Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

It takes about three weeks for a litter of

house mice to be born. Each litter has

about 1 to 18 young. A pair of mice can

give birth to 30 or 40 babies a year, even

more if food is plentiful.

Mice are often considered pests. They

can destroy food supplies and gnaw

holes in homes. They also can spread

disease. However, some people keep

mice as pets.

#More to explore

Mammal • Rodent

Mouth

In most animals, food enters the body

through the mouth. The mouth is the

opening to the digestive system. The

digestive system is a group of body parts

that breaks down food into fuel for the

body.

In humans and many other animals, the

mouth is the place where food is chewed

and mixed with a clear liquid called

saliva. The mouth is a way for air to

enter the body, too. Human beings also

use their mouths for speaking and for

making facial expressions.

The Human Mouth

The human mouth includes several

parts. The lips surround the outside

edge of the mouth. The cheeks form the

sides of the mouth, and the floor forms

the bottom. Saliva enters the mouth

through small tubes in the floor and the

cheeks. The roof is the top of the

mouth. It has two parts. The part in

front is bone covered by flesh. The part

in back is soft flesh. A small piece of

flesh called the uvula hangs from the

roof of the mouth in back.

The house mouse is a well-known type of

mouse.

196 Mount Olympus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Behind the lips, two sets of teeth grow

from the top and the bottom of the

mouth. A person uses the teeth to chew

food before swallowing it. Gums surround

the teeth and connect them to the

jawbone. The tongue helps to control

food while chewing and to make sounds

for speech.

Mouths of Other Animals

Animals have many different mouth

shapes and structures. These different

types of mouths allow each type of animal

to eat a certain diet. Anteaters have

small, tube-shaped mouths with no

teeth. They use their long tongues to

lick up insects. A hard beak surrounds

the mouth of a bird. Insects have special

features called mouthparts near their

mouths. Grasshoppers have jaws for

chewing plants as well as mouthparts

that hold food in place. Butterflies and

moths have tubelike mouthparts to suck

food into the mouth.

#More to explore

Digestive System • Teeth • Tongue

Movie

Movies are a form of entertainment that

is popular all over the world. Movies are

pictures that seem to move when shown

on a screen. They are also called motion

pictures or films.

Equipment

Making and viewing a movie requires

special equipment. Two important

pieces of equipment are the movie camera

and the movie projector.

A movie camera records photographs, or

pictures, on film. A movie camera takes

many still pictures very quickly. Most

movie cameras take 24 pictures every

second. Because they are taken so close

Humans take in air and food through the

mouth.

Many people work together to make a movie.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Movie 197

together they catch very small differences

in movement.

A movie projector makes the still pictures

appear to move. As film runs

through it, a projector flashes the pictures

one after the other on a screen.

The pictures go past the eye so quickly

that the brain links them together as a

moving scene.

The projector also plays the movie’s

sound track. The sound track contains

all of the sounds of the movie, including

talking, music, and sound effects. The

sound track is a thin band that runs

along the edge of the film, next to the

pictures.

Movie theaters receive reels of film. A

typical film is five or six reels long. Theaters

usually join the reels together to

make larger reels. Then one or two projectors

play the reels to show the movie

on the screen.

People Who Make Movies

Making a movie takes many people. The

producer handles the business matters.

The producer raises money for making

the movie and hires people, including

the screenwriter and the director. The

screenwriter puts the story together and

writes what the actors will say.

The director turns the written story into

a movie. The director works with almost

everyone involved in making the movie.

The director helps the producer choose

the actors and actresses who appear in

the movie. During filming, the director

decides how scenes are filmed and tells

others what to do. The director oversees

the people who handle costumes,

makeup, lighting, sound, and cameras.

Some members of a film crew create

special effects. Special effects are tricks

used to film things that would otherwise

be too difficult or expensive to film. For

example, miniature models of buildings

or vehicles can be used to film such

events as earthquakes, floods, fires, and

explosions.

The United

States has a

rating system

that prevents

children from

seeing certain

movies. No

child can see

a movie rated

NC-17.

Chinese director Chen Kaige works on editing

his movie Temptress Moon.

A model maker creates a make-believe

creature for the movie The Return of the

Jedi. With the help of special effects, the

creature will appear to move in the finished

film.

198 Movie BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

After the filming is done, editors put the

pictures and sound together. Usually the

director films a lot of material that will

not fit in the final movie. Film editors

work with the director to cut scenes and

move others around. Sound editors

make sure that the sound track fits well

with the pictures.

History

People began experimenting with ways

of making and viewing moving pictures

in the 1800s. By 1890 the U.S. inventor

Thomas Edison had developed a movie

camera. In France, Louis and Auguste

Lumiere invented a combined movie

camera and projector in 1895. The

Lumiere brothers opened the world’s

first movie theater in Paris, France.

In the early 1900s France was the center

of the movie industry. But by 1920 most

movies were made in the United States.

Big movie studios were set up in Hollywood,

a part of Los Angeles, California.

Early movies did not have color or

sound. The Jazz Singer, released in 1927,

was the first popular movie with sound.

The first high-quality color movies were

made in the 1930s.

Television became popular in the 1950s.

As a result, people saw fewer movies. In

the 1970s, big movies such as StarWars

brought some people back into theaters.

Film technology changed in the late

20th century. New cameras recorded

pictures as digital data instead of using

film. Digital recording was also used for

sound. Computers were used to produce

amazing visual effects. Some animated

movies, such as Toy Story (1995), were

made entirely with computers.

#More to explore

Animation • Camera • Cartoon

• Disney,Walt • Edison, Thomas Alva

• Photography • Television

A film crew works on a model of a ship

used in the movie Titanic.

Computers were used to add

many special effects to the

Spider-Man movies of the early

21st century.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Movie 199

Mozambique

The country of Mozambique sits on

Africa’s southeastern coast. Mozambique’s

capital is Maputo.

Geography

Mozambique shares borders with Tanzania,

Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South

Africa, and Swaziland. The Indian

Ocean lies to the east.

The Zambezi River divides Mozambique

into northern and southern

regions. The south has mostly lowlands

and some highlands. The north has high

plains and mountains. Mozambique has

warm weather all year.

Plants and Animals

Ironwood, palm, and ebony trees grow

in the northwest. Grasses and shrubs

grow in the drier south. Mozambique’s

rich wildlife includes zebras, hippopotamuses,

lions, elephants, crocodiles, and

giraffes.

People

The largest of Mozambique’s many ethnic

groups include the Makua, the

Tsonga, the Sena, and the Lomwe. Portuguese

is the national language, but

most people speak African languages.

About half of the people follow traditional

religions. There are also many

Christians and Muslims.

Economy

Most of Mozambique’s people make

their living by farming. Corn and cassava

are the main crops. Mozambique

also produces shrimp, coconuts, cotton,

sugarcane, cashew nuts, and wood. Factories

make aluminum, food products,

beverages, cloth, and chemicals.

History

Bantu-speaking peoples moved to the

region in about the AD 200s. Arabs later

set up trading cities along the coast. The

Portuguese settled in the region in the

1500s. They sold many Mozambicans as

slaves.

In 1964 a rebel group called Frelimo

began to fight Portuguese rule. Mozambique

won independence in 1975. Frelimo

took over the government. Rebels

soon began fighting Frelimo’s government.

That deadly civil war lasted until

1992. Mozambique held democratic

elections in 1994.

..More to explore

Maputo

Facts About

MOZAMBIQUE

Population

(2008 estimate)

21,285,000

Area

313,661 sq mi

(812,379 sq km)

Capital

Maputo

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Maputo, Matola,

Beira, Nampula

200 Mozambique BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Mozart,

Wolfgang

Amadeus

Mozart was a brilliant composer of

classical music. He wrote many

different types of music and excelled in

every one. During his short life he

composed more than 50 symphonies

and 15 operas. He also wrote many

works for choir, orchestra, and smaller

groups of instruments. Although they

are more than 200 years old, his

compositions are still very popular.

Child Genius

Wolfgang AmadeusMozart was born on

January 27, 1756, in Salzburg (now in

Austria). At age 4 he began playing a

keyboard instrument called a

harpsichord. At age 5 he composed his

own pieces. A year later his father began

taking him and his sister to perform

concerts throughout Europe.Mozart

played the violin, organ, piano, and

harpsichord.

Mozart mastered the styles of music that

were popular in different cities in

Europe. He also published his first musical

compositions. His first opera was

performed in Salzburg in 1769, when he

was just 13.

Mature Career

Mozart worked in Salzburg for a few

years. First he was an assistant

conductor. Later he was an organist.

During this time he produced a

number of religious works. He also

wrote his first serious opera. It was first

performed in 1781, just after Mozart’s

25th birthday.

Later that year Mozart moved to

Vienna. He was successful there as a

pianist and composer. But he spent

more money than he earned. He had

financial problems for much of his life.

In Vienna Mozart wrote some of his best

works for piano and orchestra. During

his last years he wrote some of his greatest

symphonies and operas. His most

popular operas include Le nozze di

Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro), Don

Giovanni, and Die Zauberflote (The

Magic Flute). In 1791 Mozart began

working on a mass for the dead, called a

requiem. But he fell ill and died before

completing it. Mozart died on December

5, 1791, in Vienna.

#More to explore

Classical Music • Opera

Mozart

composed a

symphony (an

orchestra

piece that is

long and has

several parts)

at age 8.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 201

Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire ruled most of

northern India from the 1500s to the

1700s. The Mughal rulers practiced the

religion of Islam. Most of the people

they ruled practiced Hinduism. Even so,

the Mughals were able to rule successfully.

They worked to bring Muslims

and Hindus together into a united

India.

The founder of the Mughal Empire was

named Babur. He was descended from

Genghis Khan, who had founded the

Mongol Empire in Mongolia more than

300 years earlier. In 1526 Babur conquered

the Indian sultanate, or kingdom,

called Delhi. By his death in 1530

he controlled much of northern India.

The next great Mughal ruler was Babur’s

grandson Akbar. He ruled from 1556 to

1605. Akbar led conquests that greatly

expanded the empire. He married a

Hindu princess and let non-Muslims

practice their beliefs. He also encouraged

art and learning. Because of his

accomplishments, he is also known as

Akbar the Great.

Akbar’s grandson Shah Jahan was the

next notable Mughal ruler. He reigned

from 1628 to 1658. He is best known

for building the beautiful Taj Mahal in

the city of Agra.

Shah Jahan’s son Aurangzeb ruled from

1658 to 1707. He expanded the empire

to its greatest size. But he mistreated

Hindus and other non-Muslims. This

cost him the support of the people.

Some groups rebelled against him. The

empire gradually became weaker.

By the middle of the 1700s the Mughals

ruled only a small area around the city

of Delhi. The British took over this land

in 1803. The last Mughal emperor was

Bahadur Shah II. The British allowed

him to reign until 1857. Then they

forced him to leave India.

#More to explore

India • Islam • Taj Mahal

Muhammad

The prophet Muhammad was the

founder of the religion of Islam. Followers

of Islam, called Muslims, believe that

Muhammad received messages from

Allah (God). These messages were later

collected into the Koran, the holy book

of Islam.

Early Life

Muhammad was born in the Arabian

town of Mecca (now in Saudi Arabia) in

The Mughal ruler Humayun is buried in a

large tomb in Delhi, India. Humayun was

the father of Akbar, one of the greatest

Mughal emperors.

202 Mughal Empire BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

about 570. Muhammad’s father died

before Muhammad was born, and

Muhammad’s mother died when he was

6. He was then raised by his grandfather

and later by his uncle.

When Muhammad was about 25 years

old, he married a rich, older woman

named Khadijah. Their marriage helped

Muhammad gain wealth and social

standing, and they had six children.

Although many men at the time had

more than one wife, Khadijah was

Muhammad’s only wife until after her

death.

Beginnings of Islam

According to tradition, in about 610

Muhammad had a vision (thought to be

of the angel Gabriel) and heard a voice

tell him, “You are the messenger of

God.” At various times during the rest

of his life, Muhammad received verbal

messages that he believed came directly

from God.

Muhammad began preaching in Mecca

in about 613. He told people they

should worship only one God, which

was different from the Arab practice of

worshipping many gods. He also told

people to be generous as a way of

expressing their appreciation to God.

His new religion came to be called

Islam, meaning “submission to God.”

Leaving Mecca

Many people in Mecca were against the

new religion. Those who believed in

several gods were afraid that their holy

places might be destroyed. Merchants

disliked Muhammad because he criticized

them for being greedy.

Muhammad worried that his enemies

might hurt him and his followers, so he

encouraged his followers to move to the

nearby city of Medina. Muhammad

himself reached Medina on September

24, 622, which is considered the starting

date for the history of Islam. Muhammad’s

trip to Medina is known as the

Hegira.

Uniting the Tribes

Most Arabs at the time were part of

large groups called tribes. Muhammad

was determined to join the many Arab

tribes together under Islam. He hoped

that by uniting they could use their military

strength to spread Islam to other

areas.

To achieve his goal, Muhammad had to

get the support of Mecca. From 622 on,

he and his followers fought several

battles with forces from Mecca. By the

time Muhammad and his forces entered

The Islamic statement of faith is written in

Arabic letters on a palace wall in Istanbul,

Turkey. The statement includes the name of

Muhammad.

Muslims are

not allowed to

make images,

or pictures, of

Muhammad.

Instead,

Islamic artists

write his name

in beautiful

script.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Muhammad 203

Mecca in 630, many notable citizens

had already moved to Medina to

become Muslims. Mecca gave up with

little fight.

Muhammad died on June 8, 632, in

Medina. He left most of Arabia united

and ready to spread the faith. But after

his death, his followers could not agree

on who should lead them. This led to

the breakup of Islam into different

branches.

#More to explore

Arabs • Islam • Koran • Mecca

Mumbai

Population

(2001 estimate),

city,

11,914,400;

metropolitan

area,

16,368,100

Mumbai is the largest city in India, a

country in southern Asia. The city was

once called Bombay. It is one of the

most populated cities in the world. Its

millions of people are crowded onto an

island in the Arabian Sea. Bridges connect

the city to the nearby mainland of

India. Mumbai Island was once seven

separate islands, but engineers made

them into one island.

Mumbai is India’s center of banking,

business, and other services. It is also

home to the world’s largest motion picture

industry. The film industry is called

Bollywood, from the names Bombay

and Hollywood. The city is also a major

port for shipping India’s goods out for

sale to other countries. Engineering,

publishing, computers, communications,

and manufacturing also bring

money to Mumbai.

In ancient times the Mumbai area was

the site of small fishing villages of the

Koli people. Later the area fell under the

rule of Hindu and then Muslim powers.

In 1534 the Portuguese took over the

area. They founded the city as a trading

post, which became known as Bombay.

In 1661 the Portuguese gave Bombay to

the British. Great Britain eventually

ruled all of India as a colony. In the

An arch called Gateway of India is Mumbai’s most

famous monument.

204 Mumbai BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

1800s Bombay grew along with its trade

and cloth-making industry. It later

became a center for the political movement

that worked to free India from

British rule. India became an independent

country in 1947. In 1995 Bombay

was renamed Mumbai, which is its name

in the local Marathi language.

#More to explore

India

Mummy

A dead body that has been preserved

with chemicals is called a mummy. The

Inca of Peru made mummies. Ancient

peoples in Australia and on some Pacific

islands did also. However, the ancient

Egyptians are the best-known makers of

mummies.

The Egyptians made mummies for more

than 3,000 years. The methods they

used changed over the centuries. During

the New Kingdom (1500s–1000s BC),

Egyptians mummified dead kings and

nobles in a process that took 70 days.

Funeral workers started the process by

removing the brain and all the inner

organs except for the heart. They packed

the organs in jars. Next, they soaked the

body in salt or chemicals to remove the

fat and the outer part of the skin. After

the body dried out, they treated both

the inside and the outside with spices

and preservatives. Then they wrapped

the body in linen bandages. Egyptians

often painted the wrappings with religious

symbols and a portrait of the dead

person’s face. Finally, they placed the

mummy in a carved and painted

wooden coffin.

The Egyptians did not use this process

for the bodies of poor people. They

merely dried them with salt and

wrapped them with coarse cloths. The

Egyptians also mummified certain animals,

especially cats.

Mummies had a religious purpose.

Ancient Egyptians believed that dead

people needed their bodies in order to

pass successfully into the next world.

They thought that as long as the body

was preserved, the soul could live.

#More to explore

Egypt, Ancient

Mumps

Mumps is a very contagious, or catching,

disease that causes swelling in the

face. It is caused by a virus. Although

mumps can infect adults, it is most com-

Scientists prepare to X-ray a 3,000-yearold

Egyptian mummy. Scientists use X-rays

to learn more about mummies without taking

apart the wrappings.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mumps 205

mon in children between the ages of 5

and 15.

The mumps virus infects the glands

that make saliva. Any contact with the

saliva of an infected person can spread

the disease. Also, an infected person can

spread the virus into the air by

coughing or sneezing. Another person

who breathes that air can get the

disease.

The first symptoms, or signs, of mumps

may be a runny nose and a low fever.

These symptoms usually do not appear

until two to three weeks after the person

is infected. Soon the area in front of

each ear becomes swollen and puffy. The

swelling can spread to the upper neck

and jaw. In some cases mumps leads to

swelling of the brain.

Mumps needs no special treatment. The

symptoms start to go away after four or

five days. Because mumps spreads easily,

infected people should stay home. They

should also get plenty of rest.

A person who has been infected with

mumps usually develops immunity to

the disease. This means that the person

will not get mumps again. Children are

often given a shot of a substance called a

vaccine to keep them from getting the

disease.

