Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

state within the British Empire. In 1947

New Zealand gained full independence

from Britain. New Zealand stayed a

member of the Commonwealth of

Nations, a group of countries with

friendly ties to Britain.

Modern New Zealand

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries

New Zealand increased its trade with

Australia, other Pacific countries, and

the United States. The government also

began to give some land back to the

Maori.

..More to explore

Maori • Oceania •Wellington

A cable car travels up the side of a

mountain in Queenstown, New Zealand.

A Maori village in Rotorua, New Zealand,

includes buildings with complex wood carvings.

Maori artists are famous for their fine,

traditional carvings.

Facts About

NEW ZEALAND

Population

(2008 estimate)

4,268,000

Area

104,454 sq mi

(270,534 sq km)

Capital

Wellington

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major urban

areas

Auckland, Wellington,

Christchurch,

Hamilton,

Dunedin

62 New Zealand BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Nez Perce

The Nez Perce are a Native American

people who traditionally lived along the

Snake River. The area where they lived is

now Idaho, Oregon, andWashington.

The tribe’s main source of food was

salmon. The Nez Perce also gathered

roots and berries and hunted deer and

rabbits. Early in the 1700s they got

horses and began to hunt bison (buffalo).

In winter the Nez Perce lived in

large, wood-framed lodges. On summer

hunting trips they built tentlike houses.

The Nez Perce knew only other Native

Americans until 1805. In that year the

U.S. explorers Meriwether Lewis and

William Clark entered Nez Perce lands.

By the 1840s many white settlers were

traveling through the territory.

Conflicts between someNez Perce and

the settlers led to theNez PerceWar of

1877. TheNez Perce were defeated. Some

of them were sent toOklahoma and later

to a reservation inWashington state.

Most of the otherNez Perce remained on

a reservation in Idaho. In the late 20th

century there were about 4,000Nez Perce

living in the United States.

..More to explore

Native Americans

Niamey

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area, 915,000

Niamey is the capital of Niger, a country

in western Africa. The city lies on the

Niger River. It is the largest city in the

country. Niamey is located at a point

where trade routes cross.

Trade and other service industries are

important to Niamey’s economy.Many

of Niger’s factories are located in the city.

Niamey began as a small fishing village

of the Zarma and Fulani peoples. In

1926 the French made it the capital of

their colony of Niger. In 1960 Niger

became an independent country with

Niamey as its capital.

..More to explore

Niger

Chief Joseph was a great leader

of the Nez Perce in the 1800s.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Niamey 63

Nicaragua

The largest country in Central America

is Nicaragua. Its capital is Managua.

Geography

Nicaragua is next to Honduras and

Costa Rica. The Caribbean Sea is on the

east, and the Pacific Ocean is on the

west. The eastern part of the country is a

swampy area called the Mosquito Coast.

Mountains rise in central Nicaragua.

The west has volcanoes and Lakes Nicaragua

and Managua. The climate is generally

warm. Earthquakes and hurricanes

are common.

Plants and Animals

Nicaragua has tropical forests with cedar,

mahogany, and other trees.Wild animals

include pumas, jaguars, monkeys,

anteaters, snakes, and tropical birds.

People

Most of Nicaragua’s people have mixed

European (mostly Spanish) and American

Indian ancestors. Whites and blacks

make up about a quarter of the population.

Most of the people are Roman

Catholics. Spanish is the main language.

Economy

Nicaragua is a poor country. Many

people work in agriculture, forestry, or

fishing. Nicaragua sells coffee and sugar

to other countries. Other crops include

bananas, cotton, rice, corn, and beans.

Factories produce chemicals, machinery,

clothing, and petroleum products.

Mines provide gold, copper, and silver.

History

Indians have lived in what is now Nicaragua

for thousands of years. The Spanish

established settlements there in the

early 1500s. Many of the Indians died

from European diseases. The Spanish

sold others into slavery.

In 1821 Nicaragua became independent

from Spain. It first joined the new Mexican

Empire and then a union of Central

American states. Nicaragua became a

separate republic in 1838.

Many of Nicaragua’s presidents were

dictators, or rulers with unlimited

power. In 1979 a rebel group called the

Sandinistas took over the government. A

group called the contras fought the Sandinistas.

The Sandinistas lost power in a

free election in 1990.

..More to explore

Central America • Managua

Facts About

NICARAGUA

Population

(2008 estimate)

5,667,000

Area

50,337 sq mi

(130,373 sq km)

Capital

Managua

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Managua, Leon,

Chinandega,

Masaya,

Granada, Esteli

64 Nicaragua BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Nicholas II

The last tsar, or emperor, of Russia was

Nicholas II. His reign came to an end in

1917 when revolutionaries took over the

government. Soon afterward, Russia

became the Soviet Union, a Communist

country. (Communism is a political

system in which the people share all

property.)

Early Life

Nicholas II was born on May 18, 1868,

at Tsarskoye Selo in Russia. His family

name was Romanov. Tutors educated

Nicholas. In 1894 he became tsar. Soon

afterward he married a German princess

named Alexandra.

Reign

As tsar, Nicholas did not understand

that the common people wanted to have

a say in the government. After a rebellion

in 1905, he agreed to create a house

of representatives called the Duma. But

Nicholas did not allow the Duma to

have much power. The people became

even more angry.

Nicholas did not get along with other

countries either. His greatest conflict was

with Japan. The result was the Russo-

JapaneseWar (1904–05), which Russia

lost.

In 1914 Russia enteredWorldWar I.

While Nicholas led the army, he paid

little attention to the running of government.

Instead power passed to Alexandra.

She was greatly influenced by a

monk named Rasputin. However, he

made bad decisions, and many good

government officials were dismissed.

Finally, in 1917 the angry Russians

began the Russian Revolution.

Russian Revolution

Riots broke out in Petrograd (now Saint

Petersburg) on March 8, 1917. Nicholas

sent soldiers there, but it was too late.

The Duma, supported by the army,

forced the tsar to step down. The new

leaders of Russia took Nicholas, Alexandra,

and their five children prisoner.

Soon afterward, a group of Communists,

called Bolsheviks, took over the

government. The Bolsheviks killed

Nicholas and his family on July 17,

1918.

#More to explore

Russia • Russian Revolution • Tsar

Under the rule

of Nicholas II,

the Trans-

Siberian

Railroad was

finished. It

runs more

than

5,700 miles

(9,100 km)

across Russia.

Nicholas II and his wife had five children.

Communists killed the entire family because

they did not want anyone ever to claim to

be the emperor or empress of Russia.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nicholas II 65

Nicosia

Population

(2005

estimate),

Greek Nicosia,

urban area,

219,200;

(1996 census),

Turkish Nicosia,

39,176

Nicosia is an ancient city that has had

many rulers. Today it is the capital of

Cyprus, an island country in the Mediterranean

Sea. Cyprus is divided into

two sections. The island’s Greek residents

control the southern section. Their

government is the official government of

the island. Turkish residents control the

northern section. Only Turkey considers

the Turkish section to be a separate

country. Nicosia is the capital of both

parts of Cyprus. Part of the city lies

within the Greek section, and part lies

within the Turkish section. The Greek

name for the city is Lefkosia. The Turkish

name is Lefkosa.

Tourism and other service industries are

important to Nicosia’s economy. Factories

in the city make such products as

cloth, clothing, and processed foods.

Nicosia was part of the Byzantine Empire

from 330 to 1191. During that period

the city became the capital of Cyprus.

TheOttomanTurks ruled Cyprus from

the late 1500s to the late 1800s. Great

Britain took control in 1878.

In 1960 Cyprus became an independent

country with Nicosia as its capital. A few

years later groups of Greeks and Turks

began fighting in the city. The Greeks

left the Turkish parts of Nicosia, and the

Turks left the Greek areas.

..More to explore

Cyprus

A mosque stands in the Turkish section of Nicosia.

66 Nicosia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Niger

Niger is a large country inWest Africa.

It covers parts of the Sahara Desert and

the dry Sahel region to the south. The

capital is Niamey.

Niger borders Algeria, Libya, Chad,

Nigeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Mali.

The land in the north is a high desert.

Most rivers in Niger flow only during

the short rainy season. Niger is one of

the hottest countries in the world.

Northern Niger has few plants. Grasses,

palms, and acacia and baobab trees grow

in the south. Animals in the south

include elephants, giraffes, gazelles,

hyenas, and lions.

Niger’s many peoples include the Hausa

and the Songhai, who are mainly farmers.

The Fulani and the Tuareg peoples

are mainly herders who move from place

to place. The national language is

French, but most people speak an African

language. Islam is the main religion.

Niger is a poor country. Most people

work in agriculture. Farmers grow cowpeas,

cotton, sugarcane, peanuts, onions,

and grains. Herders raise goats, sheep,

cattle, and camels. Niger’s main industry

is uranium mining.

In early times the Songhai and Kanem-

Bornu controlled southern Niger. The

Hausa and the Fulani later ruled. The

Tuareg controlled the north. Europeans

explored the region in the 1800s. France

made Niger a colony in 1922.

Niger won independence in 1960. Since

then the military has taken over the government

several times. Niger held its

first democratic elections in 1993.

..More to explore

Kanem-Bornu Empire • Niamey

• Sahara • Songhai Empire

Some of the people in Niger live in villages

of small round houses.

Facts About

NIGER

Population

(2008 estimate)

14,731,000

Area

459,286 sq mi

(1,189,546 sq

km)

Capital

Niamey

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Niamey, Zinder,

Maradi, Agadez,

Tahoua

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Niger 67

Nigeria

More people live in Nigeria than in any

other African country. Its land is rich in

oil and natural gas. Abuja is the capital.

Geography

Nigeria lies inWest Africa. It borders

Benin, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon.

The Atlantic Ocean lies to the south.

Nigeria has plains in the north and

south. In the center there are hills and

plateaus, or high, flat lands. Nigeria has

two major rivers, the Niger and the

Benue. Lake Chad lies across the country’s

northeastern border. Nigeria is

warm with rainy and dry seasons.

Plants and Animals

Swamps and mangrove trees line Nigeria’s

coast. Tropical rain forests grow in

the southwest. In the center of the country

are woodlands and open grasslands.

Grasses and scattered trees grow in the

dry north.

Many antelope, giraffes, hyenas, lions,

leopards, and elephants once lived in

Nigeria. There were also many monkeys,

gorillas, and chimpanzees. Most of these

animals now live mainly in national

parks. Nigeria’s other wild animals

include snakes, crocodiles, and hippopotamuses.

Ostriches, storks, parrots,

and toucans also live in the country.

People

There are about 250 ethnic groups in

Nigeria. Each has its own customs and

language. The four largest groups are the

Hausa, the Yoruba, the Igbo, and the

Fulani. More people speak Hausa than

any other language. English is the language

of the government.

About half of the population is Muslim,

and nearly half is Christian. More than

half of the people live in rural areas.

A student in Ibadan, Nigeria, reads the

Koran (the holy book of Islam).

68 Nigeria BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Economy

Nigeria is the largest producer of oil in

Africa. The country also has deposits of

natural gas, coal, and tin. Nigeria’s factories

make food products, cloth,

cement, chemicals, and other goods.

Many Nigerians are farmers. They raise

goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs for meat.

They also grow sorghum, yams, millet,

cassava, corn, peanuts, rice, and other

crops. Nigeria sells cocoa beans and

natural rubber to other countries. Fishing

and logging are also important.

History

People have lived in the Nigeria region

for thousands of years. The Nok people

lived on the central plateau about 2,000

years ago. Later the Yoruba settled in the

west, the Hausa and Fulani in the north,

and the Igbo in the southeast. Many

kingdoms rose and fell.

The Portuguese reached the Nigerian

coast in 1472. By the 1600s British slave

ships had arrived. The slave traders captured

millions of Nigerians and sent

them to the Americas. The British made

the slave trade illegal in 1807.

By about 1900 the British controlled

most of the region. In 1914 they created

a single colony out of what had been

many independent states. Nigeria gained

independence in 1960.

Groups in Nigeria fought for power. The

military took over the government in

1966. A civil war broke out in 1967 and

lasted until 1970. Military groups controlled

Nigeria until 1999. In that year

Nigeria held democratic elections. However,

violence and protests continued

into the 21st century.

..More to explore

Abuja • Petroleum

Fishers cast a net on the Niger River in Nigeria. In the distance is an oil refinery, or a factory

for processing oil.

Facts About

NIGERIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

146,255,000

Area

356,669 sq mi

(923,768 sq km)

Capital

Abuja

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Lagos, Kano,

Ibadan, Kaduna,

Benin City, Port

Harcourt

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nigeria 69

Nightingale

The nightingale is a small, plain-looking

bird with a big voice. Many people

think its highly varied, musical songs are

beautiful. Sometimes people call other

birds with musical songs nightingales.

But most often the name refers to the

Eurasian nightingale. This songbird is in

the same family as thrushes, robins, and

bluebirds.

Nightingales live in the woodlands.

They prefer low bushes to tall trees.

These birds nest throughout much of

Europe and western Asia. They fly to

warmer central Africa for the winter.

The nightingale is about 6.5 inches (17

centimeters) long. It has a brown body, a

reddish tail, and a cream-colored belly

and chest. Nightingales use their slender

bills to eat insects and worms that they

find on the ground.

The nightingale’s song is most often

heard during spring and early summer.

This period is the mating and nesting

season. At this time the male may sing at

any hour. The female builds a cupshaped

nest out of dry leaves, twigs, and

grass. She lays four to six eggs, which

hatch in about two weeks.

#More to explore

Bird • Bluebird • Robin • Songbird

Nightingale,

Florence

Florence Nightingale was a pioneer in

the field of nursing. She improved the

care of sick and wounded soldiers. She

also made nursing a respectable career

for women.

Early Life

Florence Nightingale was born in Florence,

Italy, on May 12, 1820. She grew

up in Great Britain, where she had a

comfortable life with her wealthy par-

A nightingale perches on the end of a

branch.

Florence Nightingale

70 Nightingale BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ents. She studied several languages, history,

and mathematics with her father at

home.

Nightingale began studying nursing in

1850. At that time nursing was not a

respected profession. Nevertheless,

Nightingale felt called to be a nurse.

Career

In 1854 the CrimeanWar broke out

between the Russians and the Turks, the

French, and the British. Nightingale

traveled to Turkey to care for the sick

and wounded British soldiers. She found

horrid conditions in the military hospital

in Turkey. Medical supplies were low.

The hospital was dirty and filled with

rats and fleas. In fact, more patients were

dying from fever and infection than

from battle wounds.

Nightingale took control and was soon

running the hospital. Her nursing duties

often kept her up all night. The soldiers

named her the Lady with the Lamp. At

one point she nearly died from a fever.

After the war the British people thought

of Nightingale as a heroine.

In 1857 Nightingale became sickly. She

spent most of the rest of her life at

home, but she continued to work. In

1860 she formed the Nightingale School

for Nurses. It was the first school in the

world that trained women to be professional

nurses. Nightingale died in London

on August 13, 1910.

#More to explore

Nursing

Nightshade

Nightshade grows as a weedlike plant, a

shrub, or a vine. Many of the more than

2,300 species, or kinds, of nightshade

are poisonous. Two of the best-known

kinds are common nightshade and bittersweet

nightshade. Nightshades belong

to a group of plants called the nightshade

family, which also includes tomatoes

and potatoes.

Nightshade plants grow naturally in

woody, damp areas of North America,

Europe, and Asia. Farmers grow deadly

nightshade, also called belladonna, in

Europe, India, and the United States. It

is used in medicine.

Nightshades can grow from about 12

inches (30 centimeters) to 5 feet (1.5

meters) tall. Vines can reach up to 10

feet (3 meters) in length. The leaves in

all species grow in pairs on opposite

Some kinds of nightshade have

poisonous leaves and berries.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nightshade 71

sides of the stem. Flower colors can be

white, blue, or deep purple. When the

flowers die, berries appear. Depending

on the species, the berries are yellow,

red, or black.

Deadly nightshade contains substances

called alkaloids, which have several

medical uses. Eye doctors use an

alkaloid to help them view the inside of

the eye. Alkaloids also can be used to

make sleeping pills and pain

medications.

#More to explore

Plant • Potato • Tomato

Nile River

The Nile is the longest river in the

world. It flows through northeastern

Africa for about 4,132 miles (6,650 kilometers).

The great civilization of ancient

Egypt developed on its banks.

The most distant sources of the Nile are

rivers that begin in Burundi and

Rwanda. Those rivers flow into Lake

Victoria. From Lake Victoria the Nile

flows through Uganda and Sudan. For

about 500 miles (800 kilometers) in

Sudan the river is called the White Nile.

At the city of Khartoum, Sudan, the

White Nile is joined by the Blue Nile.

Farther north it is joined by the Atbara

River. Both the Blue Nile and the

Atbara begin in the highlands of Ethiopia.

The Nile continues to flow north

across the deserts of Sudan and Egypt.

North of Cairo, Egypt, the Nile enters

the region called the delta. There it splits

into two branches that flow into the

Mediterranean Sea.

Plants and Animals

Tropical rain forests grow along the

southern Nile. They include banana,

ebony, rubber, and bamboo trees.

Savanna grasslands run along the Blue

Nile. The desert north of Khartoum has

few plants.

Fish found in the Nile include Nile

perch, catfish, eels, lungfish, mudfish,

Sailing ships called feluccas travel on the

Nile River near Luxor, Egypt.

72 Nile River BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

and tiger fish. Nile perch can grow to

300 pounds (140 kilograms). Nile

crocodiles, soft-shelled turtles, and

snakes are common reptiles.

Economy

Ancient Egyptians who lived along the

Nile were among the first people to take

up farming. They used the river to water

their crops through methods called irrigation.

