wet summer; and a cool, dry winter.

Plants and Animals

Tropical evergreen forests grow in rainy

areas. In less rainy regions trees lose their

leaves during the cool, dry season. Dry

regions have thorny shrubs and grasses.

Some 100 types of palm tree also grow

in the country.

India’s wildlife includes tigers, lions,

leopards, elephants, rhinoceroses, bears,

and deer. Monkeys and cows are common

even in cities. The peacock is the

national bird. The best-known reptile is

the cobra.

People

India has a mixture of peoples who

have blended together since ancient

times. They speak many languages,

including Hindi, Bengali, Telugu,

Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati,

Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi,

and Assamese. Many Indians speak

Hindi or English as a second language.

About three fourths of Indians are

Hindus. Muslims form the next-largest

religious group. Others follow

Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism,

Jainism, or other religions.

Most Indians live in villages. Indian

cities are generally very crowded.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA India 123

Indians are divided into social groups

known as castes. People are born into

these groups, each of which has its own

traditional occupations, diet, and

customs.

Economy

Services—including computer work,

communications, transportation, and

tourism—are India’s most valuable economic

activities. Industry is also important.

Factories produce textiles,

chemicals, processed foods, iron and

steel, electronics, automobiles, and

cement. Mining provides coal, oil, iron

ore, and limestone.

Agriculture employs the most Indian

workers. Crops include grains, sugarcane,

fruits, beans, cotton, jute, tea, coffee,

rubber, and spices. India raises more

cattle and water buffalo than any other

country in the world. Because cows are

holy to Hindus, Indians often use cattle

as work animals instead of killing them

for their meat.

History

India’s history goes back to ancient

times. By about 2500 BC the Indus Valley

civilization had extended from what

is now Pakistan into northwestern India.

Between 1500 and 1200 BC tribes of

people known as Aryans invaded northwestern

India and spread eastward.

The Mauryan Empire, which lasted

from about 321 to 185 BC, united most

of what is now India. The Hindu Gupta

Dynasty ruled from about AD 320 to

540. The Guptas encouraged literature,

music, drama, painting, and sculpture.

Muslim Rule

Muslims began invading India in the

700s. In 1206 they set up a sultanate, or

kingdom, centered in Delhi. The greatest

of all theMuslim states in India was the

Mughal Empire, which defeated the

Delhi sultanate in 1526. By the late

1600s it had spread over almost all of

India.

British Rule

Meanwhile, in 1498 the Portuguese

navigator Vasco da Gama sailed to India.

The Dutch, the British, and the French

soon challenged Portugal for trade with

India. By 1849 Great Britain’s East

India Company ruled almost all of

India. After a rebellion by Indian soldiers,

the government of Britain took

direct control of India in 1858.

British rule brought peace and some

economic growth. However, many Indians

wanted their own government. In

1885 some of the people formed a

political party called the Indian National

The Clock Tower and the Golden Temple in

Amritsar, India, are important buildings of

the Sikh religion.

Facts About

INDIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

1,147,996,000

Area

1,222,559 sq mi

(3,166,414 sq

km)

Capital

New Delhi

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Greater Mumbai

(Greater Bombay),

Delhi,

Kolkata (Calcutta),

Bangalore,

Chennai

(Madras)

124 India BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Congress. In 1920 Mahatma Gandhi, a

leader of the Congress party, began urging

Indians to resist British rule. He

asked them to protest British laws peacefully,

not violently.

Independence

India won full independence in 1947.

However, some of its land was set aside

to create the Muslim country of Pakistan.

Fighting soon broke out between

India and Pakistan. After a war in 1971,

East Pakistan became the new country

of Bangladesh. India and Pakistan continued

to fight over the territory called

Kashmir into the 21st century.

Within India, ethnic and religious conflicts

led to the assassinations of two

prime ministers, Indira Gandhi in 1984

and her son Rajiv in 1991. India also

faced a growing population and widespread

poverty. Despite those problems,

the country maintained a democratic

government. It also developed nuclear

technology and a strong computer

industry. In 2004 Manmohan Singh

became the first Sikh to serve as India’s

prime minister.

#More to explore

Caste • Delhi • Gandhi, Mahatma

• Ganges River • Himalayas • Hinduism

• Indus River • Indus Valley Civilization

• Mauryan Empire • Mughal Empire

• Pakistan

about

2500 BC 321 BC 320 AD 1526 1858 1947 1984

The Indus

Valley

civilization

extends into

India.

The Mauryan

Empire begins.

The Gupta

Dynasty takes

power.

The Mughal

Empire begins.