..More to explore

Vaccine • Virus

Muscat

Population

(2007

estimate), city,

28,987; urban

area, 785,515

Muscat is the capital of Oman, a country

in the Middle East. The city is partly

surrounded by mountains. It has a natural

harbor on the Gulf of Oman.

Mumps causes the glands near the ears to

swell.

Muscat, the capital city of Oman, is located

on the Gulf of Oman.

206 Muscat BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Oman’s largest oil company has its

headquarters in Muscat. A stock

exchange was opened in the city in

1989. Just outside Muscat are Oman’s

main centers of trade (Matrah) and business

(Ruwi).

In ancient times Muscat was under

Persian rule. It became an important

trading port. Portugal controlled the

city from 1508 to 1650. The

Portuguese established a trading post

and naval base there. Two Portuguese

forts from the 1500s still overlook

Muscat. Persians again ruled the city

from the mid-1600s to the mid-1700s.

The family that rules Oman today then

took over the area. The family made

Muscat its capital.

#More to explore

Oman

Muscle

Muscles make it possible for animals to

move.Worms move by tightening and

relaxing their muscles in waves. Snails

and clams crawl with the help of a big

muscle called a foot. Insects move their

legs and wings with muscles hidden

under their exoskeleton, or hard covering.

Fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals

move with the help of muscles connected

to their skeleton.

Muscle connected to a skeleton is called

skeletal muscle. Animals with backbones,

including humans, also have two

other types of muscle: cardiac muscle

and smooth muscle. Cardiac muscle

Muscles help animals move.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Muscle 207

makes blood flow. Smooth muscle helps

to digest food.

Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle lies under the skin. It

is made up of long threads, or fibers.

Skeletal muscle controls movement,

posture (position of the body), and

balance. A person can move skeletal

muscle just by thinking about it and

then doing it.

Cordlike structures called tendons connect

skeletal muscle to the skeleton. As

skeletal muscle tightens, or contracts, it

gets shorter. It pulls on the bones

attached to it. As the muscle relaxes, it

gets longer. It lets the bones fall back

into place. In this way skeletal muscle

makes the bones move the parts of the

body.

To make skeletal muscle move, the brain

sends a message along a type of nerve

called a motor nerve. Motor nerves end

in the fibers of the muscle. There the

nerves release chemicals that start a wave

of electrical and chemical activity. This

activity creates energy that moves the

muscle.

Skeletal muscle makes bones move parts of the body.

208 Muscle BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Some of the energy also goes into the

body as heat. This means that muscle

movement helps to keep the body at the

right temperature.

Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle is located in the heart.

The fibers of this muscle form a structure

like a net. The fibers form the

chambers, or hollow areas, of the heart.

As the cardiac muscle contracts and

relaxes, blood moves in and out of the

chambers.

Cardiac muscle is involuntary muscle,

which means that it moves automatically.

A person does not have to think

about telling the heart to beat. The cardiac

muscle does not have nerves to tell

it to move, either. A special strip of cardiac

muscle releases bursts of electricity

that help the heart to beat in a regular

rhythm.

Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle helps to move food

through the digestive system. It lines the

intestines and the stomach. Smooth

muscle also moves the diaphragm, which

helps with breathing. Smooth muscle

makes blood vessels tighten and relax,

too. Like cardiac muscle, smooth muscle

is involuntary muscle. The nervous system

and body chemicals control the

actions of smooth muscle.

Problems with Muscles

Using skeletal muscle too much during

work or exercise can cause pain. If a

muscle stretches too far, it can tear. This

is called a muscle strain, or a pulled

muscle. Skeletal muscle can also cramp

(stay tightly contracted) or twitch (move

by itself ). Muscular dystrophy is a disease

that causes muscles to grow very

weak over time.

#More to explore

Digestive System • Heart • Skeletal

System

Muse

In ancient Greek and Roman mythology

the Muses were nine sister goddesses.

They inspired people in the arts and

sciences. Before poets or composers in

ancient times began any great work, they

asked the Muses for help. The word

museum comes from a Greek word

meaning “place of the Muses.”

According to legend, the father of the

Muses was Zeus, the chief god. Their

mother was the goddess of memory,

named Mnemosyne. In stories the

Cardiac muscle is located in the heart (left).

Smooth muscle is located in the intestines

and the stomach (right).

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Muse 209

Muses were often companions of

Apollo, the god of music and prophecy

(predicting the future).

The nine Muses were said to help people

sing, dance, and write poetry. Each one

had a specialty. Statues of the Muses

were a popular decoration in ancient

Greece and Rome. Sculptors often

showed each Muse holding a symbol of

her specialty.

#More to explore

Apollo • Mythology • Zeus

Museum

A museum is a building that holds a

collection of objects that are found in

nature or objects that people created.

Many museums focus on a single

subject—for example, art, science, or

history.

How MuseumsWork

Most museums are open to the public.

People visit museums to view the collections.

The collections educate people

about the natural world or human culture.

Museums also may offer guided

tours, lectures, and special events. Scientists

and other scholars sometimes use

museums to do research.

Museums add to their collections by

buying objects or receiving donations.

Museums display some objects all the

time. They also display certain objects

for a limited time. These displays may

include objects borrowed from other

museums or from private collectors.

Many museums own objects that are

never on display at all. Only researchers

may view these objects.

In works of art, each Muse was usually

shown holding a symbol of her specialty,

such as a scroll or a musical instrument.

210 Museum BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Types of Museums

Art museums contain collections of

paintings, sculptures, and other important

works of art. Some art museums’

collections cover many different styles

and periods of history. Others specialize

in artworks from a particular time

period or a single art style, such as modern

art.

Science museums use their collections

to explain different areas of science and

technology. Their collections often

include machines and tools from the

past and present. They may teach

people about space travel, medical

advances, electronics, or other scientific

subjects.

History museums collect objects, called

artifacts, that show what human life was

like in the past. Artifacts may include

clothing, tools, housewares, vehicles, old

photographs, and many other kinds of

objects. Natural history museums display

samples of plants, animals, rocks,

and other natural objects.

Some museums have very specific collections.

The National Baseball Hall of

Fame and Museum in Cooperstown,

New York, is one example. Another

example is the Rock and Roll Hall of

Fame and Museum in Cleveland, Ohio.

History

Since ancient times people have collected

objects. For example, religious

groups throughout the world collected

religious artwork and artifacts.

In the 200s BC a king founded a

museum and library in Alexandria,

Egypt. But this place was more like a

university than a modern museum.

Many modern museums developed

from the collections of wealthy people

in Europe. During the Renaissance

(1300s–1500s), Europeans built large

collections of art and historical objects.

By the 1600s the owners of some

private collections had sold their objects

to cities, universities, or other public

places.

Two of the world’s most famous museums

today began as private collections.

The British Museum in London,

Visitors to art museums can see many different

types of art in one place.

An exhibit at a science museum teaches

children how clouds form.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Museum 211

England, opened to the public in 1759.

It contains many archaeological treasures.

The Louvre in Paris, France,

opened to the public in 1793. It contains

many famous works of art. By the

late 1800s many countries around the

world had built museums.

In the 1900s several new types of museums

appeared. They included collections

of buildings that re-created whole towns

or neighborhoods. ColonialWilliamsburg

in Virginia is one example. It

shows what life was like in the English

colonies long ago. Many cities also

opened museums designed especially for

children.

#More to explore

Library

Music

Music is a group of sounds that people

have arranged in a pleasing or meaningful

way. All cultures of the world make

some form of music. Music can be

simple—for example, one person tapping

out a beat on a log drum or singing

a children’s song. Music can also be

complex—for example, hundreds of

instruments playing together for hours.

The Elements of Music

All music includes basic elements, or

parts. The main elements of music are

rhythm, melody, harmony, and form.

Rhythm describes the length of musical

sounds. The most important part of

rhythm is the pulse, or beat. When you

tap your foot to a song you like, you are

tapping out the beat. The speed of the

beats is called the tempo. The pattern of

the beats is called the meter. Drums help

other instruments and voices keep the

rhythm in many songs.

Melody is a series of different tones, or

sounds, in a piece of music. The tones

The remains of a dinosaur nicknamed Sue

are on display at the Field Museum of

Natural History in Chicago, Illinois.

Most musicians learn to read music.

212 Music BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

are played or sung one after another to

make up a song. The tones in a melody

may be low or high. The highness or

lowness of a tone is called its pitch.

Musicians describe different tones with

the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G.

Harmony takes place when people play

or sing more than one tone at the same

time. Groups of tones played together

are called chords. Harmony also

describes the way chords go along with a

melody.

Form is the way that people put rhythm,

melody, and harmony together. There

are many different types of musical

forms. Repeating a short melody is one

of the simplest forms. For example, in

the song “Mary Had a Little Lamb,”

each verse repeats the same melody. A

symphony is a more complex form. In a

symphony, different groups of instruments

may play different melodies at the

same time or a series of harmonies. The

rhythm may also change—for example,

the tempo may be fast or slow at different

points in the symphony.

Musical Notation

Some musicians make up music as they

perform. Others sing songs or play

pieces that someone else created. Musicians

have developed a system for writing

down music so that others can play

it again. They use certain symbols, called

notes, to indicate the tones to be played

or sung. The arrangement of the notes

shows the order in which the tones

should be played. Other numbers and

symbols show how fast to play each

note. All of these numbers and symbols

together are known as musical notation.

Musical Instruments

People use their voice to sing. To make

other kinds of music they use many different

musical instruments. Most musical

instruments fall into one of four

groups. Stringed instruments, such as

violins and harps, have tight strings that

make sounds when people pluck or rub

them. Wind instruments, such as trumpets

and saxophones, make sounds when

people blow into them. Percussion

instruments, such as drums and rattles,

make sounds when people hit or shake

them. Keyboard instruments, such as

pianos and accordions, make sounds

when people press their keys, buttons, or

levers.

Types of Music

Most cultures make different types of

music. Some music goes along with religious

ceremonies. Other music is a part

of everyday life. The traditional music

made by everyday people is called folk

music.

Children learn about music as they play the

xylophone.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Music 213

Classical music is a formal and artistic

music that developed in Europe over

hundreds of years. Orchestras, choirs,

and chamber ensembles (small groups of

musicians) often perform classical

music. Opera is a type of classical music

that features dramatic singing.

When large numbers of people enjoy a

type of music, it is called popular music.

Popular music is usually shorter and

simpler than classical music. People

often buy recordings of popular music

or listen to it on the radio. Some of the

many types of popular music are rock,

country, hip-hop and rap, the blues,

jazz, and world music.

#More to explore

Blues • Classical Music • Country Music

• Folk Music • Hip-Hop • Jazz • Opera

• Popular Music • Rap • Rock Music

•World Music

Musical

Instrument

An object that can be used to produce

music is called a musical instrument. A

musical instrument may be as large and

complicated as a pipe organ or as small

and simple as a tiny bell or whistle.

Musical instruments are found in almost

all cultures and periods of history. Scientists

have found clay drums and shell

trumpets that were used thousands of

years ago by some of the earliest

humans.

Musical instruments have great power to

stir human feelings, and they have been

used in a variety of ways. In some places

they are thought to have magical powers.

Drums have been used to chase

away evil spirits in many cultures. Religions

around the world use instruments

in worship services and to mark special

A girl plays a panpipe called a

rondador in the South American

country of Ecuador. A rondador

is a wind instrument.

A man in the African country of

The Gambia plays a stringed

instrument with a long, thin neck.

The talking

drums of West

Africa can be

heard over a

distance of

20 miles

(32 kilometers).

214 Musical Instrument BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

cello, and double bass. The strings are

plucked with the fingers or rubbed with

a bow, which is a curved stick with

horsehair stretched between the ends.

Unlike a harp, these instruments have

only four or five strings each. The sound

is changed by using the fingers to press

down on the strings at different points

of the neck. In effect, this temporarily

shortens the part of the string that

makes the sound. The wooden body of

the instrument makes the sound louder.

Guitars, banjos, and sitars also belong to

the lute family. They are played by

plucking the strings with either the fingers

or a small piece of plastic or metal

called a pick. The electric guitar uses an

electronic device called an amplifier to

make the sound louder.

Wind Instruments

In wind instruments the sound is created

by a stream of air that flows

through or around the body of the

instrument. In most cases the air comes

from the player’s mouth. In modern

Western orchestras wind instruments are

divided into brass instruments (made of

brass or other metal) and woodwinds

(made of wood or metal). Brass instruments

include the trombone, trumpet,

horn, and tuba.

Many of the woodwinds produce sound

when air causes a thin blade of cane or

metal, called a reed, to vibrate. The

clarinet and saxophone each have one

reed, while the oboe and bassoon use

two reeds each. The flute and piccolo are

woodwinds that have no reeds. In woodwinds

the player can produce different

sounds by pressing on keys or finger

holes. This changes the way the air

vibrates as it flows through the body of

the instrument.

People throughout the world play different

types of flutes, including the whistle

flute, panpipes, and recorder. A bagpipe,

another form of wind instrument, has

two or more pipes with reeds. Air is

Stringed instruments include the violin, the guitar, the cello, the

double bass, and the harp.

216 Musical Instrument BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

forced from a bag through the pipes,

causing the reeds to vibrate. One of the

pipes has finger holes used to play particular

notes.

Keyboard Instruments

To play a keyboard instrument, a musician

presses down on keys. The keys

control a mechanism that produces

sound. Strings make the sound in both

the piano and harpsichord. The strings

of a piano are struck with hammers,

while the strings of a harpsichord are

plucked. In the pipe organ compressed

air is pumped through pipes to make the

sounds. Similarly, in the accordion the

musician pushes on a pleated box called

a bellows. This pushes air past reeds to

make the sound. The electronic organ

Keyboard instruments include the piano

and the pipe organ.

Wind instruments include the woodwinds, such as the flute, the clarinet, the oboe, and the

bassoon. Wind instruments also include brass instruments, such as the trumpet, the horn,

the trombone, and the tuba. The saxophone is considered a woodwind, but it may be

made of brass.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Musical Instrument 217

and the synthesizer make many different

kinds of electronic sounds.

#More to explore

Music • Orchestra

Muskogee

#see Creek.

Musk-ox

The musk-ox is a large, shaggy mammal

of the Arctic. It is not really an ox at all.

Rather, it is related to sheep and goats.

The scientific name of the musk-ox is

Ovibos moschatus.

The musk-ox roams the tundra (treeless

plains) of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland.

It usually travels in herds of 20 to

30 animals. It feeds on grass and other

plants.

The musk-ox looks like a small bison. It

has a large head, a short neck, and short,

stout legs. Males, called bulls, can be 7.5

feet (2.3 meters) long and weigh 900

pounds (410 kilograms). Females, called

cows, are smaller.

The fur of the musk-ox is dark brown

and very long. It hangs so low that it

almost sweeps the ground. Under the

outer fur is a thick layer of wool. Eskimos

(Inuit) use musk-ox fur to make a

fine cloth.

Older musk-ox bulls have horns that can

be 2 feet (60 centimeters) long. Cows

and young musk-oxen have smaller

horns. A musk-ox uses its horns as

weapons if it feels threatened.

Bulls give off a strong smell during mating

season. The animal was named for

this smell, which is called musk.

#More to explore

Bison • Goat • Sheep

Muskrat

The muskrat is a rodent that looks like

a small beaver. Muskrats build homes

near lakes, ponds, rivers, and marshes.

The scientific name of the muskrat is

Ondatra zibethicus.

The muskrat is native to North America.

In the early 1900s, however, people

brought muskrats to northern Europe

and Asia. Muskrats quickly made themselves

at home in these regions.

The muskrat has brownish red fur that

is thick and warm. Its body is about 13

inches (33 centimeters) long. The backs

of its feet are partially webbed. The

muskrat uses them like paddles when

The musk-ox is not really an ox (a type of

cattle). It was named for its smell, called

musk.

218 Muskogee BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

swimming. The animal got its name

because it produces a strong odor that

smells like musk.

Muskrats are most active during the

evening and nighttime. They usually eat

water plants.

Muskrats live in family groups. Their

home may be a burrow, or hole, in a

riverbank. They also may live in mounds

of mud and plants in shallow water. A

female muskrat can give birth to several

litters during a year. A litter consists of 1

to 11 young. The babies are born blind,

but after a month they can care for

themselves. A muskrat usually lives for

about three years in the wild.

The muskrat is hunted for its fur. In

some areas people eat muskrats. The

animal can become a pest when it digs

into dams and other structures.

#More to explore

Beaver

Mustard

Mustard is a spice made from the seeds

of certain plants. There are two main

types of mustard plant. One is called

white, or yellow, mustard. The other is

called brown, or Indian, mustard.

A mustard plant has a soft green stem

and produces bright yellow flowers. The

plant reaches its full height of 5 to 6.5

feet (1.5 to 2 meters) as its flowers fade.

Green pods then appear on its branches.

These pods hold the seeds.

Mustard seeds are tiny and almost

round. They can be light or dark yellow.

The seeds have no odor when whole.

But when they are ground up and mixed

with water, a chemical reaction takes

place. This produces mustard oil, which

has a smell and taste.

Muskrats look like a cross between a rat

and a beaver. They live in water, where

they build homes of mud and plants that

rise above the water’s surface.

Mustard plants produce bright yellow

flowers.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mustard 219

Mustard is used to flavor foods such as

meat and salad dressings. Most people

buy mustard as a paste. The paste

includes vinegar and other ingredients

along with crushed mustard seeds. In

some places people cook and eat the

leaves of mustard plants.

Mustard also has been used in medicine.

Doctors once used mustard to treat

chest colds and other illnesses. They also

gave a drink made of mustard seeds and

warm water to people who had been

poisoned. The drink forced the person

to vomit out the poison.

