Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

dance. In 1926 she formed a dance company.

Not all her early pieces were

immediately successful. They were

unlike dances that audiences were used

to seeing and were set to unfamiliar

modern music. Graham later won wide

praise for her works. Among them were

Appalachian Spring (1944), which was

about American frontier life.

In the late 1920s Graham founded a

dance school, where she developed a

distinctive dance technique. Important

dancers who studied with Graham

include Merce Cunningham, Paul Taylor,

Twyla Tharp, and Alvin Ailey.

Graham did not retire from dancing

until she was 75. She continued to choreograph

until she died, on April 1,

1991, in New York City. She created

181 dance works in all. The dance technique

she developed is still taught at

many dance schools.

#More to explore

Dance

Grain

Grains are types of grass that produce

seeds that can be eaten. Grains are also

called cereals. Wheat, rice, and corn are

the most commonly grown grains.

Other important grains include barley,

oats, rye, millet, and sorghum.

A grain seed has three parts: the bran,

the germ (or embryo), and the

endosperm. The bran is the outer layer.

It protects the inside of the grain. The

germ is the part of the grain that can

grow into a new plant. The endosperm

provides food for the germ. A grain

described as “whole” has all three parts.

Martha Graham dances in Appalachian

Spring in New York City in 1944.

134 Graham, Martha BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Processed, or refined, grains usually have

had the bran and the germ removed.

Whole grains have more nutrients than

refined grains.

People eat grains in a number of ways.

They eat rice and corn on their own.

They also eat grains as ingredients of

other foods, such as breakfast cereals and

soups. Grains are also eaten in the form

of flour. Flour is made by crushing

grains into tiny pieces. The grain most

commonly used to make flour is wheat.

People use flour to make bread, cookies,

crackers, cakes, and pastas.

Grains have other uses, too. Farmers use

grains to feed farm animals. They use

straw, or the stalks of grain plants, as

bedding for animals. People also use

grains in industry. Grains are used to

make oils, alcohols, and other products.

#More to explore

Barley • Corn • Grass • Millet • Oats

• Rice • Rye • Seed • Sorghum • Wheat

Grammar

Grammar is a set of rules that tells how a

language works. Every language has its

own set of rules. The rules of grammar

explain what different kinds of words do

and how they work together.

Types ofWords

In English, there are nine basic types of

words. These types are called parts of

speech. The parts of speech are nouns,

articles, pronouns, verbs, adjectives,

adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and

interjections.

HowWordsWork Together

In English, grammar mainly involves the

order of words. The meaning of a sentence

changes if the word order changes.

Here are two sentences: The car hit the

tree. The tree hit the car. These two sentences

have the same words. But because

the word order is different, the meaning

is different.

The word order also decides whether the

sentence makes sense. In English, the

subject, or main noun, of a sentence

Baskets hold grains for sale at a market. usually comes before the verb. For

A woman in Nigeria pours grains of millet

into a bowl. Uneatable pieces are lighter

and blow away.

Many people

think that it is

important for

children to

learn grammar.

U.S.

elementary

schools used

to be called

grammar

schools.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Grammar 135

example, “Ran quickly the girl” does not

make sense because the subject (the girl)

comes after the verb (ran). Other languages

have different rules about word

order.

#More to explore

Language

Grand Canyon

Noted for its fantastic shapes and colors,

the Grand Canyon is one of the most

spectacular sights in the United States.

The vast canyon was cut through many

layers of rock by the muddy waters of

the Colorado River. It runs for 277

miles (446 kilometers) through northwestern

Arizona, ranging from about 0.1

to 18 miles (0.2 to 29 kilometers) wide.

In places the canyon is more than a mile

(1.6 kilometers) deep.

Some of the rocks in the Grand

Canyon are 4 billion years old. The

Colorado River began eroding, or

wearing down, the rocks about 6

million years ago. Wind and rain have

helped the erosion process. Some of the

rock towers that rise from the depths of

the canyon look like castles and

temples. The canyon is mostly red, but

different layers of rock are buff, gray,

green, pink, and violet.

Willow trees and cottonwoods grow at

the bottom of the canyon where there is

plenty of water. There are magnificent

forests of pine, fir, spruce, and aspen on

the canyon’s north rim. Cacti are common

in drier areas.Wildlife includes

coyotes, foxes, deer, badgers, pumas,

The Grand Canyon’s unique beauty attracts

millions of visitors each year.

Grammar

Part of What It Examples

Speech Does

noun stands for teacher

people, places, school

or things book

article tells whether a the (specific)

noun is specific a (general)

or general

pronoun replaces a noun she

it

they

verb tells what a noun talk

or a pronoun does read

adjective describes a noun smart

or a pronoun large

funny

adverb describes a verb, happily

an adjective, always

or another adverb

preposition tells how words to

in a sentence with

relate to one

another in time

or space

conjunction combines parts of and

a sentence, or but

whole sentences, or

into one sentence

interjection shows emotion oh

yuck

136 Grand Canyon BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

bobcats, rabbits, squirrels, and chipmunks.

Grand Canyon National Park was created

in 1919 and enlarged in 1975. A

paved road and a trail connect the north

and south rims of the canyon. Mulepack

trips and river rafting are popular

ways of exploring the canyon.

#More to explore

Arizona • Canyon • Colorado River

• Erosion

Grant, Ulysses S.

Ulysses S. Grant became the 18th president

of the United States in 1869. A few

years earlier Grant had led the Union

armies to victory in the American Civil

War. He was less successful as a president

than as a general.

Early Life

Hiram Ulysses Grant was born in Point

Pleasant, Ohio, on April 27, 1822. His

parents were Jesse Root Grant, a tanner

and a farmer, and Hannah Simpson. At

age 17 Grant entered the U.S. Military

Academy at West Point, New York. By

mistake, the academy recorded his

name as Ulysses S. Grant. After graduating

in 1843, Grant kept the new

name.

From 1846 to 1848 Grant fought in

almost every battle of the Mexican War.

He then married Julia Boggs Dent,

with whom he had four children. In

1852 Grant took an assignment on the

Pacific coast. Homesick, he soon

resigned from the Army and settled

with his family near Saint Louis,

Missouri. After failing at farming, he

joined his brothers in their leather

business in Galena, Illinois.

CivilWar

At the start of the CivilWar in 1861,

Grant gathered and trained troops for

the Union. In 1862 he and his forces

won the first major Union victory of the

war at Fort Donelson in Tennessee. After

that battle Grant earned the rank of

major general.

In 1863 Grant led Union victories at

Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Chattanooga,

Tennessee. The next year he

gained command of all the Union

armies. Grant accepted the surrender of

Confederate general Robert E. Lee in

Virginia in 1865. After the war Grant

became a general, the highest rank in the

Army.

Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th president of

the United States.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Grant, Ulysses S. 137

Presidency

In 1868 the Republican Party nominated

Grant for president. He defeated

his Democratic opponent, Horatio Seymour,

and took office in March 1869.

He was reelected in 1872.

President Grant faced serious problems

resulting from the CivilWar. He favored

harsh policies against the defeated

Southern states. He also supported civil

rights for former slaves. Grant worked

for the 15th Amendment to the Constitution,

which gave African Americans

the right to vote.

Grant’s popularity fell in his second

term because of political scandals. The

public learned that important Republican

politicians had made illegal business

deals.

Retirement

After leaving office in 1877, Grant

toured Europe and Asia and then moved

to New York City. In the 1880s he lost

most of his money in a failed business.

To support his family he began to write

the story of his life. Grant finished his

book about a week before his death from

cancer on July 23, 1885.

#More to explore

American CivilWar • United States

Grape

Grapes are bulb-shaped fruits. They can

be eaten fresh, dried to make raisins, or

crushed to make grape juice or wine.

There are more than 8,000 varieties of

grape.

Grapes grow in wooded and warm

regions of the world. Large quantities

grow in France, Spain, Italy, Turkey, and

Georgia. About a thousand grape varieties

have been developed in the United

States.

The grape plant is a woody vine. When

left untrimmed, the vine often grows 56

April 27, July 23,

1822 1864 1868 1870 1872 1877 1885

Grant is born

in Point

Pleasant, Ohio.

During the Civil

War Grant

gains

command of

the Union

armies.

Grant is elected

president.

Grant supports

the 15th

Amendment,

which gives

freed slaves the

right to vote.

Grant is elected

to a second

term.

Grant retires.

Grant dies in

Mount

McGregor,

New York.

T I M E L I N E

138 Grape BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

feet (17 meters) or more. (Trimming,

however, is important for proper growth

of the vine.) Leaves are large and

rounded with tooth-shaped edges. Flowers

are small and green and appear in

clusters. These eventually become the

grape fruits.

Grapes vary in color. They range from

pale green or yellow to red, purple, or

black. Some grape varieties develop a

powdery coating. Inside, most grapes

have seeds and juicy pulp. Grapes are a

good source of minerals and vitamin A.

Grapes have a long history. Grape seeds

have been found along with mummies

in Egyptian tombs that are at least 3,000

years old. The ancient Greeks and

Romans grew grapes to make wine.

From there grapes spread throughout

the world.

#More to explore

Fruit

Grapefruit

The grapefruit is a tart, juicy citrus fruit

that grows on trees. It is a good source

of vitamin C. It is called grapefruit

because it grows in clusters like grapes

do. The scientific name of the grapefruit

tree is Citrus paradisi.

The United States is one of the world’s

leading grapefruit producers. Grapefruit

are grown mainly in the warm, sandy

soils of Florida, Texas, Arizona, and

California. Other major grapefruit producers

include Israel, Mexico, Cuba, and

South Africa.

The grapefruit tree has spreading

branches, thorny twigs, and dark, shiny

green leaves. It grows about 25 feet (7.6

meters) tall in orchards, but it can be

larger. It has large, sweet-smelling white

flowers.

The fruit is round and measures 4 to 6

inches (10 to 15 centimeters) across. It

has a lemon-yellow rind, or outside covering,

when it is ready to be picked. The

Grapes come in thousands of different varieties.

They range in color from yellow or

pale green to deep purple or black.

Grapefruit grow in clusters on trees with

shiny, green leaves.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Grapefruit 139

pulp, or soft inside, is light yellow, pink,

or red. The pulp has about 10 to 14

sections. Each section is surrounded by a

bitter skin and may include seeds.

Grapefruit are picked by hand or harvested

with a machine that shakes the

tree’s limbs. They are usually eaten fresh.

The juice is sold fresh, frozen, or

canned.

#More to explore

Citrus Fruit

Graph

Graphs are drawings that show mathematical

information with lines, shapes,

and colors. Graphs are also known as

charts. People use graphs to compare

amounts of things or other numbers.

Graphs are useful because they can be

easier to understand than numbers and

words alone.

There are many different kinds of

graphs. Some of the most common

kinds are circle graphs, bar graphs, and

line graphs.

Circle Graphs

Circle graphs are also called pie graphs

because they look like a pie divided into

wedges. Circle graphs show amounts of

different things as small or large sections

of the circle. For example, a circle graph

could show that three quarters of the

students in a classroom play video

games. The whole circle would represent

all the students. Three quarters of the

circle would be one color, to represent

the video-game players. The remaining

quarter of the circle would be another

color, to represent the students who do

not play.

Bar Graphs

A bar graph shows amounts as bars of

different sizes and, sometimes, of different

colors. Longer bars represent larger

numbers. For example, a bar graph

could show that one classroom had 30

students and another classroom had 15

students. Two bars would represent the

different classrooms. The bar for the

classroom with 30 students would be

twice as long as the bar for the classroom

with 15 students.

Line Graphs

A line graph uses dots connected by

lines to show how amounts change over

time. For example, a line graph could

show the highest temperature for each

month during one year. One side of the

graph would show a range of

temperatures. The bottom of the graph

140 Graph BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

would show the months. A dot over

each month would represent the highest

temperature for that month. Each dot

would line up with the correct

temperature on the side of the graph. A

line connecting the dots would show

how temperatures rose and fell over the

year.

#More to explore

Mathematics • Numbers and Number

Systems

Grass

Grasses are a family of plants with leaves

that usually look like blades. Most of

them also have hollow stems and many

branching roots. The green grass found

in yards, the grasses growing on open

land, grains, and bamboos all belong to

the grass family.

Where Grasses Grow

Grasses grow almost everywhere on

Earth because they can survive in many

different climates. Large areas of wild

grass are called grasslands.

Physical Features

Some grasses, such as bluegrass, are very

short. Others, such as giant bamboos,

grow as tall as 100 feet (30 meters).

Most grasses are soft and bendable, but

bamboos are harder, woody grasses.

In tropical regions grass leaves are broad.

Desert grasses have spiky leaves that help

keep moisture inside. The leaves of some

water grasses are waxy. The waxiness

protects them from the water.

Uses

Since ancient times people have eaten

the seeds of many grasses. These grasses,

called grains or cereals, include corn,

barley, millet, oats, rice, rye, sorghum,

and wheat. Livestock, or farm animals

that are raised by people, also eat grains.

Both livestock and wild animals graze on

wild grasses.

After people take the seeds from cereals,

the stalks of the plants are left. When

dried, these stalks are called straw. Farmers

cover the floors of barns with straw.

The green grass in Central Park helps New

York City look nice and is also good for the

environment.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Grass 141

People in some parts of the world use

straw to build roofs. People also weave

straw to make furniture, mats, baskets,

and hats.

People grow grass lawns because grass

makes a yard look green and attractive.

But grasses are also important to the

environment. Grass roots spread in all

directions. These roots prevent erosion,

or the loss of soil, by holding the soil in

place.

#More to explore

Bamboo • Grain • Grassland

Grasshopper

Grasshoppers are leaping insects that are

found all over the world. They live

mostly in forests or grasslands, but they

are also common in gardens. Their

brown or green coloring helps them

blend in with the plants and dirt around

them. Grasshoppers are closely related to

crickets.

Compared to many other insects, grasshoppers

are large. Some are more than 4

inches (11 centimeters) long. Grasshoppers

have long hind legs that are good

for jumping. They have antennas, or

feelers, on their heads that they use to

touch and smell. They also have special

eyes that allow them to see in all directions

at once.

Most grasshoppers eat only plants. Some

kinds, such as locusts, move in swarms

and destroy farmers’ crops.

Usually only male grasshoppers chirp or

sing. They make their song by rubbing

their wings together or by rubbing their

hind legs against their front wings. The

song is the male’s way of calling females.

#More to explore

Cricket • Insect • Locust

Grassland

Grasses grow in wide, open spaces

around the world. Large areas covered

with grasses are called grasslands. Tropical

grasslands grow close to the equator.

Temperate grasslands grow in regions

farther from the equator.

Features

Many different kinds of grass grow on

the world’s grasslands. Grasslands may

have no trees or only a scattered few.

Usually the land is flat. Sometimes it has

rolling hills.

Grasslands are good for grazing livestock.

Grasslands also have good soil for

farming. Wheat, oats, corn, and other

crops have replaced many wild grasses.

Grasshoppers use their long hind legs for

jumping.

142 Grasshopper BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Types of Grasslands

Tropical grasslands are often called

savannas. Africa, India, Southeast Asia,

Brazil, and Australia all have areas of

tropical grassland. The climate of savannas

is extreme. Temperatures are high,

and there are wet and dry seasons.

The climate in temperate grasslands is

less extreme. The prairies of North

America are temperate grasslands. So are

the pampas of Argentina, the veld of

southern Africa, and the steppes of central

Asia. The huge rangelands in Australia’s

southeastern corner are also

temperate grasslands.

Life in the Grasslands

The large animals that live in tropical

grasslands include zebras, gazelles, lions,

and kangaroos. Horses, antelope, hawks,

and prairie dogs are a few of the animals

that live in temperate grasslands.

In the past wandering peoples lived on

many of the world’s grasslands. For

example, the Mongols lived on the

steppes of central Asia. The Plains Indians

lived on the prairies of North

America.

Changing Grasslands

In the 1800s farmers moved onto the

grasslands of southern Africa, Australia,

South America, and North America.

They began changing the grasslands into

farmland. In North America the prairies

once extended down the middle of the

continent, from Canada to Texas. Now

most of this land is farmland. The Australian

grasslands and the South American

pampas have also become mostly

farming and grazing lands. Grasslands

have also disappeared as cities and towns

have expanded.

But much grassland still exists. The veld

still carpets large parts of southern

Africa. Steppes extend 5,000 miles

(8,000 kilometers) from eastern Europe

to eastern China. They are mostly

unspoiled wilderness, and few people

live there.

#More to explore

Grass

The grasslands in central North America

are called prairies.

The sun sets on a savanna in the African

country of Kenya.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Grassland 143

Gravity

All objects attract other objects because

of a force called gravity. Gravity is a

pulling force that works across space.

That is, objects do not have to touch

each other for the force of gravity to

affect them. For example, the sun, which

is millions of miles from Earth, pulls on

Earth and the other planets and objects

in the solar system.

Gravity on Earth

On Earth gravity pulls objects toward the

center of Earth. This is what makes

objects fall. It is also what gives an object

weight.Weight is a measurement of the

force of gravity between an object and

the surface it stands on. If a person stands

on a scale, gravity pulls the person against

the scale. The scale shows the strength of

this force, or the person’s weight.

Gravity in Space

In the solar system the planets all orbit,

or travel around, the sun in a constant

path. They would move in a straight

line, but the force of gravity pulls them

toward the sun. At the same time, the

speed of the planets in their orbits keeps

them from falling into the sun.

Spacecraft and satellites travel around

Earth in a similar way. Earth’s gravity

keeps them in orbit, and their speed

keeps them from falling back to Earth.

When astronauts are inside a spacecraft

in orbit, they experience weightlessness.

The astronauts float freely because they

are traveling around Earth at the same

speed as the spacecraft. But even though

Earth’s gravity does not pull them

toward the floor—as it does on Earth—

they have not escaped it. Earth’s gravity

Gravity keeps the Moon moving in an orbit

around Earth.

Gravity is what gives weight to objects on

Earth. Scales measure the pull of gravity as

weight.

144 Gravity BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

keeps the astronauts in orbit, just as it

does the spacecraft.

Newton’s Law of Gravity

Isaac Newton, an English scientist, discovered

a law, or truth, about gravity in

the late 1600s. Newton said that the

force of gravity between objects depends

on their mass, or the amount of material

they contain. The greater the mass of an

object, the greater is its force of gravity.