Crops now grown along the Nile

include beans, corn, cotton, millet, rice,

wheat, and sugarcane.

Today dams hold back Nile floodwaters

for irrigation. They also produce electricity.

The most important dam is the

Aswan High Dam in Egypt. The Nile is

also a main waterway for moving people

and goods.

#More to explore

Delta • Egypt, Ancient • Irrigation

Nipmuc

The Nipmuc were a group of related

Native American peoples of New

England. They traditionally lived on the

land that is now Massachusetts, Rhode

Island, and Connecticut. They lived

mostly along rivers or near lakes. The

name Nipmuc means “freshwater fishing

place.”

The Nipmuc built homes by covering

pole frames with bark or woven mats.

They grew corn, beans, and squash.

They hunted moose, deer, black bears,

rabbits, and squirrels. The Nipmuc also

fished and gathered wild roots, berries,

and nuts.

In the 1630s English colonists began to

settle in Nipmuc territory. By 1674

some Nipmuc had moved to villages set

up by the English. However, most of the

Nipmuc wanted to drive the English

from their lands. In 1675 they joined a

Native American force in a war against

the colonists. The leader of the Native

Americans was theWampanoag chief

Metacom, who was also known as King

Philip. King Philip’sWar was the

bloodiest conflict in New England in the

1600s. The Native Americans lost the

war.

Some of the surviving Nipmuc fled their

lands. Some joined the Mohican and

other tribes living along the Hudson

River. Others fled to Canada. At the end

of the 20th century there were about

600 Nipmuc. They lived in Massachusetts

and Connecticut.

#More to explore

King Philip’sWar • Mohican • Native

Americans

A museum display in Connecticut shows

what a Nipmuc village looked like.

The Nipmuc

and nearby

tribes had

chiefs called

sachems.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nipmuc 73

Nixon,

Richard M.

Richard M. Nixon was the 37th president

of the United States. He was the

first president to resign from office. He

was forced to step down in 1974 because

of his involvement in the political scandal

known asWatergate.

Early Life

Richard Milhous Nixon was born on

January 9, 1913, in Yorba Linda, California.

His father, Frank Nixon, was a

service station owner and grocer. His

mother, Hannah Milhous, was a

Quaker. Nixon won a scholarship to

Duke University Law School in

Durham, North Carolina. After graduating

in 1937, he returned to California to

practice law.

Nixon married Thelma Catherine

Patricia Ryan, known as Pat, in 1940.

They had two children. Nixon joined

the U.S. Navy in 1942 and served in

World War II.

Political Career

After the war Nixon was elected to the

U.S. House of Representatives as a

Republican. In 1950 Nixon won a seat

in the U.S. Senate. Two years later the

Republicans chose him to run for vice

president under Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Eisenhower and Nixon won the elections

of 1952 and 1956.

In 1960 Nixon ran for president but lost

the election to John F. Kennedy. Two

years later he ran for governor of California.

Again he lost.

Presidency

In 1968 the Republicans again chose

Nixon to run for the presidency. Nixon

narrowly defeated the Democratic candidate,

Hubert H. Humphrey.

President Nixon turned his attention to

foreign affairs, especially the Vietnam

War. In 1969 Nixon began to take U.S.

troops out of Vietnam. However, he also

bombed North Vietnam and expanded

the war into neighboring Cambodia and

Laos.

In 1972 Nixon visited China. It was an

important trip because the governments

of the United States and China had not

met for 21 years. Later that year he visited

the Soviet Union and signed a number

of treaties that limited nuclear

weapons.

Richard M. Nixon was the 37th president of

the United States.

74 Nixon, Richard M. BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Nixon easily won reelection in 1972. In

January 1973 the United States and

North Vietnam agreed to stop fighting.

However, the political scandal called

Watergate soon overshadowed that success.

Watergate

In 1972 Republicans hired five men to

spy on the Democrats. That June police

arrested the men for breaking into the

Democratic national headquarters,

located in theWatergate building in

Washington, D.C. After the arrests

Nixon secretly ordered his staff to cover

up the Republicans’ role in the crime.

In 1973 the Senate began investigating

theWatergate affair. In 1974 documents

proved that Nixon had ordered the

cover-up. The House of Representatives

planned to impeach Nixon, or charge

him with crimes. Before he could be

impeached, Nixon resigned on August

8, 1974.

Vice President Gerald R. Ford replaced

Nixon as president. Ford pardoned

Nixon for any crimes he might have

committed during his presidency.

Retirement

Nixon retired to California. He wrote

several books. Nixon died in New York

City on April 22, 1994.

#More to explore

Eisenhower, Dwight D. • Ford, Gerald

R. • Kennedy, John F. • United States

• VietnamWar

Nobel Prize

The Nobel prize is one of the most

important awards that anyone can

receive. Nobel prizes are given each year

in six subject areas. The areas are physics,

chemistry, medicine, literature, peace,

and economics. The prizes honor people

anywhere in the world who have done

outstanding work in one of these areas.

January 9, April 22,

1913 1946 1953 1968 1973 1974 1994

Nixon is

born in Yorba

Linda,

California.

Nixon wins a

seat in

Congress.

Nixon

becomes vice

president

under Dwight

D. Eisenhower.

Nixon is

elected

president.

The Senate

starts

investigating

Watergate.

Nixon resigns.

Nixon dies in

New York City.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nobel Prize 75

The Nobel prizes are named after

Alfred Nobel, a Swedish scientist. He

invented the explosive called dynamite.

The invention made him rich. He

decided to use the money to honor

people who helped humankind in some

way.

The first Nobel prizes were handed out

on December 10, 1901, exactly five

years after Alfred Nobel’s death. At first

there were only five prizes. The prize for

economics was added to the list in 1969.

Groups in Sweden decide who wins

most prizes. A group in Norway picks

the winner of the peace prize.

The winners receive their awards at a

banquet in Stockholm, Sweden. Each

winner takes home a gold medal and a

certain amount of money. Sometimes

two or three people share a prize. Only

the peace prize can be won by an organization,

however.

Nomad

A nomad is a person who moves from

place to place. Long ago, before the

development of farming and cities,

many people were nomads. They moved

from one area to another in search of

food for themselves or for their animals.

The number of nomads has decreased

over the years. However, some people

still have a nomadic lifestyle.

There are three general types of nomads:

hunters and gatherers, pastoral nomads

(animal herders), and craftsmenhandymen-

traders. Hunter and gatherer

nomads move around in search of animals

to hunt and wild plant foods to

gather. Many Native Americans were

hunter and gatherer nomads before

Europeans arrived in their lands. Today

some of the San (Bushmen) of southern

Africa are hunters and gatherers.

Pastoral nomads travel to find land

where their animals can graze. Some

peoples of central Asia, Siberia, the Arabian

Peninsula, and northern Africa are

pastoral nomads. The Kazakh people of

central Asia herd horses, sheep, cattle,

Wangari Maathai of Kenya was awarded

the Nobel peace prize in 2004. She was

the first black African woman to receive a

Nobel prize.

Nomads collect water from a well in Somalia.

76 Nomad BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

goats, and camels. Some Kazakhs travel

hundreds of miles from winter homes in

the south to summer pastures in the

north. They live in tents called yurts.

The Bedouins are pastoral nomads of

the Arabian Peninsula.

Craftsmen-handymen-trader nomads

travel around selling goods or providing

services. For example, nomads in India

and Pakistan go from town to town selling

handmade baskets and other goods.

The Roma (Gypsies) are other nomads

of this type. Today, though, many Roma

live settled lives.

#More to explore

Native Americans • Rom

Nootka

The Native Americans known as the

Nootka live on the west coast of Vancouver

Island. The island is part of British

Columbia, a province of Canada. In

the past some Nootka lived in the northwestern

part of the U.S. state ofWashington.

The Nootka call themselves

Nuu-chah-nulth, which means “all along

the mountains.” The name refers to the

mountains of Vancouver Island.

The Nootka traditionally got much of

their food from the sea. They hunted

whales, seals, and sea otters. They also

fished and collected wild roots and berries.

During the warmer months the

Nootka got enough food to last all year.

In winter they moved to camps away

from the sea, where they ate dried fish.

The Nootka held feasts called potlatches.

The family hosting a potlatch

gave gifts to their guests. The gift giving

increased their status within the tribe.

European explorers and traders visited

Nootka lands beginning in 1774. The

Nootka generally welcomed the visitors.

They gave the Europeans furs in

exchange for goods such as metal pots

and tools. However, the traders also

brought diseases that killed many

Nootka.

As the Nootka population decreased,

white settlers took control of their land.

In 1871 the Canadian government set

aside a small piece of land for the

Nootka. In the early 21st century there

were about 6,000 Nootka in Canada.

#More to explore

Native Americans

Nootka

religious leaders

held

ceremonies to

lure dying

whales to their

shores.

A photograph from about 1910 shows a

Nootka holding a spear.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nootka 77

Norman

Conquest

The Norman Conquest was an important

event in English history. It happened

in 1066, when the ruler of

Normandy—an area in northern

France—conquered England. This ruler

is now known as William the Conqueror.

No enemy since has invaded

England successfully. The Conquest led

to many changes in England.

Background

William became the duke, or ruler, of

Normandy in 1035. He was the cousin

of the king of England, Edward the

Confessor. Edward’s people were the

Anglo-Saxons. When Edward died in

January 1066,William thought he

should become king. However, an

Anglo-Saxon named Harold crowned

himself king.

Conquest

William decided to fight Harold for the

crown. He gathered about 5,000 knights

on the coast of Normandy, directly

across the English Channel from

England. His army landed in England

on September 28.

The Norman and Anglo-Saxon armies

battled near the town of Hastings on

October 14. Harold’s men were no

match forWilliam’s knights on horseback.

An arrow killed Harold, and the

remaining Anglo-Saxon forces scattered

and fled.

William then advanced to London, the

capital. He was crowned king on Christmas

Day in 1066. Some parts of the

country resisted him until 1071.

How England Changed

William rewarded many of his knights

by making them England’s new nobles.

They built castles and gave land to their

own followers. They replaced the Anglo-

Saxons who had controlled the land.

However,William did not overturn the

English system of laws and courts.

The Conquest also changed the English

language. People used mainly Latin and

Norman French for writing for about

200 years afterward. In the 1200s

English came back as a written

language. By then it had many new

words that were borrowed from Latin

and French.

#More to explore

Anglo-Saxon • England

A page from a book from the

1300s shows William the Conqueror

on horseback.

78 Norman Conquest BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

North America

Canada, the United States, and Mexico

make up the largest part of the continent

of North America. The countries of

Central America also are part of the continent,

and several islands, including the

West Indies and Greenland, are associated

with North America. It is third in

size and fourth in population among

Earth’s continents.

Land and Climate

Belts of mountains run along the east

and west sides of North America. In the

east are the Laurentians and the Appalachians.

The mountains in the west are

much taller. They include the Rocky

Mountains, which extend from Canada

to Mexico. Mexico has the Sierra Madre

Occidental in the west and the Sierra

Madre Oriental in the east.

Between the Appalachians and the

Atlantic Ocean in the east is a low

coastal plain. Another vast lowland

stretches from the Rocky Mountains to

the Appalachians. Between Mexico’s

eastern and western mountain systems

lies a high central plateau.

The Great Lakes, in east-central North

America, make up the largest area of

freshwater in the world. Most of the

continent’s other large lakes are farther

north, in Canada. North America’s largest

river system is the Mississippi. On its

way to the Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi

picks up the waters of the Missouri

and the Ohio. Together these rivers

drain the central United States.

Most of North America has a mild climate,

with warm summers, cold winters,

and moderate rainfall. However, much

of Alaska and northern Canada have

bitterly cold winters and short, cool

The Rio Grande flows through the desert in

Big Bend National Park, in the U.S. state of

Texas. The river forms the border between

Texas and Mexico. In Mexico it is known as

the Rio Bravo del Norte.

Forests of both evergreens and hardwood

trees cover the slopes of the Adirondack

Mountains, in the U.S. state of New York.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA North America 79

80 North America BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

summers. Parts of the southwestern

United States and northwestern Mexico

are very dry, with regions of desert and

semidesert. Central America has hot

weather and heavy rainfall throughout

the year.

Plants and Animals

The mountainous parts of North

America contain large areas of thick

forests. Douglas fir, redwood, pine, and

spruce trees grow along the northern

Pacific Coast. Tropical hardwood forests

grow in Mexico and Central America.

Few plants grow in the desert and cold

northern regions. Prairies form a belt

between forest and desert, mainly on the

Great Plains of the central part of the

continent.

Animals native to North America

include bighorn sheep, mountain goats,

moose, and elk. There are also mountain

lions (pumas), bobcats, lynx, coyotes,

wolves, and bears. Deer thrive in many

areas, while squirrels, rabbits, and raccoons

have adapted to areas inhabited by

humans. Alligators, snakes, wild pigs,

colorful birds, and monkeys live in the

warmer southern regions.

Human activity has greatly affected the

plants and animals. By the mid-1900s

the United States had killed much of its

wildlife, cut more than half its timber,

and plowed up nearly all its grassland.

Much of this was done to clear the land

for cities to develop. In the second half

of the 1900s the countries of North

America began to protect some of their

land and animals.

People

The original inhabitants of North

America were Native Americans. In

Mexico and parts of Central America,

more than 80 percent of the people have

at least some American Indian ancestors.

Most of the people in the United States

and Canada are of European descent. In

the United States an important minority

of the people have ancestors from Africa

who were brought over as slaves.

In the United States and most of

Canada the main language is English.

French is spoken in parts of eastern

Canada, particularly Quebec. Spanish is

the main language in Mexico and Central

America and is also spoken by many

people in the United States.

Most of the continent’s people are

Christian. Canada has more Roman

Catholics than Protestants, and nearly

all Mexicans are Roman Catholic. In the

United States all major religions are rep-

Skyscrapers in Toronto line the shores of

Lake Ontario, one of the five Great Lakes.

Toronto is the capital of the province of

Ontario, Canada. It is also Canada’s largest

metropolitan area.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA North America 81

resented, though more than half the

people follow Protestant faiths. The

United States and Canada have Jewish

and Muslim minorities.

Overall, the people in Canada and the

United States enjoy a good quality of

life. Nearly everyone there can read and

write. Hospital facilities are second to

none. However, there is also some poverty.

A wide gap exists between those

who are well off and those who have

less. In Mexico and Central America

poverty is more common. Fewer people

are wealthy, and health and educational

facilities are less available.

Economy

In the United States and Canada the

economy has long depended more on

manufacturing than on farming. Manufacturing

began to grow quickly in

Mexico as well in the late 1900s.

Chemicals, food products, electronics,

transportation equipment, and other

machinery are North America’s leading

products. Industries that serve the public,

such as banking, health care, communications,

and tourism, became the

most significant part of the continent’s

economy in the late 1900s. In Central

America farming is most important.

North America produces much of the

world’s food. Wheat, corn, soybeans,

hay, fruits and vegetables, and dairy

products are produced in various regions

of the United States and Canada. In

Mexico sugarcane, corn, sorghum,

bananas, and other tropical fruits and

vegetables are grown.

North America is also rich in natural

resources, including minerals such as

iron ore, copper, nickel, zinc, lead, and

silver. The United States has large deposits

of coal. Oil is found in the southcentral

United States and Alaska,

western Canada, and eastern Mexico.

History

North America’s first human inhabitants

came over from Asia some 20,000 to

35,000 years ago. The people who

became the Native Americans came first

and eventually moved south. The Inuit

came later and remained in the north.

As early as 3500 BC, settlers began establishing

farming. The Olmec in what is

now Mexico were the first to build a

civilization, beginning in about 1200

BC. They built trading villages and

developed a system of writing. The

Piles of harvested corn are set out to dry in

the fields of a farming region in central

Mexico. In the distance is the snowcapped

peak of the volcano Iztaccihuatl.

82 North America BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Maya and Aztec later built other cities,

pyramids, and monuments.

A Viking named Leif Eriksson was probably

the first European to visit North

America. He landed in what is now

Canada in about AD 1000. However, the

Vikings did not make any permanent

settlements. In the late 1400s Europeans

began exploring the continent, and they

soon established colonies. In general,

Spain took control of the southern area

(present-day Mexico and Central

America), France settled in the north

(present-day Canada), and England took

the middle (present-day United States).

The English took over much of the

north in the 1760s.

The United States was formed in 1776,

when the 13 British colonies declared

their independence. Mexico became

independent from Spain in 1821.

Canada formed a separate government

within the British Empire in 1867 and

became officially self-governing in 1931.

Gradually, nearly all the colonies of

Central America and theWest Indies

also gained independence.

The United States and Canada developed

rapidly in the last half of the

1800s. But this came at a heavy cost to

Native Americans. Most of the peoples

who had survived fighting and diseases

brought by Europeans lost their homelands.

They were left only with confined

areas called reservations in the United

States and reserves in Canada.

Mexico remained more in touch with its

Amerindian heritage, but it was less

developed economically. The United

States attracted many emigrants from

Mexico. In 1992 Canada, the United

States, and Mexico signed the North

American Free Trade Agreement. The

agreement was meant to promote trade

between the three countries.