#More to explore

Spice

Mutation

A mutation is a mistake or a change in a

living thing’s DNA. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic

acid, is a chain of chemical

units found in each cell of a living thing.

DNA makes up the parts of a cell called

genes. The chemical units of DNA are

arranged in a particular sequence, or

order in the genes. This sequence forms

a kind of code, called a genetic code,

that tells cells what to do. If the chain

gets out of order, breaks, or changes in

some other way, a mutation has

occurred.

Some mutations may happen when the

DNA is made. Other mutations are the

result of damage to the DNA. This damage

can be caused by too much exposure

to harmful energy, such as X-rays, or to

certain chemicals.

Most mutations are harmless. Often a

stronger than normal gene can prevent a

mutated gene from causing a problem.

However, some mutations are very serious.

Some can cause a cell to divide

incorrectly. This can lead to a type of

disease called cancer. Some mutations

can be passed from a parent to its offspring,

or young. This may cause the

young to be born with a defect or a disease.

For example, a particular mutation

that comes from both parents causes a

blood disease called sickle-cell anemia.

But sometimes a mutation leads to a

helpful change. For example, a mutation

could cause an animal to have a hair

color that blended in with its surroundings.

This animal would be more likely

to survive, and it would pass the hair

color down to its young. Scientists think

that such mutations lead to the evolution,

or formation, of different living

things.

#More to explore

DNA • Evolution • Genetics

As a result of a mutation, a starfish grew

only four legs instead of five.

220 Mutation BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Myanmar

Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia.

In 1989 the government changed the

country’s name from Burma to Myanmar.

The capital was Yangon until 2005.

In that year the government began moving

some offices north to a site near the

town of Pyinmana.

Geography

Myanmar shares borders with Bangladesh,

India, China, Laos, and Thailand.

The Indian Ocean lies to the west.

The land is mostly mountainous.

Plants and Animals

Evergreen rain forests grow in the wettest

regions. Teaks and other trees that

lose their leaves grow in areas with less

rainfall. Many birds, snakes, and monkeys

live in the rain forests. Myanmar’s

tigers and elephants are endangered.

People

The Burman people make up most of

the population. The Shan, Karen, and

other peoples form smaller groups.

Burmese is the main language.Most of

the people practice Buddhism. Almost

three quarters of the population lives in

rural areas.

Economy

Most of Myanmar’s workers are farmers.

The main crops are rice, sugarcane,

beans, peanuts, corn, and cotton. Cattle,

pigs, and buffalo are the main livestock.

Myanmar has deposits of copper, lead,

tin, jade, and gems. It also has reserves

of oil and natural gas. Factories make

clothing, cement, and fertilizers.

History

From the 800s to the 1200s the Burmans

ruled a powerful Buddhist kingdom.

In the mid-1700s a Burman king

unified Myanmar’s peoples. Great Britain

took control in 1885. The British

called the land Burma. Burma gained

independence in 1948.

..More to explore

Asia • Yangon

Ruins of ancient Buddhist temples stand in

Pagan (or Bagan), a city in central Myanmar.

Facts About

MYANMAR

Population

(2008 estimate)

47,758,000

Area

261,228 sq mi

(676,577 sq km)

Capital

Yangon

(Rangoon)

Form of

government

Military regime

Major cities

Yangon

(Rangoon), Mandalay,

Moulmein

(Mawlamyine),

Bassein (Pathein),

Pegu (Bago)

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Myanmar 221

Mycenaean

Civilization

#see Aegean Civilization.

Mythology

Mythology is the rich collection of traditional

tales called myths from cultures

all over the world. Many myths date

back to ancient times. They are stories

about how the world was created and

why certain things happen. Today the

word myth is often used to describe

something that is not true. But a myth is

not just a made-up story. Myths tell of

gods, heroes, and events that a group

believes, or at one time believed, to be

real. A culture’s myths are often closely

tied to its religion.

Background

Thousands of years ago people did not

have the sciences to help them understand

life. For instance, they did not

know why the sun rises each morning or

why the seasons change. Ancient people

saw sickness, death, and natural disasters,

but they did not understand what

caused them.

Groups of people developed their own

stories and beliefs to explain the world

around them. These myths were usually

not written down. Instead one generation

of people passed them along to the

next generation by telling them out loud

as stories.

Types of Myths

Each group of people has developed its

own explanations about the world. But

Many different cultures have created myths to explain the world around them.

222 Mycenaean Civilization BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

all myths try to answer basic questions

such as, How was the world created?

How did life on Earth begin? Why is

there evil in the world?

Myths explain the origins of Earth in

many different ways. Many cultures

believe that an all-powerful god created

the world. For example, a myth of the

Polynesian people tells that the god Io

formed the world out of water and darkness.

Some Native American myths say

that the world came up from underground

and developed gradually, like a

child being born.

To explain the origin of human beings,

an ancient story from India described a

being called the Self. When the Self

became lonely, it divided into two parts,

creating man and woman. Their children

became the human race. Many

myths from western Africa tell that the

first beings were a pair of twins. The

Sumerians, an ancient Middle Eastern

people, believed that the first people

came from clay. According to their

myths, the water god told his mother to

mold bits of clay into the shapes of

people.

Many cultures also have myths explaining

why there is evil in the world. For

example, an ancient Greek myth tells

that Pandora was the first woman on

Earth. She opened a jar to see what was

inside, and all kinds of miseries flew out.

So, through her curiosity, troubles were

released into the world. A great variety

of other myths explain the origins of

animals, plants, and events in nature.

Many other myths tell of the gods. Stories

discuss their births, special powers,

Some Figures of Greek

and Roman Mythology

Greek Roman Description

Name Name

Main Gods and Goddesses

Aphrodite Venus goddess of love

Apollo Apollo god of light and

music

Ares Mars god of war

Artemis Diana goddess of hunting

Athena Minerva goddess of wisdom

Hades Pluto god of the

underworld

Hephaestus Vulcan god of fire

Hera Juno queen of the gods

Hermes Mercury messenger of

the gods

Hestia Vesta goddess of the

home

Poseidon Neptune god of the sea

Zeus Jupiter king of the gods

Other Figures

Asclepius Aesculapius god of medicine

Demeter Ceres goddess of farming

Dionysus Bacchus god of wine

Erinyes Furiae goddesses who

(Furies) punished wrongdoers

Eros Cupid god of love

Gorgons female monsters

with snakes for

hair; included

Medusa

Moirai Parcae three goddesses

(Fates) who controlled

humans’ lives

Muses Muses goddesses of the

arts and sciences

Nymphs goddesses of

nature

Titans family of giants;

included Cronus

(god of farming)

and Prometheus

(god of fire)

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mythology 223

and victories over monsters or enemies.

Other myths tell about heroes with

amazing strength or cleverness. For

instance, ancient Greek myths tell that

the brave warrior Heracles completed 12

nearly impossible tasks. The Chinese

hero Da Yu is said to have saved China

by draining the land after a huge flood.

Collections of Myths

Some cultures developed collections of

myths, especially in ancient times. Their

stories describe a group of gods and the

world that the gods live in.

The ancient Egyptians had many gods.

Some looked like people and some

looked like animals. For example, the

doglike god Anubis was the god of the

dead. For a time a ruler named Amenhotep

made the sun the only god. He

called the god Aton, and he changed his

own name to Akhenaton. After he died

the other gods were worshipped again.

The ancient Greeks worshipped 12 main

gods. They believed that their gods lived

on Mount Olympus. Zeus was the king

of the gods.

The ancient Romans borrowed much of

the mythology of the Greeks. They gave

many of the Greek gods new names. For

example, Zeus became known as Jupiter.

Norse mythology developed long ago in

northern Europe. Its main god was

Odin. He and the other gods lived in

Asgard. A palace called Valhalla was part

of Asgard. After dying in battle, human

warriors were taken to Valhalla by warrior

women called Valkyries.

#More to explore

Religion • Storytelling

Some Figures of Norse

(Northern European) Mythology

Name Description

Balder god of light and peace

Freyja goddess of love, fertility, battle,

and death

Freyr god of fertility, rain, and

sunshine

Frigg goddess of marriage;

wife of Odin

Hel goddess of the dead

Loki god of mischief

Odin chief god

Thor god of thunder

Tyr god of war and justice

Ull god of hunting

Valkyries female messengers of Odin who

took the souls of heroes to

Valhalla (heaven for warriors)

Some Figures of Egyptian Mythology

Name Description

Amon one of the chief gods

Bastet goddess of music and

pregnant women; cat-headed

Hathor goddess of women and love;

cow-headed

Horus god whose eyes were the sun

and the Moon; appeared as

a falcon

Isis important goddess; wife of

Osiris and mother of Horus

Khnum god of fertility; ram-headed

Mont god of war; falcon-headed

Nut goddess of the sky

Osiris important god of the underworld

Re chief sun god

Seth god of disorder; had some

features of a dog

Thoth god of the Moon,

wisdom, and writing;

ibis-headed

224 Mythology BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Britannica

Student

Encyclopedia

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Volume 9

2010 Britannica Student Encyclopedia

Copyright © 2010 by Encyclop.dia Britannica, Inc.

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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7

eBook edition January, 2010

Animals may use their claws to

scratch, to clutch objects, to dig,

to climb, or to fight other animals.

(See Nail and Claw.)

At one time there were as

many as 240 different groups

of native peoples living in

North America.

(See Native Americans.)

The planet Neptune has the

fastest winds ever discovered in

the solar system.

(See Neptune.)

Nerve cells in the brain and

spinal cord cannot regrow. This

is why damage to the brain or

spinal cord is permanent.

(See Nervous System.)

The Nobel prizes are named

after Alfred Nobel, the inventor

of dynamite.

(See Nobel Prize.)

Nn

NAACP

#see National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People

(NAACP).

Nail and Claw

On the human body, a nail is a tough

plate that grows at the end of a finger or

a toe. Most other primates, such as apes

and monkeys, also have fingernails and

toenails. Many other animals have similar

structures called claws, or talons.

Nails and claws are made of a hard protein

called keratin. So are hooves, hair,

feathers, and horns.

Nails

The outside part of the nail, called the

nail plate, is nearly see-through. The nail

plate is made of dead cells. Lying below

the nail plate is the nail bed. Blood vessels

in the nail bed give it a pink color.

The nail bed also contains many nerve

endings.

The nail grows from the nail root, which

is buried under the skin at the base of

the nail. As the nail grows, new cells

push the older cells up toward the end

of the finger or toe. The tip of the nail

looks white because it is no longer

attached to the nail bed.

Nails protect the tips of the fingers and

toes. People, apes, and monkeys also use

their fingernails to scratch and to handle

small objects.

Claws and Talons

Reptiles, many mammals, some

amphibians, and birds have claws. Some

bird claws are called talons. Claws and

talons grow in a curved, downward

direction from the ends of an animal’s

toes.

A claw’s shape varies among animals.

Eagles have long, sharp talons for grabbing

prey. Cats have short claws that

they can draw back into their footpads.

A cat’s claw is connected to the toe bone.

A human nail is not connected to bone.

4 NAACP BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Like nails, claws protect the ends of an

animal’s toes. Animals also use their

claws to scratch and to clutch objects.

Some animals use their claws to dig, to

climb, or to fight other animals.

..More to explore

Hoof

Nairobi

Population

(2006 estimate)

2,864,700

Nairobi is the capital of the country of

Kenya. It is the main city of eastern

Africa. It was named after a watering

hole that was in the area before the city

was built. The Masai people called the

watering hole Enkare Nairobi, which

means “cold water.”

Many of Kenya’s businesses and industries

are located in Nairobi. Factories in

the city make food products, drinks,

cigarettes, furniture, and other goods.

Many people in Nairobi work for the

railways. Goods are loaded on trains in

the city and transported to Mombasa,

Kenya’s main seaport.

Tourism is also important to the

economy of Nairobi. Many tourists visit

Nairobi National Park, which lies just

outside the city. It is a large and beautiful

nature park where wild animals are

protected. The park is home to lions,

giraffes, rhinoceroses, zebras, and many

kinds of birds.

Nairobi has many important buildings,

including law courts and a cathedral.

The University of Nairobi and the

National Museum of Kenya are also

located in the city. In addition, Nairobi

has a national theater.

In the late 1800s Great Britain began

taking over much of eastern Africa.

Nairobi was founded in the late 1890s.

It began as a settlement along a railway

built by the British. In 1905 the British

made Nairobi their capital in eastern

Africa. Nairobi soon grew into a large

city. In 1963 Kenya became an independent

country with Nairobi as its capital.

..More to explore

Kenya

Nakota

..see Sioux.

Large, modern buildings stand near a park

in Nairobi, Kenya.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nakota 5

Namibia

Namibia sits on the southwestern coast of

Africa. The country gained independence

from South Africa in 1990.Windhoek is

Namibia’s capital and largest city.

Geography

Namibia shares borders with Angola,

Zambia, Botswana, and South Africa.

The Atlantic Ocean lies to the west.

The Namib Desert runs along the Atlantic

coast. The Central Plateau covers the

center of Namibia. It is a high area with

hills and mountains. The Kalahari

Desert is in the east.

Namibia’s climate is generally dry and

hot. Because there is little rain, the

country has only a few rivers that flow

year-round. Droughts are common.

Plants and Animals

The Namib and the Kalahari deserts

have few plants. Shrubs and grasses

cover the Central Plateau. Trees are more

common in the north.

Despite its dry landscape, Namibia is

home to lions, giraffes, zebras, antelope,

elephants, and rhinoceroses. The country

protects many animals in Etosha

National Park.

People

The Ovambo people and other African

groups make up most of Namibia’s

population. A smaller group of Namibians

have mixed African and European

roots. White people form another small

group. The whites have mainly Dutch or

German roots.

English is the national language, but

African languages are more commonly

spoken. The majority of the population

is Christian.

Footprints line the top of a sand

dune in the Namib Desert,

Namibia.

6 Namibia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

More than half of Namibians live in

rural areas. The north is more crowded

than the south. Very few people live in

the Namib Desert.

Economy

Namibia’s economy depends on mining.

Namibia has some of the largest mineral

deposits in Africa. The country is a leading

producer of diamonds and uranium.

Its other important minerals include

zinc, copper, silver, and gold.

Many Namibians are herders, farmers,

or fishers. Cattle and sheep are the main

livestock. Herders in the south raise

karakul sheep for their curly black coats.

Farmers grow grains, fruits, vegetables,

and beans. Processed fish and beef are

important products.

Tourism is growing in Namibia. Visitors

come to see the country’s natural beauty

and wildlife.

History

The earliest people in what is now

Namibia were the San, or Bushmen.

They followed a nomadic (wandering)

way of life based on hunting and gathering.

Over the centuries other African

peoples settled in the area.

In the late 1400s Portuguese explorers

visited the Namibian coast. The Dutch

and the English later explored the area.

By the 1880s Germans ruled the area,

which they called SouthWest Africa.

German settlers took most of the good

farmland from the Africans. In the early

1900s the local Herero people began a

war against the Germans. The Germans

responded by killing many Herero.

By 1915 South Africa had taken over

SouthWest Africa. The white leaders of

South Africa brought their laws known

as apartheid to the territory. These laws

kept blacks and whites separate and

treated blacks unfairly. In 1966 the

countries of the United Nations voted to

end South Africa’s control of South

West Africa. However, South Africa

refused to give up its control.

Meanwhile, South West Africa became

known as Namibia. A group called the

South West Africa People’s

Organization (SWAPO) fought for

Namibia’s independence. In 1990

Namibia finally won independence. The

leader of SWAPO became the nation’s

first president.

..More to explore

Kalahari • South Africa •Windhoek

A woman in Namibia carries

her son.

Facts About

NAMIBIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

2,089,000

Area

318,580 sq mi

(825,118 sq km)

Capital

Windhoek

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Windhoek,

Walvis Bay, Swakopmund,

Rehoboth,

Rundu

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Namibia 7

Napoleon

Though short in height, Napoleon cast a

long shadow across European history.

He was emperor of France from 1804 to

1814. He was also one of the most successful

military leaders of all time.

Early Life

Napoleon Bonaparte was born on

August 15, 1769, on the island of Corsica

in the Mediterranean Sea. France

then ruled Corsica. Napoleon went to

military schools in France. He became

an army officer when he was only 16

years old.

Soldier

Napoleon was in Paris (the capital of

France) in 1792, when the French

people overthrew their king. This was

part of the French Revolution.

Other European rulers wanted to bring

back the king. Napoleon helped to

defend France’s new government in a

series of wars. He became a military

hero.

Consul

In 1799 a new government called the

Consulate took control of France.

Napoleon became the leader, called first

consul. He made many changes. Most

importantly, he introduced a set of laws

called the Napoleonic Code. He also

continued to fight other European

powers. He built up an empire in a

series of wars called the Napoleonic

Wars.

Emperor

In 1804 Napoleon made himself

emperor of France. Other countries

banded together against him. He won

many victories, but in 1812 he invaded

Russia. This was a disaster for the

French army. Hundreds of thousands of

soldiers died in the cold Russian winter.

Napoleon’s enemies saw their chance.

Great Britain, Austria, and Prussia

joined Russia in a war that became

known as theWar of Liberation. They

finally forced Napoleon from power in

1814.

Last Years

Napoleon was sent away to Elba, a

small island off the coast of Italy. In

1815 he escaped to France. He gathered

An artist named Jacques-Louis

David painted Napoleon in His

Study in 1812. The painting is in

the National Gallery of Art, in

Washington, D.C.

8 Napoleon BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

supporters and seized power once again.