For example, the sun, which has a very

large mass, has a greater force of gravity

than Earth, which has a much smaller

mass. Even a speck of dust has a force of

gravity. But its gravity is very, very small.

The force of gravity also depends on the

distance between two objects. The

smaller the distance, the greater is the

force of gravity between them.

#More to explore

Newton, Isaac • Solar System

Great Barrier

Reef

The Great Barrier Reef is the largest

coral reef on Earth. A barrier reef is a

long, narrow coral formation that lies

parallel to the shoreline of a landmass

and is mostly underwater. The Great

Barrier Reef is in the Coral Sea, off the

northeastern coast of Australia. It

extends 1,250 miles (2,000 kilometers)

from north to south.

The Great Barrier Reef is a tourist

attraction and a protected marine environment.

The sea life of the reef is

extraordinary. The reef has been formed

over millions of years from the skeletons

of millions of tiny corals. There are at

least 300 types of hard coral on the

Great Barrier Reef. Other animals

include sponges, anemones, worms,

snails, lobsters, crayfish, prawns, jellyfish,

and giant clams. Certain algae give

the reef a purplish red rim. There are

also hundreds of different birds in the

area and more than 1,500 types of fish,

many with brilliant colors and unusual

shapes.

#More to explore

Australia • Coral

Great Britain

Great Britain is the largest island in

Europe. It contains England, Scotland,

andWales. Together with Northern Ireland,

they make up the country of the

United Kingdom of Great Britain and

Northern Ireland. Sometimes the term

Great Britain is used to refer to the

whole United Kingdom. Great Britain is

Colorful corals and fish help to create the

striking beauty of the Great Barrier Reef.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Great Britain 145

located off the northwestern coast of

mainland Europe.

#More to explore

England • Scotland • United Kingdom

•Wales

Great Depression

During the 1930s much of the world

faced harsh economic conditions. Many

people were out of work, hungry, or

homeless. This period is called the Great

Depression. It started in the United

States, but it quickly spread throughout

the world.

Effects in the United States

During the 1920s many people invested

their money in stocks (shares of ownership

in companies). For a few years the

value of stocks rose rapidly. In September

1929, however, stock prices began to

fall. On October 29 they “crashed.” This

meant that people’s stocks were now

worth almost nothing. This day became

known as Black Tuesday.

Many people lost all the money they

had. Banks were hurt as well. People

who had borrowed money from banks

were unable to pay it back. Many banks

failed because crowds of people tried to

take out all their money at once. When

a bank failed, people with accounts there

lost their savings. In addition, factories

and businesses closed because not

enough people were able to buy the

goods they produced or sold.

By 1932 about 12 to 13 million people

were out of work. People with jobs were

paid only about half of what they had

earned before. Dry weather in the Great

Plains made things even worse for farmers.

They could not grow enough crops

to sell. The land was so dry that it was

called the Dust Bowl.

Effects Around theWorld

The situation in the United States

affected countries all over the world.

The United States could no longer lend

as much money or trade as many goods

Women serve soup and bread to the unemployed

during the Great Depression.

146 Great Depression BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

with other countries. Great Britain, Germany,

and other countries suffered from

the loss of U.S. loans and trade.

End of the Great Depression

In the United States angry voters turned

President Herbert Hoover out of office

in 1932. The new president, Franklin D.

Roosevelt, had a program that he called

the New Deal. The New Deal put some

people back to work right away. It also

changed the financial (banking and

money) system to prevent the same

problems from happening in the future.

The Great Depression ended in the

United States only after the country

enteredWorldWar II in 1941. Factories

began to produce weapons, airplanes,

ships, and other products necessary for

the war effort. Many people were then

able to get jobs.

#More to explore

Dust Bowl • New Deal • Stock

Exchange

Great Lakes

The Great Lakes are five large lakes in

eastern North America. They are Lakes

Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and

Ontario. Together the Great Lakes cover

an area of about 94,850 square miles

(245,660 square kilometers). They form

the largest connected area of freshwater

on Earth.

Lake Michigan is the only one of the

Great Lakes that is completely within

the United States. The other four form a

natural border between Canada and the

United States. Lake Superior is the largest

and the deepest of the Great Lakes.

Lake Ontario is the smallest. Lake Erie is

the shallowest. Lake Huron has the

longest shoreline.

The Great Lakes affect the climate of the

surrounding land. They absorb a lot of

heat in the summer. In the winter they

release heat into the air. As a result, the

land closest to the lakes has cooler summers

and warmer winters than areas

farther inland. Large parts of the lakes

freeze during winter.

The Great Lakes are important to the

economy of North America. Major cities

in the region include Milwaukee,Wis-

Sailboats compete in a race across Lake

Huron.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Great Lakes 147

consin; Chicago, Illinois; Cleveland,

Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; and Toronto,

Ontario. hips carry iron ore, coal, grain,

and manufactured goods to and from

the cities. The Saint Lawrence Seaway

connects the Great Lakes with the

Atlantic Ocean. The lakes also supply

water to nearby cities.

Fishing was once a major industry on

the lakes. However, pollution and other

factors led to its collapse. Today only

some commercial fishing takes place.

Sport fishing is more common.

The Great Lakes are popular recreation

areas. Powerboating and sailing are

popular. Many beaches stretch along the

shores.

#More to explore

Erie, Lake • Huron, Lake • Michigan,

Lake • Ontario, Lake • Saint Lawrence

River and Seaway • Superior, Lake

Great Victoria

Desert

The huge Great Victoria Desert stretches

across southern Australia. It lies in the

states ofWestern Australia and South

Australia. Sand dunes cover much of the

desert. In some places a layer of tightly

packed pebbles covers the ground.

Summers in the Great Victoria Desert

are very hot.Winters are cooler, and

nighttime temperatures may drop below

freezing.

Scattered eucalyptus and acacia trees,

shrubs, and grasses grow in the desert.

Skinks, geckos, monitor lizards, copperhead

snakes, and other reptiles live there.

Mice, dingoes, and foxes also make their

home in the desert.

Few people live in the Great Victoria

Desert. The government of Australia

uses parts of the desert for weapons testing.

Some Aboriginal people live in the

eastern regions. There are also several

national parks in the desert.

#More to explore

Australia • Desert

GreatWall of

China

The GreatWall of China winds across

the Chinese countryside for more than

4,000 miles (6,500 kilometers). It is one

of the biggest structures ever made by

humans. The ancient Chinese built the

wall to protect against invading armies.

Today it is a tourist attraction and a

symbol of China.

The Great

Lakes are at

different

heights above

sea level. Lake

Superior is the

highest, and

Lake Ontario

is the lowest.

148 Great Victoria Desert BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The GreatWall is made of dirt, stone,

and brick. Its height ranges from 15 to

30 feet (5 to 9 meters), and its width is

15 to 25 feet (5 to 8 meters). Many

watchtowers rise above the wall, and a

roadway runs along the top.

Workers began constructing the Great

Wall in the 600s BC. It was built in several

sections. In the 200s BC the Chinese

joined the sections together. The Chinese

stopped using the wall for protection in

the 1600s. The wall fell into ruin, but in

the 1900s parts of it were rebuilt.

#More to explore

China

Great Zimbabwe

Great Zimbabwe was a city at the heart

of an African trading empire from about

1100 to 1500. Ruins of the city can still

be seen in what is now the country of

Zimbabwe in southern Africa.

The people of Great Zimbabwe were part

of a group called the Shona. The Shona

are Bantu-speaking peoples who still live

in Zimbabwe. They farmed and raised

cattle. They made pottery, sculpture, and

A hut has been built close to the ruins of the

Great Zimbabwe city.

The Great Wall of China winds through a hilly area.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Great Zimbabwe 149

bone tools.However, they are best

known as traders of gold. They traded

along the coast of the IndianOcean.

People stopped living in Great Zimbabwe

before 1500. They left behind stone

and brick buildings that archaeologists

study today.

The oldest part of the city was built on a

hill. Archaeologists call it the Hill Complex.

It may have been a religious center.

Its walls are up to 20 feet (6 meters)

thick and 36 feet (11 meters) high. They

were built partly with odd-shaped rocks

and partly with blocks of cut stone.

South of the Hill Complex is something

known as the Great Enclosure. The

outer wall is about 820 feet (250 meters)

around. It rises 36 feet (11 meters) at its

highest point. The Great Enclosure was

the largest structure in ancient Africa

south of the Sahara. Archaeologists do

not know what it was used for.

#More to explore

Zimbabwe

Greco, El

Paintings by El Greco are known for

their brilliant colors and strong contrasts

of light and shadow. El Greco also

stretched out the figures in his paintings.

Their bodies and limbs are unusually

long, thin, and muscular. Although El

Greco was Greek, he lived much of his

life in Spain, where he became the first

great master of Spanish painting.

El Greco was born in 1541 in Candia

(now Iraklion), on Crete, an island

south of Greece. His original name was

Domenikos Theotokopoulos. Not much

is known about his early life. In the

1560s he traveled to Italy, where he

studied the painting style of Italian artists

of the period. While in Italy he

acquired the nickname El Greco, which

means “The Greek.”

El Greco left Italy for Spain in the late

1570s. He settled in Toledo, Spain,

which was then a religious and cultural

center. He created many religious paintings

for the city’s Roman Catholic

churches and monasteries as well as for

private clients. El Greco died in Toledo

on April 7, 1614. He remains one of the

world’s most admired painters.

#More to explore

Painting

El Greco painted Saint John the Evangelist.

El Greco often used secondary colors—

green, purple, and orange—in his paintings.

150 Greco, El BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Greece

In ancient times Greece was a center of

science, philosophy, and art. In the

1900s the country experienced wars and

changes of government. Today Greece

has become an important member of the

European Union. The capital and largest

city is Athens.

Geography

Located in southeastern Europe, Greece

includes a mainland and about 2,000

islands. The Greek mainland shares borders

with Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria,

and Turkey. The Ionian, Mediterranean,

and Aegean seas surround all of Greece.

About 80 percent of Greece consists of

mountains. The Pindus Mountains run

north and south on the mainland.

Greece’s highest peak, Mount Olympus,

is in the east; it rises to 9,570 feet (2,917

meters). Summers are hot and dry, and

winters are mild and rainy. Earthquakes

are common.

Plants and Animals

About one fourth of Greece is forested.

The northern mountains have forests of

chestnut, ash, and beech trees. Firs and

pines grow on the upper slopes. Other

plant life includes evergreen oak and

cypress trees, as well as juniper, myrtle,

and oleander shrubs.

Bears, wolves, wildcats, martens, wild

boars, lynx, and deer live in the

mountain forests. Jackals, wild goats,

and porcupines live in the south.

Greece’s birds include herons, storks,

and pelicans.

People

Ethnic Greeks make up more than 90

percent of the population. There are

small numbers of Macedonians,

Albanians, Turks, and others, but the

Greek government does not view them

as separate groups. Nearly all people

speak modern Greek, a language similar

to ancient Greek. Most Greeks belong

to the Greek Orthodox church, which

is a branch of Christianity. Muslims

form a small religious minority. More

than half of the population lives in

cities.

Economy

Services—including tourism, shipping,

and banking—are the main economic

activities. Each year, Greece’s natural

beauty and ancient ruins draw more

than 10 million tourists.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Greece 151

Manufacturing is also important to the

economy. Factories produce food and

beverages, chemicals, machinery, clothing,

petroleum products, and other

goods. Mines provide bauxite, the raw

material for making aluminum. Greece

also has high-technology and telecommunications

industries.

Agriculture forms a smaller part of the

economy. However, Greece is known

for making wine and olive oil from its

grapes and olives. The grapes and

olives, as well as oranges and lemons,

grow in the warm coastal regions.

Other crops include sugar beets, wheat,

corn, tomatoes, cotton, and tobacco.

The mountain regions are used mainly

for herding sheep and goats. The

fishing industry also provides food for

Greece.

History

Greece became part of the Byzantine

Empire in the late 300s. (For the early

history of Greece, read the article

Greece, Ancient.) In 1453 the Turkish

Ottoman Empire conquered Greece,

along with the rest of the Byzantine

Empire. The Greeks often revolted

against Turkish rule. In 1821 they began

a war of independence. Supported by

Great Britain, France, and Russia,

Greece declared its independence in

1829.

Unification

The new state did not include all of the

territory of ancient Greece. During the

1800s and early 1900s Greece regained

control over much of its historic land. In

1912–13 Greece fought alongside Serbia,

Bulgaria, and Montenegro in the

First BalkanWar against Turkey. In

1913 Greece joined Serbia in the Second

BalkanWar against Bulgaria. As a result

of the BalkanWars, Greece regained

control over Crete and much territory

on the mainland.

Wars with Turkey

In 1917 Greece entered WorldWar I on

the side of the Allies. Turkey sided with

the Germans. Fighting between Greece

and Turkey continued long after the end

ofWorldWar I in 1918. By 1919

Greece had won significant territory

from Turkey, including the city of

Smyrna. In 1921–22 Greece and Turkey

fought another war. Turkey easily

Houses are built on top of lava rock in the

Facts About city of Oia on the Greek island of Thera.

GREECE

Population

(2008 estimate)

11,239,000

Area

50,949 sq mi

(131,957 sq km)

Capital

Athens

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Athens, Thessaloniki,

Piraeus

(Piraievs), Patrai,

Peristerion,

Iraklion

152 Greece BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

defeated Greece and reclaimed much of

the land that Greece had taken.

WorldWar II and CivilWar

In 1941, duringWorldWar II, Nazi

Germany invaded Greece. The German

army withdrew from Greece in 1944.

AfterWorldWar II, civil war broke out

in Greece between Communist and

anti-Communist forces. Many Greeks

supported the Communists, who had

played a leading role in the war against

Germany.Worried by the spread of

Communism, the United States and

Britain supported the anti-Communist

forces. The anti-Communists won the

war in 1949.

Postwar Greece

After the war, political problems made

rebuilding difficult. In 1967 a group of

army officers seized control of the

country. The military government

remained in power until 1974, when a

democratic government was elected.

That year Greece and Turkey nearly

fought a war over control of the island

of Cyprus.

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries

Greece worked to improve relations

with its neighbors. Athens hosted

the Summer Olympics in 2004.

#More to explore

Athens • Cyprus • European Union

• Greece, Ancient

1453 1829 1913 1922 1949 1967 1974

The Ottoman

Empire

conquers

Greece.

Greece wins

independence.

Greece wins

territory at the

end of the

Balkan Wars.

Greece loses

land to Turkey.

Anti-

Communists

win the Greek

civil war.

The military

takes over

Greece’s

government.

Greece returns

to democracy.

T I M E L I N E

Greek women perform a folk dance.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Greece 153

Greece, Ancient

The area that is now Greece was home

to the first civilizations in Europe.

Ancient Greece had powerful cities,

great thinkers called philosophers, and

fine art. The idea of democracy—rule by

the people—also came from ancient

Greece.

Aegean Civilizations

Greek civilization began sometime after

3000 BC on the island of Crete. Crete

lies south of Greece, on the southern

border of the Aegean Sea. This first civilization

is called the Minoan civilization.

In the 1500s BC Greek-speaking people

developed another civilization on the

Greek mainland. This civilization was

called the Mycenaean civilization. The

Mycenaeans conquered the Minoan

capital between 1500 and 1400 BC. In

about 1200 BC they probably fought a

war against Troy, a city in Asia Minor

(modern Turkey). Many Greek legends

tell of this war, called the TrojanWar.

Two great poems from ancient Greece

tell of Mycenaean times. The poems, the

Iliad and the Odyssey, were said to be the

works of a man named Homer.

In about 1100 BC the Dorians, a people

from the north, invaded. Mycenaean

civilization came to an end. Many

Mycenaeans moved across the Aegean

Sea. They settled in Ionia in Asia Minor.

Greek Cities

The Dorians settled mostly in the western

sections of Greece. The people in the

eastern parts became known as Ionians.

Together, the Dorians and the Ionians

formed the civilization known as classical,

or ancient, Greece. They built cities

in most of what is now Greece.

By 800 BC the Greeks were building

cities in new lands, too. Some went east

to the Black Sea. Others settled in the

west, on the island of Sicily and the

mainland of Italy.

Most of the classical Greek cities, called

city-states, were independent of each

other. Athens and Sparta grew to be the

most important city-states. Athens

spread its influence by uniting all the

surrounding villages. By contrast, Sparta

sent armies to make slaves of its neighbors.

By the 500s BC Sparta had the

strongest army in Greece.

The Hellenes

Despite their differences, the Greeks

came to think of themselves as one

people. They called themselves the Hellenes.

Many remains from ancient Greece are still

standing today. Three columns remain from

a temple called the Tholos at Delphi. The

temple was built in the early 300s BC.

154 Greece, Ancient BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Hellenes shared a similar culture

and spoke forms of the Greek language.

They even invented the word barbarian

to describe anyone who did not speak

Greek.

The ancient Greeks believed in many

gods. They pictured their gods as larger,

more beautiful, and more powerful

humans. These gods were said to live on

Mount Olympus in northern Greece.

People often gathered together for festivals

in ancient Greece. The most famous

festival was the original Olympic

Games, which began in about 776 BC.

Democracy and Culture in

Athens

Powerful leaders ruled most of the citystates.

Eventually, Athens took the first

steps toward democracy. In 621 BC a

ruler named Draco drew up a written

code of laws. Then, in the last years of

the 500s BC, another leader set up a

democratic government. All free men

with Athenian parents were members of

the city’s lawmaking group. However,

women, foreigners, and slaves were not

included.

Athens also became the Greek center of

literature and the arts. The philosophers

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were great

teachers there. Poets and playwrights

wrote works that are still read and performed

today. Painted pottery became a

fine art and a great industry. Athenians

built beautiful buildings and sculptures

out of marble.

The PersianWars

In the 500s BC the empire of Persia

(modern Iran) took over the Greek cities

in Ionia. In about 499 BC the city of

Miletus started a rebellion against the

Persians. Athens sent 20 ships to aid the

Ionian Greeks, but the Persians crushed

the revolt.

An ancient Greek mosaic shows the sea god Poseidon riding two dolphins. The mosaic

was made from many small, flat colored stones.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Greece, Ancient 155

Beginning in 490 BC the Persians

attacked the Greek mainland several

times. The Greeks fought back and

finally defeated the Persians in 479 BC.