..More to explore

Aztec • Canada • Central America

• Eskimo • Great Lakes • Maya

• Mexico • Native Americans • Olmec

• Rocky Mountains • United States

Facts About

NORTH AMERICA

Area

9,418,467 sq mi (24,393,717 sq km)

Population

(2008 estimate) 526,827,700

Largest Country by Area

Canada: 3,855,103 sq mi (9,984,670 sq

km)

Smallest Country by Area

Saint Kitts and Nevis: 104 sq mi (270 sq km)

Largest Country by Population

United States: (2008 estimate) 305,146,000

Smallest Country by Population

Saint Kitts and Nevis: (2008 estimate)

51,300

Largest Cities

Mexico City, Mexico; New York, New York;

Los Angeles, California; Chicago, Illinois;

Havana, Cuba; Houston, Texas

Longest River

Mississippi-Missouri River, U.S.: 3,710 mi

(5,971 km)

Largest Lake

Lake Superior, U.S./Canada: 31,700 sq mi

(82,100 sq km)

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA North America 83

North Atlantic

Treaty

Organization

The members of the North Atlantic

Treaty Organization (NATO) are countries

in Europe and North America. All

have made a promise to help defend

each other if any of them is attacked.

NATO was founded in 1949 because of

threats from the Soviet Union. Now it

deals with other issues. Its headquarters

are in Brussels, Belgium.

Formation

AfterWorldWar II (1939–45) the

Communist government of the Soviet

Union set up other Communist governments

in several countries of eastern

Europe. The countries of western

Europe had democratic governments.

They feared that the Soviets would

spread Communism even farther. The

United States and other democratic

countries shared their concern. This

tension between the Soviet Union and

its democratic rivals became known as

the ColdWar.

To protect each other against the Soviets,

12 countries formed NATO in

1949. The original NATO members

were Belgium, Canada, Denmark,

France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, The

Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the

United Kingdom, and the United States.

More countries joined later.

In 1955 the Soviet Union and its Communist

allies formed a group similar to

NATO. It was called the Warsaw Pact.

After the ColdWar

In the early 1990s the Soviet Union

broke up and theWarsaw Pact ended.

The ColdWar was over. Hungary,

Poland, and the Czech Republic—all

former members of theWarsaw Pact—

joined NATO in 1999. Seven more

countries that had been Communist

joined NATO in 2004.

In 1995 NATO first used military force.

Its warplanes bombed Serbian troops in

the Balkans region of southeastern

Europe. These troops were threatening

other ethnic groups. In September 2001

terrorists attacked the United States.

This marked the first time that NATO

was called upon to defend one of its

members. It supported U.S. efforts to

end terrorism.

#More to explore

ColdWar

NATO does other things besides defending

its member countries. The organization sent

soldiers and supplies to Pakistan after an

earthquake in 2005.

84 North Atlantic Treaty Organization BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

North Carolina

One of the original 13 states of the

United States, North Carolina is rich

with history. In 1587 it was the birthplace

of Virginia Dare, the first child

born of English parents in America.

Almost 200 years later, in 1775, the

colony of North Carolina became the

first to approve a vote for independence

from Great Britain. The state also was

the site of the first successful airplane

flight, by theWright brothers in 1903.

The state capital is Raleigh.

Geography

North Carolina is located in the southeastern

part of the United States. It is

bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the

east, Virginia on the north, Tennessee on

the west, and Georgia and South Carolina

on the south.

Along the Tennessee border are

the Appalachian Mountains. The

major Appalachian ranges in

North Carolina are the Great Smokies

and the Blue Ridge. The central part of

the state is an area with rolling, forested

hills. North Carolina’s largest natural

region is the coastal plain in the east.

Off the coast is a long chain of islands

and sandy reefs known as the Outer

Banks. North Carolina has a pleasant

climate, with warm summers and mild

winters.

People

The early European settlers in North

Carolina represented a variety of

nationalities, including English,

Scottish, Irish, and German. Their

descendants make up nearly three

fourths of the state’s people. African

Americans account for more than a

fifth of the population. The state’s

100,000 Native Americans represent

one of the largest Indian populations in

the country.

Economy

North Carolina is among the nation’s

leading industrial states. The state’s

Misty clouds pass over the Great

Smoky Mountains in North Carolina.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA North Carolina 85

long-established manufacturing industries

include textiles, wooden furniture,

and cigarettes. Among its newer industries

are computers, electronic equipment,

and chemicals. Other major

industries include banking, real estate,

and tourism. The main agricultural

products include hogs, broiler chickens,

greenhouse plants, and tobacco.

History

Native Americans have lived in what is

now North Carolina for more than

15,000 years. The Cherokee were the

largest group of Native Americans in the

area when European settlers arrived.

In 1585 the English set up their first

colony in North America on Roanoke

Island, off the coast of North Carolina.

The colony was not successful. More

colonists landed on the island in 1587,

but they disappeared by 1591. The only

trace they left behind was the word

Croatoan carved on a tree. The word

may have referred to local Native Americans.

Virginians established the first permanent

settlement in the mid-1600s. In

1663 the English king granted the Carolina

region to eight Englishmen. North

Carolina became a royal colony in 1729.

With the outbreak of the American

Revolution (1775–83), loyalties in

North Carolina were divided. The British

government was overthrown in

1775, however, and an independent

state government was established. North

Carolina joined the Union in 1789 as

the 12th state.

After 1835 North Carolina entered a

period of great economic growth. The

state’s agricultural economy, however,

depended on slave labor. Despite the

role of slavery in North Carolina, the

state was not quick to join other Southern

states in the Confederacy before the

American CivilWar (1861–65). Once

the war began in 1861, North Carolina

withdrew from the Union and fought

with the Confederacy.

AfterWorldWar I (1914–18) manufacturing

overtook agriculture as the most

important part of North Carolina’s

economy. North Carolina changed rapidly

afterWorldWar II (1939–45).

Many people moved from the countryside

to the cities, and new industries

were established. The pleasant weather

and scenery led many people to North

Carolina to retire. The state’s population

grew at a record pace of almost 40 percent

between 1990 and 2008.

..More to explore

American CivilWar • Raleigh

Sand dunes meet the Atlantic Ocean at

Cape Hatteras National Seashore on Hatteras

Island, North Carolina.

Facts About

NORTH

CAROLINA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

8,049,313—

rank, 11th state;

(2008 estimate)

9,222,414—

rank, 10th state

Capital

Raleigh

Area

53,819 sq mi

(139,389 sq

km)—rank, 28th

state

Statehood

November 21,

1789

Motto

Esse Quam Videri

(To Be Rather

Than to Seem)

State bird

Cardinal

State flower

Dogwood

86 North Carolina BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

North Dakota

The state of North Dakota lies on the

Great Plains in the north-central United

States. North of North Dakota is the

country of Canada. North Dakota’s

nickname, the Peace Garden State, is a

symbol of the friendship between the

United States and Canada. Likewise,

“Dakota” is an Indian word that means

“friends.” The capital of North Dakota

is Bismarck.

Geography

North Dakota is bordered on the west

by Montana, on the south by South

Dakota, and on the north by the Canadian

provinces of Manitoba and

Saskatchewan. To the east, the Red River

of the North separates North Dakota

from Minnesota.

The western part of the state has a rolling

surface that is dotted with buttes—

flat-topped hills that rise above the

surrounding plains. The Missouri is the

state’s major river in the west. A rugged

region called the Badlands is located in

the southwest. Most of North Dakota’s

farms are on smoother land in the eastern

part of the state. North Dakota has a

dry climate with hot summers and cold

winters.

People

North Dakota is a largely rural state.

More people live in farming areas than

in cities. About 90 percent of North

Dakotans are whites of European heritage.

The earliest white settlers included

many Norwegians, Canadians, and Germans.

Before whites arrived there

were various tribes of Plains Indians,

including the Mandan, Sioux, and

Ojibwa (Chippewa). Today Native

Americans are the largest minority group

in the state. They make up about 5 percent

of the population.

Economy

North Dakota has traditionally been a

farm state. The state is among the

nation’s leading producers of wheat.

Other crops grown in North Dakota

include barley, rye, oats, flax, sunflowers,

soybeans, sugar beets, potatoes, and hay.

Cattle are the most valuable livestock

product.

North Dakota has been an important

producer of petroleum (oil) since the

1950s. Manufacturing has been a growing

part of the state’s economy since the

1990s. Among other things, factories

produce foodstuffs, machinery, and

motor vehicle products.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA North Dakota 87

History

Native American peoples lived in the

region thousands of years before Europeans

arrived. The first known European

visitor was a French-Canadian explorer

who arrived in 1738. Other colonists

soon arrived from Canada to trap animals

for their furs.

The region was acquired by the United

States in 1803 as part of a land deal with

France known as the Louisiana Purchase.

Soon afterward the Lewis and

Clark Expedition made its way through

the area by way of the Missouri River.

The first white settlement was established

at Pembina in 1812.

Fur trappers were gradually replaced by

wheat farmers and ranchers. The Dakota

Territory was organized in 1861 and

later divided into northern and southern

regions. The coming of the railroads in

the 1870s and 1880s brought new settlers.

In 1889 North Dakota became the

39th state.

During the 1930s North Dakota’s farming

community was devastated by terrible

weather. A great drought parched

the land, and high winds blew much of

the fertile soil away.

The state’s economy recovered after

WorldWar II (1939–45). In the 1950s

North Dakota began producing oil. In

1954 work was completed on the massive

Garrison Dam on the Missouri

River. The dam was built to produce

electricity. It also created a large lake,

Lake Sakakawea. During the 1960s the

United States government built many air

bases and missile sites in North Dakota.

Many military sites in the state were

closed, however, in the 1990s. In 1997 a

damaging flood took place along the

Red River of the North.

..More to explore

Bismarck • Lewis and Clark Expedition

Rugged hills and few plants are typical of

the Badlands of Theodore Roosevelt

National Park in southwestern North Dakota.

Bales of hay lie in a farm field in

North Dakota.

Facts About

NORTH DAKOTA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

642,200—rank,

47th state; (2008

estimate)

641,481—rank,

48th state

Capital

Bismarck

Area

70,700 sq mi

(183,112 sq

km)—rank, 19th

state

Statehood

November 2,

1889

Motto

Liberty and Union

Now and Forever,

One and

Inseparable

State bird

Western

meadowlark

State flower

Wild prairie rose

88 North Dakota BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland is the smallest of the

four parts of the United Kingdom, a

country of western Europe. England,

Scotland, andWales are the other three

parts. Northern Ireland is often called

Ulster because it includes six of the nine

counties that made up the ancient kingdom

of Ulster. Its capital is Belfast.

Geography

Northern Ireland is in the northeastern

corner of the island of Ireland. The

country of Ireland takes up the rest of

the island. The North Channel separates

Northern Ireland from Scotland to the

east. England andWales lie across the

Irish Sea, to the east and southeast.

Northern Ireland has rolling hills surrounded

by low mountains. Near the

middle of Northern Ireland is Lough

Neagh, the largest lake in the United

Kingdom. The northern coast is made

up of thousands of rock columns.

Northern Ireland has a cool, rainy climate

with strong winds.

People

Northern Ireland has two main groups

of people. About half of the people are

descended from Scottish and English

settlers who arrived in the 1600s. Most

of these people are Protestant. About

two fifths of the people are Irish. They

are descended from the ancient Celts.

These people are mainly Roman Catholic.

Almost everyone speaks English.

Economy

Services such as health, education, government,

and banking are very valuable

to Northern Ireland’s economy. Manufacturing

and farming are important,

too. Factories make automobiles, aircraft,

textiles, clothing, and foods. Farmers

raise pigs, cattle, sheep, and poultry.

The major crops include barley, wheat,

oats, and potatoes.

History

In about 300 BC the Celts invaded Ireland

from Europe. They set up king-

The Giant’s Causeway is a large rock formation

on the northern seacoast of Northern

Ireland.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Northern Ireland 89

doms, including Ulster in the north.

England took control of Ireland in the

1100s. In the 1500s the English broke

away from the Roman Catholic church

and became Protestants. They tried to

force the Irish to become Protestants as

well. The Irish, who were mostly Roman

Catholic, rebelled but were defeated. In

the 1600s the English king sent Protestants

from Scotland and England to

settle in Ulster. The Protestants and the

Roman Catholics fought one another.

In 1801 Ireland was officially joined to

England, Scotland, and Wales to form

the United Kingdom. The Irish people

still did not accept British rule. In the

early 1900s the Irish began to fight for

independence. But the Protestants in the

north wanted to stay in the United

Kingdom. In 1920 the British government

split the island into two parts.

Northern Ireland was created out of the

six mostly Protestant counties of the

north. The other three northern counties

joined the rest of Ireland, which

became a separate country in 1921.

In the late 1960s fighting broke out

between Catholics and Protestants in

Northern Ireland. The British sent

troops there to stop the violence. In

response, a Catholic group called the

Irish Republican Army (IRA) began to

use terrorism against the British. The

IRA wanted to force out the British and

reunite Northern Ireland with Ireland.

Thousands of people were killed or

injured in the violence.

The IRA and the British government

signed a peace agreement in 1998. In

1999 the British government gave

Northern Ireland some power to govern

itself. But some Protestants and Catholics

found it hard to work together. When

problems arose, the British government

sometimes took their power away.

#More to explore

Belfast • Celt • England • Ireland

• Scotland • United Kingdom •Wales

Northern

Territory

The Northern Territory is a territory of

Australia. A territory is an area that

belongs to a country but does not have

the same rights as a state. The Northern

Territory is huge, but only about 1 percent

of Australia’s people live there. Darwin

is the capital and largest city.

Geography

On the north the Northern Territory

borders the Timor Sea (part of the

Indian Ocean) and the Arafura Sea (part

of the Pacific Ocean). Three Australian

states surround the territory—

Northern

Ireland is still

sometimes

called Ulster,

after the

ancient Celtic

kingdom of

that name.

90 Northern Territory BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Queensland on the east, South Australia

on the south, andWestern Australia on

the west. The Northern Territory covers

an area of 520,902 square miles

(1,349,129 square kilometers).

The territory’s major rivers include the

Roper, the Daly, the Victoria, the

Katherine, the Adelaide, the Mary, the

South and East Alligator, and the

McArthur. Mount Zeil, at 4,957 feet

(1,511 meters), is the highest point in

the territory. Uluru/Ayers Rock is a

huge, red stone formation that rises in

the south. It is one of Australia’s bestknown

symbols.

The northern part of the territory has a

hot climate, with dry and wet seasons.

The southern part is hot and dry.

People

About 200,000 people live in the Northern

Territory. About half of them live in

Darwin. The territory’s other main city

is Alice Springs. The rest of the Northern

Territory has few or no people.

Most of the people of the Northern Territory

have European roots. Aborigines

(the original people of Australia) make

up about one quarter of the population.

The Aborigines live mostly in rural

areas. Their culture and heritage have

been well preserved.

Economy

Mining is the most important economic

activity in the Northern Territory. The

land contains bauxite (which is used to

make aluminum), gold, manganese,

zinc, lead, uranium, silver, oil, and natural

gas. Tourism is another important

industry. In addition, the territory has

many huge cattle and sheep ranches,

which are called stations.

History

Aborigines have lived in the Northern

Territory for at least 40,000 years.

Dutch traders visited the coast in the

1600s. Indonesian fishers came later.

Australia’s Northern Territory features a

huge stone formation called Uluru/Ayers

Rock.

An Aboriginal artist creates a painting in

the town of Alice Springs, in the Northern

Territory, Australia.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Northern Territory 91

The British set up forts in the region

beginning in 1824. In 1839 the British

named a natural harbor on the coast

Port Darwin, after the famous scientist

Charles Darwin. The British founded

the area’s first lasting settlement at the

harbor in 1869. They named it Palmerston.

In the 1870s the discovery of gold near

Palmerston brought many settlers to the

town. Telegraph and railroad lines soon

connected it to the rest of Australia.

Ranchers, farmers, and sheep herders

settled there. At first the colony of South

Australia controlled the Northern Territory.

By 1911 the new Australian government

had taken over the territory,

and Palmerston was renamed Darwin.

The Northern Territory gained control

over its own government in 1978. In

1998 the people voted not to become a

state of Australia.

#More to explore

Aboriginal Peoples • Australia

North Korea

#see Korea, North.

North Sea

The North Sea is a part of the Atlantic

Ocean. It lies between Great Britain and

the northwestern European mainland. It

covers an area of about 220,000 square

miles (570,000 square kilometers).

People have long used it for shipping

and fishing.

The countries that border the North Sea

are Norway, Denmark, Germany, The

Netherlands, Belgium, France, and the

United Kingdom. Many European rivers,

such as the Rhine, the Seine, and the

Thames, flow into the North Sea. Along

the northern shores of the North Sea,

the coastline is rugged. Norway has

many rocky islands and steep inlets

called fjords. Along the southern shores

of the North Sea, the coastline is less

rugged. The coast of The Netherlands is

low and marshy. The British coast has

low cliffs and sandy beaches.

The North Sea is one of the most dangerous

seas in the world. It has wild

storms and foggy winters. Because the

sea is mostly shallow, the currents are

strong. They often pull in different

directions.

Even though the North Sea can be dangerous,

it is important to trade. There

are many ports on the North Sea where

ships arrive and leave with goods. Fishing

in the North Sea is a key industry.

Another important North Sea business

is drilling for petroleum (oil) and natu-

Thousands of

Chinese

workers came

to the

Northern

Territory during

the gold

boom of the

1870s. For a

while the territory

was

mostly

Chinese.

92 North Korea BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ral gas. These resources were discovered

under the sea floor in the 1950s.

The North Sea helped Europe grow.

After the Middle Ages (about AD 500 to

1500), Europeans traveled and traded

mainly by ship. They landed in North

Sea ports to trade goods and share ideas

and inventions.

#More to explore

Atlantic Ocean • Europe

Northwest

Passage

For centuries explorers tried to find a

route from the Atlantic Ocean to the

Pacific Ocean through the waters surrounding

Canada’s Arctic islands. They

called that route the Northwest Passage.

They knew that finding the passage

would increase trade for many nations.

In 1906 the Norwegian explorer Roald

Amundsen became the first person to

complete the voyage by sea.