This period was known as the Hundred

Days. It lasted until British and

Prussian troops defeated Napoleon in

the battle of Waterloo, in Belgium, in

June 1815.

This time Napoleon was sent away to

Saint Helena, an island in the South

Atlantic Ocean. The British watched

him carefully so he could not escape.

Napoleon died on Saint Helena on May

5, 1821.

#More to explore

French Revolution

Narcissus

In ancient Greek mythology Narcissus

was a handsome young man. He loved

himself more than he did others. This

flaw led to his death.

Narcissus’ father was the river god

Cephissus. His mother was Leiriope, a

minor female goddess called a nymph.

According to legend, Narcissus was so

handsome that many girls fell in love

with him. He refused them all, however.

The gods wanted to punish Narcissus

for being so selfish. They made him fall

in love with his own image. Narcissus

saw his reflection in a pool of water

when he leaned over to take a drink. He

became so enchanted with his image

that he could never look away. Eventually

he died there. The gods then took

pity on Narcissus and changed him into

a flower. Today a person who is very

selfish is sometimes called a narcissist.

#More to explore

Mythology

In Greek mythology Narcissus was a man

who fell in love with his own image.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Narcissus 9

Narraganset

The Narraganset were a powerful Native

American people whose homeland

included much of what is now Rhode

Island. The tribe was nearly destroyed by

warfare with the English.

Narraganset families lived in domeshaped

homes called wigwams. The Narraganset

grew corn, beans, squash, and

sunflowers. They also fished and hunted

deer and moose.

In the early 1600s English settlers began

to arrive in Narraganset territory. At first

the Narraganset were friendly toward the

English. They helped the English fight a

war against the Pequot tribe in 1637. In

1675, however, the Narraganset tried to

stay out of another dispute called King

Philip’sWar. The Narraganset were

drawn into the war after they refused to

turn over Wampanoag Indians who had

fled into their territory. The English

army attacked and burned a large Narraganset

village near what is now Kingston,

Rhode Island. In the battle nearly

1,000 Narraganset were killed or captured

and enslaved.

Surviving Narraganset fled. Most joined

other tribes, such as the Mohican, the

Abnaki, and the Niantic. Those who

merged with the Niantic kept the name

Narraganset. At the end of the 20th

century there were more than 2,000

Narraganset living in the United States.

..More to explore

King Philip’sWar • Native Americans

• Pequot

Nashville

Population

(2000 census),

city, 545,524;

(2007 estimate)

590,807

Nashville is the capital of the U.S. state

of Tennessee. The city lies on the Cum-

A Narraganset man from Rhode

Island wears traditional dress.

The Country Music Hall of Fame and

Museum is one of Nashville’s leading attractions.

10 Narraganset BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

berland River. It is world famous for its

country music. A country music radio

show called the Grand Ole Opry has

been broadcast from the city for more

than 75 years. The Country Music

Hall of Fame and Museum is also in

Nashville.

The music, entertainment, and tourist

industries are important to Nashville’s

economy. In addition, several large

insurance, money management, and

health care companies have headquarters

in the city. Many people work for colleges

and universities in Nashville. The

city’s leading industries also include

car manufacturing and printing and

publishing.

Nashville has many interesting buildings.

The state Capitol was built in

1855. It is the city’s central landmark. A

copy of the Parthenon, an ancient

temple in Athens, Greece, is also located

in Nashville. In fact, the city has a number

of buildings that look like those in

ancient Greece.

Several Native American tribes once

lived in the Nashville area. White settlers

founded a fort at the site in 1779. The

settlement that grew around the fort was

named Nashville in 1784. It became the

official state capital in 1843.

In 1862, during the American Civil

War, Union troops captured Nashville.

The last major battle of the CivilWar

was fought outside the city in 1864.

#More to explore

Country Music

Nassau

Population

(2002 estimate)

179,300

Nassau is the capital of The Bahamas,

an island country in the Atlantic

Ocean. The city lies on the coast of

New Providence Island. It is the largest

city in The Bahamas. Nassau’s warm

climate and beautiful beaches have

made it one of the world’s major

vacation spots.

Nassau’s economy is based mostly on

tourism. The city is also a banking center

and port. Citrus fruits, fish, rum,

and other goods are shipped out

through the port for sale overseas.

Vacationers can enjoy sun, sand, and

sailboating at a beach near Nassau, The

Bahamas.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nassau 11

The British took over The Bahamas in

the 1600s. They founded Nassau in the

late 1600s. Nassau was a base for pirates

in the 1700s. The pirates attacked European

ships in the nearby Caribbean Sea.

DuringWorldWar II (1939–45) the

United States set up a military base in

Nassau. In 1973 The Bahamas became

an independent country with Nassau as

its capital.

#More to explore

Bahamas, The

Natchez

The Natchez were a Native American

people who lived along the Mississippi

River. They built their villages near what

is now the city of Natchez, Mississippi.

Wars with the French destroyed the

Natchez as a separate tribe in the 1700s.

The Natchez grew corn, beans, and

squash. They also hunted, fished, and

gathered wild plants. They lived in tall

houses that they made from mud and

straw. They built large temples on top of

mounds made of earth.

French traders and settlers arrived in

Natchez territory in the early 1700s.

The French and the Natchez soon began

fighting. By 1730 the French and their

Choctaw allies had driven the Natchez

from their villages. About 400 Natchez

were captured and sold as slaves. Other

Natchez joined nearby tribes, such as the

Chickasaw, the Creek, and the

Cherokee.

In 1832 the surviving Natchez, along

with their new tribes, were forced to

move to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma).

At the end of the 20th century

there were only a few Natchez descendants

left. The former Grand Village of

the Natchez is now a historic site in

Mississippi.

#More to explore

Native Americans

National Anthem

People sing patriotic songs to show love

for their country. Many countries choose

one patriotic song to be their national

song, or anthem, which people play or

sing at important events. Some national

anthems are religious. Others are about

important battles. Some simply express

pride in the nation.

United States

The national anthem of the United

States is “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

Francis Scott Key wrote the words during

theWar of 1812. Congress chose the

song as the national anthem in 1931.

People sing it at parades, ceremonies,

and even before sports events. Though

The houses of the Natchez had thatched

(straw) roofs.

12 Natchez BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

there are four verses to the song, most

people sing only the first one. While

singing, people stand and remove their

hats as a sign of respect for the country.

Some people place their right hand over

their heart.

Other Countries

One of the oldest national anthems is

the United Kingdom’s “God Save the

Queen.” (If a man is on the throne, the

anthem is called “God Save the King.”)

In some former British colonies people

sing different words to the anthem’s

tune. For example, in the United States

people sing “My Country ’Tis of Thee”

to the tune. Australia replaced “God

Save the Queen” with its own anthem,

“Advance Australia Fair,” in 1984.

France’s national anthem is “La Marseillaise”

(Song of Marseille). Like the U.S.

national anthem, it was written during a

war—in this case, the French Revolution.

Canada’s anthem, “O Canada,”

may be sung in either English or

French—the two languages of that

country. A famous poet named Rabindranath

Tagore wrote India’s anthem,

“Jana-gana-mana” (Thou Art the Ruler

of All Minds).

Changes in politics can cause a national

anthem to change. For example, the

Nazis of Germany used “Deutschland,

Deutschland uber Alles” (Germany, Germany

Above All) as their anthem. After

WorldWar II Germany stopped using

the song because of its link to Nazism.

However,West Germany later used one

verse of the song as its anthem. Today

Germany uses the same anthem but

with a new title, “Deutschlandlied”

(Song of Germany).

#More to explore

Australia • Canada • France • French

Revolution • Germany • India • Key,

Francis Scott • Nazi Party • United

Kingdom • United States •War of 1812

National

Association for

the Advancement

of Colored

People (NAACP)

The National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People

(NAACP) is the oldest civil rights organization

in the United States. It was

created in 1909 to work for equal rights

for African Americans and other minority

groups. The NAACP has fought discrimination

in schools, the workplace,

and public places. Its goal is to end

Members of Brazil’s women’s soccer team

sing their country’s national anthem after

winning gold medals in competition.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA National Association 13

racism—the belief that one group of

people is better than other groups.

Members of the NAACP try to make

sure that everyone is treated equally

under the law. They ask the U.S.

Congress to pass new laws to guarantee

that equal treatment. In this way they

act to ensure the civil rights of all

citizens. Civil rights are those that are

granted by the laws of the country.

These include the right to vote and to

own property.

The NAACP’s most famous success is

the U.S. Supreme Court decision in the

case of Brown vs. Board of Education of

Topeka. In 1954 lawyers for the

NAACP argued that segregation in public

schools should end. The justices of

the Court agreed and ruled that segregation

was illegal. As a result black children

could attend the same schools as

white children.

The NAACP played an important role

during the civil rights movement of the

1960s. Its members helped to organize

the March onWashington, a large demonstration

for civil rights, in 1963. The

NAACP also asked Congress to pass the

Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting

Rights Act (1965).

#More to explore

African Americans • Civil Rights

Movement

National Park

A national park is an area set aside by a

country’s government. Sometimes the

government already owns the land. In

other cases the government tries to purchase

lands it wishes to make into a

park. Many national parks are created to

preserve the natural environment. Most

of the landscapes, plants, and animals in

a national park are kept in their natural

state. Some national parks do not allow

visitors. In others, visitors must follow

rules to keep the plants and animals

from being hurt by human activity.

Some parks protect areas where important

events in history occurred.

The NAACP is one of the sponsors of a

project that checks elections to make sure

that all votes are fairly counted.

Macaque monkeys gather in a national

park in Japan.

14 National Park BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1872 the U.S. government set up the

world’s first national park. It was Yellowstone

National Park in the state ofWyoming.

Since that time, the United States

has created many more national parks.

They include Acadia National Park in

Maine, Grand Canyon National Park in

Arizona, Grand Teton National Park in

Wyoming, and Yosemite National Park

in California.

The U.S. government created the

National Park Service in 1916 to oversee

the park areas. The service builds roads

and campgrounds.

Canada named its first three national

parks—Banff, Glacier, and Yoho—in the

1880s. All are in western Canada.

Most of Europe’s national parks date

from the 1900s. The United Kingdom

named its first national parks in 1951.

Africa’s national parks have many animals.

Serengeti National Park in Tanzania

has antelopes, zebras, and lions.

Tsavo National Park in Kenya has

elephants and rhinoceroses.

National parks in many places are built

around natural wonders. For example,

Japan’s Fuji-Hakone-Izu includes

Mount Fuji, a famous volcano.

Venezuela’s Canaima National Park

includes Angel Falls, the world’s highest

waterfall.

#More to explore

Fuji, Mount • Grand Canyon

The United States has many national parks. Most are in the West.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA National Park 15

Native

Americans, or

American Indians

The first peoples in the Americas lived

there for thousands of years before European

explorers arrived. Descendants of

many of these peoples still live in North

and South America today.

Arctic peoples, including the Eskimo

(Inuit) and the Aleut, lived in the far

northern parts of North America. The

Carib, the Aztec, the Maya, the Inca,

and other groups lived in the Caribbean,

Mesoamerica (Mexico and Central

America), and South America.

Many other peoples lived in what are

now Canada and the United States.

These peoples are known as Native

Americans or American Indians. In

Canada they are also known as the First

Nations.

Early Peoples of the Americas

The first peoples in the Americas probably

traveled from Asia to what is now

Alaska. Scientists believe that this happened

about 60,000 to 20,000 years

ago. During this period there may have

been solid land where the Bering Strait

now divides Asia and North America.

By about 10,000 BC these peoples had

spread throughout North, Central, and

South America.

North American Peoples

The peoples of North America spread

out into as many as 240 groups. These

groups are sometimes called tribes or

nations. The groups spoke different languages,

but neighboring groups often

had similar ways of life.

Native Americans in eastern North

America included the Iroquois in the

northeast and the Creek in the southeast.

People in these regions used tree

bark and branches to make houses,

weapons, tools, and canoes. They made

clothing from the skins of deer and

other animals. They hunted, fished, and

gathered wild plants. They also planted

corn, squash, beans, and tobacco.

Peoples on the Great Plains of central

North America included the Cheyenne

and the Sioux. The grasses of the plains

fed huge herds of grazing animals,

The National Museum of the American

Indian opened in 2004 in the U.S. capital

of Washington, D.C. The museum teaches

visitors about the culture and history of

Native Americans.

16 Native Americans BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

including elk, deer, antelope, and bison

(buffalo). Plains Indians got almost

everything they needed from the bison.

They ate the meat, made tepees and

clothing from the skins, and made tools

from the bones.

The Pueblo Indians, the Navajo, and

other groups lived in the dry Southwest.

Peoples there learned to farm using very

little water. Some built homes from

stone and adobe (sun-baked clay). Others

lived in simpler shelters.

Before Europeans arrived, different Native American groups lived in many regions of

North America.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Native Americans 17

Many groups of Californian Indians

lived along theWest Coast. They fished

and hunted, and some groups made

flour from acorns. The Chumash built

dome-shaped houses. The Miwok built

houses that were partly underground.

The Great Basin was home to the Shoshone

and other peoples. This dry area

included what are now Nevada and

Utah. These peoples moved around in

search of food. They hunted small animals,

fished, and gathered berries, nuts,

seeds, and roots.

North of this region lived the Nez Perce,

the Flathead, and other groups of Plateau

Indians. These peoples fished and

hunted. They often lived in villages during

winter. During summer they

camped in tents or tepees.

Many peoples lived on the Northwest

Coast, an area that stretched between

modern California and Alaska. They

included the Tlingit and the Kwakiutl.

The peoples of this region fished in the

ocean and rivers. Some groups hunted

whales. They made large houses and

sturdy canoes out of wood.

The Chipewyan, the Cree, and other

peoples lived in the subarctic. This area

lies south of the Arctic, in what are now

Native Americans of each area are often

known for particular types of crafts. The

Iroquois wove baskets out of grass (top left).

Pueblo Indians made pottery with attractive

designs (top right). The Cheyenne made

beaded, animal-shaped figures (bottom left)

for their children. The Tlingit carved totem

poles (bottom right) that showed figures

from their myths and legends.

Two dolls (left) show the style of clothes once worn by the Apache. A Cherokee boy (center)

performs a dance in festive clothing. Nez Perce (right) display blankets with traditional designs.

18 Native Americans BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Canada and Alaska. Subarctic peoples

depended on caribou, moose, and beavers

for food. They also made tents and

clothing from animal hides.

Native Americans

and Europeans

Europeans began to arrive in the Americas

in the late 1400s. They called the

people they met there Indians because

they thought they had arrived in the

East Indies, in Asia.

The Europeans brought new plants and

animals. The horse brought great change

to Native American life. Groups on

horseback could travel long distances

and hunt bison much more easily than

before. Native Americans also welcomed

such European goods as cloth fabrics,

metal tools, and guns.

But the Europeans also brought diseases,

including measles and smallpox. Most

Native Americans could not fight these

diseases because their ancestors had not

been exposed to them. Smallpox soon

wiped out many groups.

In the 1600s many people from England

settled permanently in eastern North

America. Some Native Americans helped

the English at first. But as more English

colonists arrived, they took over more of

the Native Americans’ land. Unlike the

Native Americans, the colonists thought

that individual people could own land.

Several wars broke out between colonists

and Native Americans. In King Philip’s

War (1675–76) the English defeated a

group of several tribes. This victory

allowed colonists to settle more land in

New England.

Native Americans

and the United States

Colonists had taken over much of the

land in the Northeast by the end of the

American Revolution in 1783. In the

1830s the U.S. government forced the

Cherokee and other tribes in the Southeast

to move west. Their difficult journey

is now known as the Trail of Tears.

The government set aside land called

Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) for

the tribes to live on. However, white

settlers soon settled there, too.

In the mid-1800s the U.S. army fought

many battles against the peoples of the

Great Plains and the Southwest. One of

the last conflicts took place in 1890 at

Wounded Knee in South Dakota.

Eventually, most of the Native Americans

of theWest came to live on reservations.

These were areas of land that the

U.S. government set aside for certain

Native American groups. However, a

group’s reservation often was smaller or

in a different place than that group’s

homeland. Conditions on the reservations

were poor. Many Native Americans

had to give up their traditional

ways of life.

In 1934 the U.S. government began to

change the way it treated Native Americans.

It passed a law that gave Native

American governments more power over

their own land and people.

All Native

Americans in

the United

States did not

become

citizens until

1924. Many

did not get the

right to vote

until 1948.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Native Americans 19

However, many Native Americans were

still angry at the U.S. government’s

treatment of them. A protest group

called the American Indian Movement

(AIM) formed in the late 1960s. AIM

took over Alcatraz Island in San Francisco

Bay during 1969–71. In 1973

AIM took over the town ofWounded

Knee in South Dakota for more than

two months.

Native Americans Today

By 2000 there were nearly 2.5 million

Native Americans in the United States.

(This number includes the Eskimo and

other Arctic peoples.) They made up

about 1 percent of the U.S. population.

Less than half of them lived on or near

reservations. Another 1.7 million people

in the United States had some Native

American ancestors.

Reservations are outside the reach of

many state laws. This has allowed Native

American groups to open gambling casinos

on their land. These businesses raise

money for the groups and provide jobs.

Even so, Native Americans who live on

reservations generally are poorer than

most other Americans.

Native Americans continue to fight for

the respect of their history and culture.

Some have protested the use of Native

American names or mascots by sports

teams. Many have demanded that the

U.S. government return or pay for the

lands where their ancestors lived.

#More to explore

Eskimo • King Philip’sWar • North

America • Trail of Tears •Wounded

Knee

Natural Gas

#see Gas, Natural.