After the Greek victory, Athens grew

stronger.

The PeloponnesianWar

By the 400s BC Athens controlled most

of eastern Greece, many of the Aegean

islands, and the Ionian coast in Asia

Minor. The Spartans thought that Athens

was too powerful. They began the

PeloponnesianWar against Athens in

431 BC.

At first, the Athenians avoided battle on

land. They stayed within the walls of

their city. Their navy attacked Sparta

from the sea. The Athenians stayed safe

until 430 BC, when plague (a deadly

disease) broke out in the city. The disease

killed one quarter of the people,

including Pericles, their leader.

Sparta won the war in 404 BC. Sparta

kept a leading position for only 30 years,

however. In 371 BC another Greek city,

called Thebes, defeated Sparta.

Rise of Macedonia

In the 300s BC Macedonia, a kingdom

to the north, gained strength. The

Macedonians were distantly related to

the Greeks. The Macedonian king Philip

II conquered the Greek city-states by

338 BC. When he died in 336, his son

Alexander came to power.

Alexander, called Alexander the Great,

was a military genius. First he defeated

the Persian king Darius III in 333 BC.

Then he spent a decade conquering

lands from Egypt to India. He took

Greek civilization to much of the

ancient world.

The Hellenistic Age

Alexander died in 323 BC. The period

following his death is called the Hellenistic

Age. “Hellenistic” means “Greeklike.”

Alexander’s empire broke into three

main kingdoms in Macedonia, Egypt,

and the Middle East. In these kingdoms,

Greek culture mixed with local cultures.

In Greece itself, some of the cities

regained their independence or joined

together in leagues.

Ancient Rome conquered all of Greece

and the three Hellenistic kingdoms by

30 BC. Greece remained under the

One of the last

of the Hellenistic

rulers was

Cleopatra,

queen of

Egypt.

A sculpture from about 320 BC

shows a young woman of the

Hellenistic Age of ancient Greece.

156 Greece, Ancient BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Roman Empire until AD 395. Then it

became a part of the Byzantine Empire.

#More to explore

Aegean Civilization • Alexander the

Great • Athens • Homer • PersianWars

• Sparta

Greek Orthodox

Church

#see Eastern Orthodox Churches.

Greenhouse

Effect

The greenhouse effect is a warming of

Earth’s surface and the air above it. It is

caused by gases in the air that trap

energy from the sun. These heattrapping

gases are called greenhouse

gases. The most common greenhouse

gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide,

and methane.Without the greenhouse

effect, Earth would be too cold for life

to exist.

Land, oceans, and plants absorb, or soak

up, energy from sunlight. They release

some of this energy as heat. Greenhouse

gases absorb the heat and then send it

back toward Earth.Without greenhouse

gases, this heat would escape back into

space.

Scientists believe that human activities

are increasing the greenhouse effect.

When people drive a car or operate a

factory they burn coal, oil, and other

fossil fuels. This adds extra greenhouse

gases to the air, and the extra gases trap

more heat. Many scientists think that

this has led to global warming, or a

steady rise in the average temperature of

Earth’s surface.

#More to explore

Air • Earth • Fossil Fuel • Global

Warming

Greenland

Greenland is the world’s largest island. It

lies in the very cold northern part of the

world. Greenland belongs to Denmark.

The capital and largest town is Nuuk.

Geography

Greenland is in the northern Atlantic

Ocean. The northern tip is less than 500

miles (800 kilometers) from the North

Pole. A massive ice sheet, or glacier, cov-

Greenland

never was

very green.

Erik the Red

gave that

name to the

island because

he wanted

people to

move there.

Energy from the sun heats Earth’s surface

and atmosphere. Greenhouse gases keep

much of this heat from reflecting back into

space.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Greenland 157

ers most of Greenland. At its deepest

point the ice is 10,000 feet (3,000

meters) thick. Mountains run along the

island’s east and west coasts. The coastline

is indented in many places by narrow

strips of sea, which are called fjords.

People

The people of Greenland are mostly of

Inuit (Eskimo) origin. Many of them

also have some European roots. Most of

the rest of the people are Danish (from

Denmark). The main languages are

Greenlandic (an Inuit language), Danish,

and English. Almost everyone lives

in small towns along the coast.

Economy

Greenland relies on financial aid from

the Danish government. The island’s

economy also depends on fishing. The

part of the land that is not covered in ice

is used mainly to raise sheep and reindeer

for meat, milk, and wool. In the

north people hunt seals, polar bears, and

foxes for their meat and skin.

History

The Inuit probably crossed from North

America to northwestern Greenland

between 4000 BC and AD 1000. In AD

986 Erik the Red, a Viking from Norway,

started a colony on Greenland. The

colony lasted until the 1400s. No other

Europeans lived on Greenland until the

1700s. In 1721 the combined kingdom

Greenland does not have many roads. Many people travel by dogsled.

158 Greenland BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

of Norway and Denmark started a new

colony. After the union of Norway and

Denmark ended in 1814, Denmark kept

Greenland as a colony. In 1979 Denmark

gave Greenland the power to govern

itself. But Denmark kept control of

Greenland’s foreign relations.

#More to explore

Denmark • Eskimo • Glacier • Vikings

Green

Revolution

Every year millions of people get sick or

even die because they do not have

enough to eat. Beginning in the 1940s

scientists and governments started a

movement called the Green Revolution

to try to end this worldwide hunger. Its

main goal was to end food shortages by

improving agriculture, or farming.

Methods

The Green Revolution introduced new

methods for growing, harvesting, and

processing such crops as wheat, rice,

corn, and potatoes. It brought modern

machines and other technology to farming.

As a result, farmers were able to

produce more and better food.

Farmers in Mexico, India, Kenya, and

many other countries began to grow

new plant varieties created by scientists.

They got larger crops as a result. Farmers

also learned how to treat their crops

with pesticides and fertilizers. These

chemicals protected the plants from

insect pests, weeds, and disease. Complex

systems of irrigation, or watering,

also came into use. New machinery for

plowing the soil and harvesting crops

made farm work easier to do.

Mixed Results

Farmers still use the methods of the

Green Revolution. One positive result of

the movement was that many poor

countries became able to grow enough

food to feed their own people. This lowered

the risk of famine, or a severe shortage

of food.

However, the Green Revolution was not

a complete success. Many of the

pesticides and fertilizers were harmful

to humans and polluted the land and

water. Also, farmers had to buy the new

seeds from other countries instead of

using seeds from their own land.

Finally, even though the movement

produced more food, that food did not

always reach the people who needed it.

#More to explore

Agriculture • Famine

U.S. scientist Norman Borlaug (standing at

left) helped to start the Green Revolution.

He explains new ways of growing wheat to

farm leaders from all over the world.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Green Revolution 159

Grenada

Grenada is a small island country in the

eastern Caribbean Sea. Called the Isle of

Spice, Grenada is known for growing

nutmeg and other spices. The capital is

Saint George’s.

Geography

Grenada’s territory includes the southern

Grenadine Islands, which lie to the

northwest of Grenada. (The northern

Grenadines are part of the country of

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.) A

ridge of mountains runs down the center

of the island. Grenada has yearround

warm weather and a long rainy

season.

Plants and Animals

Rain forests of teak, mahogany, and

other trees cover the mountains. Other

plants include wild orchids and bamboo.

Mona monkeys, agoutis (rabbit-sized

rodents), mongooses, iguanas, land

crabs, and rare leatherback turtles live on

Grenada.

People

The majority of the population has

black African or mixed African and

European roots. There are also small

groups of South Asians and whites.

English is the main language. Most

people are Christians, mainly Roman

Catholics.

Economy

Grenada’s economy depends on exports

of nutmeg, fish, and cocoa. Grenada also

grows sugarcane, coconuts, bananas, and

other fruits and spices. Tourism is a very

important industry.

History

The Arawak and later the Carib Indians

were the earliest settlers of Grenada. In

the 1600s the French took over the

island and killed nearly all the Carib.

The British captured Grenada in the

1700s. They brought slaves from Africa

to work on sugarcane and spice plantations.

The slaves were freed in 1833.

In 1974 Britain granted independence

to Grenada. A dictator ruled until 1979,

when a Communist party took over. In

1983 U.S. troops invaded Grenada and

overthrew the Communist government.

Grenada held democratic elections in

1984. In 2004 the island was seriously

damaged by Hurricane Ivan.

..More to explore

Saint George’s • Saint Vincent and the

Grenadines

Facts About

GRENADA

Population

(2008 estimate)

108,000

Area

133 sq mi (344

sq km)

Capital

Saint George’s

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Saint George’s,

Gouyave, Grenville,

Victoria

160 Grenada BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Gretzky,Wayne

Wayne Gretzky played ice hockey in the

National Hockey League (NHL). Many

people think he was the best player in

the history of the game. When he retired

he held more than 60 NHL records. His

nickname was the Great One.

Wayne Douglas Gretzky was born on

January 26, 1961, in Brantford,

Ontario. He started playing hockey at a

very young age. At age 6 he played

against 10- and 11-year-olds. In 1978

Gretzky became the youngest player ever

in professional hockey when he joined

theWorld Hockey Association (WHA).

Gretzky first played in the NHL in the

1979–80 season. As center and team

captain, he led the Edmonton Oilers to

four Stanley Cup championships.

Gretzky was named the league’s most

valuable player eight years in a row, from

the 1979–80 through 1986–87 seasons.

After the 1987–88 season Gretzky was

traded to the Los Angeles Kings. In the

1989–90 season he broke Gordie

Howe’s NHL career record of 1,850

points (goals and assists). Howe needed

1,767 games to score that many points.

Gretzky broke the record in only his

780th game.

Gretzky played the last three years of his

career for the Saint Louis Blues and the

New York Rangers. He retired in 1999.

His career totals included 2,857 points,

894 goals, and 1,963 assists. The NHL

honored him by retiring his jersey number

(99) after his final game. That means

that no other NHL player will ever wear

the number 99. Gretzky was elected to

the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1999.

#More to explore

Hockey, Ice

Grimke, Sarah

and Angelina

The sisters Sarah and Angelina Grimke

were born to slaveholders in the southern

United States. But they became leaders

of the abolitionist movement, which

worked to end slavery. They also supported

women’s rights.

The Grimke sisters were born in

Charleston, South Carolina. Sarah was

born on November 26, 1792. Angelina

was born on February 20, 1805. As chil-

Gretzky was

nicknamed the

Great One

and the Great

Gretzky.

Wayne Gretzky skates with the

Canadian hockey team at the

1998 Winter Olympic Games.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Grimke, Sarah and Angelina 161

dren they came to hate slavery. In the

1820s both sisters moved to the North.

Both Sarah and Angelina wrote powerful

letters and articles. They asked Southern

women and Southern churches to turn

against slavery. This made them

unpopular in the South. In the North,

though, they spoke to large audiences.

Some people said that it was not proper

for women to speak in public. The

Grimkes then began to speak out for

women’s rights.

The Grimke sisters lived to see the end

of slavery in the 1860s. Sarah died on

December 23, 1873, in Hyde Park,

Massachusetts. Angelina died in Hyde

Park on October 26, 1879.

#More to explore

Abolitionist Movement •Women’s

Rights

Grimm Brothers

The German brothers Jacob and Wilhelm

Grimm collected some of the

Western world’s most popular stories.

They put together a famous book of

folktales that has been published in at

least 70 languages. The tales include

such classics as “Snow White,”

“Rumpelstiltskin,” “Rapunzel,” “Cinderella,”

and “Little Red Riding Hood.”

Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm was born on

January 4, 1785, in the German village

of Hanau.Wilhelm Carl was born in

Hanau on February 24, 1786. While in

their 20s they began collecting folktales

for a friend. The friend wanted to publish

a collection of tales. The brothers

wrote down tales that they heard storytellers

tell out loud. The friend never

used the tales, so the Grimms decided to

publish them.

The Grimms sometimes changed the

tales they heard. Sometimes they put

their own views into the tales. Other

times they combined several versions of

a story into one.

Angelina Grimke (left) and Sarah Grimke

Children follow the Pied Piper of

Hamelin in a German illustration

of the Grimm brothers’ story.

162 Grimm Brothers BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The first volume of the tales was published

in 1812. It was called Children’s

and Household Tales. Today the collection

is commonly known as Grimm’s

Fairy Tales. The Grimms added to the

collection for many years. Eventually it

contained more than 200 tales.

Aside from collecting folktales, the

Grimm brothers wrote books about the

German language. They also worked for

the government and as university professors

and librarians.Wilhelm Grimm

died on December 16, 1859, in Berlin,

Germany. Jacob died there on September

20, 1863.

#More to explore

Folktale • Storytelling

Gros Ventre

The Gros Ventre are Native Americans

of northern Montana. Early French

traders gave them their name, which

means “big belly” in French. The name

refers to the way the tribe was identified

in Indian sign language. The traders

mistakenly used the name Gros Ventre

for the Hidatsa people as well. To help

tell the tribes apart, the Gros Ventre are

sometimes called the Atsina or the Gros

Ventre of the Prairie.

The Gros Ventre traditionally depended

on hunting bison (buffalo). Their main

food was bison meat. They used bison

hides to make clothing and to cover

their tepees.

The Gros Ventre once may have lived

near the Great Lakes as part of the

Arapaho tribe. By 1700, however, they

had become a separate tribe. In the

middle of the 1700s European traders

began coming to Gros Ventre territory.

The tribe then lived on the plains of

what is now southern Canada. The traders

brought with them diseases such as

smallpox. The diseases killed many Gros

Ventre.

By the middle of the 1800s the Gros

Ventre had been pushed south into

northern Montana. In 1888 the U.S.

government moved the Gros Ventre to

the Fort Belknap Reservation. Later they

had to share the reservation with the

Assiniboin, who were their traditional

enemies.

At the end of the 20th century there

were about 3,000 Gros Ventre. Many

made their living through farming and

ranching.

#More to explore

Arapaho • Assiniboin • Hidatsa • Native

Americans

A photograph from the early 1900s shows

a band of Gros Ventre on horseback.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gros Ventre 163

Groundhog

The groundhog is a large rodent that

belongs to the squirrel family. It is also

called the woodchuck. The groundhog’s

scientific name is Marmota monax.

The groundhog lives in the United

States and Canada. It can be found in

meadows and forests.

The groundhog weighs about 4 to 13

pounds (2 to 6 kilograms). Not

counting its bushy tail, the groundhog

is about 13 to 20 inches (33 to 51

centimeters) long. Its fur is brown or

reddish brown. The groundhog has

strong legs and heavy claws that are

good for digging.

The groundhog lives in a burrow, or

hole. It eats grass and other plants. During

the winter the groundhog hibernates

in its burrow. It hardly moves or eats for

months.

In the United States and Canada,

February 2 is Groundhog Day. On this

day people watch as a groundhog comes

out of its burrow. If the animal sees its

shadow, it is said that winter will go on

for six more weeks. If not, then spring

is near.

#More to explore

Hibernation • Rodent • Squirrel

Guadeloupe

A group of islands in the Caribbean

Sea, Guadeloupe is an overseas

department (a type of province) of

France. The two largest islands are

Basse-Terre (to the west) and Grande-

Terre (to the east).

Guadeloupe lies north of the island

country of Dominica. Basse-Terre is

mountainous, while Grande-Terre is

flatter. Smaller islands called Marie-

Galante, La Desirade, the Saintes

Islands, and Saint-Barthelemy also

belong to Guadeloupe. In addition, the

northern part of the island of Saint Martin

is a part of Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe

has warm weather year-round and a

rainy season. The islands are sometimes

struck by hurricanes.

Forests of mahogany, chestnut, and

ironwood trees cover much of Basse-

Terre. Grande-Terre’s forests have been

cleared. The islands’ warm waters are

home to lobsters, octopuses, parrot fish,

and rays. Iguanas, raccoons, rodents

called agoutis, and a variety of birds live

on land.

Most Guadeloupeans are Creoles, or

people with both African and European

ancestors. Blacks and people with

mixed French and East Asian roots

Groundhogs are good diggers. They spend

a lot of time in the burrows that they dig.

164 Groundhog BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

form smaller groups. French is the main

language. Most people are Roman

Catholics.

Guadeloupe depends on money and

food from France. Many people work

for the government. Tourism is another

major industry. Guadeloupe produces

bananas, sugar, rum, and cement.

The Carib Indians drove the Arawak

Indians off the islands before Christopher

Columbus arrived in 1493. French

traders set up a colony in the 1600s. The

French defeated the Carib and brought

Africans to the islands as slaves.

In 1946 France changed Guadeloupe

from a colony to a department. Guadeloupe

has its own legislature as well as

representatives in France’s legislature.

#More to explore

Caribbean Sea

Guam

Guam is an island in the western Pacific

Ocean. It is the largest and most populous

island in the group called the Mariana

Islands. Guam is a territory of the

United States. It has important U.S.

military bases.

Guam is a long, narrow island. The

northern half is a plateau, or raised flat

area, made of limestone. To the south

are steep hills. Coral reefs and beaches

line the shores. The weather is tropical.

The local people of Guam are called

Chamorros. They are descendants of the

island’s early people, who came from

Indonesia. The population also includes

many Filipinos and other Asians, as well

as U.S. military personnel and their

families. Chamorro and English are the

main languages. Most of the people are

Roman Catholics.

U.S. military bases and tourism are the

most important parts of Guam’s

economy.

People first arrived on Guam before

1500 BC. The first settlers probably were

Indonesian. Europeans arrived on the

island in the early 1500s. Spain claimed

Guam in 1565. In 1898 the island was a

battle site in the Spanish-AmericanWar.

After the United States defeated Spain,

Guam came under U.S. control. Today

Guam governs itself, but it is still a U.S.

territory.

#More to explore

Pacific Ocean • Spanish-AmericanWar

A woman sells items in a market

in the town of Marigot on Saint

Martin island, Guadeloupe.

The people of

Guam are

U.S. citizens,

but they cannot

vote in

U.S. presidential

elections.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Guam 165

Guatemala

The Central American country of Guatemala

was the center of the great civilization

of the Maya. Modern Guatemala

has experienced unstable governments

and much violence. The capital is Guatemala

City.