The Northwest Passage is located about

500 miles (800 kilometers) north of the

Arctic Circle and less than 1,200 miles

(1,900 kilometers) from the North Pole.

The passage is made up of a series of

channels through Canada’s Arctic

islands. It extends about 900 miles

(1,450 kilometers) from east to west,

from north of Baffin Island to the Beaufort

Sea, north of Alaska.

Navigating the Northwest Passage can

be dangerous, especially because of

thousands of huge icebergs. Many

People have built platforms in the North Sea in order to drill for oil beneath the seafloor.

Natural gas, which may escape during the drilling, appears as flames shooting from the

platform.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Northwest Passage 93

famous explorers, including John Cabot,

Jacques Cartier, Sir Francis Drake, and

Captain James Cook, tried unsuccessfully

to find the passage. In 1845 Sir

John Franklin and 128 men disappeared

during their voyage. While searching for

Franklin, Robert McClure sailed his ship

into the passage’s western entrance. The

ship then became frozen in the ice for

two winters. McClure and his men

finally gave up on the ship and traveled

by land to meet another ship to the east.

Thus they completed the first crossing

of the Northwest Passage in 1854,

though in more than one ship and partly

on foot.

The Northwest Passage was not conquered

entirely by sea until Amundsen’s

voyage. Amundsen and his crew sailed

from east to west in a fishing boat. The

trip lasted from 1903 to 1906.

A Canadian named Henry A. Larsen

made the first west–east sea voyage in

1940–42. In 1944 Larsen sailed through

the passage in one season.

#More to explore

Amundsen, Roald • Exploration

• Navigation

Roald Amundsen (left) and his crew members

pose for a photograph aboard the ship

on which they made the first successful trip

through the Northwest Passage.

There is more than one route through the Northwest Passage. The Norwegian explorer

Roald Amundsen went south of Victoria Island, but later explorers stayed north of it.

94 Northwest Passage BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Northwest Territories

A land of forests and tundra, the Northwest

Territories covers a vast part of

northern Canada. The capital is Yellowknife.

Geography

Only part of the Northwest Territories is

on the North American mainland. The

rest is made up of islands in the Arctic

Ocean in the north. Nunavut is the eastern

neighbor of the mainland part of the

Territories. To the south are

Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British

Columbia. The Yukon Territory lies to

the west.

The Mackenzie Mountains form a rocky

wall along the western edge of the Territories.

The plains east of the mountains

are heavily forested. The Mackenzie

River, the longest river in Canada, flows

through the plains. It connects the Territories’

two large lakes, Great Slave Lake

and Great Bear Lake, to the Arctic

Ocean. In the north and east the land is

barren, icy tundra.

People

Native peoples make up about half of

the population of the Northwest Territories.

Most are American Indians who

speak Athapaskan languages. They call

themselves Dene. The other native

group is the Eskimo (Inuit). There are

also several thousand Metis—people of

mixed American Indian and European

heritage. Most of the rest of the people

are of European descent.

For such a large area, the Territories

has a very small population.

Vast parts of the Territories have

no people at all. Nearly all the people

live in small settlements near the Mackenzie

River. Yellowknife, on the northern

shore of Great Slave Lake, is the only

real city. Most of the Eskimo live along

the Arctic coastlines of the mainland

and the northern islands.

Economy

Diamond mining is the Territories’ leading

industry. Mines also provide some

gold, silver, zinc, and lead. The production

of oil and natural gas is another

valuable industry.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Northwest Territories 95

Many residents of the Northwest Territories

work in government, and tourist

services are growing. Still, many of the

people make a living through fishing,

hunting, and trapping. Muskrats, beavers,

martens, mink, lynx, and foxes

provide valuable furs. Many people also

make money by selling arts and crafts.

History

Dene and Eskimo peoples arrived in

what is now the Northwest Territories

thousands of years ago. The English

sailor Martin Frobisher explored the

coast in 1576 while looking for a sea

route to Asia. In 1789 the Scottish

explorer and fur trader Alexander Mackenzie

traveled to the Arctic Ocean along

the river that is now named for him.

The first settlements in the area served

mostly fur traders. For 200 years,

beginning in the late 1600s, a British

fur-trading corporation called the

Hudson’s Bay Company controlled

much of the land. The region was

called Rupert’s Land. The rest of the

land, the North-Western Territory, was

under British rule. In 1870 all of the

land was given to the new country of

Canada. The combined area was called

the Northwest Territories. In 1880

Great Britain’s Arctic islands were

added to the Territories.

Fur traders, missionaries, and police

controlled the life of the Northwest Territories

until the 1920s. Then oil was

discovered near Fort Norman on the

Mackenzie River. The discovery led

Canada to create a government for the

territory. In 1999 the size of the Territories

was reduced by more than half when

the territory of Nunavut was created as a

homeland for the Eskimo.

..More to explore

Arctic Ocean • Athapaskan • Canada

• Eskimo • Fur Trade • Hudson’s Bay

Company • Nunavut • Tundra

An Eskimo fisherwoman hangs fish to dry

at her camp along the Mackenzie River in

the Northwest Territories.

In the winter cars and trucks in parts of the

Northwest Territories travel on ice roads, or

roads made of ice and snow. Ice roads run

across frozen lakes and land to connect the

city of Yellowknife to the town of Dettah and

to several distant diamond mines.

Facts About

NORTHWEST

TERRITORIES

Flag

Population

(2006 census)

41,464

Area

519,735 sq mi

(1,346,106 sq

km)

Capital

Yellowknife

Motto

none

When

Northwest

Territories

Became a

Territory

1870

96 Northwest Territories BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Norway

The Kingdom of Norway is farther

north than most other countries in

Europe. In early times the Vikings controlled

Norway. Modern Norway is a

prosperous, independent country. The

capital is Oslo.

Geography

Norway is part of the northern European

region known as Scandinavia. It

shares borders with Sweden, Finland,

and Russia. The Arctic Ocean lies to the

north, and the Atlantic Ocean is to the

west. The North Sea lies to the south.

Norway controls the Svalbard Islands to

the north as well as many small islands

off the west coast.

About two thirds of Norway is

mountainous. Norway’s highest peak,

Galdhopiggen, rises 8,100 feet (2,469

meters) above sea level. The south is

mainly flat. Long, narrow arms of the

sea—called fjords—stretch inland on

the western coast. The country also

contains more than 1,500 glaciers, or

huge blocks of slowly moving ice.

The western coast has cool summers and

mild winters. The east has warmer summers

and colder winters. North of the

Arctic Circle the sun does not set for

most of the summer. However, in part of

the winter the sun never rises.

Plants and Animals

Forests cover about a quarter of the

country. The main trees include pine,

spruce, birch, and ash. Leafy mosses

and heathers grow on the floor of many

forests.

Small mammals such as hares, foxes, and

badgers are common. Elk, reindeer, lemmings,

and wolves live in the forests and

mountains. Numerous trout, salmon,

and other fish swim in Norway’s waters.

People

Most Norwegians are Nordic, a European

people with German roots. There

are small groups of Asians and other

Europeans. Several thousand Sami, or

Lapps, live mainly in the north. The

Sami are known for herding reindeer.

They were once nomads, or wanderers,

but they now live in permanent homes.

Norwegian is the main language of the

country. The Evangelical Lutheran

branch of Christianity is the national

religion. Most people live in cities,

mainly in the southeast.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Norway 97

Economy

Norway is one of the world’s largest

suppliers of oil. The country also has

rich deposits of natural gas and minerals.

Norway’s industries make food products,

ships, machinery, metals, paper

products, and other goods. Fishing and

logging are important to the economy.

Most workers work in services, including

communications, banking, and

health care. Farming is only a small part

of the economy. Farmers produce

mainly grains, dairy products, and meat.

History

The Sami arrived in what is now Norway

at least 10,000 years ago. Vikings

from Norway raided and traded along

Europe’s coasts during the AD 800s–

1000s. King Olaf II Haraldsson united

all of Norway in the 1000s.

In the late 1300s Norway, Sweden, and

Denmark came under the rule of one

king. Norway was the weakest country

in the union. Sweden gained independence

in 1523, but Denmark continued

to control Norway. In 1814 Denmark

lost control of Norway to Sweden. In

1905 Norway declared its independence.

Nazi Germany invaded Norway in

1940, duringWorldWar II. The Nazis

set up a pro-German government in

Norway. The Germans left in 1945, at

the end of the war.

In 1949 Norway joined the North

Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a

group of nations that promised to protect

each other. However, Norway did

not join the European Union.

..More to explore

Oslo • Vikings

Lights surrounding the harbor at Bergen

twinkle in the twilight. Bergen is a busy port

and one of Norway’s largest cities.

A Sami father and son in northern Norway

wear traditional clothing.

Facts About

NORWAY

Population

(2008 estimate)

4,762,000

Area

125,004 sq mi

(323,758 sq km)

Capital

Oslo

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Oslo, Bergen,

Trondheim, Stavanger,

B.rum

98 Norway BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Nose

The nose is an important organ, or body

part, for breathing and smelling. In

humans, the nose is located in the

middle of the face, above the mouth.

The two openings in the nose are called

nostrils. Many other animals also have a

nose. Some have only nasal openings.

The Human Nose

When a person breathes, air enters the

nostrils, travels through the throat, and

goes down into the lungs. A wall of

tough, bendable tissue called cartilage

separates the nostrils into two tubes, or

nasal passages. A liquid called mucus

lines the nasal passages. It helps to

moisten the air. It also traps dirt and

bacteria carried in the air. Hairs in the

nasal passages help to clean the air, too.

When air enters the nasal passages, it

brings different scents with it. Tiny

nerve endings in the lining of the nasal

passages pick up these scents. They carry

information about the scents to the

brain.

Blockages or irritation in the nasal passages

can make breathing and smelling

difficult. Colds, allergies, infections, and

pollutants in the air are some of the

things that can cause these problems.

Injuries to the nose also can cause

breathing problems.

How Other Animals Smell

Many mammals, including dogs, have a

very strong sense of smell. They use their

nose to smell food, mates, and territories.

However, some mammals do not

have a nose or a good sense of smell. A

whale, for example, has a blowhole, or

nostril, on the top of its head for breathing.

Some types of whale can smell

through the blowhole, but others

cannot.

A pig’s nose is called a snout.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nose 99

Birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish

have nasal openings that allow them to

smell. In fish and some amphibians,

water passes through these openings

instead of air. Some reptiles, including

snakes, have an extra smelling organ on

the roof of the mouth. A snake sticks

out its tongue to collect scents. Then it

rubs its tongue against the roof of its

mouth to smell them.

..More to explore

Mouth • Respiratory System • Senses

Nouakchott

Population

(2005 estimate)

743,500

Nouakchott is the capital of Mauritania,

a country in northwestern Africa. The

city lies near the coast of the Atlantic

Ocean. Most of Nouakchott was built in

the 1960s, which makes it quite new for

a city. It grew quickly into Mauritania’s

largest city.

Nouakchott features mosques and a

bustling market. It is a center of government

and some business and industry.

Copper and other products are shipped

out from a port just outside the city. Oil

was discovered near Nouakchott in the

early 21st century.

During much of the 1800s and 1900s

France ruled Mauritania. During that

period Mauritania had no capital of its

own. In the 1950s Mauritania began

preparing to become independent from

France. Nouakchott was chosen to be

the new capital in 1957. At the time

only about 400 people lived there.

In 1960 Mauritania became an independent

country with Nouakchott as its

capital. The city then grew greatly.

..More to explore

Mauritania

A veiled woman looks at cloth in one of

Nouakchott’s modern shops.

An elephant’s trunk is a kind of nose. It

helps the elephant breathe and smell things.

But it is also used like a hand to pick up

things.

100 Nouakchott BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Nova Scotia

Along with New Brunswick and Prince

Edward Island, Nova Scotia is one of

Canada’s Maritime Provinces. No part

of Nova Scotia is more than 35 miles

(56 kilometers) from the sea, which is

key to life in the province. The capital is

Halifax.

Geography

The province includes the peninsula of

Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, and a

few smaller islands. A narrow strait separates

the peninsula from Cape Breton

Island. The peninsula is connected to

New Brunswick by a strip of land that is

only 17 miles (27 kilometers) wide.

Otherwise, Nova Scotia is surrounded

by the sea. The Atlantic Ocean is to the

east, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence is to the

north, and the Bay of Fundy is to the

southwest.

Nova Scotia lies within the Appalachian

Mountains. Its landscape is mostly low

mountain ranges separated by lowlands.

The valley of the Annapolis River is

called the garden of Nova Scotia because

the soil is good for farming. The

lowlands along the Bay of Fundy

are marshy because of the bay’s

very high tides. The Atlantic coastline is

rocky, with many bays and coves.

People

More than half of Nova Scotia’s people

have Scottish, English, or Irish ancestors.

French Canadians are the next largest

group. They are descended from the

original settlers of the territory. Most of

the rest of the people have roots in other

European countries, though there are

small American Indian, Asian, and black

minorities.

Most Nova Scotians live near the coast.

About 40 percent of them live in Halifax,

the largest city in the Maritime

Provinces. Located on the southeast

coast, Halifax has one of the world’s

largest natural harbors. Cape Breton, on

Cape Breton Island, is the second largest

city in Nova Scotia.

Economy

Like the rest of Canada, Nova Scotia

now has a service-based economy. Most

Nova Scotians work in service industries

such as sales, banking, tourism, transportation,

and shipping. The port of

Halifax is one of Canada’s busiest.

However, Nova Scotia’s economy still

relies heavily on natural resources. The

fishing industry produces valuable

catches of swordfish, tuna, scallops, lobsters,

cod, and herring. Not much of the

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nova Scotia 101

land is good for farming, but Nova

Scotia is still known for its fruits and

vegetables. Farmers also raise chickens

and dairy cows. Manufacturing plants

process fish and farm products and

make wood and paper products. Minerals

produced in Nova Scotia include

coal, salt, and gypsum, which is used in

construction.

History

Micmac Indians lived in what is now

Nova Scotia when the explorer John

Cabot arrived in 1497. He claimed the

land for England. In 1605 the French

explorers Samuel de Champlain and

Pierre de Monts arrived. They started

Port Royal, the first colony in what is

now Canada, on the Bay of Fundy. They

called the land Acadia. In 1621, however,

English and Scottish colonists

renamed the land Nova Scotia, which

means “New Scotland” in Latin.

The French and the British fought over

the land for many years. In 1713 a treaty

gave the peninsula to the British. In

1755 the British forced most of the

French settlers to leave. Great Britain

took over Cape Breton Island in 1763

and later made it part of Nova Scotia.

Britain also ruled Prince Edward Island

and New Brunswick as parts of Nova

Scotia. They split off in 1769 and 1784,

respectively. During and after the

American Revolution (1775–83), many

American colonists loyal to Britain

moved to Nova Scotia.

In 1867 Nova Scotia became a part of

the new country of Canada. During

WorldWar I (1914–18) andWorldWar

II (1939–45) Halifax played a key role

in shipping troops and supplies to

Europe. In later years Nova Scotia prospered

with the rise of tourism.

..More to explore

Appalachian Mountains • Cabot, John

• Canada • Champlain, Samuel de

Cape Breton Highlands National Park is a

popular recreational area with scenic hills

and forests. It lies in the northern part of

Cape Breton Island, in Nova Scotia, Canada.

A group of young children wearing

traditional Scottish clothing

perform at a festival in Antigonish,

Nova Scotia.

Facts About

NOVA SCOTIA

Flag

Population

(2006 census)

913,462

Area

21,345 sq mi

(55,284 sq km)

Capital

Halifax

Motto

Munit Haec et

Altera Vincit (One

Defends and the

Other Conquers)

When Nova

Scotia Became

a Province

1867

102 Nova Scotia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Nubia

Nubia was an ancient region of northeastern

Africa. Its northern neighbor was

ancient Egypt. Egypt ruled Nubia for

thousands of years. Beginning in the

700s BC, however, the Nubian kingdom

of Kush (or Cush) ruled Egypt for a

short time. Nubia is now in the countries

of Egypt and Sudan.

Ancient Nubia bordered the Red Sea on

the east and the Libyan Desert on the

west. It stretched south to what is now

Khartoum, Sudan. The region had little

rainfall, but farmers grew crops with

water from the Nile River. The land was

rich in gold and precious stones. The

people of Nubia were black Africans.

Just after 3000 BC Egypt took over

Nubia. Sometime after about 2181 BC

newcomers entered Nubia from Libya in

the west. They settled along the Nile as

cattle herders. These immigrants developed

their own civilization with unique

crafts and architecture.

Egypt eventually took back control of

Nubia. In the 1400s BC the pharaoh

(Egyptian king) Thutmose I divided

Nubia into two parts. The north became

Wawat. The south became Kush.

In about 1000 BC Kush started growing

stronger. By about 715 BC the people of

Kush, called Kushites, had conquered all

of Egypt. Soon, however, the Assyrians

from Asia drove the Kushites from

Egypt. The Kushites went back to

Nubia, where they ruled for almost

1,000 years. In about AD 350 the kingdom

of Aksum took over Kush.

By the late AD 500s, there were three

Christian kingdoms in Nubia: Nobatia,

Makuria, and Alodia (also known as

Alwa). Muslim Arabs conquered Egypt

in the AD 600s. But they did not conquer

the Nubian kingdoms for hundreds

of years. Alodia did not fall until about

1500.

#More to explore

Egypt, Ancient • Kush • Sudan

Nuclear Energy

The energy that holds together the

nucleus of an atom is called nuclear, or

atomic, energy. Atoms are the basic

building blocks of matter. The nucleus is

the central part of an atom.

When nuclear energy is released, it

changes into other forms of energy.