The British

government

takes over

India.

India gains

independence.

Prime Minister

Indira Gandhi

is assassinated.

T I M E L I N E

Indian women celebrate Pongal, a Hindu

festival. During Pongal people offer rice

boiled in milk to the gods.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA India 125

Indiana

The U.S. state of Indiana calls

itself the Crossroads of America

because it sits in the heart of the

Midwest. Indiana’s people are often

called Hoosiers, though it is unclear

where the name came from. Indiana

took its name from the word Indian;

with the addition of the letter a, it

means “Indian land.” The state capital

is Indianapolis.

Geography

Indiana borders Lake Michigan and the

state of Michigan on the north, Ohio on

the east, Kentucky on the south, and

Illinois on the west. The Ohio River

forms the southern border, and the

Wabash River forms part of the western

border.

The landscape of Indiana is generally

flat. The northern third has a gently

rolling landscape. In the northwest,

windblown sand dunes rise along Lake

Michigan. A larger plains area in the

middle of the state has rich soil, making

it great for farming. The land changes

along the Ohio River in the southcentral

and southwestern parts of the

state. This region has many sharp ridges,

rounded hills, and deep valleys. Indiana

has warm summers and cool winters.

Northern cities along Lake Michigan

receive much heavier snowfall than other

parts of the state.

People

The majority of Indiana’s residents are

white, native-born Americans. Most

trace their ancestry back to England,

Scotland, Ireland, and Germany. African

Americans are the largest minority

group, making up more than 8 percent

of the population. Five of Indiana’s cities

have populations of more than

100,000.

Indianapolis is the largest city in Indiana.

It is located near the center of the

state. Other large cities are FortWayne,

Evansville, South Bend, and Gary. The

state’s institutions of higher education

include Indiana University, with its

main campus at Bloomington, and Purdue

University, with its main campus at

West Lafayette. The University of Notre

Dame, near South Bend, is a wellknown

Roman Catholic university.

126 Indiana BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Economy

Indiana is among the nation’s top

manufacturing states. The main products

include motor vehicles and parts,

engines, steel, electronic equipment,

chemicals, and musical instruments.

Other important areas of the economy

are finance, government operations, and

service-oriented businesses. Indiana’s

farms yield corn, soybeans, hogs, and

dairy products.

History

The first people to live in the area were

prehistoric Native Americans. Archaeologists

have found remains of these

people at Angel Mounds, a site in southwestern

Indiana. The major tribes living

in the region when Europeans arrived

included the Miami, the Potawatomi,

and the Delaware (or Lenni Lenape).

In 1679 the French explorer Sieur de La

Salle became the first European to enter

the area. France later claimed the region

but in 1763 turned over the territory to

Great Britain. The United States

acquired the land at the close of the

American Revolution in 1783.

Fear of Indian attacks kept settlers from

the region for many years. After the

Indiana Territory was created in 1800,

its first governor, William Henry Harrison,

did much to open the land for

settlement. In 1811 he defeated a group

of Indians at the battle of Tippecanoe.

Indiana became a state in 1816. Industry

began to grow in the state during the

CivilWar. In the 1900s manufacturing

became more important to the economy

than agriculture. In the early 21st century,

it continued to lead Indiana’s

economy.

..More to explore

Harrison,William Henry • Indianapolis

Colorful fall foliage attracts visitors to Brown County State Park in Nashville, Indiana.

Facts About

INDIANA

Flag

Population

(2000 census),

6,080,485—

rank, 14th state;

(2008 estimate)

6,376,792—

rank, 16th state

Capital

Indianapolis

Area

36,418 sq mi

(94,321 sq km)—

rank, 38th state

Statehood

December 11,

1816

Motto

The Crossroads of

America

State bird

Cardinal

State flower

Peony

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Indiana 127

Indianapolis

Population

(2000 census),

city, 791,926;

(2007 estimate)

795,458

Indianapolis is the capital of the U.S.

state of Indiana. The city lies on the

White River. It is famous for hosting a

yearly sports event—the Indianapolis

500 car race. The race brings thousands

of visitors to the city each May.

Indianapolis is a center of road, rail,

and air transportation. Farmers from

the area sell grain in the city. It is also a

center of business, banking, and

industry. Factories in Indianapolis make

medicines, machinery, cars, telephones,

and other products. There are also

several universities.

In 1820 the government of Indiana

chose a site in the center of the state to

be the new capital. Indianapolis was

built there. It became the official state

capital in 1825.

A racetrack called the Indianapolis

Motor Speedway was built in the early

1900s. The first Indianapolis 500 race

was held there in 1911. Today the city is

also home to professional basketball and

football teams.