Geography

Guatemala is bordered by Mexico, Belize,

Honduras, and El Salvador. It has

coasts on the Caribbean Sea and the

Pacific Ocean. Along the Pacific in the

south is a fertile coastal plain. North of

the plain is a row of volcanoes. The volcano

Tajumulco, at 13,845 feet (4,220

meters), is the highest peak in Central

America. Mountains rise in the middle

of the country. In northern Guatemala is

the Peten, a heavily forested area with

few people. It is known for its Mayan

ruins.

The low-lying coastal regions and the

Peten are hot year-round, but temperatures

are cooler at higher elevations.

Most of the country has a dry season,

but the Caribbean coast receives rain all

year.

Plants and Animals

The tropical rain forests of the Peten are

rich in fine woods and rubber trees. This

region also has savannas, or grasslands

with some trees. Oak and pine forests

grow in the mountains. Mangrove trees

grow in swamps near the Pacific.

Guatemala’s wildlife includes jaguars,

monkeys, and parrots. The rain forests

are home to the brightly colored quetzal,

which is the national bird of Guatemala.

People

More than half of Guatemala’s people

are Ladinos, who usually have both

American Indian and Spanish ancestors.

Most of the rest of the people are Mayan

Indians, who follow their traditional

way of life. There are also small numbers

of blacks and whites. Spanish is the official

language, but many Indians speak

their own languages. The majority of the

people are Roman Catholics. Many

Indians combine Roman Catholicism

with traditional Mayan beliefs.

Nearly half of Guatemalans live in cities

or towns. The largest city, Guatemala

City, lies in the central mountains. Most

of the rest of the major cities are near

the Pacific coast.

166 Guatemala BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Economy

More than half of Guatemala’s people

work as farmers. The main food crops

are corn, beans, and squashes. Commercial

farms produce coffee, sugar,

bananas, and livestock for export.

Manufacturing is another important

part of the economy. Factories make

food products, clothing and textiles, and

metal goods. Guatemala also produces

some petroleum (oil). Tourism is a growing

industry.

History

TheMaya developed an advanced

civilization that spread through what are

now Guatemala, southernMexico, and

northern Belize.Mayan culture reached

its height between AD 250 and 900. In

1523 Spanish soldiers conquered the

Maya. The Spanish forced the Indians to

work on plantations and in mines.Many

Indians died from European diseases.

Guatemala gained independence from

Spain in 1821. Guatemala was part of

the Mexican Empire until 1823. Guatemala

then joined Honduras, El Salvador,

Costa Rica, and Nicaragua in a union

called the United Provinces of Central

America. In 1839 Guatemala became an

independent republic.

A series of dictators and military leaders

ruled Guatemala for many years. Large

landowners became wealthier while

peasants became poorer. Beginning in

the 1960s rebel groups attacked the government.

More than 100,000 people

died during the civil war, which ended

in 1996. The military’s control of politics

also ended in the 1990s. Nevertheless,

violence continued into the 21st

century.

..More to explore

Central America • Guatemala City

• Maya

Mayan Indians sell fruits and vegetables in the large central plaza in the town of Chichicastenango,

Guatemala.

Facts About

GUATEMALA

Population

(2008 estimate)

13,002,000

Area

42,130 sq mi

(109,117 sq km)

Capital

Guatemala City

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Guatemala City,

Mixco, Villa

Nueva, Quetzaltenango,

Escuintla

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Guatemala 167

Guatemala City

Population

(2002 estimate),

city, 942,300;

(2001 estimate),

metropolitan

area,

3,366,000

Guatemala City is the capital of the

Central American country of Guatemala.

It is the largest city in Central

America.

Guatemala City is the center of culture

and education in Guatemala. It is also

the country’s center of banking, business,

industry, and transportation. Most

of the country’s manufacturing takes

place in the Guatemala City area. Some

factories in the city process oil. Other

factories make tires, medicines, and fabrics.

In addition, Guatemala City has an

international airport.

In the 1500s Spain took control of Guatemala.

For many years another city was

the capital of Guatemala. In 1773 earthquakes

nearly destroyed that city. Guatemala

City was founded in 1776 to be

the new capital.

Guatemala and other Central American

colonies became free from Spanish rule

in 1821. They joined together in a

union. Guatemala City was the capital

of the union. In 1839 Guatemala

became an independent country with

Guatemala City as its capital.

Earthquakes shook Guatemala City for

six weeks in 1917 and 1918. Much of

the city had to be rebuilt.

#More to explore

Guatemala

A cathedral towers above a public square in Guatemala City.

168 Guatemala City BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Guinea

TheWest African nation of Guinea has

a largely poor, rural population. However,

its rich mineral deposits could

make it one of the wealthiest countries

in the region. The capital is Conakry.

Geography

Guinea borders Guinea-Bissau, Senegal,

Mali, Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra

Leone. The Atlantic Ocean is to the

west. The Fouta Djallon highlands cover

much of central Guinea.West Africa’s

three major rivers—the Niger, the Gambia,

and the Senegal—begin in the highlands.

Guinea has a hot, humid climate

with dry winters and wet summers.

Plants and Animals

Tropical rain forests of teak, mahogany,

and ebony trees grow in the southeast.

Grasses in northern Guinea may be 5 to

10 feet (1.5 to 3 meters) tall. Baboons,

hyenas, and poisonous snakes are common.

People

Guinea’s main ethnic groups are the

Fulani, theMalinke, and the Susu. Each

has its own language, though the official

language is French. The majority of the

people in Guinea areMuslims. Almost

two thirds of the people live in rural areas.

Economy

Guinea’s economy depends on agriculture

and mining. Crops include cassava,

rice, oil palm fruit, plantains, sugarcane,

peanuts, and coffee. Guinea is one of the

world’s top producers of bauxite, which

is used to make aluminum. Guinea also

has reserves of iron ore, gold, and diamonds.

History

The Fulani dominated the Fouta Djallon

region by the 1500s. By that time

the Portuguese had already arrived on

the coast. They developed the slave

trade, which continued until the 1800s.

By 1890 the French had made Guinea a

colony. In 1895 it was made part of the

colonial territory called FrenchWest

Africa.

Guinea gained independence in 1958.

The first president ruled as a brutal dictator.

In 1984 the army took control of

the government. Guinea held its first

democratic elections in 1993. Military

leaders were elected and remained in

power into the 21st century.

..More to explore

Conakry

Facts About

GUINEA

Population

(2008 estimate)

9,572,000

Area

94,919 sq mi

(245,836 sq km)

Capital

Conakry

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Conakry, Kankan,

Labe, Kindia,

Nzerekore,

Kissidougou

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Guinea 169

Guinea-Bissau

The Republic of Guinea-Bissau lies on

Africa’s northwestern coast. It is one of

the poorest countries in the world. The

capital is Bissau.

Geography

Guinea-Bissau borders Senegal and

Guinea. The Atlantic Ocean forms its

western border. The country’s territory

includes the Bijagos Islands to the

southwest. Guinea-Bissau has lowlands

near the coast, a central plain, and highlands

in the northeast. The climate is

hot year-round, with heavy rainfall

along the coast.

Plants and Animals

Mangroves and palm trees grow near the

coast. The interior plain is heavily forested.

The north is mainly savanna, or

grassland with scattered trees.Wildlife

includes crocodiles, snakes, gazelles,

leopards, hyenas, apes, flamingos, and

pelicans.

People

Guinea-Bissau’s population includes

about 20 ethnic groups. The largest are

the Balante, the Fulani, the Mandyako,

the Malinke, and the Pepel. Portuguese

is the official language, but many people

speak Crioulo, a mixture of Portuguese

and African languages. Most of the

people practice traditional religions or

Islam. About one third of the people live

in cities.

Economy

Guinea-Bissau’s economy depends on

farming. Crops include cashews, oil

palm fruit, rice, cassava, sweet potatoes,

coconuts, and cotton. Farmers also raise

cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. The main

industries are wood and food processing,

especially of fish. Cashews are Guinea-

Bissau’s most important export.

History

Farming peoples have lived in what is

now Guinea-Bissau for more than 1,000

years. The Portuguese arrived in the

1440s and soon set up a slave trade.

Portugal took control of the whole territory

by 1915.

Guinea-Bissau won independence in

1974. During 1980–99 a military general

ruled the country. In 1998 a civil

war forced many people to leave. Political

instability continued into the 21st

century.

..More to explore

Bissau

Facts About

GUINEA-BISSAU

Population

(2008 estimate)

1,503,000

Area

13,948 sq mi

(36,125 sq km)

Capital

Bissau

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Bissau, Bafata,

Cacheu, Gabu

170 Guinea-Bissau BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Guinea Pig

The domestic, or tamed, guinea pig is a

small rodent that is popular as a pet. It is

also used in medical research. Several

other species, or types, of guinea pig live

in the wild.

Guinea pigs have a stocky body, short

ears, and no tail. They are about 8 to 16

inches (20 to 40 centimeters) long and

weigh 1 to 3 pounds (0.5 to 1.5 kilograms).

The front feet have four toes

and the back feet have three. Each toe

ends in a sharp claw.

Wild guinea pigs are found in South

America. They live near forests and

swamps and in grasslands and rocky

places. They spend the day in

underground holes called burrows. At

night they come out to eat grass and

leaves. They have long, rough gray or

brown fur.

The domestic guinea pig can have long,

short, silky, coarse, or smooth fur. It

may be black, white, tan, cream, or

brown. Some have a combination of

these colors. Like its wild relatives, the

domestic guinea pig eats plants.

#More to explore

Pet • Rodent

Gulf of Mexico

#see Mexico, Gulf of.

Gull

The waterbirds called gulls can be found

nearly all around the world. They are

commonly heard screaming and seen

swooping over the water at seacoasts and

lakeshores. Gulls can fly, swim along the

water surface, and walk well.

There are more than 40 species, or

types, of gull, including kittiwakes.

Gulls belong to the scientific family

Laridae, along with terns. Terns are similar

to gulls in many ways. However,

terns tend to be smaller and more slender

than gulls. Terns also have shorter

legs, longer wings, and straighter bills.

Some domestic guinea pigs are a combination

of colors.

A group of gulls flies through the air.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Gull 171

Adult gulls are usually white or gray,

sometimes with dark markings. They

range in length from about 11 to 31

inches (28 to 79 centimeters). Their

long wings help them glide.Wingspreads

range from about 24 inches (61

centimeters) in the little gull to about 65

inches (165 centimeters) in the great

black-backed gull. A gull’s bill is strong

and slightly hooked. Its webbed feet

help it swim.

A gull’s favorite food is fish. Gulls can

land on the water to feed or rest. These

birds also eat a great variety of other

foods, including shellfish, insects,

worms, mice, birds’ eggs, dead and rotting

animals, and even garbage.

#More to explore

Bird

Gutenberg,

Johannes

In the 1400s Johannes Gutenberg of

Germany invented a new method of

printing. It used movable type—metal

letters that could be arranged and rearranged

to form words. It also used a

machine called a press. His method was

so good that very few improvements

were made to it for 400 years afterward.

Gutenberg was born in Mainz, Germany,

in the late 1300s. Little is known

about his life. As a young man he

learned how to work with metal.

In about 1430 Gutenberg moved to

Strassburg (now Strasbourg, France).

There he tried out new printing methods.

At that time most books were copied

by hand. That was a slow process.

He wanted to find a way to copy books

more quickly using a machine.

The solution that Gutenberg found was

movable type. Gutenberg made metal

molds of each letter. He poured liquid

metal into the molds. When the liquid

hardened it formed pieces of type. He

removed the pieces from the molds. He

then then arranged the pieces of type to

form words, sentences, and paragraphs.

Gutenberg also developed a printing

press to hold the type in place and press

paper against it.

By 1450 Gutenberg had returned to

Mainz. The most famous book he

printed there was a Bible. It is sometimes

called the Gutenberg Bible. He

died in Mainz in 1468.

#More to explore

Printing

After the Bible,

Gutenberg’s

second most

famous book

was a Psalter,

or a collection

of sacred

songs.

Scholars call Johannes Gutenberg’s printed

Bible the 42-line Bible because each page

has 42 lines of printing. It was completed

by 1455.

172 Gutenberg, Johannes BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Guyana

The only English-speaking country in

South America is Guyana. Its name,

meaning “Land ofWaters,” refers to its

many rivers. The capital is Georgetown.

Geography

Guyana borders Venezuela, Brazil, and

Suriname. The Atlantic Ocean lies to

the northeast. A narrow, fertile plain

extends along the coast. Forested highlands

cover most of the land. Guyana’s

main rivers flow from the south into the

Atlantic. Guyana is close to the equator

and has a rainy, warm climate.

Plants and Animals

Tropical trees fill the huge rain forests of

Guyana. Along the coast are mangrove

trees and saltwater grasses. The southwest

is grassland dotted with palm trees.

Tapirs, jaguars, monkeys, sloths, anteaters,

and macaws live in the rain forests.

Giant anacondas, the largest snakes in

the world, also live in Guyana.

People

East Indians, or the Indo-Guyanese,

make up about half of the population.

Blacks, or the Afro-Guyanese, form the

next largest group. There are smaller

groups of American Indians,

Portuguese, and Chinese. Guyana’s

main language is English. Christianity

and Hinduism are the most common

religions. Most people live in villages

near the coast.

Economy

Guyana is a poor country with an

economy based on farming and mining.

Major crops include rice, sugarcane,

coconuts, cassava, bananas, and pineapples.

Mines provide bauxite (used to

make aluminum), gold, and diamonds.

Shrimp and timber are other important

products.

History

Arawak and Carib Indians originally

lived in the Guyana region. The Dutch

set up sugarcane plantations in the

1600s. The British later bought the

land. They formed the colony of British

Guiana in 1831. When the colony’s

African slaves were freed, the British

brought in workers from India.

Guyana gained independence in 1966.

Since then Guyana has argued with Venezuela

and Suriname over its borders.

..More to explore

Georgetown

Facts About

GUYANA

Population

(2008 estimate)

736,000

Area

83,044 sq mi

(215,083 sq km)

Capital

Georgetown

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Georgetown, Linden,

New

Amsterdam,

Corriverton

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Guyana 173

Gymnastics

The sport of gymnastics tests an athlete’s

strength, grace, and body control.

Gymnasts perform such acrobatic feats as

somersaults, backflips, handstands, and

cartwheels. Almost all gymnastic events

are performed on special equipment, such

as rings or bars. This equipment is called

apparatus.

Gymnastics is a very popular sport at the

Summer Olympic Games. Three types of

gymnastic events are held at the Olympics.

They are called artistic gymnastics,

rhythmic gymnastics, and trampoline.

Artistic Gymnastics

Artistic gymnastics consists of six men’s

events and four women’s events. The

men’s events are floor exercise, pommel

horse, rings, vault, parallel bars, and

horizontal bar. The women’s events are

floor exercise, vault, uneven bars, and

balance beam.

Men’s Events

The floor exercise is performed on a

square, padded mat. The gymnast does

acrobatic feats while moving around the

mat. The feats include tumbling, leaps,

and handstands.

The pommel horse is an apparatus that

looks something like a horse’s midsection.

It has two curved handles, called

pommels, on top. Gymnasts grip the

pommels with their hands. They move

their bodies, especially the legs, constantly

around the pommel horse.

The rings (or still rings) are an apparatus

made up of two small circles. The rings

are attached to straps hanging from an

overhead support. While grasping the

rings, the gymnast performs a routine in

midair. The routine combines swinging

movements and the holding of certain

positions.

In the event called the vault, the gymnast

leaps over an apparatus called a

vaulting table. A springboard is placed at

one end of the vaulting table. The gymnast

takes a running start and jumps off

the springboard. Then the gymnast

pushes off the vaulting table with the

hands. Before landing, the gymnast performs

such acrobatic feats as twists or

cartwheels.

The parallel bars are two long bars raised

6.5 feet (2 meters) above the floor. A

routine on the bars includes swings,

handstands, and other feats.

The event called the horizontal bar (or

high bar) has the gymnast perform on a

A rhythmic gymnast performs

with a ribbon.

174 Gymnastics BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

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eBook edition January, 2010

Hair is made of the same material

as horns and nails.

(See Hair.)

The human hand has more than

27 bones.

(See Hand.)

The Jewish holiday called

Hanukkah is also called the

Festival of Lights.

(See Hanukkah.)

Some people keep hedgehogs

as pets.

(See Hedgehog.)

A helicopter can fly straight up

and down, sideways, or backward.

It can also spin around

or hover in the air.

(See Helicopter.)

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla is

known as the Father of

Mexican Independence.

(See Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel.)

Hh

Habitat

A habitat is the home of an animal or a

plant. Almost every place on Earth—

from the hottest desert to the coldest ice

pack—is a habitat for some kinds of

animals and plants. Most habitats

include a community of animals and

plants along with water, oxygen, soil or

sand, and rocks. This community is

known as an ecosystem.

Types of Habitats

The two main types of habitats are land

habitats and water habitats. Among the

many types of land habitats are rain forests,

deserts, and mountains. Because of

their moist climate, rain forests support

more kinds of plant and animal life than

any other habitat. In contrast, deserts

support only animals and plants that can

live without much water. Mountain

habitats have thin soil and cold temperatures.

Only hardy plants and animals

live there. Other types of forests, grasslands,

and tundras provide other land

habitats.

Water habitats may contain freshwater

or salt water. Freshwater habitats include

streams, rivers, swamps, marshes, ponds,

and lakes. Saltwater habitats include

oceans, seas, salt lakes, salt marshes, and

saltwater swamps. Some animals and

plants, such as fish and seaweed, live

entirely in the water. Others, such as

otters and riverweeds, live partly in and

partly out of the water.

Adaptation

Over long periods of time animals adapt

to fit their habitat. This means that they

develop traits that help them to survive

where they live. Animals adapt so that

they can stay safe, travel well, and find

food in their habitat.

Many animals that live in cold habitats

grow thick coats of fur to keep them

warm. Their fur may also be white so

that their enemies cannot see them

when the ground is covered with snow.

The hard shell of the desert tortoise

keeps in moisture and protects it from

enemies. Dolphins have sleek bodies for

swimming in the ocean. Giraffes have

long necks so that they can nibble tender

leaves from the tops of trees.

#More to explore

Adaptation • Ecosystem

Hades

In ancient Greek mythology Hades was

the god of the underworld, or land of

the dead. He was one of the 12 main

gods of Mount Olympus. The ancient

Greeks also called him Pluto, which was

his Roman name. Once people died and

A deer and her fawn stand in a forest. Forests

provide habitats for many living things.