Natural Resource

A natural resource is something that is

found in nature and can be used by

people. Earth’s natural resources include

light, air, water, plants, animals, soil,

stone, minerals, and fossil fuels. People

need some natural resources to stay

alive. They use others to make their lives

better.

Every place on Earth has its own unique

group of natural resources. Some countries

have lots of oil or coal. Others have

rich soil and thick forests but few miner-

In 1964 a group of Native Americans

claimed that Alcatraz Island, part of the

U.S. state of California, was rightfully

theirs. Native Americans took over the

island again during 1969–71.

20 Natural Gas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

als. The wealthiest countries are usually

the ones with the greatest amount or

variety of natural resources. They are

wealthy because they can sell their

resources to other countries that need

them.

Renewable Resources

Many of the natural resources people

need to survive are renewable.

Renewable resources—such as sunlight,

water, and air—cannot be used up.

However, pollution can make them

harder to use.

Plants and animals are also renewable

resources. Normally living things

replace themselves through

reproduction. But some human

activities can cause whole groups of

living things to disappear forever.

Examples of such activities include

hunting, logging, building, and

polluting.

Nonrenewable Resources

Nonliving things make up another kind

of natural resource. These resources,

such as soil, stone, oil, and gases, can

take thousands or millions of years to

form. They are considered nonrenewable

because people use them faster than they

can form.

Disappearing Resources

Many people fear that humans are

destroying the world’s natural resources.

Clearing land for farming and building

wipes out forests and the animals that

live there. Cars and factories use huge

amounts of oil every day. They also

release poisonous chemicals that pollute

the air, water, and soil. Many people are

working to conserve, or protect, natural

resources. In addition, scientists are

working on ways to produce energy and

goods without causing pollution or

using up valuable natural resources.

#More to explore

Conservation • Forest • Fossil Fuel

• Mineral

People dig mines to get valuable mineral

resources that are found underground. But

mines can leave scars on Earth’s surface.

Freshwater is a renewable resource that is

much in demand.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Natural Resource 21

Nauru

The country of Nauru occupies a small

island in the Pacific Ocean. The capital

is an area called Yaren district.

Geography

Nauru is located just south of the equator

in the region called Oceania. The

climate is hot and humid.

In the center of the island cliffs surround

a plateau, or area of high land. The plateau

once contained much phosphate, a

mineral that is used to make fertilizers.

The mining of phosphate has left the

plateau bare.

Plants and Animals

Coconut palms and other tropical trees

grow near Nauru’s coast. Many birds

visit the island. There were no mammals

in the country until ships brought rats,

mice, cats, dogs, and pigs.

People

Most of the people are native Nauruans.

About one quarter of the people are

from other Pacific islands. Most Nauruans

are Christians. Nauruan is the

national language. Many people speak

English as well.

Economy

The mining of phosphate made Nauru

rich. However, the deposits ran out in

the early 21st century. The government

worked to develop banking, fishing, and

other industries to replace mining.

Nauru must buy most of its food and

other supplies from other countries.

History

It is not known when the first people

came to Nauru. In 1798 a British navigator

arrived. He named the island

Pleasant. In 1888 Germany took control.

A British company began mining

Nauru’s phosphate deposits in 1907. In

1914 Australia took over the island. In

1942, duringWorldWar II, Japanese

forces invaded Nauru. Australian troops

took back Nauru in 1945. Nauru gained

independence in 1967.

..More to explore

Oceania

The island of Nauru is the world’s smallest

republic.

Facts About

NAURU

Population

(2008 estimate)

10,200

Area

8.2 sq mi (21.2

sq km)

Capital

Government

offices are

located in Yaren

district.

Form of

government

Republic

22 Nauru BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Navajo

The Navajo are a Native American

people of the southwestern United

States. After the Cherokee, they are the

country’s second largest Native American

tribe. The Navajo are also known as

the Dine.

The Navajo originally lived in what is

now western and central Canada. There

they hunted animals and gathered plants

to eat. Between AD 900 and 1200 the

Navajo migrated southward. Then they

began to farm. They lived in houses

called hogans. Hogans were six- or

eight-sided homes made from wood

covered with earth.

The Navajo learned many skills from

their neighbors. They probably learned

farming from the Pueblo Indians. The

Navajo also learned weaving from the

Pueblo. Navajo rugs and blankets are

well known. The Navajo learned to

work with silver from their Mexican

neighbors.

Spanish explorers arrived in Navajo

lands in the late 1500s. They brought

horses, sheep, and cattle. Many Navajo

then became animal herders. For many

years the Navajo raided Spanish and,

later, American settlements. To end the

raids the U.S. government went to war

against the Navajo in 1863. U.S. troops

destroyed Navajo herds and fields. In

1864 the government captured and held

about 8,000 Navajo in eastern New

Mexico.

In 1868 the Navajo were allowed to

return to their homeland. They settled

on a reservation along the border of Arizona

and New Mexico. Today the

Navajo have the largest reservation in

the United States. It covers parts of Arizona,

New Mexico, and Utah. In 2000

there were almost 270,000 Navajo.

#More to explore

Native Americans • Pueblo Indians

Navigation

Finding the way from place to place is

called navigation. Navigators are people

who do the work of finding the way.

They need to know where they are. They

also need to know which way to go.

Ship Navigation

For hundreds of years, navigators of

ships have used several methods. One

simple method is called piloting. Navigators

who use this method look at

objects on shore to find their way. Special

markers help navigators steer clear of

A Navajo man creates a sand painting. The

Navajo often produce such paintings during

healing ceremonies.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Navigation 23

dangerous rocks and toward safe passages.

These markers include lighthouses

and buoys.

When traveling far from land, ship navigators

may use the dead reckoning

method. Navigators who use this

method record how far the ship has traveled

in each direction. To do this, they

must keep track of the speed of the ship

and how long the trip has taken. Compasses

and charts help navigators with

dead reckoning and piloting. Compasses

are devices that help show the navigator

which direction the ship is traveling in.

Charts are special maps with information

that is helpful to navigators. This

can include how deep the water is and

where there might be rocks or other

dangers under the water.

Ship navigators also may use the positions

of the sun, Moon, planets, and

stars to find their way. This is called

celestial navigation. Navigators use special

instruments to get exact measurements

of the sky. They also use charts of

the night sky.

In the 1900s ship navigators began to

use radar, radio, and electronic devices

to find their way. Radar systems measure

distances by bouncing energy off nearby

objects. Instruments on ships measure

distances using radio signals from shore.

Today many ship navigators use a global

positioning system (GPS). These systems

use artificial satellites that orbit, or

travel around, Earth. Navigators have

special devices that send and receive

radio signals from the satellites. The

signals can tell navigators exactly where

on Earth they are located.

Underwater Navigation

Submarine navigators cannot see stars or

objects on shore when they are below

the surface. They cannot use ordinary

radio waves, either. Instead, submarine

navigators find their way using energy

waves called very-low-frequency radiation.

Submarine navigators also have

instruments that tell them how far

below the surface they are. They use

charts of the ocean floor as well.

Officers on a passenger ship use charts for

navigation.

A magnetic compass has a needle that

points north. It can be used for land, sea, or

air navigation.

24 Navigation BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Air Navigation

Airplane navigators can use many of the

same methods as ship navigators: piloting,

dead reckoning, celestial navigation,

radio, radar, and global positioning. The

airplane navigator also must keep track

of altitude, or how high the airplane is

flying. Special instruments and computers

on board help navigators do their

job. Outside of the aircraft people called

air traffic controllers use radio and radar

to direct airplanes in and out of busy airports.

Space Navigation

Like ship and airplane navigators, navigators

of spaceships use celestial navigation.

Because they can see Earth, they

can use it as well as the other planets

and stars. Computers and radios on the

spacecraft and on Earth also help space

travelers to navigate.

#More to explore

Airplane • Compass • Lighthouse

• Radar • Ship • Submarine

Navy

A navy is the branch of a country’s

armed forces that fights on, under, or

over the sea. A navy has several main

jobs. It protects its country and its allies,

or friends, as they carry on ocean trade.

It also carries out attacks and other missions

at sea during war.

Navies Today

Most navies keep a fleet, or group, of

ships that are specially built for certain

types of work. Aircraft carriers are ships

that carry aircraft. Aircraft can land and

take off from their decks. Cruisers and

destroyers are ships that fight with guns

or rocket-propelled missiles. Submarines

and destroyers fight with underwater

weapons, such as mines and torpedoes.

More than 100 countries have a navy.

The United States has the world’s largest

and most powerful navy. During wartime,

the U.S. Navy also includes the

U.S. Coast Guard.

A sextant is an instrument that is used in

celestial navigation. A navigator uses it to

find out how high in the sky the sun is. At

night it can measure the height of the Moon

or a star.

Airplanes are parked between missions on

the flight deck of a nuclear-powered aircraft

carrier.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Navy 25

History

A number of ancient civilizations,

including ancient Greece and Rome,

had navies. Most ancient warships were

large wooden vessels powered by oars.

During naval warfare, troops tried to

sink an enemy’s ship by ramming it,

setting it on fire, or sending armed

forces aboard.

During the 1500s and 1600s warships

changed greatly. Sails became the main

source of power. They allowed ships to

travel farther and faster. Cannons also

were mounted on board.

The next important development in

warships came in the middle of the

1800s. Countries began to build warships

from iron and steel instead of

wood. Steam engines replaced sails. In

the late 1800s countries built armored,

fast-moving battleships with huge, powerful

guns.

The battleship was the mightiest naval

ship untilWorldWar II (1939–45).

During this war the Japanese successfully

used aircraft carriers. Bomber

planes launched from aircraft carriers

sank ships, including battleships, far out

at sea. Since then air power, including

airplanes and missiles, has been the main

weapon of the world’s navies.

#More to explore

Ship • Submarine •War

Nazi Party

The Nazi Party was a political group

that ruled Germany between 1933 and

1945. “Nazi” is a short form of the official

name. In English the official name is

the National Socialist GermanWorkers’

Party. Under Adolf Hitler’s leadership,

the Nazis startedWorldWar II. They

also carried out the Holocaust—the

murder of about 6 million Jewish

people.

Teachings

The Nazis believed that the people

should obey a strong leader. They had

no use for democracy, rule of law,

human rights, or peace. The Nazis also

taught that Germans were born to rule

over what they called “inferior races”

(lesser peoples). Hitler preached a special

hatred against Jews.

Rise of Nazism

Nazism developed afterWorldWar I

(1914–18). Germany lost that war. This

led to hard times for the country. Many

Germans blamed the government for

their problems. Germans began looking

for a change.

Members of Adolf Hitler’s private army, the

Storm Troopers, march through the streets

of Nuremberg, Germany, after a Nazi

Party rally.

Some countries

with no

seacoast still

have a navy.

Examples

include Bolivia

and Paraguay.

26 Nazi Party BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The group that became the Nazi Party

formed in 1919. Hitler soon took control.

He attracted many new members

with his angry speeches. In 1923 Hitler

tried to take over the government but

failed.

Nevertheless, the Nazi Party continued

to grow. Many people joined the Nazis

during the Great Depression—a time of

poverty that began in 1929. Germans

began to vote for Nazi candidates in

elections. In 1933 the president of Germany

named Hitler chancellor (prime

minister).

Hitler made himself a dictator, or leader

with unlimited power. His secret police

rounded up his enemies and put them in

concentration camps (prison centers).

WorldWar II

Hitler also built up Germany’s armed

forces. They took over Austria and part

of Czechoslovakia. In 1939 Germany

invaded Poland. This act set off World

War II.

During the war the Nazis carried out the

Holocaust. They used poison gas to kill

millions of Jews and others.

Hitler’s hopes for the Nazi Party ended

with Germany’s defeat in the war. Hitler

killed himself on April 30, 1945. A few

days later Germany surrendered.

AfterWorldWar II

Nazism survived as a small movement in

Germany and some other countries. In

the 1990s some German youths formed

gangs that believed in Nazi ideas. They

were called neo-Nazis (new Nazis).

However, the number of neo-Nazis

remained small.

..More to explore

Germany • Hitler, Adolf • Holocaust

•WorldWar II

N’Djamena

Population

(2005

estimate), urban

area, 888,000

N’Djamena is the capital of Chad, a

country in central Africa. The city lies

on the Chari River. It is the largest city

in Chad.

Many people in N’Djamena work in

trade. Farmers from the surrounding

area sell their cotton and cattle in the

city.

N’Djamena began as a French military

post named Fort-Lamy. The French set

up Fort-Lamy in 1900 at the site of a

small fishing village. They made Fort-

Lamy part of a French colony in 1910.

Chad became an independent country

in 1960. Then the city grew as the country’s

capital. In 1973 the city was

renamed N’Djamena.

..More to explore

Chad

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA N’Djamena 27

Nebraska

The U.S. state of Nebraska probably

got its name from a Native

American word meaning “flat water.”

This refers to the Platte River, which

runs across the middle of the state. Corn

is the state’s main crop. Indeed Nebraska’s

nickname is the Cornhusker State.

The capital of Nebraska is Lincoln.

Geography

Nebraska is located in the central United

States in an area known as the Great

Plains. The state is bordered on the

north by South Dakota, on the west by

Colorado andWyoming, and on the

south by Kansas. On the east the Missouri

River separates Nebraska from

Iowa and Missouri.

The land consists mainly of a rolling

plain that rises gradually from east to

west. The hills and plains of eastern and

southern Nebraska are land that is good

for growing crops. The vast Sand Hills

country of the north-central and

northwestern parts of the state is a

treeless, grass-covered region suitable for

grazing cattle and sheep. The climate is

dry, with cold winters and hot

summers.

People

About 90 percent of Nebraska’s current

population is white. The first large

groups of Europeans to settle in the

region were Germans. Later came

Czechs, Swedes, Danes, and Russians.

Nebraska’s largest minority groups are

African Americans and Hispanics. Each

group makes up about 4 percent of the

population.

Economy

Nebraska ranks among the top states in

agricultural production. Corn is the

most valuable crop. It is raised in the

central and southern counties. Soybeans

are another important crop. The state is

a national leader in the sale of cattle and

calves. Hogs are also valuable.

Nebraska’s economy also depends on

services provided by various businesses.

Business services such as telemarketing

grew quickly in the state during the

1990s. Nebraska is also a major center of

the U.S. insurance industry.

History

Several Native American tribes were

living in the area when Spanish and

French explorers visited between the

1500s and 1800s. These tribes included

28 Nebraska BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the Pawnee, Oto, Missouri, Omaha, and

several others.

Nebraska was acquired by the United

States as part of an 1803 land deal with

France known as the Louisiana Purchase.

The first organized exploration of

the Nebraska area was by the Lewis and

Clark Expedition in 1804. Fur traders

began creating trading posts in the area

in about 1810.

In the early 1800s Nebraska was part of

a large area reserved for Native Americans

between the Missouri River and the

Rocky Mountains. In 1854 the Kansas-

Nebraska Act created territories for both

Nebraska and Kansas. The Nebraska

Territory was much larger than the

present-day state. Between 1861 and

1863 it was reduced to about its present

size. In 1867 Nebraska entered the

Union as the 37th state. The completion

of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1869

increased settlement in the new state.

A terrible drought during much of the

1930s caused many farmers in Nebraska

to give up their land. It also led to an

increase in irrigation (watering) projects

and improved farming practices.World

War II turned the economy around in

the early 1940s. Nebraska enjoyed economic

growth for several decades.

In the mid-1980s the state was hit hard

by a decline in the value of farmland.

Many farmers were forced to sell their

farms to pay off their bills. In the early

21st century Nebraska was seeking to

attract new industries to the state.

..More to explore

Kansas-Nebraska Act • Lincoln

Cranes gather on the Platte River in Nebraska during their migration north each spring.

Facts About

NEBRASKA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

1,711,263—

rank, 38th state;

(2008 estimate)

1,783,432—

rank, 38th state

Capital

Lincoln

Area

77,354 sq mi

(200,345 sq

km)—rank, 16th

state

Statehood

March 1, 1867

Motto

Equality Before

the Law

State bird

Western

meadowlark

State flower

Goldenrod

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nebraska 29

Nebula

A nebula is a cloud of gas and dust in

space. Nebulas appear in many shapes

and colors. Sometimes a nebula blocks

out the light of stars beyond it. When

this happens, the nebula may look like a

dark cloud. Other times a nebula glows

a bright color, such as blue or red. This

happens when the nebula reflects light

from nearby stars or when nearby stars

heat the nebula so that it glows.

Nehru,

Jawaharlal

In 1947 Jawaharlal Nehru became the

first prime minister, or leader, of India.

For more than 20 years he had worked

with Mahatma Gandhi to free India

from British rule.

Nehru was born on November 14,

1889, in Allahabad, India. He studied in

Great Britain and became a lawyer.

Nehru met Gandhi in 1916. At that

time Great Britain ruled India as a

colony. Nehru soon became involved in

Gandhi’s fight to win India’s independence

from Britain. Nehru joined the

Congress Party, the political group that

Gandhi led. In 1929 Gandhi picked

Nehru to lead the Congress Party.

Nehru angered the British with his work

for independence. Between 1921 and

1945 he was jailed nine times.

In 1947 the British finally left India.

Nehru then became prime minister of

India. He worked to make the country

more modern. For example, he encouraged

research in science and technology.

He also changed ancient laws to give

Indian women more rights.

Nehru remained prime minister until

his death. He died in New Delhi, India,

on May 27, 1964. His daughter, Indira

Gandhi, became prime minister two

years later.

#More to explore

Gandhi, Indira • Gandhi, Mahatma

• India

Jawaharlal Nehru

The Lagoon Nebula can be seen in the constellation

Sagittarius.