The Children’s Museum of Indianapolis

opened in 1925. It has become the largest

museum for children in the world.

..More to explore

Indiana

Indian Ocean

Long before the larger Atlantic and

Pacific oceans had been well explored,

the Indian Ocean was a bustling region

of travel and trade. More than 2,000

years ago, traders sailed the ocean to

exchange goods between India, Africa,

and Arabia.

Physical Features

The Indian Ocean is surrounded by

four continents: Asia to the north,

Antarctica to the south, Africa to the

west, and Australia to the east. The

Indian Ocean is the third largest of

Earth’s oceans. Its total area measures

about 28,360,000 square miles

(73,440,000 square kilometers).

The largest island in the Indian Ocean is

Madagascar, which lies off the east coast

of Africa. Madagascar and some of the

128 Indianapolis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

other islands in the ocean were once

attached to a continent. Volcanoes

formed other islands, including Sumatra

(a part of Indonesia). Some of the

ocean’s islands, such as those in

Maldives, are coral atolls. These are ribbons

of coral reef that formed around

the tops of underwater volcanoes.

Climate

Much of the Indian Ocean lies within

the tropical and temperate zones. Temperatures

are mild to hot.Winds called

monsoons also affect the climate. Monsoons

change direction according to the

season. From October through April the

winter monsoon blows from the northeast.

It brings rain to Indonesia and Australia.

From May to September the

summer monsoon blows from the

southwest. It brings rain to South Asia.

Destructive storms known as cyclones

often form over the Indian Ocean.

Cyclones generally move toward shore in

a westward direction.

Economy

The Indian Ocean has played a significant

role in shipping and trade for many

years. The strong monsoon winds made

ancient trade routes possible. The northeast

monsoon carried traders from India

and China to Arabia and Africa. The

southwest monsoon carried traders in

the opposite direction. The Indians and

Chinese exchanged spices, silk, and

gemstones for coffee, ivory, salt, and

gold from Arabs and Africans.

Trade along the shipping lanes of the

ocean continues today. Petroleum, or

oil, and oil products now make up

much of the trade. The ocean contains

valuable reserves of oil. It also provides

shrimp, fish, and other seafood to

countries.

Exploration

Sailors from India, Egypt, and Phoenicia

(in the Middle East) were the first to

explore the Indian Ocean. They did this

between 3000 and 1000 BC. Europeans

did not begin to explore the ocean until

the 1500s. The Spanish first crossed the

ocean from east to west in 1521. Captain

James Cook of Great Britain

explored the southern waters of the

Indian Ocean in 1772.

Environmental Issues

Waste from factories and cities has polluted

the Indian Ocean. In addition,

there is concern about the amount of oil

being transported in ships on the ocean.

Oil spills have harmed fish and other

animals.

#More to explore

Atlantic Ocean • Ocean • Pacific Ocean

Fishing boats dot a bay off an Indonesian

island in the Indian Ocean.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Indian Ocean 129

Indonesia

The country of Indonesia is made up of

about 13,670 islands. It is the largest

country, both in area and in population,

in Southeast Asia. The capital is Jakarta.

Geography

Indonesia’s islands lie along the equator

between the Indian and Pacific oceans.

Five of the islands make up more than

90 percent of the land area. These are

Sumatra; Java; Sulawesi; southern

Borneo, known as Kalimantan; and

western New Guinea, known as Papua.

Most of the islands are mountainous.

Indonesia has many active volcanoes.

The area is also known for earthquakes.

Indonesia’s climate is hot and humid.

Plants and Animals

Tropical rain forests cover much of

Indonesia. Swamps with mangrove trees

are found in coastal lowlands. Indonesia’s

wildlife includes rhinoceroses, orangutans,

tapirs, tigers, and elephants. A

giant lizard, the Komodo dragon, lives

on a few small islands. The Komodo

dragon can be more than 10 feet (3

meters) long. Among Indonesia’s birds

are cockatoos, bowerbirds, and birds of

paradise. Peacocks live on the island of

Java.

People

Indonesia has more than 300 different

ethnic groups. Most of the groups have

East Asian roots. The largest group is the

Javanese, who live mainly on Java. On

the eastern islands most of the people

are related to the Melanesians of Oceania.

Chinese people form a small but

important group. About 250 languages

are spoken, but Indonesian (also called

Bahasa Indonesia) is the main language.

130 Indonesia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Most of the population practices Islam.

Other religions include Christianity,

Hinduism, Buddhism, and traditional

beliefs. Most people live in rural areas,

but the cities are growing. More than

half of Indonesia’s population lives on

Java.