4 Habitat BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

went to the underworld, they could not

leave. For this reason Hades was often

pictured holding a key. This represented

his role as jailer of the dead.

According to legend, Hades was the son

of Cronus and Rhea, king and queen of

the Titans. The Titans were giants who

ruled the world. Hades’ brothers were

the gods Poseidon and Zeus. The three

brothers fought and won a long war

against the Titans. The brothers then

drew lots to decide how to divide up the

world. Hades won command of the

underworld.

The most famous story about Hades

explains the change of seasons. Hades

carried Persephone off to the

underworld. She was the daughter of

Demeter, the goddess of farming.

Eventually, Persephone was able to leave

the underworld. But she had to return

there for part of every year. Demeter

would not let anything grow when

Persephone was away. This created

winter.

..More to explore

Mythology • Poseidon • Zeus

Hague, The

Population

(2008

estimate), urban

area, 997,323

Amsterdam is the official capital of The

Netherlands. But the country’s government

and court meet in a city called The

Hague. The International Court of Jus-

In ancient Greek mythology the god Hades

ruled the land of the dead. He kidnapped

Persephone and made her his wife.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hague, The 5

tice is also located in The Hague. It is

the highest court of the United Nations.

The Dutch royal family has a palace in

The Hague as well.

The Hague is mainly a center of government

and business headquarters. Trade,

banking, and insurance are also important

to the city’s economy.

The Hague grew around a castle built in

1248. The castle buildings were home to

the counts of the region called Holland.

The government of Holland began

meeting in the buildings in the late

1500s.

The region came under French rule in

the late 1700s. The Netherlands became

an independent country in 1815. Its

government offices were then moved

from The Hague to Amsterdam, the

new capital. The government returned

to The Hague in 1913.

DuringWorldWar II (1939–45) German

forces destroyed whole sections of

the city. The damaged areas were rebuilt

after the war.

#More to explore

Amsterdam • Netherlands, The • United

Nations

Haida

The Haida are a tribe of Native Americans

who traditionally lived on the

Queen Charlotte Islands off the coast of

what is now British Columbia in

Canada. In the early 1700s a small

group of Haida moved to Prince of

Wales Island in what is now Alaska.

The Haida were skilled in woodworking.

They carved ceremonial masks and

chests. They also made redwood canoes

that they traded to other tribes. The

Haida lived in large rectangular houses

that they built from cedar planks. They

The Peace Palace is located in The Hague. It

is the home of the International Court of

Justice.

The Haida were excellent woodcarvers.

They sometimes decorated

their carvings with paint

and seashells.

6 Haida BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

fished and hunted seals, sea lions, black

bears, and deer for food.

In the late 1700s traders from Spain,

England, Russia, and France began setting

up posts in Haida territory. The

Haida traded skins and furs in exchange

for knives, metal pots, and other European

goods. But the Europeans also

brought diseases, such as smallpox, that

killed many Haida. In addition, the

Canadian and U.S. governments and

Christian missionaries forced the Haida

to give up some of their traditions.

In the early 21st century there were

about 5,000 Haida. Some live in

Canada and some live in the United

States. The Canadian Haida live in two

villages, Masset and Skidegate. Many of

the Haida in the United States live in

Hydaburg, a city at the southern end of

Prince ofWales Island.

#More to explore

Native Americans

Hair

Hair is a thin, flexible structure that

grows from the skin of every mammal.

Like horns and nails, hair is made

mainly of a protein called keratin.

Individual hairs have a shaft and a root.

The shaft sticks out of the skin’s surface.

This part of the hair is dead. The root

lies beneath the skin’s surface in a pit

known as a follicle. At the base of the

root are living cells. As these cells multiply,

they push old cells out of the skin.

This is how hair grows.

Hair growth varies widely among mammals.

Many mammals, such as dogs and

horses, have a coat of hair that covers

most of the body. When the coat is thick

and soft, as in rabbits, it is known as fur.

Whales and hippopotamuses have only a

few hairs.

Humans have less hair than most mammals.

Usually, most of the hair on a

human body grows from the scalp.

One of the main purposes of hair is to

keep an animal warm. It also helps to

keep moisture away from the skin.

Whiskers are a type of hair that helps

animals to feel things.

People make cloth from the hair of sheep,

goats, camels, and other animals. They

use the fur of mink, foxes, rabbits, and

other animals to make coats and hats.

#More to explore

Horn • Mammal • Nail and Claw • Skin

The long hair on a horse’s head

is called a mane.

People have

about

100,000 to

150,000 hairs

on their head.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hair 7

Haiti

The Republic of Haiti is the only independent

French-speaking country in the

Americas. Haiti gained independence in

1804 after its slaves revolted against

their French masters. The capital and

largest city is Port-au-Prince.

Geography

Haiti occupies the western third of the

island of Hispaniola in theWest Indies.

The Dominican Republic covers the rest

of Hispaniola. The Atlantic Ocean is to

the north, and the Caribbean Sea is to

the west and south.

The land is mountainous. At 8,773 feet

(2,674 meters), Mount la Selle in the

south is Haiti’s highest point. Between

the mountains are fertile plains. The

Artibonite is the longest of Haiti’s many

rivers. Haiti has a warm, humid tropical

climate. Droughts happen occasionally,

and hurricanes are common between

August and November.

Plants and Animals

Most of Haiti’s original forests have

been cut down. Some evergreen forests

still exist in the mountains. Coconut,

coffee, cacao, avocado, mango, lime, and

orange trees grow wild. Dry areas have

thorny scrub and cacti.

Haiti’s wildlife is also limited. It

includes flamingos and such reptiles as

lizards and caimans, which are similar to

alligators.

People

Nearly all the people of Haiti have African

roots. Most of the rest of the people

are mulattoes, or people with both white

and black ancestors. Most people speak

Haitian Creole, a mixture of French and

African languages. French is also common.

Most Haitians are Roman Catholics,

but many Catholics also practice

voodoo. Voodoo is a folk religion that

combines African and Catholic beliefs.

A Haitian man sells paintings of Haitian

scenes.

8 Haiti BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The majority of Haitians live in rural

areas. Haiti’s cities are very crowded,

however.

Economy

Haiti is the poorest country in the

Americas. About 80 percent of the

people live in poverty.

Services—including government work,

tourism, shops, and restaurants—are the

main economic activities. However,

most people work in agriculture. Haitians

raise goats, cattle, and pigs. Food

crops include cassava, bananas, corn,

yams, and rice. Cocoa, coffee, and mangoes

are exported.

Many of Haiti’s industries put together

parts imported from the United States.

They produce such goods as clothing

and electronic components. Other

manufactured products include flour,

sugar, cement, cigarettes, and alcoholic

beverages.

History

When the explorer Christopher Columbus

arrived in Hispaniola in 1492, more

than a million Arawak Indians lived on

the island. Spanish settlers wiped out the

Arawak by about 1600.

In 1697 Spain gave western Hispaniola

to the French, who renamed it Saint-

Domingue. People brought from Africa

worked as slaves on sugar and cotton

plantations. In 1791 the slaves began a

revolution. They declared the independence

of Haiti in 1804. The new country’s

name came from an Arawak word

meaning “mountainous land.”

As an independent country Haiti continued

to face political problems. U.S.

Marines occupied the country during

1915–34. Dictators and the military also

ruled Haiti. The country held its first

free presidential elections in 1990. In

1991, however, a military group overthrew

President Jean-Bertrand Aristide.

U.S. troops helped Aristide to return to

office. In 2004, during Aristide’s second

term, rebels forced the president to step

down once again.

..More to explore

Dominican Republic • Port-au-Prince

•West Indies

A fortress called La Citadelle Laferriere

stands on a peak near the city of Cap-

Haitien, Haiti. The fortress was built in the

early 1800s.

Facts About

HAITI

Population

(2008 estimate)

9,751,000

Area

10,695 sq mi

(27,700 sq km)

Capital

Port-au-Prince

Form of

government

Interim

government

Major cities

Port-au-Prince,

Carrefour, Delmas,

Cap-

Haitien,

Petion-Ville

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Haiti 9

Halloween

Halloween takes place on October 31.

It is a time when people dress up in

costumes, go trick-or-treating, and

carve jack-o’-lanterns from hollowed

out pumpkins. Ghosts and witches are

popular costumes of the children who

go from house to house saying, “Trickor-

treat!” The treat is usually candy.

The origins of Halloween date back to

several ancient festivals held in the

autumn.

In ancient times, the holiday was

marked by customs started by pagans.

Pagans believed in many gods rather

than a single god. It was believed that

on the last night of October, the spirits

of the dead roamed Earth. The holiday

is also called All Hallows’ Eve. In the

Christian church, All Hallows’ Eve is

the night before All Saints’ Day. On

November 1, All Saints’ Day honors all

of the Christian saints. Gradually,

Halloween became a nonreligious

celebration.

Hamilton,

Alexander

Alexander Hamilton was one of the

youngest and brightest of the founders

of the United States. He was the first

secretary of the treasury. He worked to

create a strong U.S. government.

Early Life

Hamilton was born on January 11,

probably in 1755, in the BritishWest

Indies. He later went to school in New

Jersey and New York. During the American

Revolution Hamilton joined the

military. From 1777 to 1781 he served

with General GeorgeWashington. After

the war Hamilton became a lawyer.

Political Career

Hamilton believed that the United

States needed a strong national government.

He supported the new U.S. Constitution

because it set up such a

government. Hamilton, James Madison,

Children in colorful costumes go trick-ortreating

on Halloween.

Alexander Hamilton

10 Halloween BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

and John Jay wrote a famous series of

essays to explain the Constitution.

Those essays were later called the Federalist

papers.

In 1789 GeorgeWashington, now U.S.

president, made Hamilton secretary of

the treasury. Hamilton planned for a tax

system and a national bank. His financial

program strengthened the national

government.

Thomas Jefferson, the secretary of state,

disagreed with Hamilton. He believed

that the states should have more power.

The two men and their supporters

started the first U.S. political parties.

Hamilton led the Federalist Party, while

Jefferson led the Republican Party.

Retirement

Hamilton resigned as secretary of the

treasury in 1795. He stayed active in

politics, however. Hamilton got involved

in the presidential election of 1800. Jefferson

and Aaron Burr were two of the

main candidates. Hamilton and Burr

did not like each other. Hamilton set

aside his quarrel with Jefferson and

helped him get elected.

In 1804 Hamilton supported Burr’s

opponent in the election for governor of

New York. Angered once again, Burr

challenged Hamilton to a duel. Burr

shot Hamilton on July 11, 1804.

Hamilton died the next day.

#More to explore

Federalist Papers • Jefferson, Thomas

• United States Government

Hamster

Hamsters are small mammals that

belong to the rodent family. Like mice,

squirrels, beavers, and other rodents,

they have large front teeth that they use

for gnawing and nibbling. Hamsters are

among the few animals born with developed

teeth.

In the wild, hamsters live in dry areas in

central Europe, the Middle East, and

Asia. For shelter, hamsters dig burrows,

or underground tunnel systems. They

use these burrows for sleeping and for

storing food.

Today many people in every part of the

world keep hamsters as pets. The most

common species, or type, of hamster

kept as a pet is the golden hamster.

Golden hamsters originally came from

Syria.

Hamsters have a plump body and a

short tail. Golden hamsters have yellowish

or reddish brown fur and white bel-

Golden hamsters are popular pets. People

often keep them in small cages.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hamster 11

lies. Other types of hamster have gray or

black fur. Most adult hamsters weigh

about 5 ounces (150 grams). They have

poor eyesight but good senses of smell

and hearing. Hamsters have large

pouches in their cheeks to carry food.

Hamsters are nocturnal, or active at

night. They sleep during the day. Hamsters

eat almost anything, especially

seeds and grains.

Most hamsters live for about three years.

They begin having babies at about 2

months old. Female hamsters may have

a new litter of babies every month. A

litter may have one to 13 babies.

#More to explore

Pet • Rodent

Hand

The hand is a part of the body that

extends from the end of each arm.

Hands are a feature of most primates,

including humans, apes, and monkeys.

The hand has a flat, wide palm. It also

has five parts called digits—a thumb and

four fingers. Bones and muscles inside

the hand allow the digits to move in

many useful ways.

Structure

The human hand contains 27 main

bones. Each finger has three bones. The

thumb has two. The palm of the hand

has five bones. The wrist, which attaches

the hand to the arm, has eight bones.

There are also some small bones near the

base of the digits.

The four fingers extend upward from

the palm. The thumb extends from the

side of the palm. The tip of each digit

has a nail. Each digit also has a unique

pattern of ridges called a fingerprint.

Different muscles control the movement

of each digit. All five digits can fold

inward. The thumb can move to a position

opposite the fingers. This so-called

opposable thumb is the mark of a true

hand. Animals with paws do not have

opposable thumbs.

Function

Hands can push, pull, pat, scoop, and

carry. They can wave, point, and make

Because

human fingerprints

are

unique to each

person, they

are used for

identification.

The hand of a human and the hand of a

gorilla are similar in shape. However, a

gorilla’s hand is much larger and is also

used for walking.

12 Hand BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

many other gestures, or signs.With the

opposable thumb, a hand can pick up

small objects and handle tools.

Hands are also important for their sense

of touch. They are very sensitive to different

textures and temperatures. Their

creases and ridges help them to feel and

to hold things.

Hands in Apes and Monkeys

Like humans, apes and monkeys have

opposable thumbs. They use their hands

to pick things up, gather food, and

groom each other. Many apes and monkeys

also use their hands for climbing

and swinging. In some species, or types,

the fingers are extra long. These long

fingers help them to grip tree branches.

#More to explore

Arm • Nail and Claw • Primate

Hanoi

Population

(2004 estimate)

1,420,400

Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam, a country

of Southeast Asia. It is a large city

located on the Red River. The city is

unusual in that it has many lakes.

Modern Hanoi is a mix of new and historical

buildings. One important structure

is the tomb of Ho Chi Minh. Ho

was a powerful Vietnamese leader.

Factories in Hanoi make food products,

electrical machinery, cloth, and other

goods. The city’s economy also depends

on tourism and other services.

People have lived in the Hanoi area since

ancient times. The city has long been a

center of government. It was the capital

of Vietnam from 1010 until 1802.

French troops took over Vietnam in the

late 1800s. In 1902 the French made

Hanoi the capital of all their colonies in

Southeast Asia.

The French left Vietnam in 1954. Vietnam

was then split into two parts—

North Vietnam and South Vietnam.

Hanoi was the capital of North Vietnam.

The two parts of Vietnam fought

the long VietnamWar. The United

States helped South Vietnam. Hanoi

suffered great damage from U.S. bombing.

The war lasted until 1975.

Hanoi has many historical and scenic

places, including buildings called pagodas.

Pagodas are a feature of many Buddhist

temples.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hanoi 13

In 1976 the two parts of Vietnam again

formed one unified country. Hanoi

became the capital of all of Vietnam.

#More to explore

Vietnam • VietnamWar

Hansberry,

Lorraine

Lorraine Hansberry was a U.S. writer in

the mid-1900s. In 1959 her play A Raisin

in the Sun opened on Broadway, an

important theater district in New York

City. It was the first play written by an

African American woman to appear on

Broadway.

Lorraine Hansberry was born in Chicago,

Illinois, on May 19, 1930. Lorraine’s

parents fought for equality for

African Americans. At the time, African

Americans did not have the same rights

as whites did.

After going to college at the University

ofWisconsin, Hansberry moved to New

York City. She began her writing career

in New York. She was an editor and

writer for a magazine called Freedom.

A Raisin in the Sun was the first play

Hansberry wrote. It is about an African

American family living in Chicago and

dealing with racism. The play won several

awards and was made into a movie

in 1961.

Hansberry went on to write another

play and other works. She died from

cancer on January 12, 1965. After her

death, her ex-husband took some of her

writings and created a play. This play,

called To Be Young, Gifted, and Black,

was produced in 1969.

#More to explore

African Americans • Theater

Hanukkah

Hanukkah (also spelled Chanukah or

Chanukkah) is a Jewish holiday that

lasts for eight nights and usually occurs

in December. It is also known as the

Festival of Lights.

Hanukkah celebrates a military victory

of the Jews over foreign rulers. The

Seleucid kingdom from neighboring

Syria took control of Jerusalem in about

198 BC. Some 30 years later the ruler

Antiochus tried to force the Jews to give

Lorraine Hansberry up their religious practices.When he

14 Hansberry, Lorraine BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

also took over their Temple they rose up

against him. The leader of the rebellion

was named Judas Maccabeus. He soon

defeated the Seleucids. The Jews then

cleaned, rebuilt, and rededicated the

Temple in 164 BC.

According to tradition, the Jews found

only one small jar of lamp oil when they

entered the Temple, enough for just one

night.With the oil, they relit the Temple’s

lamps. Miraculously, the oil lasted

for eight nights until more oil was

obtained.

To celebrate the eight nights of Hanukkah

people light candles on a branched

candlestick called a menorah. They start

with one candle and add a new candle

each night. In addition, children receive

gifts and money, which is often in the

form of chocolate coins. Children also

play a Hanukkah game with a four-sided

top called a dreidel.

#More to explore

Festival and Holiday • Judaism

Hapsburgs

The Hapsburgs (or Habsburgs) were a

royal German family that ruled Austria

from the late 1200s until 1918. They

ruled many other countries of Europe

for shorter times. Those countries

included Bohemia (now part of the

Czech Republic), Hungary, and Spain.

The family’s name comes from the

Castle of Hapsburg, or Hawk’s Castle, in

what is now Switzerland. Ancestors of

the family built the castle in 1020.

Rise

The first Hapsburg ruler was Rudolf I.

He was crowned king of Germany in

1273. A few years later Rudolf took control

of Austria. From then on Austria

was the center of Hapsburg power.

Frederick V was crowned emperor of the

Holy Roman Empire in 1452. Then he

was called Frederick III. The Holy

Roman Empire included much of western

and central Europe. Between 1452

The most important custom during Hanukkah

is the lighting of the menorah. A blessing

is usually offered as the candles are lit.