30 Nebula BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Nepal

Nepal is a small, mountainous country

in Asia. Mount Everest, the highest

mountain in the world, is on Nepal’s

northern border. For a long time the

mountains kept Nepal closed to the outside

world. Nepal’s capital is Kathmandu.

Geography

Nepal sits south of China and north of

India. The part of China that borders

Nepal is called Tibet.

Along its southern border Nepal has low,

flat plains. From there the land slopes up

to a region of hills and then mountains.

In the north are the towering mountains

of the Himalayas. The major rivers of

Nepal are the Kosi, the Narayani (or

Gandak), and the Karnali.

Most of Nepal has a mild climate. The

weather is colder and snowier in the

higher areas.

Plants and Animals

Native trees such as sissoo and sal grow

in the plains and the hills. Pine, oak,

poplar, and walnut trees grow in the

lower mountains. The forests of the

Himalayas contain spruce, fir, cypress,

juniper, and birch trees.

Nepal’s wildlife includes tigers, leopards,

deer, and rhinoceroses. Some people

believe that a monster called the Yeti, or

Abominable Snowman, lives in Nepal’s

high, snow-covered mountains. Most

people do not believe that the Yeti exists.

People

The population of Nepal includes several

ethnic groups. The Tharu, the

Newar, and other groups have Indian

ancestors. Other peoples, such as the

Tamang and the Sherpa, have Tibetan

roots. Nepali is the country’s main language.

Most people live in rural areas in

the hilly center of the country.

A light dusting of snow covers a village in

the mountains of Nepal. Most of the country

is mountainous.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nepal 31

Hinduism is the main religion. However,

Hinduism and Buddhism have

existed side by side in Nepal for centuries.

Legends even say that the Buddha,

the man who started Buddhism, was

born in Nepal.

Economy

Nepal is one of the poorest countries in

the world. Most of the people work in

farming. Rice, corn, wheat, potatoes,

and sugarcane are the main crops. Farmers

also raise cattle, goats, buffalo, pigs,

and sheep.

Factories in Nepal make clothing, carpets,

and pashmina (a fabric of fine wool

and silk). Other products include wood

from the country’s many forests and a

plant fiber called jute. Tourism is

another source of money for Nepal.

History

In ancient times Hindu kings from

India ruled the Nepal region. In 1769 a

ruler named Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered

a number of small kingdoms.

Shah’s territory became the modern

state of Nepal.

The Rana family took control from the

Shah family in 1846. The Rana gave

Great Britain some power in Nepal. A

revolution forced out the Rana government

in 1951. A Shah family member

then took back power as king.

Birendra Shah became king in 1972. In

1990 there were many protests over the

king’s absolute power. A new constitution

allowed political parties and established

a two-house legislature.

A group of rebels began fighting the

government in 1996. The rebels wanted

to set up a Communist government.

In 2001 King Birendra’s son shot and

killed the king, other members of the

royal family, and himself. King Birendra’s

brother Gyanendra then became

king. He tried to take control of the

government to stop the ongoing fighting

by the rebels. This led to more protests.

In 2006 Gyanendra gave up control,

and the rebels signed a peace agreement

with the government. The Nepalese

people elected a new assembly in 2008.

The new government then voted to

declare Nepal a democratic republic.

..More to explore

Buddhism • Everest, Mount • Hinduism

• Kathmandu

A man stands next to a

selection of brightly colored

powders in Kathmandu, Nepal.

People use the powders during

Hindu festivals.

Facts About

NEPAL

Population

(2008 estimate)

28,757,000

Area

56,827 sq mi

(147,181 sq km)

Capital

Kathmandu

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Kathmandu,

Biratnagar, Lalitpur,

Pokhara,

Birganj

32 Nepal BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Neptune

Neptune is one of the planets that orbit,

or travel around, the sun in the solar

system. It is a huge, distant planet that is

deep blue in color. It is a stormy world.

The planet has the fastest winds ever

discovered in the solar system.

Neptune is about 3 billion miles (4.8

billion kilometers) from the sun.

Neptune is the eighth and last planet

from the sun. Pluto, a dwarf planet, is

usually farther from the sun than

Neptune. However, about every 228

years Pluto’s path takes it closer to the

sun than Neptune. Then Neptune stays

beyond Pluto for 20 years. This last

occurred from 1979 to 1999.

Physical Features

Neptune is nearly as big as its inner

neighbor, the planet Uranus. Neptune’s

diameter, or distance through its center,

is about 31,000 miles (50,000 kilometers).

That is about four times as big as

Earth’s diameter.

Neptune is a kind of planet called a gas

giant. It is made up mostly of gases,

mainly hydrogen and helium. A small

amount of the gas methane makes Neptune

appear blue. The planet has no

solid surface. Scientists think that Neptune

has hot, thick liquids deep inside it.

A system of narrow rings surrounds

Neptune. The rings are not as large as

the rings of the planet Saturn. They are

made up of dust.

Orbit and Spin

Like all planets, Neptune has two types

of motion: orbit and spin. Neptune

orbits, or travels around, the sun very

slowly. It takes Neptune about 165

Earth years to complete one orbit. In

other words, a year on Neptune is equal

to about 165 Earth years.

Neptune spins about its center rapidly. It

completes one rotation in about 16

hours, so a day on Neptune lasts about

16 hours.

Moons

More than 10 moons orbit Neptune. Its

largest moon, Triton, is nearly as big as

Earth’s Moon. Scientists believe that

Triton might have formed as an independent

planet. However, because of a

The spacecraft Voyager 2 flew for 12 years

before it got close enough to Neptune to

send a clear photograph back to Earth. The

planet’s surface appears to be smooth

because it is made of gas.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Neptune 33

force called gravity, Neptune may have

pulled Triton into its orbit.

Observation and Exploration

Neptune is a huge planet. However, it is

so far away that people on Earth cannot

see it without a telescope. In 1846 the

German astronomer Johann Gottfried

Galle discovered Neptune with a telescope.

Only one spacecraft has visited

Neptune. The unmanned U.S. spacecraft

Voyager 2 flew by the planet in

1989.

#More to explore

Planets • Pluto • Solar System • Space

Exploration • Uranus

Neptune, god

#see Poseidon.

Nervous System

Animals constantly use their senses to

gather information about their surroundings.

Nerves in the body pick up

this information. In most animals the

nerves send the information to the brain

or a similar organ. The brain makes

sense of the information. It then sends a

message back through the nerves to tell

the body how to react. This network of

nerves and brain is called the nervous

system.

Brain and Spinal Cord

In mammals and other animals with

backbones the brain and the spinal cord

form the central part of the nervous

system. The spinal cord is a long bundle

of major nerves. It runs from the brain

down an animal’s back. Nerves throughout

the body carry information to and

from the central nervous system.

Neurons

The nerve cells, or neurons, are the basic

units of the nervous system. The human

body contains billions of neurons. More

than 10 billion neurons make up the

brain.

Neurons have a nucleus, or center, and

two or more long fibers, or threads.

Impulses travel to and from the neurons

along these fibers.

Neurons are not able to reproduce as

some other cells do. They cannot divide

themselves to create more neurons. Neurons

in most of the body can regrow if

they are slightly damaged. However,

neurons in the brain and spinal cord

cannot regrow at all. This is why severe

Some types of

nerve cells are

several yards

long.

Animals without a backbone have simple

nervous systems. A flatworm (top) has nerve

clusters instead of a true brain. A grasshopper

(bottom) has a larger group of nerve

clusters for a brain.

34 Neptune, god BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

damage to the brain or the spinal cord is

permanent.

Nerves

Nerves are bundles of neuron fibers.

Nerves run throughout the body. Some

nerves, called cranial nerves, run directly

to the brain. The rest of the nerves connect

with the spinal cord. The nerves in

the spinal cord run to and from the

brain.

There are two main types of nerves:

sensory nerves and motor nerves.

Sensory nerves handle information

The human nervous system includes the

brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves that

run throughout the body.

Nerve cells, called neurons, include a

nucleus (center) and two or more long

fibers, or threads. Impulses travel between

neurons along these fibers.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nervous System 35

relating to the senses. They send

information from the eyes, ears, mouth,

nose, skin, and other body parts to the

spinal cord and brain. Motor nerves

carry messages in the other direction.

They send information from the brain

and spinal cord to muscles and other

body parts.

For example, when a person touches a

hot stove, the sensory nerves in the fingers

send impulses to the spinal cord.

The impulses say that the stove is too

hot to touch. The spinal cord then sends

impulses through motor nerves to the

muscles of the arm. These impulses tell

the muscles to pull the arm away from

the stove.

Autonomic nerves are a special type of

motor nerve. These nerves control the

organs inside the body. They regulate

breathing, heartbeat, body temperature,

the digestive system, and other

activities.

Problems with the Nervous

System

Many injuries and diseases can affect the

nervous system. Damage to the spinal

cord can lead to paralysis. When a person

is paralyzed they cannot move.

Paralysis happens because the damaged

nerves block messages that tell the

muscles to move. Multiple sclerosis and

poliomyelitis are diseases that attack

nerves. Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s

disease destroy neurons in the

brain. Meningitis is a swelling of the

thin coverings around the spinal cord

and brain.

#More to explore

Brain • Muscle • Senses

Nest

A nest is a structure in which an animal

lives or keeps its young. Birds are well

known for building nests for their eggs.

Some fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals,

and insects also build nests.

Birds’ Nests

Birds build nests in trees, in bushes, in

caves, on high rock ledges, or on buildings.

Some make nests on the ground or

underground. Many birds build cupshaped

nests. Others make domed nests

or nests that hang from tree limbs like

Sensory nerves send messages from the

eyes, ears, mouth, nose, skin, and other

body parts to the spinal cord and brain.

Motor nerves send messages from the brain

and spinal cord to muscles and other body

parts.

36 Nest BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

long bags. The size of the nest depends

on the type of bird. A hummingbird’s

nest is no bigger than a baby’s fist. An

adult person could lie down in the largest

eagle’s nest.

Birds use a wide range of building materials.

Besides twigs and grass, they might

use mud, feathers, plant fuzz, and bits of

spiderweb. Some birds use their saliva to

bind the materials together. Weavers are

some of the most skilled nest builders.

They make complex nests by weaving

together long strands of grass with their

beaks.

Nests of Other Animals

Most other animals build simple nests.

Some fish hollow out nests in underwater

gravel or sand. Other fish nest in

plants. Frogs make nests out of mud or

hardened froth that floats on the water’s

surface. Alligators build mounds of

grasses and mud. Cobras push together

nests of leaves.

Many small mammals also build nests

with plant material. Tree squirrels use

twigs and leaves to build nests in trees.

Rabbits, mice, moles, and gophers make

their nests underground.

Insects that live together in colonies

build some of the most elaborate nests.

Ant and termite nests often have many

long tunnels running underground.

They also have separate chambers for

the queen and the growing larvae, or

young. Honeybee nests, or hives, have a

core called a honeycomb. The

honeycomb is made of many six-sided

wax cells. This is where the queen bee

lays her eggs. Paper wasps build

paperlike nests out of wood that they

have chewed up and spit out.

#More to explore

Ant • Bee • Bird • Cobra • Fish

• Squirrel • Termite •Wasp

Some types of bird are called weavers

because they weave their nests out of plant

fibers.

Paper wasps build nests with many cells, or

compartments. Each cell holds one egg.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nest 37

Netherlands, The

The Netherlands is a small country in

northwestern Europe. It is also known as

Holland. The people of The Netherlands

are called the Dutch. The country’s

capital is Amsterdam. However, the

government meets in the city of The

Hague.

Geography

The Netherlands shares borders with

Germany and Belgium. The North Sea

lies to the west and north. The country

includes the Caribbean islands of Aruba

and the Netherlands Antilles.

The Netherlands is low-lying and mostly

flat. Rivers and canals connect many of

the cities. The climate is cool and rainy.

Much of the land near the coast used to

be underwater. Beginning in the Middle

Ages the Dutch drained the land using

windmills and, later, pumps. They built

barriers such as dikes and dams to keep

the water out. The lands taken from the

sea are called polders.

Plants and Animals

Forests cover only about 10 percent of

the land. Animals include hedgehogs,

moles, badgers, otters, and mice.Many

sea and land birds also live in the country.

People

Dutch people make up most of the

population. There are small groups of

Turks, Indonesians, Moroccans, and

others. About half of the people are

Christians. Many people follow no religion.

Dutch is the main language.

About 90 percent of the people live in

cities.

Economy

International trade and services are

important parts of the economy. Many

goods pass through The Netherlands on

their way to and from other countries of

western Europe. The Netherlands’ major

Windmills built in the 1700s line a waterway

in Kinderdijk, The Netherlands.

38 Netherlands, The BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

services include banking, insurance,

communications, and tourism.

Factories make food products, metals,

chemicals, electrical machinery, transportation

equipment, and petroleum

(oil) products. The Netherlands also has

large fields of natural gas.

Farmers grow vegetables, grains, potatoes,

and sugar beets. They also raise

pigs, cattle, poultry, and sheep. The

Dutch produce many flowers, especially

tulips.

History

Early History

The Roman Empire conquered the

region more than 2,000 years ago. The

area later divided into many small states.

The lands that are now The Netherlands,

Belgium, and Luxembourg

became known as the Low Countries. In

the 1400s the Low Countries came

under the control of the Hapsburg family

of Austria.

The Low Countries passed to the Hapsburg

rulers of Spain in the 1500s. The

Dutch began fighting Spain in 1568. In

1579 the Dutch set up the United Provinces

of the Netherlands. The war continued

until Spain accepted Dutch

independence in 1648.

In the 1600s the Dutch built a large

empire around the world. They set up

colonies in North America, South

America, Asia, and Africa. The Dutch

fought many wars with England during

this time.

Kingdom of The Netherlands

In 1795 the French invaded the Low

Countries. After the French were

defeated in 1815, the Kingdom of The

Netherlands was created. Belgium and

Luxembourg soon broke away to form

separate countries.

Nazi Germany ruled The Netherlands

duringWorldWar II (1939–45). The

Germans sent away and killed most of

the country’s Jews.

After the war The Netherlands granted

independence to its remaining colonies.

They became the countries of Indonesia,

Papua New Guinea, and Suriname. The

Netherlands also joined the European

Economic Community (now the European

Union).

..More to explore

Amsterdam • European Union • Hague,

The • Hapsburgs • Levee and Dike

A girl in The Netherlands wears traditional

Dutch clothing and carries armfuls of

tulips. The Dutch are famous for growing

the flower.

Facts About

THE NETHERLANDS

Population

(2008 estimate)

16,433,000

Area

16,034 sq mi

(41,528 sq km)

Capital

Amsterdam

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Amsterdam, Rotterdam,

The

Hague, Utrecht,

Eindhoven

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Netherlands, The 39

Nevada

The U.S. state of Nevada takes

its name from a Spanish word

meaning “snow-capped.” The name

refers to the state’s high mountain ranges

where snow remains throughout the

year.

Nevada is sometimes called the Silver

State because silver mining was once

very important there. The nickname

Sagebrush State comes from the state’s

abundant growth of wild sage. The capital

is Carson City.

Geography

Nevada is aWestern state that is bordered

on the north by Oregon and

Idaho. It is bordered on the east by

Utah, on the southeast by Arizona, and

on the southwest and west by California.

Nevada has three natural regions. The

largest region covers the majority of the

state. It is characterized by rugged

mountain ranges, long, flat valleys, and

sandy deserts. There is a plateau, or

raised, flat region, along the state’s

northeastern edge. The third region is

the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the

west. It overlooks Lake Tahoe, the country’s

largest mountain lake.

The Colorado River flows along the

Arizona border. Boundary Peak is the

highest point in the state at 13,140 feet

(4,005 meters). The state’s weather varies

with the landscape. It can be very

cold in the high mountains and very hot

in the desert.

People

Whites make up about two thirds of

Nevada’s population. Hispanics represent

about one fifth of the population.

Almost 7 percent of the residents are

African American, and about 5 percent

are Asian.

Economy

Tourism and casinos are Nevada’s leading

industries. Manufacturing is a small

part of the economy. The state’s factories

process food, make metal products, and

produce plastics and rubber items.

Cattle are the primary source of income

from agriculture. Dairy products and

hay are also important. Southwestern

Nevada is part of one of the richest min-

Lake Tahoe

40 Nevada BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ing regions in the country. The state’s

most valuable mineral is gold.

History

The first European explorers in the area

were Spanish missionaries and fur traders

in the 1700s and early 1800s. They

found several Native American tribes in

the area: the Shoshone, the Northern

Paiute, the Southern Paiute, and the

Washo. The region was claimed by

Spain until 1821 and by Mexico until

1848. The United States gained the area

after the MexicanWar (1846–48). The

discovery of a large deposit of silver in

1859 attracted people from all over the

world. Nevada was organized as a territory

in 1861. It joined the Union as the

36th state on October 31, 1864.

Nevada’s real prosperity did not come

until after 1931, when the state legalized

gambling. Nevada soon became known

as a resort center. Also in the 1930s the

Hoover Dam was constructed on the

Colorado River. The project provided

many jobs for people in the area. The

dam includes a power plant that generates

electricity. This allowed more factories

to open in the area and encouraged

economic growth. The dam also created

a large lake called Lake Mead.

In the 1950s the federal government

made Nevada a major testing site for

nuclear weapons. This encouraged the

development of technical industries

within the state. The main area of

growth, however, was in the tourist

trade. Many people travel to Nevada for

entertainment in Las Vegas and Reno.