These forms of energy are called radia-

Much of

ancient Nubia

now lies under

Lake Nasser,

which was

created when

the Aswan

High Dam was

built across the

Nile River in

the 1960s.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nuclear Energy 103

tion. Heat and light are examples of

radiation.

How Nuclear Energy Is

Released

Nuclear energy can be released through

processes called nuclear fusion and

nuclear fission. Nuclear fission happens

when the nucleus of an atom splits into

two or more parts. Nuclear fusion

happens when two nuclei join to form

a single nucleus. The nuclei of certain

kinds of atoms can give off nuclear

energy without fission or fusion taking

place. These atoms are called

radioactive.

Nuclear fusion happens naturally in

stars such as the sun. There atoms are

constantly combining and creating

nuclear energy. That energy is the

source of the heat and light that Earth

gets from the sun.

In the 1930s scientists discovered that

they could make nuclear fission happen

in certain kinds of atoms. They made

their discovery while working with

atoms of the substance called uranium.

They split the nucleus of a uranium

atom in two by bombarding it with particles

called neutrons. Nuclear fission

releases a lot of energy. For example, the

fission of 1 pound (0.5 kilogram) of

uranium produces as much energy as

burning 3,000 tons of coal.

NuclearWeapons

DuringWorldWar II (1939–45) countries

worked to build a weapon that used

nuclear energy. The result was the

nuclear, or atomic, bomb. The United

States dropped the first nuclear bomb

on the city of Hiroshima, Japan, on

August 6, 1945. The explosion

destroyed most of the city and killed

more than 70,000 people instantly. Sci-

Nuclear power plants often have huge cooling towers. The towers are used to cool water

that becomes heated during the process of creating electricity.

104 Nuclear Energy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

entists later discovered how to use

nuclear fusion to make an even more

powerful bomb, the hydrogen bomb.

Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear energy is used for peaceful purposes,

too. In many countries nuclear

fission is used in nuclear power plants.

The heat it produces runs machines to

create electricity.

Nuclear fission in nuclear power plants

produces radioactive waste. This waste

gives off radiation that can be harmful.

Nuclear power plants are designed to be

safe. But accidents have happened. In

1986 a very serious accident happened

at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in

what is now the country of Ukraine.

Radioactive gases leaked out of the plant

and into the air. They ruined crops and

livestock and caused harm to many

people.

#More to explore

Atom • Bomb • Energy • Radiation

Nuku’alofa

Nuku’alofa is the capital of Tonga, an

island country in the southern Pacific

Ocean. The city lies on the coast of Tongatapu

Island. It is the country’s largest

city and main port. From the port, dried

coconut and other foods are shipped out

for sale overseas. Tourism and a few

industries also bring money to the city.

People have lived on Tongatapu Island

for at least 3,000 years. In the 1800s

King George Tupou I made Nuku’alofa

his capital. George Tupou I was the

founder of Tonga’s ruling family. The

royal palace in Nuku’alofa was built in

the 1860s.

#More to explore

Tonga

Numbers and

Number Systems

A number is a basic unit of mathematics.

Numbers are used for counting,

measuring, and comparing amounts. A

number system is a set of symbols, or

numerals, that are used to represent

numbers. The most common number

system uses 10 symbols called digits—0,

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9—and combinations

of these digits.

Kinds of Numbers

Numbers can be classified in many ways.

The simplest class is the natural, or

The king of Tonga lives in the royal palace

at Nuku’alofa.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Numbers and Number Systems 105

counting, numbers (1, 2, 3, …).With

the addition of 0, these are known as the

whole numbers.

The natural numbers are also called

positive numbers because they are

greater than 0. For each of the positive

numbers, there is also a negative number

(.1, .2, .3, …). Negative numbers are

less than 0. The natural numbers, their

negative equivalents, and 0 make up the

set of numbers called integers. The integers

can be pictured as points on a line

that continues forever in both directions:

Fractions are numbers that represent

parts of a whole. Fractions are written as

digits separated by a line, as in 3/4. The

digit below the line is called the denominator.

The digit above the line is called

the numerator. In reading a fraction, the

numerator is stated first. For example,

3/4 is read as “three fourths.” Fractions

can be shown on a number line, too:

Fractions can also be written in a form

called decimals. Decimals are written

using the digits (0–9) along with a dot

called a decimal point. A fraction can be

changed to a decimal by dividing the

numerator by the denominator.

Ancient Number Systems

The first system of numbers was probably

the tally system. In this system a

separate mark was made for every item

being counted. This system was useful

only with small numbers.

The ancient Egyptians developed a complex

system for writing large numbers in

symbols called hieroglyphics. There was

a single hieroglyphic symbol for the

A pencil and paper are more

useful than fingers as tools for

counting.

Electronic calculators help people do many

types of math problems.

106 Numbers and Number Systems BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

number 1,000. But to write the number

999, it was necessary to write the symbol

for 100 nine times, then the symbol for

10 nine times, and finally the symbol for

1 nine times.

The ancient Romans used letters to represent

numbers—I for 1, V for 5, X for

10, L for 50, C for 100, D for 500, and

M for 1,000. This system is known as

Roman numerals. In Roman numerals,

256 is written as CCLVI.

Base-ten and Other Systems

The most common number system

used today is called the base-ten, or

decimal, system. It has 10 digits (0–9)

that can be combined to write any

number. The base-ten system was

invented by Hindus in ancient India.

Later, Arabs improved the system. For

this reason the digits 0–9 are called

Hindu-Arabic numerals.

In the base-ten system, the value of each

digit is based on its position, or “place,”

in a number. There is a “ones place,” a

“tens place,” a “hundreds place,” and so

forth. In the number 456, for example,

the 4 is in the hundreds place, the 5 is in

the tens place, and the 6 is in the ones

place.Written in another way, the number

456 actually represents (4 . 100) +

(5 . 10) + (6 . 1).

For some purposes other number

systems are more useful than base-ten.

For example, computers use the basetwo,

or binary, number system. Instead

of 10 digits, this system uses only

two—0 and 1. In a computer these

numbers stand for “off ” and “on,” the

only two possible states of the

computer’s electric switches.

#More to explore

Mathematics • Roman Numerals

Hindu-Arabic numerals are now used in most of the countries of the world. It took more

than 1,500 years for the numerals to develop their modern shape. People who write in the

Arabic alphabet still use an older form of Hindu-Arabic numerals called East Arabic

numerals.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Numbers and Number Systems 107

Nunavut

Nunavut is Canada’s newest territory.

It was created in 1999

from the eastern part of the

Northwest Territories. The area has been

the home of the Eskimo people for a

thousand years. The Eskimo in the territory

call themselves Inuit. Nunavut

means “Our Land” in their language.

The capital of Nunavut is Iqaluit.

Geography

Nunavut takes up about one fifth of

Canada’s area. Nunavut borders on the

Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bay, and Baffin

Bay. It touches the Northwest Territories

and the province of Manitoba. The territory

includes most of Canada’s Arctic

islands.

Nunavut’s climate is cold. Snow falls

even in the summer. The far northern

parts of Nunavut have 24 hours of daylight

during the longest days of summer.

During the shortest days of winter the

sun never appears in those parts. Most

of Nunavut’s land is tundra, the rocky

plain of the Arctic regions.

People

Nunavut has large areas of land where

few people live. About 80 percent of the

population is Eskimo. The rest of the

people have European ancestors.

Nunavut has one of the youngest populations

in Canada.

Nunavut has fewer than 30 communities.

Because there are few roads and no

railroads, cities get supplies by airplane

or boat. Iqaluit (named Frobisher Bay

until 1987) is the largest city. Located

on Baffin Island on the eastern edge of

Nunavut, it is a communication and

transportation center. Rankin Inlet, on

the west shore of Hudson Bay, began on

the site of a nickel mine. The community

remained after the mine closed in

the 1960s.

Economy

The largest employer in Nunavut is the

government. As Nunavut has begun to

build more roads and schools, the construction

industry has also grown. Several

fish and meat processing plants

operate in Nunavut. Lead, zinc, silver,

and gold are mined in the territory.

Nunavut earns some money from tour-

108 Nunavut BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ism. Still, unemployment remains a serious

problem.

Many of the Eskimo still live off the

land. They fish, hunt seals, and trap

animals. A number of Eskimo make and

sell traditional crafts, including soapstone

carvings, prints, and tapestries.

History

People have lived in what is now

Nunavut for at least 4,000 years. The first

people were the Dorset culture, orTuniit

people. In about AD 1000 the Eskimo,

who had moved eastward from what is

now Alaska, replaced the Dorset culture.

In the late 1500s Europeans began

exploring the area. From 1576 to 1578

the English explorer Martin Frobisher

made three trips to what is now

Nunavut. Europeans later set up a whaling

industry there. Great Britain and its

Hudson’s Bay Company claimed parts

of the land in the 1800s. In 1870 the

land became part of Canada’s Northwest

Territories.

In the early 1900s the whaling industry

collapsed. Fur trading, oil, and mining

became important industries. During

and afterWorldWar II (1939–45) the

United States and Canada built airfields

and radar stations across the Arctic.

In the 1960s the Eskimo began to ask

the Canadian government for control of

the land on which they lived. In 1993

Canada voted to create a new territory

out of the eastern part of the Northwest

Territories. The government granted

about 135,000 square miles (350,000

square kilometers) of that land to the

Eskimo people. It also promised more

than 1 billion dollars to the Eskimo.

Nunavut officially became a territory of

Canada in 1999.

..More to explore

Arctic Ocean • Canada • Eskimo

• Hudson Bay • Hudson’s Bay

Company • Northwest Territories

• Tundra

A Nunavut villager fishes through a hole in

the ice.

Mosses, herbs, and other lowgrowing

plants cover the tundra

of Nunavut.

Facts About

NUNAVUT

Flag

Population

(2006 census)

29,474

Area

808,185 sq mi

(2,093,190 sq

km)

Capital

Iqaluit

Motto

Nunavut

Sanginivut

(Nunavut, Our

Strength)

When

Nunavut

Became a

Territory

1999

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nunavut 109

Nuremberg Trials

In 1945 and 1946 former leaders of

Nazi Germany were put on trial for

crimes committed duringWorldWar II.

The trials were run by the countries that

had defeated Germany in the war. They

took place in Nuremberg, Germany.

The court that held the trials was called

the International Military Tribunal.

Judges from the United States, Great

Britain, France, and the Soviet Union

took part. The defendants (the people

put on trial) had been leaders of the

German government and the Nazi Party

during the war. Adolf Hitler, the top

leader of Nazi Germany, could not be

tried because he was already dead.

The defendants were accused of crimes

against peace, war crimes, and crimes

against humanity. The crimes against

peace included planning and starting the

war. The war crimes were violations of

the laws of war. They included enslaving

and killing prisoners captured during

the war. The worst of the crimes against

humanity was killing millions of Jews

and other people in the Holocaust.

Some of the defendants claimed that

only the German government, not individual

people, could be found guilty.

Other defendants claimed that they were

not responsible because they were only

following orders. The judges rejected

both excuses.

All but three of the 22 defendants were

found guilty. Ten were put to death. The

others received long prison terms.

#More to explore

Holocaust • Nazi Party •WorldWar II

Nursery Rhyme

Nursery rhymes are short verses and

songs for children. Many nursery

rhymes tell a quick story in just a few

lines. Their clever use of language makes

them easy to remember.

Nursery rhymes are entertaining for

children to hear. They often have silly

subjects. They also use amusing patterns

of sound and rhythm. Most of them

rhyme, or repeat the sounds at the ends

of certain lines—as, for example, in

“Hey, diddle, diddle / The cat and the

fiddle” or “Along came a spider / And

sat down beside her.” Children can learn

speech patterns from such poems. This

can help them to become better readers

and speakers.

Most nursery rhymes date from the

1500s through the 1700s. Many of

them were originally created as popular

Nazi leader Hermann Goring stands in the

prisoner’s box during his trial for war

crimes in Nuremberg, Germany.

Trials were

held in Tokyo

for the war

criminals of

Japan. Japan

and Germany

had fought

on the same

side in

World War II.

110 Nuremberg Trials BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

songs for adults. For many years nursery

rhymes were only spoken aloud, not

written down. The earliest known book

of nursery rhymes was published in

1744.

A make-believe old woman named

Mother Goose first appeared in a British

book of nursery rhymes from the 1760s.

It has become traditional to say that

Mother Goose writes nursery rhymes,

but she is just a character. No one knows

who wrote most nursery rhymes.

#More to explore

Literature for Children • Mother Goose

• Poetry

Nursing

Nurses make up the largest group of

health care workers in the world. They

work with doctors and other medical

providers to care for people who are sick

or injured.

What Nurses Do

Most nurses work along with doctors in

hospitals, clinics, or offices. They often

work with nurse’s aides or assistants,

too. Nurses find out about a patient’s

health by asking questions. They also

check such signs as blood pressure and

temperature. Nurses give medicine,

change bandages, help patients move

around, and provide other treatment.

They give advice on how to get well and

how to stay healthy. They comfort

frightened patients and worried family

members.

Many nurses specialize in a certain area.

Some nurses assist doctors during surgery.

Some care mainly for children or

the elderly. Others care for patients with

mental illnesses. Still other nurses help

patients in private homes.

Some nurses work more independently,

with less instruction from doctors.

Nurse practitioners examine patients

and manage their care. Nurse midwives

deliver babies. These nurses generally

need more education and training than

other nurses.

History

Throughout history family members

and religious people have cared for the

sick. But the profession of nursing did

not exist until fairly recently.

One pioneer in the field of nursing was

Florence Nightingale. During the

CrimeanWar (1854–56) she nursed

A nurse listens to a patient’s heart with a

stethoscope.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Nursing 111

British soldiers and worked to improve

conditions in hospitals. In the United

States Clara Barton played a similar role.

She and other women cared for sick and

wounded men fighting in the American

CivilWar (1861–65).

The profession of nursing developed

along with the rise of hospitals around

the world. As the demand for hospital

nurses grew in the early 1900s, more

nursing schools opened. During this

time nursing was one of the few professions

acceptable for women, and most

nurses were women. That changed

gradually. Today women can be doctors

or nurses. Similarly, both men and

women now work as nurses.

#More to explore

Barton, Clara • Hospital • Medicine

• Nightingale, Florence

Nut

A nut is a dry, hard fruit that contains one

seed. The hard layer that surrounds the

seed is known as the shell. People remove

the shell, often by cracking it open, before

eating the seed.Nuts grow on trees in

many parts of the world.

True nuts include acorns, beechnuts,

chestnuts, and hazelnuts. Acorns grow

on oak trees. A scaly cap that develops

from a flower holds each acorn. Beechnuts

grow on beech trees, and chestnuts

grow on chestnut trees. These nuts

develop inside prickly cases. Hazelnuts,

also called filberts, grow on filbert trees.

Hazelnuts grow inside leafy husks.

Many of the foods that people think of

as nuts are not true nuts. Peanuts are

actually legumes, or fruits in the form of

pods. People eat the seeds inside the

pods. Almonds, macadamia nuts, pistachios,

pecans, and walnuts are the pits of

fruits called drupes. Each pit is a shell

that holds a seed. Brazil nuts are seeds

that grow in woody pods. Pine nuts are

seeds that grow in pinecones.

People and animals eat many kinds of

nuts. Nuts are a rich source of protein

and fat. People often roast nuts before

eating them. They also use them in

baked goods and other dishes. In addition,

people use the oils contained in

some nuts to make paints, soaps, and

other products.

#More to explore

Almond • Chestnut • Fruit • Oak

• Peanut • Seed

Nutrition

#see Food and Nutrition.

The hazelnut seed can be seen when the

shell is split open. The seed is the part that

people eat.

112 Nut BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Oceans cover nearly 71 percent

of Earth’s surface. They contain

almost 98 percent of all the

water on Earth.

(See Ocean.)

The ocelot, a wild cat with

short, spotted fur, lives in North

and South America.

(See Ocelot.)

In Norse mythology, the god

Odin had a horse with eight

legs that could gallop through

the sky and over the sea.

(See Odin.)

An ancient people called the

Olmec carved huge heads that

were up to 10 feet (3 meters)

tall and weighed up to 20 tons.

(See Olmec.)

It took about four to six months

for pioneers to travel the

Oregon Trail from Missouri to

what is now Oregon.

(See Oregon Trail.)

Oo

Oak

Oaks are trees and shrubs of the beech

family. There are about 450 species, or

types, of oak. They are common in

places with mild weather.

Oak trees can grow to 150 feet (45

meters) high. They have thick trunks

and large branches that spread wide. The

leaves can have rounded, rough, or

smooth edges. The fruit of an oak tree is

the acorn—a round nut in a woody cup.

New oaks can grow easily from acorns.

The English oak is the largest of the oak

trees. Some oaks in England are more

than 800 years old. The English oak has

sturdy limbs and a stout body. The zigzag

growth of the limbs in older trees

gives them a twisted look.

The white oak is common in the United

States. The leaves are light green above

and whitish beneath. In autumn the

leaves turn deep violet. They cling to the

tree throughout the winter. They fall just

before new leaves appear.

Oaks have many uses. The wood of

many types of oak is valued in carpentry

and building. Cork comes from the bark

of the cork oak. Some oaks are grown to

decorate gardens. Some small animals

eat acorns.

..More to explore

Cork • Tree

Oats

Oats are a grain that is grown throughout

the world. Grains are grasses that

produce seeds that can be eaten. Russia

and Canada are leading oat-producing

countries. The scientific name of the oat

plant is Avena sativa.

Oat plants grow to about 2 to 5 feet (0.6

to 1.5 meters) tall. A plant usually produces

more than one stem. The oats are

seeds, or kernels, that grow on little

The branches of a white oak spread wide.