A painting shows Rudolph I, a Hapsburg,

riding into a city. The Hapsburgs began

ruling Germany in 1273.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hapsburgs 15

and 1806, all but one of the Holy

Roman emperors were Hapsburgs.

AWorld Power

The power of the Hapsburgs was at its

greatest in the 1500s under Charles V.

Charles was Holy Roman emperor and

the king of Spain. His lands included all

of Europe except for England, France,

and Russia. Across the Atlantic Ocean,

Charles’s armies conquered rich empires

in Mexico and Peru.

Before his death, Charles divided his

lands between his brother and his son.

This created two Hapsburg branches.

One branch ruled Spain until 1700. The

other branch ruled the rest of the

empire. Beginning in 1804 the land

ruled by the Hapsburgs was called the

Austrian Empire. In 1806 the Hapsburg

emperor gave up the title of Holy

Roman emperor.

Slide from Greatness

During the 1800s some national groups

within the Austrian Empire wanted to

be independent. Among these groups

were the Hungarians. To satisfy them,

the Hapsburg emperor divided his

empire with Hungary in 1867. The

new empire was called Austria-

Hungary.

Austria-Hungary was on the losing side

duringWorldWar I. When the war

ended in 1918, the empire collapsed.

Hapsburg rule was over.

#More to explore

Austria • Holy Roman Empire

Harare

Population

(2002 estimate)

1,444,500

Harare is the capital of Zimbabwe, a

country of southern Africa. It is the largest

city in the country.

Harare is Zimbabwe’s center of business,

banking, and industry. Factories in the

city make processed foods, clothing, and

metal products. Crops grown on nearby

farms are traded in Harare. The crops

are then shipped out on trains or trucks.

African peoples have lived in the Harare

area for thousands of years. In 1890 a

British trading company captured a village

of the Shona people. The British

company founded a new city, named

Salisbury, there. The city grew rapidly as

a center of trade and mining.

A bank building towers over a street in

Harare.

16 Harare BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1923 Salisbury became the capital of

the new British colony of Southern

Rhodesia. The city remained the capital

through many years of changes. In 1980

the independent country of Zimbabwe

was formed. Salisbury was its capital. In

1982 the name of the city was changed

to Harare.

#More to explore

Zimbabwe

Harbor

A harbor is a deep body of water that

protects boats near land. High waves

and strong currents usually do not reach

harbors, so boats stay safe while

anchored there. Some harbors are created

by surrounding land, which keeps

the water calm. They are called natural

harbors. Artificial, or man-made, harbors

are created by structures called seawalls

or breakwaters.

Where Harbors Are Found

Harbors are found along coasts around

the world. Harbors are always part of a

larger body of water—for example, a

lake or an ocean. Coastlines that curve

inward make good places for natural

harbors. This type of coastline is often

called a bay. Barrier islands, which run

along a coast, also create natural harbors.

For example, New York Harbor lies

between the coast of New York and

Long Island.

Harbor Uses

Harbors are useful for many purposes.

Many harbors are used as ports. The

main purpose of a port is the loading

and unloading of boats. People ship

goods of all kinds to and from the ports

of the world. People also travel by boat

to and from these ports. For these reasons

some of the world’s major cities

grew around busy ports. A lively shipping

trade brings much money to the

city where the port is located.

Harbors are not just for big shipping

vessels and cruise ships. Ferryboats dock

in harbors to pick up passengers for

short journeys. For example, ferries

bring people to nearby islands and back.

People anchor small sailboats, yachts,

and speedboats in harbors, too. From

there they can take their boats out into

the lake or the ocean for fishing, waterskiing,

and other fun. Harbors also provide

homes for many kinds of birds and

fish.

#More to explore

Boat • Ship

Dubrovnik, Croatia, has a good harbor on

the Adriatic Sea, a branch of the Mediterranean

Sea.

Natural disasters

such as

earthquakes

and tsunamis

can cause

much damage

to harbors.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Harbor 17

Harding,

Warren G.

In 1920Warren G. Harding easily won

election as the 29th president of the

United States. He was a popular leader,

but he died before the end of his term.

Soon after his death the public found

out that politicians close to Harding had

made illegal business deals. This

changed many people’s views about

him.

Early Life

Warren Gamaliel Harding was born on

November 2, 1865, on a farm near Corsica,

Ohio. He was the eldest of George

Tryon and Phoebe Dickerson Harding’s

eight children. His father was a farmer

and a doctor.

Harding graduated from Ohio Central

College in 1882. Two years later he

bought a weekly newspaper in Marion,

Ohio. In 1891 Harding married Florence

Kling DeWolfe. The couple had

no children.

Political Career

Harding became an Ohio state senator

in 1898 and lieutenant governor in

1903. He ran for governor in 1910 but

was defeated. In 1914, however, he was

elected to the U.S. Senate.

November 2, August 2,

1865 1898 1903 1914 1920 1921–22 1923

Harding is

born near

Corsica, Ohio.

Harding

becomes an

Ohio state

senator.

Harding

becomes

lieutenant

governor of

Ohio.

Harding is

elected to the

U.S. Senate.

Harding is

elected

president.

The United

States and

other countries

agree to limit

warships.

Harding’s

death makes

Vice President

Calvin Coolidge

president.

T I M E L I N E

Warren G. Harding was the 29th president

of the United States.

18 Harding, Warren G. BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1920 Republicans chose Harding as

their presidential candidate. Many voters

were tired of PresidentWoodrowWilson

and the Democrats’ focus on international

affairs. Harding promised to focus

on the economy and other problems at

home. He won the election easily.

Presidency

As president, Harding supported business

and limited the number of immigrants

allowed to enter the United

States. During his term in office the

United States also hosted an important

international conference. Several countries

agreed to reduce the number of

warships that their navies would build.

But Harding was not a strong leader. He

appointed several dishonest men to government

jobs. They took bribes, or illegal

gifts, from companies and sold illegal

liquor permits, among other things.

Harding knew of some of those illegal

activities but did not report them.

Death

By 1923 Congress was investigating the

crimes of Harding’s officials. Harding

became ill, and on August 2 he died in

San Francisco, California, from a heart

attack or a stroke. Vice President Calvin

Coolidge succeeded him as president.

#More to explore

Coolidge, Calvin • United States

•Wilson,Woodrow

Harpers Ferry

Harpers Ferry is a small town in the

U.S. state ofWest Virginia. In 1859

Harpers Ferry was the site of a bloody

raid in the movement to end slavery.

The raid was one of the events that led

to the American CivilWar.

Harpers Ferry lies in the Blue Ridge

Mountains whereWest Virginia, Virginia,

and Maryland meet. At first the

town was part of Virginia. It was named

for Robert Harper. He settled there in

1734 and established a ferryboat service

across the Potomac River. In the late

1700s the U.S. government set up an

arsenal in Harpers Ferry. An arsenal is a

place to make and store weapons.

On October 16, 1859, John Brown

attacked the arsenal with a group of

about 20 armed men. Brown wanted to

end slavery. He believed that his raid

would be the first battle in a slave rebellion.

The raid was a failure. But it further

divided the Northern and Southern

states, which disagreed about slavery.

From 1861 to 1865 the North and the

South fought each other in the Civil

An illustration shows U.S. Marines breaking

into the arsenal at Harpers Ferry to capture

John Brown.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Harpers Ferry 19

War. The two sides fought many battles

for control of Harpers Ferry. In 1863 the

northwestern part of Virginia, including

Harpers Ferry, became the new state of

West Virginia. Today Harpers Ferry is

part of Harpers Ferry National Historical

Park.

..More to explore

American CivilWar • Brown, John

• Slavery

Harrisburg

Population

(2000 census)

48,950; (2007

estimate)

47,196

Harrisburg is the capital of the U.S.

state of Pennsylvania. The city lies on

the Susquehanna River.

Many people in Harrisburg work for the

government. The economy also depends

on transportation and manufacturing.

Major highways and rail lines run

through the city. Factories in Harrisburg

produce steel, clothing, electronics, and

machinery. The largest chocolate factory

in the world is in nearby Hershey.

Harrisburg began as a trading post in

about 1718. An Englishman named

John Harris built the post to trade with

the Susquehanna Indians. His son

founded a town there in 1785. In 1812

Harrisburg became the capital of Pennsylvania.

It soon developed into a transportation

center. It became a stop on

Pennsylvania’s main railroad in 1847.

..More to explore

Pennsylvania

Harrison,

Benjamin

Benjamin Harrison was the 23rd president

of the United States. He won the

1888 election even though he got fewer

votes than Grover Cleveland.

Early Life

Benjamin Harrison was born on August

20, 1833, in North Bend, Ohio. He was

the son of John Scott Harrison, a farmer,

and Elizabeth Irwin Harrison. His

grandfather,William Henry Harrison,

was the ninth U.S. president.

After graduating in 1852 from Miami

University in Oxford, Ohio, Harrison

studied in a law office in Cincinnati. In

1853 he married Caroline Lavinia Scott.

The couple had two children.

The Harrisburg Symphony Orchestra plays

for an audience on shore and in boats at a

concert on the Susquehanna River.

20 Harrisburg BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Harrison moved to Indianapolis, Indiana,

in 1854 to start his own law practice.

He joined the new Republican

Party and worked for the Indiana

Supreme Court. During the American

CivilWar he fought for the Union.

Political Career

After the war Harrison returned to his

law practice and his work at the Indiana

Supreme Court. In 1876 he ran unsuccessfully

for governor of Indiana. Four

years later he was elected to the U.S.

Senate. He served there from 1881 to

1887.

In 1888 the Republican Party nominated

Harrison for the presidency. His

Democratic opponent was President

Grover Cleveland. Harrison got about

100,000 fewer popular votes than Cleveland.

However, Harrison won more

votes in the electoral college, so he

became president.

Presidency

As president, Harrison expanded the

role and power of the United States. He

made treaties with several countries. His

secretary of state held the First International

Conference of American States, a

meeting of countries in theWestern

Hemisphere. Harrison also tried to

make Hawaii a U.S. territory, but Congress

refused.

Benjamin Harrison was the 23rd

president of the United States.

August 20, March 13,

1833 1880 1888 1889–90 1890 1892 1901

Harrison is

born in North

Bend, Ohio.

Harrison is

elected to the

U.S. Senate.

Harrison is

elected

president.

First

International

Conference of

American

States is held in

Washington.

Harrison signs

the Sherman

Antitrust Act to

promote free

trade.

Harrison loses

to Grover

Cleveland in

the presidential

election.

Harrison dies

in Indianapolis,

Indiana.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Harrison, Benjamin 21

In addition, Harrison signed the Sherman

Antitrust Act of 1890. This law

encouraged free trade and outlawed

monopolies, or industries controlled by

one company.

Harrison ran for reelection in 1892, but

he lost to former president Cleveland.

During the campaign Harrison’s wife

died.

Retirement

In 1893 Harrison returned to Indianapolis

and his law practice. In 1896 he

married his wife’s niece, Mary Lord

Dimmick. They had one daughter. Harrison

died on March 13, 1901.

#More to explore

Cleveland, Grover • Electoral College

• Harrison,William Henry • United

States

Harrison,

William Henry

After an Army career,William Henry

Harrison became the ninth president of

the United States in 1841. Harrison

died after only one month in office.

Early Life and Career

William Henry Harrison was born on

February 9, 1773, at his family’s plantation

near Richmond, Virginia. He was

the third son of Benjamin Harrison, a

signer of the Declaration of Independence,

and Elizabeth Bassett Harrison.

Harrison attended Hampden-Sydney

College from 1787 to 1790.

At age 18 Harrison joined the U.S.

Army. He fought against the Northwest

Indian Confederation, a group of Native

Americans fighting white settlement on

their land. In 1795 Harrison married

Anna Symmes. They had 10 children.

Political and Military Career

In 1798 President John Adams made

Harrison secretary of the Northwest

Territory, which became the states of

Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and

Wisconsin. After the Northwest Territory

was divided, he governed the new

Indiana Territory.

Between 1802 and 1809 Harrison made

a number of treaties, or agreements,

with Native Americans in the territory.

The treaties gave millions of acres of

land to the United States. Angered by

the treaties, Tecumseh, a chief of the

Shawnee, organized an uprising. In

William Henry

Harrison was

the first president

to die in

office.

William Henry Harrison was the ninth

president of the United States.

22 Harrison, William Henry BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

1811 Harrison defeated Tecumseh at the

battle of Tippecanoe. Harrison then

became known as Old Tippecanoe.

During the War of 1812 with Great

Britain, Harrison commanded U.S.

forces in the Northwest. In 1813 his

troops defeated the British and their

Native American allies at the battle of

the Thames in Ontario, Canada.

After the war Harrison served in the

U.S. House of Representatives, the Ohio

state senate, and the U.S. Senate. In

1836 the Whig political party nominated

him for the presidency, but he lost

the election to Martin Van Buren.

Presidency

In 1840 Harrison ran again for

president. John Tyler was the vice

presidential candidate. Their campaign

slogan was “Tippecanoe and Tyler too.”

Harrison won the election and took

office onMarch 4, 1841. That day he

caught a cold that turned into

pneumonia. Harrison died in the White

House on April 4.

..More to explore

Shawnee • Tecumseh • Tyler, John

• United States • Van Buren, Martin

•War of 1812

Hartford

Population

(2000 census)

121,578;

(2007 estimate)

124,563

Hartford is the capital of the U.S. state

of Connecticut. The city has a port on

the Connecticut River.

Hartford is a center of business and

industry. It is sometimes called the

Insurance City. That is because many

February 9, April 4,

1773 1811 1813 1825–28 1836 1840 1841

Harrison is

born near

Richmond,

Virginia.

Harrison

defeats the

Shawnee at the

battle of

Tippecanoe.

Harrison wins

the battle of the

Thames during

the War of

1812.

Harrison serves

in the U.S.

Senate.

Harrison runs

for president

but loses the

election.

Harrison is

elected

president.

Harrison dies

after only one

month as

president.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hartford 23

large insurance companies are based

there. Banks, hospitals, and government

offices also provide many jobs. Factories

in the city make aircraft parts, guns, and

tools.

English settlers founded Hartford in

1635. It became one of the two capitals

of Connecticut in 1701. (New Haven

was the other capital.)

A newspaper called the Hartford Courant

was started in 1764. Today it is the oldest

U.S. newspaper that is still in business.

The city’s insurance industry

started in 1794.

In 1875 Hartford became the only capital

of Connecticut. In the late 1800s the

city was home to two famous writers—

Harriet Beecher Stowe and Mark Twain.

Today people can visit the writers’

homes, which have been preserved as

museums.

#More to explore

Connecticut • Stowe, Harriet Beecher

• Twain, Mark

Hatshepsut

Hatshepsut was one of only a few women

to rule ancient Egypt. Some 3,500 years

ago she achieved rare power as a queen.

Hatshepsut’s parents were King Thutmose

I and Queen Ahmose. Hatshepsut

married her half brother Thutmose II.

This was a common practice in her day.

Her father died in about 1482 BC. Hatshepsut

and her husband then came to

power. In 1479 BC her husband died.

Thutmose III, her stepson, then became

king. But he was too young to rule. So

Hatshepsut governed for him.

Hatshepsut steadily gained in influence.

She soon had herself crowned as pharaoh

(the supreme ruler). To strengthen

The state Capitol is a government building

in Hartford, Connecticut. It has a dome that

is covered in gold.

A statue of Hatshepsut was carved nearly

3,500 years ago.

24 Hatshepsut BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

her image as ruler, she wore the traditional

clothing of a pharaoh. She even

wore the usual false beard.

The queen had a temple built in her

honor near the city of Thebes. Paintings

on the temple walls record major events

of her reign. She also made an effort to

expand Egypt’s trading. She sent ships

to the southern coast of the Red Sea.

The ships returned with valuable goods

including gold, ebony, animal skins, and

spices.

As the queen and her supporters grew

older and weaker, Thutmose III and his

followers grew stronger. Hatshepsut died

in about 1458 BC. Thutmose III then

took power.

..More to explore

Egypt, Ancient • Pharaoh

Havana

Population

(2006 estimate)

2,174,790

Havana is the capital of Cuba, an island

country in the Caribbean Sea. It is the

largest city in the Caribbean region.

Havana is known for its many buildings

from the time Cuba was a Spanish

colony. The city lies on a bay with a

protected harbor.

Havana is the island’s main port. It is

also Cuba’s center of business and

industry. Factories in the city build ships

and make processed foods, cloth, and

chemicals. Havana cigars are world

famous. Tourism also brings money to

the city.

Spanish conquerors took over Cuba in

the early 1500s. They founded Havana

in 1519. The city later became the center

of Spanish government in Cuba. It

was also the main base for Spain’s navy

in the Americas. In the 1700s and 1800s

Havana grew into a major port for trade.

In 1898 Cuba became an independent

country with Havana as its capital. The

city was famous for its lively nightclubs

and places to gamble. Until 1959

Havana was a popular vacation spot for

wealthy people from Cuba and the

United States.

In 1959 Fidel Castro took power in

Cuba. The United States disapproved of

Castro and the government that he

established. People from the United

States stopped traveling to Havana. Castro

also focused on improving conditions

in the countryside, instead of in

Havana. The city began to decline.

In 1982 the United Nations named Old

Havana, the most historic part of the

city, aWorld Heritage site. Then the

government began to restore Havana’s

historic buildings.

..More to explore

Cuba

Havana has

several forts

called castles.

The oldest was

built in the

1500s.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Havana 25

Hawaii

Hawaii is the only U.S. state that

is made up entirely of islands.

Some of the area’s first settlers

came from a place called Hawaiki. It is

believed that the state’s name was

formed from this word. According to

legend, a man named Hawaii Loa discovered

the islands. Hawaii is nicknamed

the Aloha State. Aloha is a

Hawaiian word with several meanings. It

is often used to mean “welcome,”

“hello,” or “good-bye.” The capital of

Hawaii is Honolulu.

Geography

Hawaii is made up of about 132 islands

and islets. The island chain is located in

the Pacific Ocean about 2,400 miles

(3,860 kilometers) from the western

coast of the U.S. mainland. The Hawaiian

Islands were formed by volcanoes

and were built up over millions of years.

The eight main islands in the chain are

Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokai,

Lanai, Niihau, and Kahoolawe.