Many others enjoy the scenery of the

state and outdoor activities such as hiking

in the mountains or boating on Lake

Mead.

..More to explore

Carson City

Rugged mountains and desert cover much of Nevada.

Facts About

NEVADA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

1,998,257—

rank, 35th state;

(2008 estimate)

2,600,167—

rank, 35th state

Capital

Carson City

Area

110,561 sq mi

(286,351 sq

km)—rank, 7th

state

Statehood

October 31,

1864

Motto

All for Our

Country

State bird

Mountain

bluebird

State flower

Sagebrush

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nevada 41

New Brunswick

New Brunswick is one of the

four original Canadian provinces.

It is located in eastern

Canada. The beautiful coastline of New

Brunswick gave the province its nickname,

the Picture Province. New Brunswick’s

official name came from the

British royal family of Brunswick. Its

capital is Fredericton.

Geography

New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and

Prince Edward Island are known as the

Maritime Provinces. New Brunswick is

the largest of the three. Inlets of the

Atlantic Ocean surround New Brunswick

on three sides. A narrow strip of

land connects the province with Nova

Scotia. A bridge links New Brunswick to

Prince Edward Island. Quebec and the

U.S. state of Maine lie to the west.

People

Many of New Brunswick’s people have

English, Irish, Scottish, or French ancestors.

Later immigrants came from other

parts of Europe and Asia. Small numbers

of American Indians and blacks also

live in the province.

English and French are both official

languages of the province. Most of the

people speak English. About one third

speak mainly French. They live mostly

in the north and east. The University of

New Brunswick is Canada’s oldest

English-language university.

About half the people in New Brunswick

live in cities. Saint John is the province’s

largest and oldest city. Farther

north along the Saint John River sits

New Brunswick’s capital city, Fredericton.

Moncton, the second largest city, is

a port in the southeast.

The Cape Enrage Lighthouse

stands at the entrance to the Bay

of Fundy in New Brunswick.

42 New Brunswick BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Economy

Factories in New Brunswick produce a

variety of goods, including food, paper,

wood and metal products, and machinery.

Forests, which cover much of the

province, provide wood and pulp for

paper. Tourism is an important service

industry.

The province’s waters offer many types

of fish, lobsters, and crabs. Mines provide

such metals as antimony, bismuth,

lead, silver, and zinc. The land is also a

source of peat and coal, both of which

are used for fuel.

Only a small part of New Brunswick’s

land is used for agriculture, but farming

is still important to the economy. The

province is known for its potatoes. Eggs,

poultry, berries, apples, and dairy products

also come from the province.

History

New Brunswick’s first people were

Algonquian-speaking Indians, including

the Micmac and the Malecite. In 1534

the French explorer Jacques Cartier

landed on the east coast of what is now

New Brunswick. In 1604 the French

explorer Samuel de Champlain helped

to establish the first French settlement in

the region. French settlers gave the name

Acadia to what are now New Brunswick

and Nova Scotia.

In 1755 the British drove most of the

French out of Acadia. Then the British

started to settle in New Brunswick. During

the American Revolution (1775–83)

thousands of people from the American

Colonies who remained loyal to the

British moved to New Brunswick. They

founded the city of Saint John. In 1784

the British separated New Brunswick

from Nova Scotia and made it a separate

colony. New Brunswick became known

for shipbuilding.

Along with Nova Scotia, Ontario, and

Quebec, New Brunswick became a province

of the new country of Canada in

1867. Railroads built during the late

1800s helped New Brunswick’s manufacturing

industries to grow. New industries,

including oil refining and power

plants, developed in the 1900s. However,

many young people left New Brunswick

to work in the large cities in

Quebec and Ontario.

..More to explore

Algonquian • American Revolution

• Atlantic Ocean • Canada • Cartier,

Jacques • Champlain, Samuel de • Nova

Scotia • Prince Edward Island

The 1,282-foot (391-meter) covered bridge

in Hartland, New Brunswick, is the world’s

longest covered bridge.

Facts About

NEW

BRUNSWICK

Flag

Population

(2006 census)

729,997

Area

28,150 sq mi

(72,908 sq km)

Capital

Fredericton

Motto

Spem Reduxit

(Hope Was

Restored)

When New

Brunswick

Became a

Province

1867

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA New Brunswick 43

New Deal

The New Deal was a group of U.S. government

programs of the 1930s. President

Franklin D. Roosevelt started the

programs to help the country recover

from the economic problems of the

Great Depression.

Some New Deal programs gave jobs to

unemployed people. The Civilian Conservation

Corps (CCC) put young men

to work in national forests. The Works

Progress Administration (WPA) created

many different kinds of jobs. Some

WPA workers built roads, schools, or

airports. Others created art for public

buildings or set up community theaters.

The best-known results of the New Deal

include Social Security and the Tennessee

Valley Authority (TVA). Social Security

is a system that continues to provide

income for retired or disabled workers.

The TVA built dams and electric power

plants on the Tennessee River. It still

provides electricity to seven Southern

states.

Other New Deal programs were supposed

to fix some of the problems that

led to the Great Depression. During the

Great Depression many people lost

money when banks closed. As part of

the New Deal the government set up the

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

(FDIC). It was meant to get people to

trust banks again. The FDIC pays

people when their bank loses money or

has to close.

#More to explore

Great Depression • Roosevelt,

Franklin D.

New Delhi, India

#see Delhi.

Men in the Civilian Conservation Corps

work in the Saint Joe National Forest in

Idaho.

A poster from the 1930s advertises

an art exhibit sponsored by

the Works Progress Administration,

a New Deal program.

44 New Deal BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Newfoundland and

Labrador

Newfoundland and Labrador is Canada’s

easternmost province. The province

includes the island of Newfoundland

and a region called Labrador on the

mainland of North America. Originally

called simply Newfoundland, the province

has been known as Newfoundland

and Labrador since 2001. The capital of

the province is Saint John’s.

Geography

The island of Newfoundland lies in the

Atlantic Ocean. The narrow Strait of

Belle Isle separates the island from

Labrador, to the northwest. Quebec,

New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island,

and Nova Scotia lie to the west and

southwest.

Many bays and coves line Newfoundland’s

coast. The Long Range Mountains

run through the west. At the

island’s southeast corner is the Avalon

Peninsula, the easternmost point in

North America.

Labrador is a rugged chunk of land that

borders northeastern Quebec. It is more

than two and a half times the size of

Newfoundland. The Torngat Mountains

in the north include some of the highest

peaks in eastern Canada.

People

The majority of the province’s people

live on the island of Newfoundland.

Most of the people’s ancestors came

from England or Ireland. Smaller numbers

of residents have Scottish, French,

American Indian, or Eskimo (Inuit)

origins. Nearly everyone speaks English,

but some people speak mainly French.

Saint John’s, located on the Avalon Peninsula,

is the province’s only large city.

Built in the early 1600s,Water Street in

Saint John’s may be the oldest street in

North America. The one university in

the province, Memorial University, is

also in Saint John’s. Labrador City is an

important mining center in southwestern

Labrador.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Newfoundland and Labrador 45

Economy

Services, including finance, public

administration, and health, are the largest

part of the province’s economy. Oil

reserves and iron, gold, copper, and

nickel mines also bring in billions of

dollars. Fishing is an important part of

the economy. Factories produce wood,

paper, and fish products. Construction

and tourism are growing industries.

Because the province has a short growing

season and little fertile land, there

are few farms.

History

Among the first people of Labrador

were Algonquian-speaking Indians

called the Innu. The Eskimo also lived

in Labrador before Europeans arrived.

The Beothuk Indians lived on

Newfoundland. The last known

Beothuk died in the 1800s.

The first Europeans to visit Labrador

were the Vikings, who were sailors from

northern Europe. Some Vikings had

settled on the island of Greenland, to

the east of Newfoundland. In about AD

1000 a few Vikings sailed west, discovered

Newfoundland, and built a settlement

there. The settlement lasted only a

few years.

In 1497 the Italian explorer John Cabot

landed somewhere in Newfoundland

and Labrador or on a nearby island. He

described the place he landed as the

“new founde lande.” England, France,

and Portugal soon fought over the right

to fish there. By the 1700s Newfoundland

belonged to England. During the

1800s the island became a self-governing

part of the British Empire.

In 1927 Newfoundland gained control

of Labrador. Newfoundland stayed apart

from Canada until 1949, when it

became the 10th Canadian province.

..More to explore

Cabot, John • Canada • Vikings

Many scenic villages lure tourists to the

island of Newfoundland.

In the late 20th century people reconstructed

some Viking buildings in northern

Newfoundland. They wanted to honor

Newfoundland’s Viking settlers.

Facts About

NEWFOUNDLAND

AND LABRADOR

Flag

Population

(2006 census)

505,469

Area

156,453 sq mi

(405,212 sq km)

Capital

Saint John’s

Motto

Quaerite Prime

Regnum Dei

(Seek Ye the

Kingdom of God)

When

Newfoundland

Became a

Province

1949

46 Newfoundland and Labrador BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

New Hampshire

Residents of the U.S. state of New

Hampshire are proud of their New

England history. New Hampshire is

named after the English county of

Hampshire. It received its name in

1629, only a few years after it was first

settled by the English. About 150 years

later New Hampshire was the first of the

13 American Colonies to declare independence

from England.

New Hampshire is nicknamed the

Granite State because of its granite

resources. Granite is a hard, gray stone

that is used in building projects. The

state capital is Concord.

Geography

New Hampshire is located in the northeastern

part of the United States. It is

bordered on the north by the

Canadian province of Quebec,

on the west by Vermont, on the south

by Massachusetts, and on the east by

Maine and the Atlantic Ocean.

The White Mountains cover the northern

third of the state. They are part of

the Appalachian mountain range. Most

of the southern two thirds of the state is

a region of low mountains, lakes, and

fertile river valleys. New Hampshire’s

winters are long and often very cold.

The summers are pleasantly warm.

People

Almost all of New Hampshire’s residents

are white and of European descent. Hispanics

are the largest minority group in

the state. They account for about 2 percent

of the population. New Hampshire’s

earliest European settlers came

from England. Scots-Irish settlers began

to arrive in about 1719. During the

1800s and 1900s, immigrants came to

the state from central and eastern

Europe.

Economy

The economy of New Hampshire is

based mainly on services and manufacturing.

Manufacturing firms in the state

create computer products and electronic

equipment. Other businesses manufacture

metal, rubber, and plastic products.

Finance and real estate are some of the

important parts of the service industry.

Tourism is also a major part of the service

industry. Many people travel to

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA New Hampshire 47

New Hampshire to enjoy the scenery of

the mountains.

The leading sources of agricultural

income are dairy products and such

nursery and greenhouse crops as flowers

and shrubs. New Hampshire’s maple

trees provide maple syrup and maple

sugar.

History

The Pennacook were the most powerful

Native American tribe living in the

region before European settlers arrived.

The first European settlement was established

by the English in 1623.

In 1641 New Hampshire came under

the control of the colonial government

of Massachusetts. New Hampshire

became a separate province in 1679, but

boundary disagreements with Massachusetts

continued into the 1700s. In 1741

the first governor of New Hampshire

was appointed.

New Hampshire patriots captured a

British military post in 1774—several

months before the start of the American

Revolution (1775–83). New Hampshire

also declared itself independent from

Britain several weeks before the Declaration

of Independence was signed on July

4, 1776.

New Hampshire also played an important

role in the early years of the United

States. On June 21, 1788, the state cast

the deciding vote to approve the new

U.S. Constitution.

In the 1800s New Hampshire became a

manufacturing state. Manchester developed

into a center of the textile industry,

and Portsmouth became known for

shipbuilding.

In the early 21st century New Hampshire

began producing new goods that

helped its economy grow. These

included high-technology products such

as circuit boards and semiconductor

devices, which make electronics run.

..More to explore

American Revolution • Concord

Trees show their autumn colors in New Hampshire’s White Mountains.

Facts About

NEW

HAMPSHIRE

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

1,235,786—

rank, 41st state;

(2008 estimate)

1,315,809—

rank, 41st state

Capital

Concord

Area

9,350 sq mi

(24,216 sq km)—

rank, 46th state

Statehood

June 21, 1788

Motto

Live Free or Die

State bird

Purple finch

State flower

Purple lilac

48 New Hampshire BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

New Jersey

Early settlers from England named the

colony of New Jersey after the island of

Jersey in the English Channel. When it

became a state New Jersey gained the

nickname of the Garden State. At the

time it had many farms in the west and

south. Although it is one of the country’s

smallest states in area, it has one of

the largest populations. In fact, New

Jersey is the most densely populated

state in the United States. The capital is

Trenton.

Geography

New Jersey is located in the Middle

Atlantic region of the United States. It is

surrounded by water on all sides except

for a northern border it shares with New

York. The Atlantic Ocean lies to the

east. The Hudson River separates New

Jersey from New York City in the

northeast. To the west across the

Delaware River are Pennsylvania and

Delaware.

The southern part of New Jersey is covered

by a coastal plain. Much of this area

is marshland. North of the coastal plain

is a region of rolling upland. Farther

north is a region of wooded hills. In the

northwest corner of the state are the

Kittatinny Mountains, which are part of

the Appalachian mountain range. New

Jersey has a humid climate with cold

winters and warm summers.

People

Whites of European heritage account for

about three fourths of New Jersey’s

population. Italian Americans are the

largest ethnic group in New Jersey. The

state also has large communities of Germans,

Russian and eastern European

Jews, Irish, Poles, Hungarians, Puerto

Ricans, and Cubans. African Americans

and Hispanics each make up about 14

percent of the population.

The most crowded part of New Jersey is

the northeast, which is near New York

City. New Jersey’s four largest cities—

Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, and

Elizabeth—are part of the New York

City metropolitan area.

Economy

New Jersey is a center for scientific and

technological research. It is one of the

country’s leading producers of chemicals

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA New Jersey 49

and pharmaceuticals. The state economy

also depends on service industries such

as insurance, finance, and tourism.

New Jersey is a major producer of fruits

and vegetables. Its major fruits are cranberries,

blueberries, and peaches. Important

field crops are soybeans, corn, and

hay. Dairy products are also valuable.

History

The Lenni Lenape (or Delaware) Indians

lived in the New Jersey area before

European settlers arrived. In 1524 the

Italian explorer Giovanni de Verrazano

became the first European to land in the

area. Henry Hudson, an Englishman

exploring for the Dutch, arrived in

1609. Dutch and Swedish traders established

the first settlements in the area.

England took over the region in 1664.

In 1676 the province was divided into

East andWest Jersey. New Jersey was

reunited as a royal colony in 1702,

under the governor of New York. It was

separated from New York in 1738.

New Jersey was the site of many battles

during the American Revolution. In two

of the most important battles, George

Washington defeated the British at Trenton

and Princeton in late 1776 and early

1777.

At the Constitutional Convention of

1787, New Jersey called for each state,

regardless of size, to have the same number

of representatives in the U.S. Congress.

This idea, called the New Jersey

Plan, was designed to help small states.

The plan helped lead to the creation of

the Senate as one of the two houses of

Congress. Each state has two members

in the Senate.

Between the Revolution and the American

CivilWar (1861–65) New Jersey

underwent great industrial development.

During and after both world wars, in

the first half of the 20th century, there

was further growth of factories. The

factories helped the economy by offering

jobs to many people. However, they also

led to major problems with pollution. In

the 21st century the state tried to

address those problems.

..More to explore

American Revolution • Trenton

A row of brightly painted houses stands in Cape May, New Jersey.

Facts About

NEW JERSEY

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

8,414,350—

rank, 9th state;

(2008 estimate)

8,682,661—

rank, 11th state

Capital

Trenton

Area

8,721 sq mi

(22,588 sq km)—

rank, 47th state

Statehood

December 18,

1787

Motto

Liberty and

Prosperity

State bird

Eastern goldfinch

State flower

Violet

50 New Jersey BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

New Mexico

Nicknamed the Land of Enchantment,

the U.S. state of New Mexico is graced

with desert and mountain landscapes of

great beauty. It is located in the southwestern

United States and shares a border

with the country of Mexico. Because

of its location and history, New Mexico

is a blend of three cultures—Native

American, Spanish American, and

American. The state capital is Santa Fe.

Geography

New Mexico is bordered by Arizona on

the west and Colorado on the north.

Oklahoma and Texas are on its eastern

border, and Texas and Mexico are to the

south.

The Rocky Mountains cover the northcentral

region of the state. Eastern New

Mexico is a high plains region. Most of

the rest of New Mexico has

many short mountain ranges. In

the northwest is a region of mesas, or

flat-topped hills. There are two major

rivers, the Rio Grande and the Pecos.

New Mexico has a dry and pleasant climate

with lots of sunshine.

People

Unlike most states, New Mexico has

large Hispanic and Native American

populations. More than two fifths of

New Mexico’s population is of Spanish

origin. About half of this group are

Mexican Americans. The others are

descendants of the original Spanish settlers.

Whites with roots in other European

countries make up another two

fifths of the population.

Native Americans make up about one

tenth of the state’s population. The largest

tribes are the Pueblo and the Navajo.

Other tribes include the Zuni, the

Apache, and the Ute.

Economy

Manufacturing in New Mexico includes

the production of electronic equipment,

food processing, and oil refining. The

federal government conducts military

and energy research at laboratories in

Los Alamos and Albuquerque. The U.S.

military tests missiles and electronic

systems at several bases. Tourism is also

important to the economy.

The sale of cattle and dairy products are

the state’s largest sources of agricultural

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA New Mexico 51

income. New Mexico is rich in minerals

and energy resources. It is among the

leading states in the production of

petroleum (oil) and natural gas.