People and animals eat the nutritious seeds

called oats.

114 Oak BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

branches at the end of each stem. One

plant can produce dozens of kernels.

Oats are used mostly to feed farm animals.

Farmers make straw from the parts

of the plants that the animals do not eat.

Oat straw is used as animal bedding.

People eat oats in the form of rolled oats

and oat flour. Rolled oats are made from

oat grains that have been steamed and

flattened between rollers. They are

cooked in water to make oatmeal. They

are also used in breads, cookies, and

other products. Oat flour is often mixed

with wheat flour and used in breakfast

cereals and baked goods. Oat bran, the

outer covering of the oat kernel, is full of

nutrients.

..More to explore

Grain • Grass

Obama, Barack

Barack Obama was the first African

American to be elected president of the

United States. In 2008 he defeated John

McCain to become the country’s 44th

president.

Early Life

Barack Hussein Obama II was born on

August 4, 1961, in Honolulu, Hawaii.

His parents had met while they were

both students at the University of

Hawaii. His mother, who was white,

came from Kansas; his father, Barack

Obama, Sr., was from Kenya. When

young Barack was 2 years old, his parents

divorced. His father eventually

returned to Kenya. His mother later

married a man from Indonesia, and

Barack lived in Indonesia between the

ages of 6 and 10. He then returned to

Hawaii and lived with his mother’s parents.

Education and Early Career

Obama graduated from Columbia University

in New York in 1983. He then

moved to Chicago and worked for a

group helping low-income people on the

city’s South Side. After three years there,

he entered Harvard Law School. He

graduated with honors in 1991. Obama

returned to Chicago to practice law. He

worked on issues of civil rights. He also

taught law at the University of Chicago.

Political Career

During this period Obama became

active in the Democratic Party. In 1996

he was elected to the Illinois Senate. In

2004 he was elected to the U.S. Senate

from Illinois. Obama quickly became a

major figure in his party.

Barack Obama was the 44th

president of the United States.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Obama, Barack 115

In 2007 he decided to run for president

of the United States. He ran against

several people, including Hillary Clinton,

in the primary elections. In primary

elections voters elect delegates to go to a

convention in the summer. The delegates

are supporters of a candidate.

They vote at a national convention to

choose the person who will be the candidate

for the party in the general election

in November. Both Obama and Clinton

won many delegates, but Obama won

the most delegates. At the convention in

August the delegates chose Obama to be

the candidate for the Democrats.

Obama chose Senator Joseph Biden to

be his running mate.

Obama sought to bring people of many

backgrounds together to improve the

lives of everyone in the country. One of

the major issues during the campaign

was the ongoing war in Iraq. The United

States and other countries had invaded

that country in 2003. Obama had spoken

out against the war before it started.

Obama was also concerned about making

health care available to everyone in

the United States.

In the fall of 2008 the U.S. economy

began to fall apart. Many people faced

serious troubles. They were unhappy

with the government of President

George Bush because of that. They were

also unhappy about the ongoing war in

Iraq. Both issues became important in

the campaign for president. Obama

offered the voters a change. His opponent,

John McCain, was associated with

Bush because they were both Republicans.

On November 4 the voters chose

Obama over McCain.

Obama wrote several books about his

life and his views on major issues of the

day. His books include Dreams from My

Father (1995) and The Audacity of Hope

(2006).

..More to explore

United States

August 4,

1961 1983 1985 1991 1996 2004 2008

Obama is born

in Honolulu,

Hawaii.

Obama

graduates from

Columbia

University.

Obama

becomes a

community

organizer in

Chicago.

Obama

graduates from

Harvard Law

School.

Obama is

elected to the

Illinois Senate.

Obama is

elected to the

U.S. Senate.

Obama is

elected

president.

T I M E L I N E

116 Obama, Barack BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ocean

An ocean is a huge body of salt water.

Oceans cover nearly 71 percent of

Earth’s surface. They contain almost 98

percent of all the water on Earth.

There are four main oceans on Earth:

the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, and

the Arctic. These oceans have no real

borders, and water flows freely between

them. Smaller parts of these oceans are

called seas, gulfs, and bays.

OceanWater

Ocean water is salty. The saltiness comes

from a chemical substance called sodium

chloride, which is dissolved in the water.

(The salt that people eat is sodium chloride

in the form of crystals.)

Winds and other forces cause ocean

water to move around Earth in patterns

called currents. Ocean currents may be

warm or cold.Warm currents tend to

bring warm weather and rain to nearby

land. Cold currents tend to cause a dry

climate. The Gulf Stream is a warm current

that runs north along the eastern

coast of the United States.

Winds also cause ocean water to move

in waves. Steady, powerful winds cause

big waves. Gentle breezes create ripples.

Large swells in ocean water usually come

from stormy weather. Earthquakes or

other forces cause the huge, destructive

waves called tsunamis.

Tides are another way that ocean water

moves. Tides are the rise and fall of

ocean levels. This happens throughout

the day. On a beach, for example, the

ocean covers more sand at high tide than

at low tide. The pull of a force called

gravity between Earth and the Moon

and the sun causes tides.

The four major oceans cover most of Earth’s surface.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ocean 117

Ocean Floor

The ocean floor has many levels. The

shallowest part of the oceans, called the

continental shelf, lies along the edges of

the continents. The edges of the continental

shelf slope down toward the deep

parts of the oceans, called the basins. At

the bottom of the basins are large, flat

plains.

In some places, deep cracks called

trenches cut into the ocean floor. In other

places, underwater mountain chains,

called oceanic ridges, rise up from the

floor. Earthquakes sometimes occur

along the trenches and ridges. Parts of the

ridges contain active volcanoes.

Ocean Life

Living things inhabit all levels of Earth’s

oceans. Ocean plants grow fairly close to

the water’s surface because they need

sunlight to stay alive. Sunlight penetrates

the water to only about 650 feet (200

meters). The most numerous ocean

plants are called phytoplankton. These

tiny, one-celled plants drift with the

ocean currents. Various kinds of sea grass

and other plants also grow in the world’s

oceans. Seaweeds, which are plantlike

forms of algae, are plentiful as well.

Like ocean plants, most ocean animals

live in shallower water. This is because

there are more plants and animals to eat

near the water’s surface. But animals also

can be found in deep water, including

within the oceans’ deepest, darkest

trenches.

The largest ocean animal is the blue

whale. No larger animal has ever lived

on Earth. The tiniest animals are a form

of plankton called zooplankton. Hundreds

of thousands of other types of

animal also live in the ocean. These

include clams, crabs, squid, dolphins,

and many different kinds of fish.

Importance of the Oceans

The world’s oceans are important to life

on Earth. Oceans are a great source of

food for people around the world. They

also provide minerals, oil, and natural

gas. Phytoplankton and algae create

much of the world’s oxygen. Oceans

also help to keep climates stable by storing

heat from the sun.

Today many dangers threaten the health

of the oceans. People pollute oceans by

dumping poisonous waste and garbage

into them. Ocean pollution reduces

oxygen in the water and harms ocean

life. Overfishing and oil spills harm

ocean life as well.

Tube worms grow near a vent,

or opening in the seafloor.

118 Ocean BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People called oceanographers study the

oceans to try to keep them healthy.

Some examine the quality of the water

and the way the water moves. Others

look at the structures of the seafloors

and basins. Others are interested in the

plants and animals that live in oceans.

..More to explore

Arctic Ocean • Atlantic Ocean • Earth

• Indian Ocean • Pacific Ocean • Tide

• Tsunami •Water

Oceania

Thousands of islands scattered across the

PacificOcean are grouped together

under the name ofOceania. The region is

generally divided into three major areas:

Melanesia,Micronesia, and Polynesia.

Sometimes a fourth area, called

Australasia, is also considered to be a part

ofOceania. This area includes Australia,

New Zealand, and nearby islands.

Land and Climate

Although they lie in a vast expanse of

ocean, the islands of Oceania take up a

relatively tiny amount of land. Not

counting New Zealand, New Guinea,

and Australia, their combined land area

is only about 42,000 square miles

(109,000 square kilometers).

Melanesia

The islands of Melanesia lie north and

east of Australia. Melanesia includes the

countries of Papua New Guinea, the

Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji. It

also includes the French territory of

New Caledonia. The name Melanesia

means “black islands.” Europeans gave

the islands this name because many of

the people who live there have dark skin.

Micronesia

East of the Philippines and mostly north

of the equator are the islands of Micronesia.

Micronesia means “small islands.”

The region stretches from the country of

Palau in the west to the country of Kiribati

in the east. Other Micronesian

countries are the Federated States of

Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and

Nauru. The area also includes Guam,

which is a U.S. territory and a part of

the Mariana Islands.

Some oceanographers use small submarines

to study the plants and animals in

oceans.

Many islands in Oceania have warm

weather and sandy beaches. These features

attract tourists from around the world.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Oceania 119

Polynesia

The islands of Polynesia lie generally east

of Micronesia and Melanesia. Polynesia

means “many islands.” Polynesia

includes the countries of Samoa, Tonga,

and Tuvalu. Other Polynesian islands

include Hawaii (a U.S. state); American

Samoa (a U.S. territory); the Cook

Islands (associated with New Zealand);

Easter Island (ruled by Chile); and

French Polynesia andWallis and Futuna

(territories of France).

Climate

As a tropical region, Oceania has mostly

warm weather with very little temperature

change from season to season.

Many parts of the western Pacific receive

more than 80 inches (200 centimeters)

of rain each year. When humidity is

high, strong circular storms called

typhoons can develop over water. (The

same kind of storm is known as a hurricane

in the Atlantic Ocean.)

Plants and Animals

The native plants of most islands in

Oceania grew originally in Asia. They

spread eastward by way of Indonesia and

New Guinea. Islands close to the mainland

tend to have more kinds of plants

than islands far out to sea. Shrubs, vines,

and coconut palms are found near the

coasts, and mangroves grow in salt

marshes. Banana trees, breadfruit trees,

and papaya plants grow farther inland.

Rain forests are a feature of many high

islands.

120 Oceania BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ducks and seabirds, such as frigate birds,

albatrosses, and boobies, live throughout

Oceania.Most islands have some snakes

and lizards. Reefs and lagoons shelter

many kinds of fish as well as lobsters,

shrimps, snails, eels, octopuses, and

turtles. Bigger fish, such as swordfish and

marlins, lurk in deeper waters, as do

whales, porpoises, and sharks.

People

In all the areas of Oceania (not including

Australia), there were only about 12

million people at the start of the 21st

century. The country with the most

people is Papua New Guinea. New

Zealand, Hawaii, and Tonga also have

large populations. Micronesia is the

region with the fewest people.

The people of Oceania may be divided

into Melanesians, Micronesians, and

Polynesians, based on their area of origin.

However, within these groups are

many smaller groups of people that

speak hundreds of different languages.

Many people follow traditional beliefs,

but Christianity is also an important

religion.

Most people in Oceania live in villages,

where they farm or fish for a living.

Outside Australia and New Zealand, the

only really big city in Oceania is Honolulu,

Hawaii.

Economy

All three regions of Oceania produce

coconut products like copra (dried coconut

meat) and coconut oil. They sell

these products to the rest of the world in

large quantities. Fish and other sea creatures

are also important to the economy.

Farmers grow sugarcane in Fiji and

Hawaii. On the Solomon Islands and

Vanuatu, people harvest timber. Gold

and oil are found in Papua New Guinea,

while New Caledonia has nickel mines.

Tourism is an important source of

money in many areas.

History

Melanesia was the first region of Oceania

to be settled. Speakers of Papuan

languages may have occupied New

Guinea, which was then joined to Australia,

as early as 50,000 years ago. Papuan

peoples became farmers as early as

9,000 years ago. They grew sugarcane

and root crops.

Dancers perform in a cultural show in

Papua New Guinea, which is part of the

region called Oceania. They wear costumes

and face paint that are traditional to their

ethnic group. Papua New Guinea has

hundreds of different ethnic groups.

One of the

wettest places

on Earth’s surface

is Mount

Waialeale on

Kauai Island,

Hawaii, which

gets about

460 inches

(1,168 centimeters)

of rain

per year.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Oceania 121

Seagoing people, known as the Lapita,

moved into the areas north of New

Guinea about 4,000 years ago. The

Lapita were probably from Southeast

Asia. Over hundreds of years they settled

Polynesia and Micronesia. The Polynesian

Maori people reached New Zealand

in about AD 800. By this time, settlement

of the Pacific islands was just

about complete.

In 1521 the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand

Magellan became the first European

to sail through Oceania. Spanish,

Dutch, and English voyagers followed.

The English explorer James Cook

traveled throughout the region in the

1700s.

In the 1800s France, Great Britain, Germany,

and the United States claimed

parts of Oceania. These areas, known as

colonies, stayed under foreign control

until the 1900s. Many island groups

gained independence after 1962. However,

foreign countries still control some

parts of Oceania.

..More to explore

Cook, James • French Polynesia

• Hawaii • Maori • Micronesia,

Federated States of • Pacific Ocean

• Papua New Guinea • Solomon Islands

Ocelot

The ocelot is a spotted cat of the Americas.

It is found in tropical forests and

grasslands from the U.S. state of Texas

to Argentina. The scientific name of the

ocelot is Leopardus pardalis.

The ocelot is a slender animal. An adult

is about 28 to 35 inches (71 to 89 centimeters)

long, not including the tail. It

weighs about 25 to 35 pounds (11 to 16

kilograms). Females are usually smaller

than males.

The ocelot has short, smooth fur. It is

yellowish with long, black-edged spots.

There are small black spots on the head,

two black stripes on each cheek, and

The ocelot is a wild cat that lives in parts of

North and South America.

Easter Island, in Polynesia, is known for the

large stone statues that were carved there

hundreds of years ago.

122 Ocelot BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

black stripes along the neck. The underside

of the body is white with black

spots.

The ocelot hunts mainly at night. It eats

rodents, birds, reptiles, and fish. It stays

mostly on the ground. But it also is a

good climber, and it can swim.

About 70 days after mating, a female

ocelot gives birth to two or three young.

The babies are darker than the adults

but have a similar coat pattern. The

mother cares for her kittens in a den.

People capture ocelots for their fur and

to sell as pets. As a result the ocelot has

declined in number. Ocelot hunting is

banned in the United States and other

countries.

#More to explore

Cat

Octopus

An octopus is a sea animal with eight

arms. There are more than 150 species,

or types, of octopus. They belong to the

group of animals called mollusks, which

also includes squid, clams, and oysters.

Octopuses live in seas throughout the

world.

An octopus has a soft, baglike body and

large eyes. Its long, slender arms reach

out in all directions. Each arm has two

rows of cuplike suckers with great holding

power.

Octopuses vary greatly in size. The

smallest are only about 2 inches (5 centimeters)

long. The largest may be 18 feet

(5.5 meters) long and have a 30-foot

(9-meter) arm span.

An octopus can change color quickly

depending on its surroundings or its

mood. It can be gray, brown, pink, blue,

green, or even an angry red if it is suddenly

frightened.

An octopus usually crawls along the

ocean bottom on its arms searching for

food. It eats mainly crabs and lobsters.

Skillful hunters, octopuses also attack

large prey such as sharks. If an octopus is

in danger, it shoots a jet of water out of

its body. This moves the octopus backward

very quickly. An octopus also may

release an inky fluid to darken the water

and confuse an enemy.

A female octopus lays her eggs under

rocks or in holes. She guards the eggs for

four to eight weeks. Upon hatching, the

young drift for several weeks before

going to the ocean bottom.

#More to explore

Mollusk • Squid

An octopus swims near the surface of the

water.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Octopus 123

Odin

Odin was one of the chief gods of the

early people of Scandinavia in northern

Europe. In their mythology (called

Norse mythology), they imagined Odin

as an old man with a gray beard and

only one eye. He gave up the other eye

in exchange for wisdom. Other names

for Odin includeWotan andWoden.

Wednesday (“Woden’s day”) is named

for him.

Odin was the god of warriors and poets.

He was also a magician. His magical

spear always hit its target. In addition,

Odin was important in Norse myths

about creation. He and his two brothers

were said to have made the first human

beings, Askr and Embla. The gods created

the humans from tree trunks found

on the seashore.

Odin’s wife was Frigg, the goddess of

marriage. Thor, the god of thunder, was

Odin’s son. Odin’s daughters included

the Valkyries. The Valkyries met fallen

heroes on the battlefield. They brought

the dead heroes to stay at a grand banquet

hall called Valhalla. Valhalla was

like a heaven for warriors.

According to legend, Odin had two

ravens, named Thought and Memory.

Each day he would send the birds out

into the world. When they returned,

they would tell Odin all they had seen.

For that reason Odin was called the

raven god. Odin also had a magical

horse, called Sleipnir. It had eight legs

and could gallop through the sky and

across the sea. Two wolves, named Geri

and Freki, followed Odin as well.

#More to explore

Mythology • Valhalla

In Norse mythology, Odin was one of the

chief gods. He protected warriors and poets.

124 Odin BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ohio

The U.S. state of Ohio was named after

its local river. The name of both the

Ohio River and the state comes from the

Iroquois Indian word meaning “great

river.” Ohio’s location makes it an

important transportation crossroads

between the Eastern states and the Midwest.

Throughout the state’s history,

cargo and passengers have been carried

by way of Lake Erie and the Ohio River.

Ohio is nicknamed the Buckeye State

after a tree found throughout Ohio.

Columbus is the capital of the state.

Geography

Ohio is in the north-central part of the

United States. It is bordered on the east

by Pennsylvania, on the north by Michigan

and Lake Erie, and on the west by

Indiana. The Ohio River in the

south separates Ohio fromWest

Virginia and Kentucky.