Economy

Industry is a major part of Indonesia’s

economy. Manufactured products

include machinery, chemicals, clothing,

electronics, and wood products. Indonesia

also produces oil and natural gas. Its

mines provide bauxite (from which aluminum

is made), copper, nickel, silver,

and gold.

Agriculture employs about 40 percent of

the workforce. The staple crop is rice.

Indonesia is also a major supplier of

natural rubber, made from rubber trees.

Other cash crops include palm oil, sugarcane,

coffee, and coconuts. Goats,

cattle, and sheep are raised. The waters

surrounding Indonesia allow for a fishing

industry.

History

The ancestors of modern Indonesians

migrated to the islands from mainland

Asia thousands of years ago. From the

600s to the 1500s Buddhist and Hindu

kingdoms existed in Indonesia. In the

1200s Muslim traders from India

brought Islam to Sumatra. The religion

spread to the other islands, except for

Bali, which remained Hindu.

Dutch Rule

The Portuguese arrived in Indonesia in

the early 1500s. The Dutch (people

from The Netherlands) and the English

followed. By the late 1600s the Dutch

controlled almost all the islands. They

lost control of Indonesia in 1942, when

the Japanese invaded duringWorldWar

II. After the Japanese surrendered in

1945, The Netherlands tried to regain

control. In 1949, however, the Dutch

granted Indonesia independence.

Independence

In 1965 Indonesia’s first president,

Sukarno, was overthrown. General

Suharto came to power.Widespread

protests forced him to resign in 1998.

Indonesia held free elections in 1999.

Later presidents faced the problems of

terrorism and rebellion in parts of

Indonesia.

In late 2004 one of the largest earthquakes

ever recorded struck off the

northwestern coast of Sumatra. It caused

a giant wave, called a tsunami, that

killed more than 200,000 people.

..More to explore

Jakarta • Tsunami

A boy carries jackfruit on a pole across his

shoulders in Sumatra, Indonesia.

Facts About

INDONESIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

234,342,000

Area

730,024 sq mi

(1,890,754 sq

km)

Capital

Jakarta

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Jakarta, Surabaya,

Bandung,

Medan, Bekasi

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Indonesia 131

Indus River

One of the great rivers of the world, the

Indus has long been a vital feature of the

land now covered by India and Pakistan.

The Indus Valley was the site of one of

the world’s earliest civilizations. The

hymns of ancient India speak of the

river, which is the source of the country’s

name.

The Indus River is about 1,800 miles

(2,900 kilometers) long. It starts high in

the Himalayas in the Tibet region of

China. For about 500 miles (800 kilometers)

the Indus flows through some of

the world’s tallest mountains. It passes

through northwestern India, the territory

of Kashmir, and northern Pakistan.

Much of the river’s water comes from

the melting of glaciers and snow in the

mountains.

After leaving the mountains the Indus

flows onto the plains of Pakistan. In the

region called Punjab, several rivers

empty into the Indus and make it much

wider. The Indus empties into the Arabian

Sea.

The Indus is very important to the

economy of the region through which it

flows. Although much of the land is very

dry, farming is possible because river

water is used for irrigation. The main

crops grown in the region are sugarcane,

wheat, rice, and cotton. Fish caught in

the river include hilsa and trout. The

shallow area where the river empties into

the sea has a lot of shrimp.

#More to explore

India • Indus Valley Civilization

• Irrigation • Pakistan

Industrial

Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a period

of major changes in the way products

are made. It took place more than 200

years ago and greatly affected the way

people lived as well as the way they

In 1960 India

and Pakistan

signed a treaty

in which they

agreed to

share the

waters of the

Indus.

When snow melts from the mountains or

rain falls on the land, the Indus River rises.

Flooding happens when the river overflows

its banks.

132 Indus River BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

worked. In earlier days, people made

products by hand. They worked mostly

in their own homes or in small

workshops. During the Industrial

Revolution, many factories were built.

Laborers began making large numbers

of things using machines powered by

engines.

England was the first country in which

these changes took place. However, the

Industrial Revolution soon spread to

other European countries, the United

States, and Japan.

Developments

The Industrial Revolution began in the

cloth industry. Before that time making

cloth was a slow process. After the wool

was gathered it had to be spun into yarn

and then woven into fabric by hand. In

1733 an invention called a flying shuttle

made it easier to weave cloth. A machine

called a spinning jenny, invented in

1770, made it easier to spin yarn. In

1793 Eli Whitney invented a machine

called a cotton gin. It helped clean cotton