History

Native American villages dotted New

Mexico long before Spanish explorers

and missionaries arrived. In 1540 the

Spaniard Francisco Coronado entered

the area while searching for legendary

cities of gold. Santa Fe was founded in

1610. An Indian uprising in 1680

forced the Europeans out for a time, but

by 1700 the Spanish had returned.

The land that is now New Mexico

became part of Mexico when that country

gained its independence from Spain

in 1821. By that time the trade route

known as the Santa Fe Trail had

increased business dealings between

New Mexico and the United States.

After Mexico’s defeat in the Mexican

War (1846–48), New Mexico was transferred

to the United States. In 1850 the

U.S. Congress created the Territory of

New Mexico.

Native Americans and white settlers in

the area often fought one another. The

Apache were particularly feared for their

attacks on settlements and wagon trains.

During the late 1800s the Native American

tribes were defeated and forced to

settle on reservations.

NewMexico was admitted to the Union

in 1912 as the 47th state. DuringWorld

War II (1939–45) the world’s first

atomic bomb was built in Los Alamos. It

was tested on July 16, 1945, near

Alamogordo. The population of New

Mexico has grown rapidly since the

1950s. Between 1990 and 2008 the

state’s population increased by more than

30 percent.

..More to explore

Coronado, Francisco • Santa Fe

Acoma is a Native American village on top of a high mesa in New Mexico. It was first

settled more than 1,000 years ago. Acoma people still live in the village today.

Facts About

NEW MEXICO

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

1,819,046—

rank, 36th state;

(2008 estimate)

1,984,356—

rank, 36th state

Capital

Santa Fe

Area

121,590 sq mi

(314,915 sq

km)—rank, 5th

state

Statehood

January 6, 1912

Motto

Crescit Eundo (It

Grows as It Goes)

State bird

Roadrunner

State flower

Yucca

52 New Mexico BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

New South

Wales

New South Wales is one of Australia’s

six states. It is rich in natural beauty,

historical places, and modern businesses.

Australia’s largest city, Sydney, is the

capital of New SouthWales. The state

also contains the Australian Capital Territory,

where the country’s capital, Canberra,

is located.

Geography

New SouthWales lies in southeastern

Australia. The Pacific Ocean borders the

state on the east. Three states border

New SouthWales: Victoria on the

south, South Australia on the west, and

Queensland on the north.

Mount Kosciusko, Australia’s highest

point, is about 100 miles (160 kilometers)

southwest of Canberra. It rises

7,310 feet (2,228 meters). The Darling,

Australia’s longest river, cuts across the

northwest. Other major rivers of New

SouthWales include theMurray and the

Murrumbidgee.

The coast of New SouthWales has a

moist climate, with mild winters and

warm summers. The inland area is dry,

with mild winters and hot summers.

People

Most people in New SouthWales have

British or other European ancestors.

Other groups include Turks, Lebanese,

Chinese, Vietnamese, Thais, and Indonesians.

Australia’s native people, called

Aborigines, make up about 2 percent of

the population.

More than 6 million people live in New

SouthWales. About 4 million live in

Sydney, on the coast. Sydney is a major

center of business and the arts. The

magnificent Sydney Opera House, with

its shell-like roofs, has become a symbol

of Australia. Other important cities in

New SouthWales include Newcastle,

Wollongong, Broken Hill,Wagga

Wagga, and Lismore.

Economy

New SouthWales produces more goods

and services than any other state in Australia.

Services, such as banking and

A rock formation called the Three Sisters

rises above a cliff in the Blue Mountains,

New South Wales.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA New South Wales 53

tourism, are the main parts of the

economy. Farmers in the state mainly

raise animals, especially sheep for wool.

New SouthWales also produces much of

Australia’s grain, including wheat, corn,

and sorghum. In addition, most of the

country’s silver, lead, and zinc comes

from mines in New SouthWales.

History

The British explorer James Cook discovered

New SouthWales in 1770. He

claimed the territory for King George III

of Great Britain. The area reminded

Cook of southernWales in Great Britain,

so he named it New SouthWales.

The British government set up a colony

at Sydney Harbour in 1788. Many of

the people who lived there were prisoners

sent from Great Britain. The colony

grew slowly until gold was discovered in

1851. The gold rush that followed

brought many people to the area.

When Australia became an independent

country in 1901, New SouthWales

became a state of Australia. The current

state borders were set up in 1915.

#More to explore

Australia • Canberra • Cook, James

• Sydney

Newspaper

Many people read newspapers for information

on important events. Newspapers

are usually published regularly, such

as every day, week, or month. By the late

20th century Europe had more than

2,600 daily newspapers, and Asia had

more than 2,500. There were some

2,200 dailies in North America, more

than 760 in South America, and nearly

160 in Africa.

The core of a newspaper is its stories

about local, national, and international

news. Many newspapers also contain

columns in which people offer their own

opinions and interpretations of events.

Other articles may cover entertainment,

business, travel, and sports. Most newspapers

also have advertisements.

Producing a Newspaper

It takes many different people to publish

a newspaper. Editors decide which stories

should be written. Reporters

research and write stories. Photographers

take pictures. Businesspeople handle

subscriptions and advertising. And many

other people help write, design, print,

distribute, and sell the newspaper.

Gathering enough information to fill a

newspaper was often difficult and

expensive until the creation of news

services. News services collect information

from around the world and sell it to

Newspapers are published in many countries

and in many languages.

The Summer

Olympics took

place in

Sydney, New

South Wales,

in 2000.

54 Newspaper BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

many different newspapers. The Associated

Press and Reuters are two wellknown

news services.

History

Before printing was invented, each copy

of a text had to be written by hand. That

process was costly and took a lot of time.

In the mid-1400s Johannes Gutenberg

invented a printing press that made it

possible to print words on paper quickly.

After that, newsletters and pamphlets

were published in Europe. In the 1600s

newspapers similar to today’s appeared

in Europe and Japan. The first regular

newspaper in what is now the United

States appeared in 1704.

In 1791 the First Amendment to the

U.S. Constitution guaranteed freedom

of the press in the United States. Some

countries, however, still ban newspapers

or prevent them from publishing stories

that criticize the government.

The invention of computers in the

1900s greatly changed the newspaper

business. Today writers can quickly send

stories to publishers through e-mail.

Editors and designers can easily change

the content and look of articles using

computers. And many people now read

newspaper articles on the Internet,

rather than in a printed copy.

#More to explore

Censorship • Communication • Internet

• Printing

Newton, Isaac

Isaac Newton was one of the great figures

in the history of science. His ideas

about motion and gravity are very

important to the science of physics.

Isaac Newton was born on December

25, 1642, inWoolsthorpe, England. In

1661 he enrolled at Cambridge Univer-

A newspaper rolls off the printing

press. Other machines will

cut and fold the pages.

An engraving shows Isaac Newton using a

prism to separate sunlight into colors.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Newton, Isaac 55

sity. There he became interested in new

scientific ideas that were coming out of

Europe. They included the idea that

Earth and the other planets travel

around the sun. This idea challenged the

long-held belief that Earth was the center

of the universe.

After Newton graduated from college,

he continued to study and do experiments

on his own. His first great discovery

came from his experiments with

light. He found that when white light

passes through a prism, or triangular

piece of glass, it breaks up into a band of

colors. Newton concluded that white

light is a mixture of colors.

Newton also wanted to know what keeps

theMoon in its orbit, or path, around

Earth. He thought that only an

attraction, or pull, between Earth and

theMoon could explain it. This pull is

called gravity. Newton’s work showed

how gravity controls the motion of the

planets around the sun as well as the

motion of theMoon. As he studied

gravity and motion, Newton also made

important contributions to mathematics.

From 1669 to 1701 Newton was a professor

at Cambridge. In 1703 he was

elected president of a major scientific

group called the Royal Society. In 1705

the queen of England made him a

knight. Newton died in London,

England, on March 20, 1727.

..More to explore

Gravity • Light • Mathematics • Motion

• Physics

New Year’s Day

People around the world celebrate the

start of a year on New Year’s Day. In

Europe, North America, and South

America most people celebrate New

Year’s Day on January 1. In the United

States many traditions surround New

Year’s Day. On the night before, called

New Year’s Eve, people stay up late and

count down the seconds until midnight.

Many people make New Year’s resolutions,

or promises to themselves. They

see New Year’s Day as a chance to make

a fresh start.

People of other places and cultures

observe the new year at times other than

January 1. The Chinese New Year, for

example, is celebrated for a month

beginning in late January or early February.

In Iran New Year’s Day is in March,

on the first day of spring. Followers of

the Jewish religion celebrate the new

year, called Rosh Hashana, in the fall.

..More to explore

Chinese New Year • Rosh Hashana

Newton was

buried in a

London church

called

Westminster

Abbey. Burial

in Westminster

Abbey is a

high honor.

A crowd in New York City celebrates the

arrival of a new year.

56 New Year’s Day BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

New York

Few places in the United States rival

New York State in terms of population,

culture, and economic importance.

Only the states of California and Texas

have larger populations. New York

City—with more than 8 million

people—is the country’s largest city.

New York State’s economic production

is higher than that of most of the

world’s countries.

New York was one of the original 13

colonies. The colony was named after

the English Duke of York. The nickname

of the Empire State is thought to

have come from a remark made by

GeorgeWashington. In 1784 he referred

to New York as the “seat of empire.” The

capital of New York is Albany.

Geography

New York is located in the northeast

section of the United States. From

southwest to northeast, New York is

bordered by Lake Erie, the Canadian

province of Ontario, Lake

Ontario, and the Canadian province

of Quebec. To the east are the states

of Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut.

The Atlantic Ocean and New

Jersey are to the southeast. Pennsylvania

is to the south.

New York’s largest natural region is the

Appalachian Mountains, which cover

about half of the state. The Appalachian

region extends westward from the Hudson

River valley to the state’s southern

and western boundaries.

A lowland region runs northward along

the Hudson River to Albany and then

westward along the Mohawk River. A

raised, flat region lies north of the

Appalachians and west of the Mohawk

River valley. It extends along the

southern shores of the Great Lakes. The

state has several islands off the Atlantic

coast. The largest ones are Manhattan,

The Adirondack Mountains cover the northern

part of New York State.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA New York 57

Staten Island, and Long Island. New

York generally has warm summers and

cold winters.

People

The population of New York is as varied

as that of the United States itself. Members

of every ethnic group entering the

country passed through immigration

stations such as Ellis Island, in New York

Bay. Many remained in the state. Immigrants

are still a major part of New

York’s culture—one fifth of the state’s

current population was born in a foreign

country.

New Yorkers of European heritage

account for about two thirds of the

state’s population. New York’s largest

minority groups are African Americans

and Hispanics—each group makes up

more than 15 percent of the population.

About 5 percent of New York’s residents

are of Asian heritage.

Economy

New York companies are involved in

every type of economic activity. The

state’s economy and jobs are now dominated

by service industries such as commercial

trade, government, education,

and tourism, however. New York City is

the chief financial center of the country.

It is home to the major U.S. stock

exchanges and the headquarters of many

major businesses.

Niagara Falls is a group of waterfalls on the Niagara River, which flows between New

York State and Canada.

58 New York BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The largest manufacturing industries in

New York are chemicals, machinery, and

food processing. Dairy farms account for

more than half of New York’s farm

income.

History

Algonquian and Iroquois tribes lived in

the New York region when Europeans

arrived. The Algonquian tribes included

the Mohican and the Munsee. The five

Iroquois tribes were the Mohawk, the

Oneida, the Onondaga, the Cayuga, and

the Seneca.

The first European to visit the area was

probably an Italian explorer, Giovanni

da Verrazano, in 1524. In 1609 Henry

Hudson sailed up what was later named

the Hudson River and claimed the land

for the Netherlands. The Dutch established

the colony of New Netherland in

1624. The next year they founded the

city of New Amsterdam. In 1664 the

British took control of New Netherland

and renamed it New York.

New York was a major battleground

during the American Revolution (1775–

83). One notable battle, at Saratoga, was

considered the turning point of the war.

New York became the 11th state in the

Union when it approved the new U.S.

Constitution on July 26, 1788.

The Erie Canal opened in 1825. The

artificial waterway connects the Hudson

River with Lake Erie. It was built to

provide a way for ships to get from the

Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. This

gave New York a link to the growing

midwestern states. About half a million

New Yorkers fought for the North during

the American CivilWar (1861–65).

After the war new machinery and methods

of producing goods quickly made

the state a great manufacturing and

trade center.

After World War II (1939–45) new

highways, airports, and bridges made

New York a center of transportation. In

1952 New York City became the

headquarters of the United Nations, an

organization dedicated to improving

international relations. The city’s

international significance, however,

made it a target of terrorism. On

September 11, 2001, terrorists flew two

hijacked planes into twin skyscrapers

called the World Trade Center. The

buildings were destroyed and almost

3,000 people were killed. The city and

state worked hard to recover from the

tragedy.

..More to explore

Albany • Iroquois • New York City

Tall buildings surround Central Park in

Manhattan, a part of New York City.

Facts About

NEW YORK

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

18,976,457—

rank, 3rd state;

(2008 estimate)

19,490,297—

rank, 3rd state

Capital

Albany

Area

54,556 sq mi

(141,299 sq

km)—rank, 27th

state

Statehood

July 26, 1788

Motto

Excelsior (Ever

Upward)

State bird

Bluebird

State flower

Rose

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA New York 59

New York City

Population

(2000 census),

city, 8,008,278;

metropolitan

area,

9,314,235

New York City is the largest city in the

United States. It is one of the world’s

great centers of culture and business. Its

constant activity earned it the nickname

“the city that never sleeps.”

New York City is located in the state of

New York. The city is made up of five

districts called boroughs: Manhattan,

Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens, and

Staten Island.

Places of Interest

New York City is packed with

world-famous sites. The Statue of Liberty

is located in its bay. The Empire State

Building is the best-known skyscraper in

theManhattan skyline. The huge Central

Park lies near the heart ofManhattan.

The Lincoln Center for the Performing

Arts is home to the city’s world-class

orchestra, ballet, and opera companies.

The Broadway area is famous for its

many theaters.

Economy

New York City’s economy is based

mainly on services. TheWall Street district

is one of the world’s major centers

of finance and banking. The city is a

leader in publishing, television, and

fashion. Tourism, trade, advertising, and

computer industries are also important.

History

New York City began in the 1620s as a

Dutch trading post. The Dutch took

control of Manhattan Island from the

Algonquian Indians who lived there.

The British took over the Dutch settlement

in 1664.

New York City grew as a trade center. By

1790 it was the largest city in the newly

created United States. In the 1800s and

1900s millions of immigrants entered

the United States through Ellis Island, in

New York Bay.

In recent times New York City was a

target for terrorists. The worst attack

came in September 2001, when hijackers

crashed airplanes into theWorld Trade

Center. Nearly 3,000 people were killed.

#More to explore

Ellis Island • Liberty, Statue of • New

York • Skyscraper • Terrorism

The Statue of Liberty stands on Liberty

Island in New York Bay.

60 New York City BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

New Zealand

New Zealand is a country made up of

islands in the South Pacific Ocean. The

Maori people lived on the islands for

hundreds of years before Europeans

arrived in the 1600s. New Zealand’s

capital is Wellington.

Geography

New Zealand lies about 1,000 miles

(1,600 kilometers) southeast of Australia.

It is the farthest south of all the

countries in the region called Oceania.

New Zealand’s two main islands are

called the North Island and the South

Island.

Mountains cover much of the islands.

On the South Island the Southern Alps

contain the country’s highest peak,

Mount Cook, and many glaciers. New

Zealand’s longest river, theWaikato, is

on the North Island. The islands have

many harbors and fjords, or narrow

arms of water with steep sides.

New Zealand has a mild climate with

plenty of rain. It snows only in the

mountains.

Plants and Animals

European settlers cut down many of the

islands’ original evergreen forests. In the

1900s New Zealanders began planting

new forests of pine trees.

New Zealand’s native animals include

reptiles, frogs, and bats. The early Maori

settlers brought dogs and rats. European

settlers brought red deer, opossums, and

rabbits.

New Zealand has several types of flightless

birds, including takahes, penguins,

and kiwis. The kiwi bird is New

Zealand’s national symbol.

People

Most of the population has a European

background. About 10 percent of New

Zealanders have Maori ancestors. The

country also has small groups of Asians

and people from other Pacific islands.

Both English and Maori are national

languages. More than half of New

Zealanders are Christians. Most New

Zealanders live in cities and towns,

mainly on the North Island.

Economy

Only a small portion of New Zealanders

are farmers. Nevertheless, New

Zealand’s economy depends on agricul-

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA New Zealand 61

ture. Farmers raise many sheep and

cattle. They grow apples, barley, wheat,

and corn. Fishing and logging are also

important to the economy. New

Zealand sells wool, dairy products, meat,

wood, paper, and fish to other countries.

Besides food and wood products, New

Zealand’s factories make cloth, machinery,

and metal goods. Mines produce

iron ore, gold, coal, limestone, and natural

gas. Most New Zealanders work in

services, including banking, insurance,

and tourism.

History

The Maori came to New Zealand from

islands in Polynesia, a region of the

southeastern Pacific. They probably

reached New Zealand by AD 800.

European Contact

In 1642 a Dutch sailor saw New

Zealand but did not land. The British

explorer James Cook arrived in 1769.

European whale and seal hunters soon

came to the islands.

In 1840 the Maori accepted rule by

Great Britain. The British promised to

protect the Maori’s rights to their land.

However, European settlers soon

demanded that the Maori sell their land.

The British and the Maori fought wars

until the 1870s. The Maori lost most of

their best land.

In 1907 New Zealand became a separate