Ohio has three natural regions. The eastern

half of the state is part of the Appalachian

plateau.Western Ohio is a

gently rolling plains region known for its

soil that is good for growing crops. The

lake plains stretch along the southern

shore of Lake Erie. Ohio has warm summers

and cool winters.

People

Many of Ohio’s earliest white settlers

came from the Eastern states. Today

about 85 percent of the state’s population

is white. African Americans represent

about 12 percent of the population

and are Ohio’s largest minority group.

Asians and Hispanics together make up

less than 4 percent of the population.

Economy

For many years manufacturing has been

the most important part of Ohio’s

economy. Many workers are involved in

making motor vehicles, metal products,

and other goods. Ohio has a long history

in manufacturing rubber automobile

tires.

Like many other states, however, Ohio

became more dependent on serviceoriented

industries in the late 20th century.

Health care, business services, and

finance were among the industries that

expanded during this period. Farming

plays a small but important role in the

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ohio 125

state’s economy. The chief agricultural

crops are soybeans and corn.

History

People have lived in the Ohio area for

thousands of years. Southern Ohio was

the home of two famous prehistoric

Native American groups—the Adena

and Hopewell cultures. Both groups

vanished before AD 500, but they left

behind many large earth mounds. Other

Native American groups took their

place.

Historians believe that the French

explorer Sieur de La Salle reached the

area in 1669. The French claimed the

Ohio territory two years later. In 1763

the land passed from France to Great

Britain. The area became part of the

United States after the American Revolution

(1775–83). It was included in the

region known as the Northwest Territory

in 1787.

The arrival of white settlers led to conflict

with the Native Americans in the

region. The fighting ended with the

defeat of the Indians in the battle of

Fallen Timbers in 1794.With the fighting

over, settlements sprang up throughout

the region. Ohio became the

nation’s 17th state in 1803.

Improved transportation helped the

state grow. In the 1830s the Ohio and

Erie Canal, the Cumberland Road, and

the first horse-drawn railroad were completed.

By 1850 Ohio was the third

most populous state in the nation. Ohio

stayed in the Union during the American

CivilWar (1861–65).

A waterway called the Saint Lawrence

Seaway opened up the Great Lakes to

oceangoing ships. Cleveland, Toledo,

and other cities on Lake Erie became

seaports after the seaway was completed

in 1959.

Cleveland and other industrial cities

struggled economically near the end of

the 1900s. One bright spot for Cleveland

was the opening of the Rock and

Roll Hall of Fame and Museum in

1995.

..More to explore

Columbus

The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and

Museum sits on the shore of Lake Erie in

Cleveland, Ohio.

About half of Ohio’s land is used for farming.

Facts About

OHIO

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

11,353,140—

rank, 7th state;

(2008 estimate)

11,485,910—

rank, 7th state

Capital

Columbus

Area

44,825 sq mi

(116,096 sq

km)—rank, 34th

state

Statehood

March 1, 1803

Motto

With God, All

Things Are

Possible

State bird

Cardinal

State flower

Scarlet carnation

126 Ohio BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ohio River

The Ohio River begins at Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania, where the Allegheny and

Monongahela rivers come together. It

flows northwest out of Pennsylvania and

then turns southwest to join the Mississippi

River in Illinois. It is 981 miles

(1,579 kilometers) long.

The Ohio River forms the state borders

between Ohio and West Virginia; Ohio

and Kentucky; Indiana and Kentucky;

and Illinois and Kentucky. The longest

river that feeds into the Ohio is the

Tennessee River, which begins in the

Appalachian Mountains. The Tennessee

River flows into the Ohio at Paducah,

Kentucky.

The Ohio serves such large cities as

Pittsburgh; Cincinnati, Ohio; and

Louisville, Kentucky. These cities and

others use the river to transport coal,

oil, steel, and many manufactured

goods.

The French explorer known as the Sieur

de La Salle is said to have been the first

European to see the Ohio River. He

reached it in 1669. By 1763 the British

controlled the river. The United States

gained control of the land around the

river when they defeated the British in

the American Revolution.

#More to explore

La Salle, Sieur de • Mississippi River

Ojibwa

The Ojibwa are Native Americans of the

northern United States and southern

Canada. Their land once spread all the

way from the northern Great Lakes to

what is now Montana. The Ojibwa in

the United States are often called the

Chippewa. In certain parts of Canada

the Ojibwa are called the Mississauga or

the Saulteaux. Many Ojibwa prefer to be

called Anishinabe, which means “first

people.”

The Ojibwa traditionally grew corn,

beans, pumpkins, and squash. They also

hunted and fished and gathered wild

plant foods. They lived in dome-shaped

houses made from wood and birch

bark.

The Ohio River joins the Mississippi River at

Cairo, Illinois.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ojibwa 127

Long ago the Ojibwa were part of a

larger group that also included the

Ottawa and the Potawatomi. French

explorers arrived on Ojibwa lands in

1622. The Ojibwa traded with the

French and helped them in war.

In the 1880s the Ojibwa had to give up

much of their land and move to small

reservations. In the late 20th century

there were more than 100,000 Ojibwa

in the United States. Many lived on

reservations in Michigan,Wisconsin,

Minnesota, North Dakota, and Montana.

Thousands more Ojibwa lived in

Canada. They had land in the provinces

of Ontario, Manitoba, and

Saskatchewan.

#More to explore

Native Americans

Okefenokee

Swamp

The Okefenokee Swamp is a large wetland

in the southeastern United States.

It is an important wildlife refuge. This

means that animals and plants that live

there are protected.

The Okefenokee Swamp is in southeastern

Georgia and northeastern Florida.

The swamp is part of an area that was at

the bottom of an ocean a long time ago.

It is now filled with lakes and floating

islands of peat. Peat is a type of soil

made when dead plants build up in layers.

The peat islands have trees and

plants. The trees of the swamp include

giant tupelos and bald cypresses. Some

of the trees in the swamp are 900 years

old. The swamp also has grassy areas.

The swamp is home to many animals,

including birds, alligators, deer, foxes,

otters, and bears. Many of the animals

that live in the swamp are endangered.

This means that they are in danger of

dying out forever.

Native Americans once lived in the

swamp. Later people cut down many of

the swamp’s trees to build houses and

other structures. Today, the government

protects the swamp.

#More to explore

Swamp •Wetland

A photograph from the 1800s shows

Ojibwa with their weapons.

128 Okefenokee Swamp BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Oklahoma

The U.S. state of Oklahoma took its

name from the Choctaw Indian words

meaning “red people.” For much of the

1800s Oklahoma was Indian

Territory—land set aside by the U.S.

government for Native Americans. In

1889, however, the land was opened to

white settlement. The nickname Sooner

State came from settlers claiming land in

the territory sooner than the official

opening date. The state capital is Oklahoma

City.

Geography

Oklahoma is in the south-central part of

the United States. In the south the Red

River separates Oklahoma from Texas.

Texas also borders Oklahoma south of

the Panhandle, a long, narrow stretch of

land in the northwestern part of the

state. East of Oklahoma are Arkansas

and Missouri. Kansas and Colorado are

to the north, and New Mexico is to the

west.

Oklahoma is primarily a plains state.

The central part of the state alternates

between hill and plain. In the south is a

mountainous region. To the northeast is

the Ozark Plateau, an area of scenic but

rough land. Oklahoma’s weather is normally

pleasant. In the spring, however,

the state can be hit by tornadoes.

People

About three fourths of all Oklahomans

are whites of European heritage. African

Americans and Native Americans make

up about 8 percent each of Oklahoma’s

population. Oklahoma ranks

third in the country—following

Alaska and New Mexico—for the percentage

of Native Americans in its population.

About 5 percent of the people are

Hispanic.

Economy

For much of Oklahoma’s history, petroleum

(oil) and gas production have been

a major part of the economy. In agriculture,

the raising of cattle and calves is

the biggest source of income. Manufacturing

industries make processed foods,

industrial machinery, and metal products.

Oklahoma is a national leader in

the aerospace industry. Service industries

employ about two thirds of the workforce

in jobs ranging from teachers to

computer programmers to government

workers.

History

Indian tribes such as the Caddo,

Wichita, and Pawnee were living in the

Oklahoma area when Europeans first

arrived. The Spanish explorer Francisco

Coronado claimed the area for his coun-

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Oklahoma 129

try in 1541. Spain controlled the region

until 1800, when it became French territory.

In 1803 the United States acquired

the region from France as part of the

Louisiana Purchase.

In 1834 the U.S. Congress made the

Oklahoma area Indian Territory and

required all whites to leave. During the

1830s the U.S. government forced five

tribes from the Southeast—the Choctaw,

Creek, Chickasaw, Seminole, and

Cherokee peoples—to move to Indian

Territory. The Cherokee’s difficult trip

from their homeland to Indian Territory

became known as the Trail of Tears. By

1880 more than 60 tribes had moved to

Indian Territory.

Eventually people began to ask Congress

to open the Indian Territory to white

settlers. Congress purchased land in the

central part of what is now Oklahoma.

This area, named Oklahoma Territory,

was opened to new settlement on April

22, 1889. Settlers rushed into the area to

claim the free land.

Oklahoma was admitted to the Union as

the 46th state in 1907. During the

1930s a severe drought hit Oklahoma

and other neighboring states. The

drought-stricken areas became known as

the Dust Bowl because the land became

so dry that the soil was blown away. The

drought ended by the early 1940s. Oklahoma’s

economy improved during

WorldWar II (1939–45) and the postwar

period.

On April 19, 1995, Oklahoma City was

the site of one of the worst terrorist

attacks in U.S. history. A powerful

homemade bomb heavily damaged the

Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. Hundreds

of people in the building were

either killed or injured.

..More to explore

Dust Bowl • Oklahoma City

Gloss Mountain State Park in Oklahoma is

known for its red buttes, or flat-topped hills.

A young Comanche boy is pictured

wearing traditional clothing

at a Native American

celebration in Medicine Park,

Oklahoma.

Facts About

OKLAHOMA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

3,450,654—

rank, 27th state;

(2008 estimate)

3,642,361—

rank, 28th state

Capital

Oklahoma City

Area

69,898 sq mi

(181,036 sq

km)—rank, 20th

state

Statehood

November 16,

1907

Motto

Labor Omnia

Vincit (Labor

Conquers All

Things)

State bird

Scissor-tailed

flycatcher

State flower

Mistletoe

130 Oklahoma BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Oklahoma City

Population

(2000 census),

city, 506,132;

(2007 estimate)

547,274

Oklahoma City is the capital of the U.S.

state of Oklahoma. The city lies on the

North Canadian River.

Many industries related to oil and airplanes

are located in Oklahoma City.

Oil is both drilled and processed in the

city. Oklahoma City is home to a U.S.

Air Force base and a large government

air center. Factories in Oklahoma City

make airplanes, electronics, machinery,

and steel.

Many people in Oklahoma City work

for the government. Education, health

care, and other service industries also

bring money to the city. Oklahoma City

has long been a center for the sale and

transport of cattle.

Oklahoma City began in 1889. In that

year about 10,000 settlers claimed available

land around a railway station. The

city became the capital of Oklahoma in

1910. It grew rapidly after oil was discovered

there in 1928.

In 1995 two men who were angry with

the U.S. government bombed the Alfred

P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma

City. The terrorist bombing killed

168 people and injured more than 500

others.

..More to explore

Oklahoma

Olive

Since ancient times people have grown

olive trees for their fruit and the oil it

contains. For the ancient Greeks an olive

branch loaded with fruit was a symbol

of peace.

People on the Greek island of Crete

grew olive trees as far back as 3500 BC.

Later other countries along the Mediterranean

Sea also began growing olives.

Today olive trees are found in many

parts of the world.

Olive trees have long been admired for

their beauty. Their leaves are dark green

on top and silvery on the underside. The

olive tree has a twisted trunk. Most olive

trees are 10 to 40 feet (3 to 12 meters)

tall or more.

The Oklahoma City National Memorial

honors those killed in a terrorist bombing in

1995. The memorial includes 168 chairs to

represent the 168 people who died.

Ancient

people cooked

with olive oil,

burned it in

lamps, and

used it in

ceremonies.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Olive 131

Olive trees bloom in late spring. Some

of their small, white flowers grow into

the olive fruits. Inside the fruit is a

stone. It holds one or two seeds.

Olives are often picked when they are

still unripe and green colored. Fresh

olives are very bitter. They must be processed,

or treated with salt or other

chemicals, before they can be eaten.

Most olives are grown to make olive oil.

Olives and olive oil are used in many

dishes from the Mediterranean area.

Olmec

The Olmec Indians developed the first

major civilization in what is now

Mexico. It lasted from about 1200 to

400 BC.

The Olmec lived in hot, humid lands

along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.

This land is now in southern Mexico.

The Olmec built cities where they came

together to trade and perform ceremonies.

Farmers lived outside the cities.

Corn was their main crop.

The Olmec had many achievements.

They developed a number system, a

calendar, and a system of picture writing.

They made pottery and small jade

sculptures. They traded these items with

other Indians.

The Olmec are known for having carved

huge heads from basalt, a type of

volcanic rock. These sculptures were up

to 10 feet (3 meters) tall and weighed up

to 20 tons.

Historians do not know for sure what

happened to the Olmec. Other Indians

might have invaded and wiped out the

Olmec. Or the Olmec might have suffered

from crop failures or disease. Later

Indians of Mexico and Central America

kept some Olmec customs. These Indians

included the Maya, the Toltec, and

the Aztec.

#More to explore

Aztec • Maya • Native Americans

• Toltec

Olives cannot be eaten fresh from the tree

because they are too bitter. Many olives are

processed so they can be eaten. Others are

pressed to make oil.

The Olmec people carved huge heads out

of volcanic rock.

132 Olmec BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Olympia

Population

(2000 census),

city, 42,514;

(2007 estimate)

44,925

Olympia is the capital of the U.S. state

ofWashington. The city is surrounded

by beautiful scenery. It lies at the end of

Puget Sound, an inlet of the Pacific

Ocean. The Olympic Mountains and

Olympic National Forest are nearby.

Many people in Olympia work for the

government. The city is a seaport. Shipping

goods through the port is important

to the city’s economy. Tourism also

brings money to Olympia. Factories in

the city process wood, metal, and foods.

A settler named Edmund Sylvester

founded the town in the mid-1800s. In

1853 theWashington Territory was

formed. Olympia was its capital. In

1889Washington became a U.S. state

with Olympia as the state capital.

..More to explore

Washington

Olympic Games

The Olympic Games are the world’s

leading sports event. Athletes from more

than 200 countries compete in them.

The Olympics include the Summer

Games and theWinter Games. Each is

held in a different country once every

four years. Until the early 1990s the

Summer andWinter Games were held

in the same year. Today they are separated

by two years.

Organization and Flag

The International Olympic Committee

(IOC) governs the Games. The IOC

decides on the sports to include in the

Olympics. It also chooses the cities that

will host the Games. In addition to the

IOC, each country has its own national

Olympic committee.

The flag of the Olympic Games has five

linked rings on a white background. The

rings represent the five parts of the

world joined together by the Games: the

Americas, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia.

The rings are blue, yellow, black,

green, and red. The colors of the rings

and the white background came from

national flags. At least one of the colors

appears in every country’s flag.

Events

The Summer Games and theWinter

Games include different sports that fit

the different seasons. There are individual

and team events for men and for

women. Some events are held indoors,

others outdoors.

The Summer Games have a wider variety

of events than theWinter Games.

The most popular events at the Summer

Games include gymnastics, swimming,

and track and field. Other events

include baseball, basketball, boxing,

cycling, diving, judo, sailing, soccer,

softball, volleyball, water polo, weight

lifting, and wrestling.

World

Wars I and II

interrupted the

Olympic

Games. There

were no

Games in

1916, 1940,

or 1944.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Olympic Games 133

Ice skating and skiing are crowd favorites

at theWinter Olympics. Skating

events include graceful figure-skating

competitions as well as speed-skating

races. Ice hockey is a popular team

event. The biathlon combines skiing and

shooting. TheWinter Games also

include high-speed races on sleds called

bobsleds and luges.

The list of Olympic events can change.

Sometimes popular new sports are

added to the Games. In the late 20th

century, for example, mountain biking,

beach volleyball, and windsurfing

became events at the Summer Games.

Snowboarding was added to theWinter

Games.

A victory ceremony is held during the

Games after the end of each event. Medals

are awarded for first, second, and

third place. In order from first to third,

the medals are gold, silver, and bronze.

The flags of the winners’ countries are

raised while the national anthem of the

gold medal winner is played.

History

The first Olympic Games for which

there are written records took place in

Greece in 776 BC. The ancient Games

continued until a Roman emperor

stopped them in AD 393.

For the next 1,500 years there were no

Olympics. In the late 1800s a Frenchman

named Pierre de Coubertin worked

to revive them. The first modern Olympic

Games were held in 1896 in Athens,

Greece. At those Games a Greek shepherd

named Spyridon Louis became a

national hero when he won a new race

called the marathon. The firstWinter

Games were held in 1924.

For about 80 years only amateur athletes

were allowed to take part in the Games.

Amateur athletes are not paid. But since

the 1970s professional athletes have

been allowed to compete in many

Olympic events.

#More to explore

Marathon • Track and Field

A big ceremony marks the end of the 2006

Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy.

Footraces of various distances are important

parts of the Summer Olympics.

134 Olympic Games BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Olympus, Mount

The highest mountain peak in Greece is

Mount Olympus. It reaches a height of

9,570 feet (2,917 meters) above sea

level. Mount Olympus is on the border

of the Greek regions of Macedonia and

Thessaly.

The ancient Greeks believed that their

gods lived on Mount Olympus. From

that height the gods were thought to

watch over and take part in the lives of

humans.