The island of Hawaii is often called the

Big Island. That is partly because it is

the largest of the islands. The nickname

also helps distinguish it from the state as

a whole. Hawaii is the youngest of the

islands. It includes Mauna Loa, the

world’s largest volcano, and Kilauea, one

of the world’s most active volcanoes.

The island is still growing. As the lava

from Kilauea cools, it hardens and adds

to the land.

The entire state is known for its pleasant

weather. Despite the state’s tropical location,

cooling ocean currents keep the

climate mild.

People

Hawaii is the only state in which the

majority of the population does not

trace its heritage back to Europe. The

first people to live in Hawaii were probably

people who sailed from the Mar-

Steep cliffs in the U.S. state of Hawaii meet

the deep blue waters of the Pacific Ocean.

Tourists from all over the world visit Hawaii

to see its great natural beauty.

26 Hawaii BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

quesas Islands. The Marquesas are part

of a region called Polynesia. The Polynesians

arrived in Hawaii perhaps as early

as AD 400. The current population

includes whites, Japanese, Hawaiians,

Filipinos, and Chinese. Many people are

of mixed ancestry. Oahu has the largest

population of all the islands. The city of

Honolulu is on Oahu.

Economy

Tourism is the basis of Hawaii’s

economy. Almost 7 million tourists visit

each year to enjoy the island scenery,

mild weather, and beautiful beaches.

Hawaii also has several military bases.

Military spending plays an important

role in the state’s economy. Agriculture

is another source of state income. Pineapples,

sugarcane (for sugar), and macadamia

nuts are major crops.

History

Hawaii was settled more than 1,500

years ago by people from Polynesia. The

first European to reach the islands was

British explorer James Cook, who

arrived at Kauai Island in 1778. At that

time each island was ruled by its own

individual chief. By 1810, however,

King Kamehameha I had united all of

the islands under his rule. Missionaries,

traders, planters, explorers, and adventurers

began arriving on the islands in

the 1820s.

In 1858 the Kingdom of Hawaii asked

to become part of the United States but

was refused. In 1893 a revolution led to

the end of the monarchy. The last queen

was Queen Liliuokalani. The new government

again tried to join the United

States but was also turned down.

Instead, the leaders of the government

established a republic with a president in

1894. In 1898 Hawaii finally was

accepted by the United States. It became

the Territory of Hawaii in 1900.

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese

airplanes attacked U.S. warships that

were stationed at Pearl Harbor, near

Honolulu. This action caused the

United States to enterWorldWar II.

In 1959 Hawaii became the 50th state

in the Union. Led by a rush in tourism,

the state made major economic gains

after it attained statehood. Many tourists

visit the wreck of the Arizona, a large

ship that was sunk in the attack on Pearl

Harbor. The ship was left in place to

honor the people who died in the attack.

..More to explore

Hawaii’s Kilauea is an active volcano. Cook, James • Honolulu •WorldWar II

Facts About

HAWAII

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

1,211,537—

rank, 42nd state;

(2008 estimate)

1,288,198—

rank, 42nd state

Capital

Honolulu

Area

10,931 sq mi

(28,311 sq km)—

rank, 43rd state

Statehood

August 21, 1959

Motto

Ua Mau ke Ea o

ka Aina i ka Pono

(The Life of the

Land Is

Perpetuated in

Righteousness)

State bird

Nene (Hawaiian

goose)

State flower

Yellow hibiscus

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hawaii 27

Hawk

Hawks are birds of prey, meaning that

they hunt and kill animals for food.

Hawks are closely related to eagles, kites,

harriers, buzzards, and some vultures.

Those birds are sometimes also called

hawks because they are in the hawk family.

There are about 50 kinds of “true”

hawks. These include the sparrowhawks

and the goshawks.

Two typical hawks are the sharp-shinned

hawk and Cooper’s hawk. These hawks

have a gray back and a rusty brown

underside. The sharp-shinned hawk is

about 12 inches (30 centimeters) long.

The Cooper’s hawk is larger, with a

length of about 14 to 20 inches (36 to

51 centimeters).

Hawks live in forests in most parts of

the world. They usually have a long tail

and short, rounded wings. These features

allow them to fly fast and low in

areas with bushes and trees. A hawk

often catches its prey by swiftly following

the animal as it tries to escape. It

uses its sharp claws and beak to catch

and kill the animal.

Many people think hawks are harmful

because some kinds eat songbirds and

poultry. But most hawks are actually

more useful to humans overall. They eat

rodents, insects, and other pests. Hawks

also eat other small animals such as

squirrels and lizards.

#More to explore

Bird • Bird of Prey • Eagle • Vulture

Hawthorn

Hawthorns are trees and shrubs that are

beautiful to look at but painful to touch.

Like rose bushes, hawthorns have long,

sharp thorns covering their branches.

The thorns protect the plant from damage

by animals. Hawthorns grow in

cool-climate areas of Europe, Asia, and

North America.

Hawthorns are usually small trees or

large shrubs. Some hawthorns can grow

to about 30 feet (9 meters) tall. They

have scaly, gray bark. Their oval leaves

have teeth or rounded sections along the

edges. Hawthorns shed their leaves in

the autumn. In late spring and early

summer white or pink flowers bloom.

When the flowers die, small red fruits

appear.

A row of hawthorns planted together

makes a good hedge. The sharp thorns

prevent animals or intruders from passing

through. Songbirds and small ani-

The Eurasian sparrowhawk lives in forests

in Europe and Asia. It also can be found in

northwestern Africa.

28 Hawk BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

mals may also hide from predators

among the sharp thorns. The fruit from

hawthorns can be eaten fresh or made

into jelly. Birds also eat the fruit. Hummingbirds

and insects drink a sweet liquid

called nectar from the flowers.

#More to explore

Plant • Tree

Hayes,

Rutherford B.

Rutherford B. Hayes was the 19th president

of the United States. He was

elected in 1876. Many people argued

about whether the election was fair.

Early Life and Career

Rutherford Birchard Hayes was born on

October 4, 1822, in Delaware, Ohio.

His father, farmer Rutherford Hayes,

died before Rutherford was born. His

mother, Sophia Birchard, educated him

at home.

Hayes graduated from Kenyon College

in 1842. After studying law at Harvard

University, he started a law practice in

Cincinnati. He also joined the new

Republican Party. In 1852 Hayes married

LucyWareWebb. They had eight

children.

After fighting in the American Civil

War, Hayes entered the U.S. House of

Representatives in 1865. He was

reelected to the House in 1866. Hayes

then served three terms as governor of

Ohio.

Election of 1876

In 1876 the Republicans chose Hayes as

their candidate for president. His

Democratic opponent was Samuel J.

Tilden, governor of New York. Tilden

won the popular vote, but the results in

the electoral college were uncertain. The

Republicans said the voting results from

three Southern states were wrong. In

Hawthorn trees produce white or pink flowers

once a year.

Rutherford B. Hayes

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hayes, Rutherford B. 29

January 1877 Congress set up a commission

to decide the election. On

March 2 the commission, made up of

eight Republicans and seven Democrats,

decided in favor of Hayes. The decision

angered many Democrats.

Presidency

As president, Hayes ended the period

known as Reconstruction. This was the

period following the CivilWar when the

country worked to bring the Southern

states back into the Union. He took

U.S. troops out of the South. He gave

Southern states control of their elections.

He also appointed Southerners to

government offices. Hayes’s policies

toward the South angered conservative

Republicans known as the Stalwarts.

The Stalwarts also disagreed with

Hayes’s efforts to end the “spoils system.”

In that system the government

gave out jobs as political rewards. Hayes

wanted to give the jobs to people who

passed a test. Congress refused to change

the system, but people became more

aware of its problems.

Retirement

Hayes did not run for reelection in

1880. In retirement he was involved in

several causes. Most notably he worked

to improve prisons and to provide better

education for African Americans in the

South. He died in Fremont, Ohio, on

January 17, 1893.

#More to explore

Electoral College • Reconstruction

• United States

Heart

The heart is the organ, or body part,

that pumps blood through the body. It

is the main organ of the cardiovascular

system. The cardiovascular system carries

substances to and from all parts of

the body in the blood.

October 4, January 17,

1822 1868 1877 1877 1879 1881 1893

Hayes is born

in Delaware,

Ohio.

Hayes becomes

governor of

Ohio.

Hayes is

elected

president.

Hayes ends

Reconstruction

in the South.

Hayes signs a

law to allow

women lawyers

to practice

before the

Supreme Court.

Hayes retires

from the

presidency.

Hayes dies in

Fremont, Ohio.

T I M E L I N E

30 Heart BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Human Heart

The human heart is pear-shaped and

slightly larger than a fist. It is located

high in the chest, slightly to the left. The

heart of a grown-up person weighs

about 8 to 12 ounces (230 to 340

grams).

The heart is made of very strong muscle.

This muscle pumps blood by squeezing

and relaxing in a regular rhythm. This

rhythm is called the heartbeat. The heart

muscle beats an average of 70 times per

minute. More than 4 quarts (3.8 liters)

of blood pass through the heart every

minute.

The human heart is divided into right

and left halves. Each half is divided into

two hollow sections called chambers.

The upper chambers are called atria.

(Each of these chambers is called an

atrium.) The lower chambers are called

ventricles.

Blood from the body flows into the right

atrium. This blood carries a waste product

called carbon dioxide. The blood

then passes into the right ventricle. The

right ventricle pumps the blood to the

lungs. In the lungs, blood picks up oxygen

and releases carbon dioxide. The

oxygen-rich blood enters the heart’s left

atrium. The blood then passes into the

left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps

the blood throughout the body.

Problems with the heart include irregular

heartbeat and heart disease. Irregular

heartbeat is a heartbeat that is too slow,

Blood enters the right atrium of the heart. It

flows into the right ventricle, through the

lungs, and into the left atrium. Finally, it

passes into the left ventricle and then leaves

the heart.

A patient runs while a machine records his

heartbeats. The machine tells doctors

whether the patient’s heart is healthy.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Heart 31

too fast, or unsteady. Heart disease happens

when fatty substances build up

inside blood vessels. The fatty deposits

block blood from getting to the heart.

Heart disease can lead to a heart attack.

A heart attack happens when part of the

heart muscle dies. Exercise and eating a

healthy diet can help to keep the heart

healthy.

The Hearts of Other Animals

Like the human heart, the hearts of

mammals and birds have four chambers.

The hearts of other animals are different.

Amphibians and lizards have hearts

with three chambers. Fishes’ hearts are

folded tubes, with three or four sections

that are like chambers. Spiders and some

worms have hearts that are straight

tubes.

#More to explore

Blood • Lung • Muscle

Heat

Heat is a form of energy. Heat flows

from hot objects to cool objects. It flows

from one object to another because of

their difference in temperature. The cool

object absorbs the energy and becomes

warmer.

Objects are made of particles, or bits,

called molecules. Molecules are always

in motion. As an object is heated, the

molecules in the object move faster.

When this happens, the temperature of

the object rises.

Heat travels in three ways: by conduction,

by convection, and by radiation.

Conduction is the flow of heat inside an

object. It is also the flow of heat between

objects in contact with each other. An

example is the flow of heat from a hot

frying pan to food placed on the pan to

cook.

Convection is the flow of heat caused by

the motion of a liquid or a gas. An

example is the heating of water in a teakettle.

As water is heated, the molecules

that make up the water rise and the heat

spreads.

Heat radiation is the flow of heat

between objects that are not in contact

with each other. An example is the heat

felt by someone standing a distance

away from a hot stove.

Radiation from the sun gives Earth most

of its heat. Energy from the sun’s radiation

is stored in such fuels as coal, oil,

gas, and wood. These fuels can be

burned to provide more heat.

#More to explore

The heat of a fire cooks peppers on a grill. Energy • Molecule • Sun

32 Heat BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Heather

Scotland is famous for its rolling hills

covered with the beautiful purple flowers

of the plant called heather. Scotland

is not the only place that heather grows,

however. Heather grows throughout

Great Britain, northwestern Europe,

northern Asia, and North America.

Heather grows well in poor soil. It needs

lots of sunlight to grow.

Heather is an evergreen plant. This

means that it does not lose its leaves in

autumn. Heather usually does not grow

taller than 3 feet (0.9 meter). Its leaves

are most often green. But they also may

be gray, yellow, gold, orange, or red.

Heather has tiny, bell-shaped flowers

that are pink, rose, purple, red, or white.

Heather is a useful plant. It can be made

into brooms and baskets. Long ago, the

people of Scotland made houses of

heather mixed with mud and straw.

Heather also attracts bees and butterflies.

The scientific name of heather is Calluna

vulgaris. Heather belongs to a family,

or group, of plants called heaths.

Other plants in the heath family include

the blueberry plant.

#More to explore

Plant • Scotland

Hedgehog

Hedgehogs are small mammals that live

in the wild in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

They are also kept as pets in some parts

of the world. People sometimes call porcupines

hedgehogs, but hedgehogs and

porcupines are different animals.

Hedgehogs are found in deserts, forests,

grasslands, marshes, and gardens. They

spend the day sleeping under leaves or in

holes. They come out at night to eat

insects, slugs, spiders, small reptiles, and

fallen fruit.

The hedgehogs called spiny hedgehogs

have thousands of sharp spines on their

bodies. Spines cover everything except

Heather plants grow on a hill in Yorkshire,

England.

There are 15 species, or types, of hedgehog.

The European hedgehog is sometimes

kept as a pet.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hedgehog 33

the underside, legs, face, and ears. The

spines are cream colored with bands of

brown and black. When threatened,

spiny hedgehogs curl into a ball so that

only their spines are showing. The spines

keep most animals from harming the

hedgehog.

Some spiny hedgehogs hibernate in the

winter. Hibernation allows an animal to

use less energy when food is hard to

find. While hibernating, hedgehogs use

the fat built up in their bodies to survive.

Hairy hedgehogs have hair instead of

spines. They also have well-developed

tails. They look like rats. Their hair

color ranges from white to brownish red

to black. The hair may be soft or very

rough. Hairy hedgehogs can be the size

of a mouse, or they can be as long as 18

inches (46 centimeters).

..More to explore

Hibernation • Mammal • Pet

• Porcupine

Helena

Population

(2007 estimate)

28,726

Helena is the capital of the U.S. state of

Montana. The city is located near the

Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains.

Helena is a center for the trade of crops

and livestock. Many people there work

for the state government. Manufacturing

industries and tourism also bring money

to the city. The Montana Historical

Society is located in Helena. It has a

museum, a library, and an art gallery.

The explorers Meriwether Lewis and

William Clark passed through the Helena

area in 1805. The town was founded

after gold was discovered there in 1864.

The miners had almost given up their

search for gold. Finally they struck gold

in a place they called Last Chance

Gulch. The town was named for Helena,

Minnesota.

Helena became the capital of the Montana

Territory in 1875. Montana became

a U.S. state in 1889. Helena remained

the capital. Earthquakes damaged the

city in the 1930s, but the damage was

quickly repaired.

..More to explore

Lewis and Clark Expedition • Montana

The Montana state Capitol, in Helena, was

opened for use on July 4, 1902.

34 Helena BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

History

People in China and Europe made toys

that worked like helicopters many hundreds

of years ago. In the 1400s the Italian

artist and engineer Leonardo da

Vinci drew an aircraft much like today’s

helicopters. It was never built. In 1843

the English inventor Sir George Cayley

built a helicopter powered by a steam

engine. It could barely get off the

ground.

By the 1900s more powerful engines

were available. Engineers used these

engines to improve the helicopter. They

also made improvements that helped

keep helicopters stable in the air. The

first successful helicopters were built in

Germany in the 1930s. After that, engineers

designed new types of helicopters

that were used for all kinds of different

purposes.

..More to explore

Airplane • Leonardo da Vinci

Helsinki

Population

(2008

estimate), city,

568,531;

(2003

estimate), urban

area,

1,075,000

Helsinki is the capital of Finland, a

country in northern Europe. It is Finland’s

largest city. Helsinki is located on

land that sticks out into a gulf of the

Baltic Sea. The city is surrounded by

good natural harbors.

Helsinki is Finland’s leading port and

center of industry. The city’s main

industries include shipbuilding and

printing. Factories in the city make electronics,

clothing, and metal products.

Most people in Helsinki work in industries

that provide services. Businesses

related to computers, telephones, and

other kinds of technology are important

to the city’s economy.

The king of Sweden founded Helsinki

in 1550. Finland was part of Sweden for

hundreds of years.

In the early 1700s Helsinki suffered

from disease, fire, and attacks by Russian

forces. Russia invaded the city again in

1808. Helsinki was burned to the

ground. Soon all of Finland became part

of Russia.

The Uspenski Cathedral is located in Helsinki.

It is the largest Orthodox church in

western Europe. It was built in the 1860s,

when Russia ruled Finland.

36 Helsinki BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Russian ruler moved the capital of

Finland to Helsinki in 1812. Helsinki

grew rapidly as the new capital. The city

center was completely rebuilt.

In 1917 Finland declared its independence

from Russia. A brief but bloody

war followed in Helsinki. Conditions

soon became more stable. Helsinki

developed into an important center of

trade, industry, and culture.

#More to explore

Finland

Hemisphere

A hemisphere is half of a sphere, or ball.

People use the word to describe one half

of Earth. Geographers, or people who

study Earth, have divided the planet

into two sets of two hemispheres. These

are the Northern and Southern hemispheres

and the Eastern andWestern

hemispheres.

Northern and Southern

Hemispheres

An imaginary line called the equator

divides the Northern and Southern

hemispheres. The equator is also called

0° latitude. It runs east and west around

Earth’s middle. Places north of the

equator are part of the Northern Hemisphere.

Places south of the equator are in

the Southern Hemisphere.

The Northern Hemisphere includes

North America, Central America,

Europe, and mainland Asia. About half

of Africa and a small part of South

America are also in the Northern Hemisphere.

The rest of Africa, most of South

America, and all of Australia and Antarctica

lie in the Southern Hemisphere.

Eastern and Western

Hemispheres

Another imaginary line separates Earth

into Eastern andWestern hemispheres.

On one side of Earth, this line is called

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hemisphere 37

0° longitude, or the prime meridian. It

runs from the North Pole to the South

Pole through western Europe, western

Africa, and the Atlantic Ocean. On the

other side of Earth, the line is called

180° longitude. It runs from the North

Pole to the South Pole through the

Pacific Ocean.

TheWestern Hemisphere lies west of 0°

longitude and east of 180° longitude. It

includes North America and South

America. The Eastern Hemisphere lies

east of 0° longitude and west of 180°

longitude. It includes almost all of

Europe and Africa and all of Asia and

Australia. About half of Antarctica lies in

the Eastern Hemisphere, and about half

lies in theWestern Hemisphere.

#More to explore

Equator • Latitude and Longitude

Hemlock

Hemlocks are tall evergreen trees in the

pine family. There are about 10 species,

or types, of hemlock found in North

America and eastern Asia. Hemlocks

grow slowly and can live for 800 years or

more.

Hemlocks grow best in cool, shaded

areas. They grow to an average height of

60 to 70 feet (18 to 21 meters) but can

be much taller. They have drooping

branches that form the shape of a pyramid.

Small cones hang from the branch

tips. The cones hold the tree’s seeds. The

leaves, called needles, are short and flat.

Insects eat the needles and can destroy

whole forests of hemlocks.

The bark of hemlock trees provides tannin.

Tannin is used to preserve and dye

leather. People also make paper out of

hemlock wood.

Some poisonous plants also are called

hemlock, but they are not related to

hemlock trees. They include poison

hemlock and water hemlock. These

plants are poisonous herbs of the parsley

family. They grow in North America

and Europe. Animals and people can die

from eating these plants.

#More to explore

Herb • Pine • Tree

Henry VIII

England had eight kings named Henry.

The last of them, Henry VIII, is remembered

for his six wives and his quarrel

with the Roman Catholic church.

Seawater covers

about 80

percent of the

Southern

Hemisphere. It

covers about

60 percent of

the Northern

Hemisphere.

Many hemlock trees grow in

cold places. Sometimes frost covers

their needles.

38 Hemlock BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Henry VIII was born in England on

June 28, 1491. He was not yet 18 when

he became king in 1509. Later that year

he married Catherine of Aragon. Catherine

had six children, but only one,

named Mary, survived to adulthood.

Henry wanted a boy to inherit the

throne. He believed that he needed a

new wife to have his son. At the time,

Henry and most English people

belonged to the Roman Catholic

church. However, in 1527 the pope (the

leader of the Roman Catholic church)

refused to allow Henry to end his marriage

to Catherine. Henry therefore cut

all ties to the church and placed himself

in charge of the new Church of

England, or Anglican church. Henry

severely punished those who continued

to practice the Catholic faith.

The king soon married Anne Boleyn.

Her only child was a daughter, Elizabeth.

In 1536 he had Anne Boleyn put to

death. A few days later he married Jane

Seymour. She gave birth to Edward, the

son Henry wanted. Then she died.

Henry then married a German princess,

Anne of Cleves. He soon divorced her.

In 1540 he married Catherine Howard.

Henry had her, like Anne Boleyn, put to

death. In 1543 Henry took his sixth

wife, Catherine Parr, who outlived him.

Henry died on January 28, 1547. During

his reign he had united England and

Wales. He had also taken control of Ireland.

Three of his children—Edward,

Mary, and Elizabeth—later became rulers

of England.

#More to explore

Elizabeth I • England

Henry, Patrick

Patrick Henry was an early American

patriot who helped shape the first gov-

A painting from the 1500s shows King

Henry VIII of England. A famous artist

named Hans Holbein the Younger made the

painting.

Patrick Henry delivers his “give me liberty

or give me death” speech in 1775.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Henry, Patrick 39

ernment of the United States. His powerful

speeches about liberty and selfgovernment

still inspire people today.

Early Life

Patrick Henry was born in Studley, Virginia,

on May 29, 1736. He received

very little schooling as he was growing

up. Later he studied law. He became a

lawyer in 1760.

Career

Henry soon became very successful as a

lawyer. He also began speaking out

against the British government. He

strongly believed that the American

colonies should be free of British rule. In

a speech in 1775 Henry spoke his most

famous words: “give me liberty or give

me death.”

Throughout his life Henry had several

jobs in government. He began in 1774

as a member of the Continental Congress.

The congress was in charge of governing

the 13 colonies. He also served

several terms as governor of Virginia. He

came out of retirement in 1780 to serve

in Virginia’s legislature.

After the American Revolution Henry

protested against the new U.S. Constitution.

He believed that the Constitution

did not give enough rights to the states

or to individual citizens. Many people

agreed with him. Henry’s beliefs helped

get 10 amendments, or changes, added

to the Constitution in 1791. These

amendments are known as the Bill of

Rights. The Bill of Rights gives many

important freedoms to U.S. citizens.

Henry was elected to the Virginia legislature

again in 1799. However, he never

started his term. He died of cancer at his

home near Brookneal, Virginia, on June

6, 1799.

#More to explore

American Revolution • Bill of Rights

• Continental Congress

Henson, Jim

Kermit the Frog, Cookie Monster, and

Oscar the Grouch are a few of the characters

known as Muppets. Their creator

was Jim Henson. He made up the word

Muppets as a blend of “marionette” (a

type of puppet controlled by strings)

and “puppet.”

James Maury Henson was born on September

24, 1936, in Greenville, Mississippi.

He created the Muppets while

attending college. Most puppets of the

Patrick Henry

helped to write

the first constitution

of

the state of

Virginia.

Jim Henson poses with the Muppets.

40 Henson, Jim BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

time were made of wood. But Henson

searched for material that would be

easier to move and could let characters

show more personality. He chose foam

rubber and plastic covered with fabric.

The Muppets began appearing in brief

segments on television programs in the

late 1950s and 1960s. They became very

popular in 1969 when they became part

of the television show Sesame Street.

They were featured in their own television

program, The Muppet Show, from

1976 to 1981. They later appeared in

The Muppet Movie (1979) and other

motion pictures. Henson also worked on

films that had puppets other than the

Muppets. He died in New York City on

May 16, 1990.

Henson,

Matthew

Matthew Henson may have been the

first person to stand at the North Pole.

He reached the Pole as a member of an

expedition to the Arctic led by the

explorer Robert E. Peary in 1909.

Matthew Alexander Henson was born in

Maryland on August 8, 1866. When

Henson was only about 13 he went to

work on a sailing ship. His ship visited

ports across the world. In 1887 Henson

became an assistant to Peary. Peary was a

young naval officer who had already

made one trip to the Arctic.

Peary and Henson made seven

expeditions to the Arctic. They hoped

to be the first people to reach the

North Pole. In 1908 they set out on

one of their expeditions, though they

did not always stay together. On April

6, 1909, Henson arrived alone at what

he believed to be the North Pole. When

Peary joined him an hour later, he

refused to accept Henson’s calculation.

Peary chose a different spot and

declared it the North Pole.

When they returned home Peary

received most of the credit for the discovery.

This was partly because he was

the leader of the expedition. But it was

also because Henson was an African

American. Racial prejudice at the time

kept him from receiving credit for his

accomplishments.

Later in Henson’s life he gained some

recognition for his achievements. Henson

died in New York City on March 9,

When he explored the Arctic, Matthew

Henson had to dress warmly.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Henson, Matthew 41

1955. In 1988 he was reburied in a military

ceremony at Arlington National

Cemetery. He lies there next to Admiral

Robert Peary.

Hepatitis

Hepatitis is a disease that damages the

liver. The liver is an organ, or body part,

that removes wastes from the blood.

Most cases of hepatitis are caused by a

particle called a virus. There are seven

different hepatitis viruses. To tell them

apart, the viruses are labeled with the

letters A through G.

The hepatitis A virus causes the most

common form of the disease. It is a

mild, short-term illness. The hepatitis B,

C, and D viruses can cause long-term

liver problems. The hepatitis E virus

usually causes a serious illness, and it can

lead to death.

Hepatitis A, E, and F are spread through

contact with infected food or water.

Hepatitis B, C, D, and G are spread

through infected blood and other bodily

fluids. People who take certain medicines

or drink too much alcohol can also

get hepatitis.

The symptoms, or signs, of hepatitis

include fever, tiredness, loss of appetite,

vomiting, and muscle aches. In severe

cases the liver damage can lead to a condition

called jaundice. Jaundice causes a

person’s eyes and skin to turn yellow.

A person with a serious case of hepatitis

may need to stay in a hospital. If the

liver fails, the person may need a liver

transplant. In this type of surgery a doctor

replaces the damaged liver with a

healthy one.

#More to explore

Disease, Human • Liver • Virus

Hephaestus

In ancient Greek mythology Hephaestus

was the god of fire. He was one of the

12 gods believed to live on Mount

Olympus. Hephaestus was also the

blacksmith and craftsman of the gods.

Volcanoes and fires were considered his

workshops. His symbols were the ax,

hammer, and tongs—tools he used in

his trade. Hephaestus was associated

with the Roman god Vulcan because

they shared many of the same characteristics.

Hephaestus was the son of Zeus, the

chief god, and Hera. According to one

A photograph shows a magnified image of

the hepatitis B virus. Color has been added

to the photograph to make the virus easier

to see.

42 Hepatitis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

legend Hephaestus was born disabled,

and his mother threw him into the sea

because of that. He was rescued by two

goddesses. They cared for Hephaestus

and taught him to craft jewelry out of

seashells and coral. Because of his skill,

Zeus allowed him to return to Mount

Olympus. Hephaestus made weapons,

armor, and jewelry using fire and

metals. He even made lightning for his

father.

People in ancient Rome celebrated a

festival of Hephaestus called Vulcanalia

every August. It was celebrated to

protect people from destructive fires.

During a ceremony, Roman families

threw small fish into the fire.

#More to explore

Mythology

Hera

In ancient Greek mythology Hera was

the wife of Zeus, the king of the gods.

Because of this marriage, she was queen

of the gods. Hera was also the goddess of

marriage and women’s lives. For

instance, she was thought to protect

women during childbirth. Hera was one

of the 12 chief gods believed to live on

Mount Olympus. She is associated with

the Roman goddess Juno because the

two shared many traits. The cow and

peacock were sacred to Hera.

Hera was the daughter of Cronus and

Rhea, who were Titans. The Titans

were giants who once ruled the world.

Hera’s children with Zeus included

Ares and Hephaestus. Ares was the god

of war and Hephaestus was the god of

fire.

Although the Greeks honored Hera,

most stories portray her as jealous and

In some stories

Hephaestus

was the

husband of

Aphrodite.

Hephaestus was the god of fire.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Hera 43

violent. Zeus loved many other women.

Hera was always angry about her husband’s

affairs. She punished the women

whom Zeus liked whether they were

interested in him or not. She also punished

the children Zeus had with other

women. For example, she tried to harm

the Greek hero Heracles.

#More to explore

Ares • Greece, Ancient • Mythology

• Zeus

Heracles

In ancient Greek mythology Heracles

was a hero with amazing strength and

courage. The ancient Romans called him

Hercules.

According to legend, Heracles’ father

was Zeus, the chief god. His mother was

Alcmene. Zeus’s wife was Hera. She was

jealous of all the women that Zeus

loved, including Alcmene. Because of

this, Hera hated Heracles.

Hera caused Heracles to become insane

for a couple of minutes. During his

madness Heracles killed his wife and

children. As soon as the madness passed,

he was horrified and overcome with

grief. He consulted a priestess who was

thought to speak for the gods. He asked

her how he could make up for his awful

deed. She told Heracles to visit King

Eurystheus and do whatever he asked.

Heracles followed the advice. But the

king assigned Heracles 12 tasks that

seemed impossible to accomplish.

Heracles was ordered to kill or capture

several dangerous monsters. These

included a nine-headed serpent and the

three-headed dog that guarded the gates

of the underworld. Another task was to

steal golden apples that were said to

make people live forever. He also had to

Hera was the queen of the gods of ancient

Greece.

44 Heracles BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

wash horse stables that had not been

cleaned in 30 years. In addition, he had

to get the belt of Hippolyta. She was the

queen of the Amazons, a group of

women warriors.

Heracles was not brilliant. But he was

determined and strong. He accomplished

all 12 labors. He even showed

great cleverness at times. For example, to

clean the filthy stables, he changed the

paths of two rivers. The rivers washed

the stables in a single day.

#More to explore

Hera • Mythology • Zeus

Herb

Herbs are the fragrant leaves or other

parts of certain plants. These plants are

also known as herbs. Common herbs

include mint, basil, oregano, bay, parsley,

and thyme. People use herbs, dried

or fresh, to add flavor and aroma to

foods. Herbs are also used in some cosmetics,

teas, and medicines. People

sometimes use the word spices to

describe dried herbs.

Most herbs grow in mild climates. However,

herbs can be planted wherever the

growing conditions are good. Many

people grow herbs indoors. In general,

herbs grow well in dry, well-drained soil.

Many require a lot of sun. Natural fertilizers,

such as manure or compost, help

herbs to form the oils that give them

their flavor.

Most herbs come from the leaves of a

plant. Bay leaves come from an evergreen

tree called the bay laurel. Rosemary

and sage are the leaves of bushes.

Some herbs come from other parts of a

plant. Ginseng comes from the roots of

ginseng plants. All parts of the fennel

plant can be used as flavoring.

The banana

plant is often

called a tree

but is actually

a giant herb.

Heracles was a hero in ancient Greek

mythology.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Herb 45

People have used herbs for thousands of

years. Early doctors used herbs to treat

many illnesses. By the Middle Ages

(about AD 500 to 1500), many Europeans

were using herbs in their cooking.

When the first settlers came from

Europe to North America, they brought

these herbs with them. Native Americans

taught the settlers about the herbs

growing in the Americas.

#More to explore

Spice

Hercules

#see Heracles.

Hermes

In ancient Greek mythologyHermes was

the messenger of the gods. Zeus, the chief

god, often sent him on errands.Hermes

was one of the 12 major gods believed to

live onMountOlympus.He was

associated with the Roman godMercury

because they shared many of the same

traits. Artists often picturedHermes

wearing a winged hat and winged

sandals. These items were symbols of his

great speed.

Herbs can be grown both indoors and outdoors.

Hermes was the messenger of the gods of

ancient Greece.

46 Hercules BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, a

Titan. The Titans were giants who once

ruled the world. Hermes had many roles

in Greek mythology besides being the

messenger god. It was said that Hermes

led people down to Hades, or the underworld,

after death. He was also considered

the god of travelers, business, good

luck, and thieves.

Hermes was said to be sly and deceitful.

According to one story, when Hermes

was only a few hours old, he stole cattle

from the god Apollo. Zeus told Hermes

to give the cattle back. Instead, Hermes

played a stringed instrument called a

lyre, which he had invented. Apollo

loved his playing so much that he let

Hermes keep the cattle in exchange for

the lyre.

#More to explore

Apollo • Hades • Mythology

Heron

Herons are long-legged birds typically

found in ponds, marshes, and swamps.

They also live along coasts and freshwater

lakes and streams. Herons are wading

birds, which means they feed while

standing or walking in shallow water.

They are found nearly all over the

world, especially in warm regions.

There are about 60 species, or types, of

heron. Several types of heron are called

egrets. Herons are in the same family as

bitterns. They are also related to storks,

ibises, and flamingos.

A heron is typically a tall bird with

broad wings and a long neck. Unlike

most other birds, a heron flies with its

head held back against its body. Its bill is

long, straight, and pointed. Herons

often have gray, brown, black, or white

feathers. Most egrets are white.

The largest heron is the goliath heron,

which is about 59 inches (150 centimeters)

long. The great blue heron is

slightly smaller. On the other hand, the

green heron is only about 20 inches (51

centimeters) long.

Most herons feed during the day. However,

the types called night herons are

active mainly at night. Most kinds of

heron stand still like a statue in the

The great blue heron is one of the bestknown

types of heron. It has a wingspan of

6 feet (1.8 meters) or more.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Heron 47

water while looking for food. When

they spot a fish, frog, or other small

water animal, they jab their spearlike

bills into the prey.

#More to explore

Bird • Flamingo • Ibis • Stork

Hestia

In ancient Greek mythology Hestia was

the goddess of the home. She was also

the goddess of architecture. Hestia was

one of the 12 main gods believed to live

onMount Olympus. Unlike other Greek

gods and goddesses, she was admired

more for her virtues than her adventures.

She was kind, generous, peaceful, and,

above all, welcoming to visitors.

Hestia was the eldest daughter of Cronus

and Rhea, who were Titans. The

Titans were giants who once ruled the

world. When Hestia became a young

woman, the gods Apollo and Poseidon

both wanted to marry her. Hestia

refused their offers and swore to remain

unmarried forever. She lived on Mount

Olympus and dedicated herself to making

others feel welcome and comfortable.

She tended the eternal flame that

burned on Mount Olympus.

In the center of every ancient Greek

home, the hearth (or fireplace) was dedicated

to Hestia. Most ancient cities also

dedicated hearths to Hestia in town

halls. When a family moved to a new

home, a woman brought fire from her

mother’s hearth to light her own. Likewise,

new communities brought torches

from their former cities to light their

new hearths. This tradition still survives

today in a popular symbol—the Olympic

torch.

#More to explore

Mythology

Vesta was the

ancient Roman

goddess who

was the most

like Hestia.

Hestia was the goddess of the home.

48 Hestia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Hiawatha

Hiawatha was a legendary Native American

leader. He helped five warring

Indian nations—the Cayuga, the

Mohawk, the Oneida, the Onondaga,

and the Seneca—join together in peace.

Their alliance was called the Iroquois

Confederacy.

Little is known for sure about Hiawatha’s

life. He probably lived in the

late 1500s, but some scholars think that

he lived during the 1400s. Hiawatha

may have been a member of either the

Onondaga or the Mohawk tribe. Both

tribes lived in what is now the northeastern

United States.

The times were violent and dangerous

for Hiawatha’s people.Wars with other

Native Americans and fighting between

families caused much death and suffering.

According to legend, a Huron

prophet named Dekanawidah visited

Hiawatha and inspired him to work for

peace. Hiawatha asked the leaders of the

warring nations to form an alliance.

They accepted Hiawatha’s plan and

formed a peaceful union.

Although historians disagree about Hiawatha’s

exact role in the Iroquois Confederacy,

the five nations did join

together during the 1400s or 1500s. The

strong alliance protected all the nations

from attacks by outsiders. The Iroquois

Confederacy stayed together until the

American Revolution (1775–83) split it

apart. Iroquois people today still respect

Hiawatha as an important early leader.

#More to explore

Iroquois • Native Americans