Omaha

The Omaha are Native Americans who

live in Nebraska. The city of Omaha is

named after the tribe.

The Omaha lived in earth lodges. They

made these homes by covering a domeshaped

wooden frame with mud. The

Omaha grew corn, beans, squash, and

other vegetables. They also fished and

hunted. They left their villages twice a

year to hunt bison (buffalo). While

hunting they lived in tents called tepees,

which they covered with bison hides.

The Omaha were once part of a larger

group that lived in what is now the

eastern United States. The group also

included the Osage, the Kaw, the

Quapaw, and the Ponca. The group

eventually moved west and split up. In

the mid-1600s the Omaha settled along

the Missouri River in what is now

Nebraska.

The Omaha generally lived in peace

with white settlers who came to their

territory. However, the settlers brought

smallpox and other diseases that killed

many Omaha.

In 1854 the Omaha sold most of their

land to the U.S. government. They

settled on a reservation in Nebraska. At

the end of the 20th century there were

more than 4,000 Omaha.

..More to explore

Kaw • Native Americans • Osage

• Ponca • Quapaw

An Omaha man shows the traditional

Omaha style of clothing.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Omaha 135

Oman

The country of Oman is an Arab sultanate,

or monarchy, in the Middle East.

The capital is Muscat.

Geography

Oman is on the Arabian Peninsula. It

borders Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and the

United Arab Emirates. The Arabian Sea

lies to the east, and the Gulf of Oman

lies to the north. A small part of Oman

sits north of the United Arab Emirates.

Oman is hot and dry. A rocky desert

covers most of the country. The northeast

and southwest are the only humid

areas. Mountains rise near the coasts.

There are no rivers or lakes.

Plants and Animals

Few plants besides acacia trees grow in

the dry regions. Tropical plants grow in

the humid southwest. Oman’s rare animals

include Arabian oryx (a type of

antelope) and Arabian leopards.

People

Most of the people of Oman are Arabs.

Arabic is the main language. Islam is the

national religion.

Economy

Oman’s economy depends on the sale of

oil and natural gas to other countries.

Oman also produces metals, cement,

chemicals, and food products. The

country’s few crops include dates,

bananas, and watermelons. Livestock

includes cattle, goats, sheep, and camels.

Fishing is another source of food.

History

Arabs first moved to Oman in the 800s

BC. Sultans, or kings, began to rule the

coastal areas in AD 1154. Omanis later

used the sea to trade with countries as

far away as China. The Al Bu Sa!id family

took power in the mid-1700s. In the

early 21st century a sultan from the family

still ruled Oman.

..More to explore

Arabs • Muscat

Houses are close to the water in a town in

Oman.

Facts About

OMAN

Population

(2008 estimate)

2,651,000

Area

119,500 sq mi

(309,500 sq km)

Capital

Muscat

Form of

government

Monarchy

Major cities

As-Sib, Salalah,

Matrah, Bawshar,

Suhar

136 Oman BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Oneida

The Oneida were the smallest of the five

original Native American tribes of the

Iroquois Confederacy. The confederacy

was an alliance of tribes that lived in

upper New York State and spoke similar

languages. The Oneida traditionally

lived east of what is now the city of

Syracuse.

The Oneida lived in longhouses. Longhouses

were large homes made of a

wooden frame covered with bark. A

longhouse could house as many as 30

people. The Oneida got most of their

food by farming. They grew corn, beans,

and squash. They also hunted deer and

other animals.

The Oneida knew only other Native

Americans until the early 1600s. At that

time French explorers and traders came

to their lands. The Europeans brought

smallpox and other diseases that killed

many Oneida.

During the American Revolution

(1775–83), the Oneida served as guides

and scouts for the American forces. After

the war the Oneida signed a treaty with

the American government. The treaty

gave the Oneida rights to their homeland

in New York. However, settlers

ignored the treaty and took the land.

In the 1820s many Oneida moved to

what is nowWisconsin. Others moved

to Ontario, Canada. In the early 21st

century there were more than 18,000

Oneida. About two thirds of them lived

in the United States. The rest lived in

Canada.

#More to explore

Iroquois • Native Americans

Onion

The onion is a plant bulb made up of

crisp, fleshy layers. Valued for its flavor,

it may be cooked or eaten raw. The

onion is an herb that belongs to the lily

family. It is related to garlic, leeks, and

chives. Its scientific name is Allium cepa.

Onions are grown in mild climates

around the world. The plants have long,

hollow leaves that look like stalks. The

bulb forms at the bottom of the stalks,

just under the soil. Onion bulbs vary in

size, shape, color, and flavor. They range

from less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters)

to more than 4.5 inches (11 centimeters)

across. They are typically round or

a little flattened. They may be white,

yellow, or red.

Onions contain an oil that is rich in the

mineral sulfur. This oil is released into

The Oneida are skilled at weaving baskets.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Onion 137

the air when an onion is cut. The oil

mixes with the fluid in a person’s eyes,

making the eyes tear.

#More to explore

Garlic • Herb • Lily

Onondaga

The Onondaga are a Native American

people of New York State. They live near

Onondaga Lake in central New York.

The Onondaga were one of the five

original tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy.

The confederacy was an alliance of

tribes who lived in the same area and

spoke similar languages.

Like the other Iroquois, the Onondaga

traditionally lived in longhouses. Longhouses

were homes built from wood and

bark. A longhouse was large enough to

house several families. A village had

about 20 to 50 longhouses. The Onondaga

grew corn, beans, squash, sunflowers,

and tobacco. They also hunted deer

and other animals.

In the 1600s French traders arrived in

Onondaga territory. During the French

and IndianWar (1754–63) the Onondaga

helped the French fight against the

British. During the American Revolution

(1775–83) American troops attacked

Onondaga villages. Then the tribe

helped the British fight the Americans.

After the British lost the American

Revolution, some Onondaga moved to

Canada. Those who stayed behind had

to give up most of their land. The

Onondaga were left with only a small

reservation near what is now the city of

Syracuse, New York.

At the end of the 20th century there

were about 3,000 Onondaga. About

2,000 lived in the United States, and

about 1,000 lived in Canada.

#More to explore

Iroquois • Native Americans

Onions come in many different colors and

sizes.

An illustration shows the French attacking

an Onondaga village in the early 1600s.

The Onondaga built walls around some of

their villages for protection.

138 Onondaga BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ontario

Ontario is the most populated province

in Canada. A Native American word

describing Lake Ontario likely gave the

province its name. Ottawa, the capital of

Canada, is in Ontario. The province’s

own capital is Toronto.

Geography

Ontario lies between the provinces of

Quebec to the east and Manitoba to the

west. Ontario is Canada’s second largest

province after Quebec.

The waters of Hudson Bay and James

Bay lap Ontario’s northern edge. The

Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence

River form its southern boundary.

Within Ontario, about 250,000 lakes

and countless rivers and streams contain

about one third of Earth’s freshwater.

The famous Niagara Falls lie on the border

between Ontario and the United

States.

Ontario is fairly flat. Swamps, meadows,

and forests dot the northern parts of

Ontario. Rich soils cover the southern

areas of the province.

People

Many of Ontario’s people have ancestors

who came from Great Britain. Later

immigrants came from other parts of

Europe. A small population of black

people have ancestors from the United

States or theWest Indies. There are also

people with Asian or American Indian

ancestry.

About 80 percent of Ontario’s

people live in or around its cities.

Most of them live in southeastern

Ontario, where Toronto, Ottawa,

Hamilton, andWindsor are located.

Toronto is the largest city in Ontario

and the largest city in Canada. It is the

center of Canada’s business and cultural

activities.

Economy

Ontario has a strong economy. Most

people in Ontario work in financial,

technical, and cultural services. Other

important industries are car manufacturing,

food processing, wood and paper

products, and electronic products. The

province’s mines produce copper, zinc,

gold, nickel, silver, platinum, and palla-

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ontario 139

dium. Ontario also has a large lumber

industry in the north.

Most of the best farmland in Canada lies

in Ontario, especially in the south.

Farmers grow soybeans, corn, wheat,

barley, and vegetables. They also raise

poultry, hogs, and cattle. Apples are the

leading fruit crop.

History

People have lived in what is now

Ontario for at least 10,000 years.

Among the early people were Indian

hunters and fishers, including some

Algonquian peoples, the Cree, and the

Ojibwa in the north. Farming peoples in

the south included theWyandot

(Huron), the Tionontati, the Attiwandaron,

and some Iroquois.

Europeans first explored the area in the

early 1600s. Etienne Brule and Samuel

de Champlain of France explored what

are now the Ottawa River and Lake

Ontario. Henry Hudson of England

explored what is now Hudson Bay in the

north. In the late 1600s France built a

fur trade in the region.

For more than a century France and

Great Britain fought for control of territories

in North America. In 1763 France

lost its territories, including what is now

Ontario, to Great Britain.

During and after the American Revolution

many people moved north to what

is now Ontario. Those people supported

Great Britain, not the new United

States. They also disagreed with the

French-speaking settlers to the east.

In 1791 Great Britain divided its North

American territory into Lower Canada

and Upper Canada. Lower Canada,

made up of mostly French speakers, later

became Quebec. Upper Canada, made

up of mostly English speakers, later

became Ontario.

In 1867 Great Britain united its North

American land to form the new country

of Canada. The new Canadian government

made Ontario a province. People

flooded into Ontario from all parts of

the world. During the 1950s alone,

more than 100,000 people a year settled

in Ontario.

..More to explore

Algonquian • American Revolution

• Canada • Champlain, Samuel de

• Cree • Fur Trade • Great Lakes

• Hudson Bay • Iroquois • Ojibwa

• Ottawa • Saint Lawrence River and

Seaway •Wyandot

Skaters glide across the ice at an outdoor

skating rink in Toronto. Toronto is the capital

and largest city of Ontario, Canada.

Facts About

ONTARIO

Flag

Population

(2006 census)

12,160,282

Area

415,599 sq mi

(1,076,395 sq

km)

Capital

Toronto

Motto

Ut Incepit Fidelis

Sic Permanet

(Loyal She Began,

Loyal She

Remains)

When Ontario

Became a

Province

1867

140 Ontario BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ontario, Lake

Lake Ontario is the smallest of the five

Great Lakes of North America. It is also

the farthest east. Lake Ontario forms

part of the boundary between the

United States and Canada. It is bordered

on the north by the Canadian province

of Ontario. The U.S. state of New York

is to the south.

Lake Ontario covers 7,550 square miles

(19,554 square kilometers). Its main

source is the Niagara River. The Niagara

River is the natural link between Lake

Ontario and Lake Erie to the southwest.

The man-made Welland Canal also connects

Lakes Ontario and Erie. It allows

ships to avoid Niagara Falls. In the east

Lake Ontario empties into the Saint

Lawrence River.

The land north of Lake Ontario is good

for farming. There are many industries

in and around the cities of Toronto and

Hamilton in Ontario and Rochester in

New York. Shipping traffic is heavy

because Lake Ontario is part of the Saint

Lawrence Seaway. This system allows

ships to travel between Great Lakes

ports and the Atlantic Ocean.

#More to explore

Great Lakes • Saint Lawrence River and

Seaway

OPEC

#see Organization of the Petroleum

Exporting Countries.

Opera

Opera is a type of classical music. It is

also a mix of several art forms. Like

actors in the theater, opera singers act

out a story on a stage. An orchestra plays

the music. Opera often features ballet or

other types of dance, too.

Most or all of the words in an opera are

sung. When one person sings it is called

a solo. A solo may be a complicated

song, called an aria. Or a solo may be a

simpler kind of sung speech. Small

groups of singers or a large group called

the chorus may sing other songs.

People relax on a beach on the shore of

Lake Ontario.

Musical

comedy, like

opera, combines

music

with theater.

Musical comedies

of the

20th century

include The

Sound of

Music and

Cats.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Opera 141

Opera was invented in Italy in the late

1500s. The first opera was Jacopo Peri’s

Dafne. It was performed in 1597–98.

This new musical style became popular

throughout Europe.

Many famous operas were written in

the 1700s and 1800s. Wolfgang

Amadeus Mozart was an important

opera composer, or writer, during the

1700s. One of his opera masterpieces is

The Marriage of Figaro, which he wrote

in 1786. Giuseppe Verdi was a great

Italian opera composer of the 1800s. In

the late 1800s German composer

Richard Wagner wrote a series of four

operas based on German legends. This

famous series is called The Ring of the

Nibelung.

In the 1900s opera grew and changed, as

did the classical music of the time. Italian

composer Giacomo Puccini created

some of the most popular operas of the

early 1900s. In the late 20th and early

21st centuries people continued to perform

and enjoy many of the old opera

masterpieces. Composers also created

new operas.

#More to explore

Ballet • Classical Music • Mozart,

Wolfgang Amadeus • Music • Theater

Opossum

Opossums are marsupials, or animals

that carry their young in a pouch. They

are sometimes called possums. Most

opossums live in forests of Central and

South America. The Virginia, or common,

opossum is the only marsupial

found in North America.

An opossum has a pointy snout, a pink

nose, and beady black eyes. Some opossums

are only about 6 inches (15 centimeters)

long. Others are about the size

of a house cat. A hairless tail makes up

about half of the animal’s length. Opossums

have coarse fur that can be grayish

white or nearly black.

Opossums often make their homes in

hollow trees or under stumps and roots.

Opera singers perform in The Barber of

Seville, an opera written by Gioacchino

Rossini in the early 1800s.

An opossum pretends to be dead to protect

itself from predators.

142 Opossum BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

They come out at night to eat whatever

they can find, including insects, rodents,

berries, rotting fruit, and even dog food.

A female opossum can give birth to as

many as 25 babies. The babies spend

four to five weeks in their mother’s

pouch. Then they spend eight or nine

weeks clinging to the mother’s back.

Opossums have a unique way of escaping

enemies. Most predators like to eat

live food and will lose interest in animals

that are already dead. So an opossum

sometimes pretends to be dead when an

enemy is near. It freezes like a statue and

then falls over. When the predator loses

interest and leaves, the opossum gets up

and walks away. This trick has become

known as “playing possum.”

#More to explore

Marsupial

Optics

Optics is the study of light. Optics

describes how light is created and how it

travels. An important part of optics is

the study of what happens when light

hits different surfaces. When light hits a

surface, it may be reflected, refracted, or

absorbed.

Reflection occurs when light hits a surface

and bounces back. Reflected light

makes images appear in mirrors and in

other smooth, shiny surfaces.

Refraction happens when light changes

direction, or bends, when it moves from

one material to another. For example,

light traveling through the air refracts

when it hits water. This can make a

straw in a glass of water look bent at the

surface of the water.

Some surfaces neither reflect nor refract

light. They absorb, or take in, light. This

causes the surface to heat up. For

example, a sidewalk heats up on a hot,

sunny day because it is absorbing light.

Mirrors and lenses are important tools

in optics because they reflect and refract

light. Eyeglasses, magnifying glasses,

telescopes, and binoculars all have lenses

or mirrors. They change the way people

see things by controlling how light

enters the eye.

#More to explore

Lens • Light • Mirror

Orange

Oranges are citrus fruits with fragrant,

leathery skin and juicy flesh. The most

common types are the sweet (or com-

Refraction causes straws to appear bent at

the surface of water.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Orange 143

mon) orange, the sour (or Seville)

orange, and the mandarin orange. The

sweet orange is the most widely grown

citrus fruit in the world.

Orange trees originally grew in the

tropical regions of southeastern Asia.

Today people grow them in most warm

areas of the world.

Most sweet orange trees are about 20

feet (6 meters) tall. They have glossy,

green leaves and small white flowers.

The size, shape, and color of orange

fruits vary somewhat depending on the

type. The fruits are generally round and

about 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters)

across. The peel is commonly

orange or greenish yellow. It is dotted

with oily glands that give the fruit a

strong fragrance.

Oranges are rich in vitamin C. People

peel and eat oranges raw. They also use

them in sauces, marmalades, and other

foods. Orange juice is sold fresh or frozen.

People use orange oil as a flavoring

or as a fragrance.

#More to explore

Citrus Fruit • Fruit

Orangutan

The orangutan is the largest animal that

spends most of its time in trees. It is a

reddish ape related to gorillas, chimpanzees,

and bonobos. All these animals are

called great apes because of their large

size and great intelligence. Orangutans

and other great apes belong to the larger

group of mammals called the primates.

The primates also include other apes,

monkeys, and humans.

Orangutans are the only great apes of

Asia. They are found only in certain

jungles on the islands of Borneo and

Sumatra in Indonesia. In the past they

also lived in mainland Southeast Asia.

A male orangutan looks down

from the branches of a tree.

The leathery skin of navel oranges protects

the juicy flesh inside.

144 Orangutan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

drums, gongs, and the xylophone. But

an orchestra can include whatever

instruments are needed to perform a

musical work.

In the early days of classical music different

types of instruments were generally

not played together. In about the 1600s

European composers began experimenting

with mixing the different sounds

each type of instrument produces.

The modern orchestra developed in the

1700s in Germany, where the four basic

instrument sections were established.

Some individual instruments, such as

the harpsichord and the lute, were

phased out. Others, such as the clarinet

and the piano, were sometimes added.

Orchestras grew much larger during the

1800s, with some works calling for well

over 100 musicians. In the early 1900s a

smaller orchestra, called a chamber

orchestra, was developed. A chamber

orchestra has about two to eight members

and usually focuses on stringed

instruments and piano.

#More to explore

Classical Music • Musical Instrument

Orchid

Orchids are plants prized for their beautiful

and unique flowers. Orchids make

up one of the world’s largest plant families,

with between 15,000 and 35,000

species, or types. Many people grow

orchids as a hobby.

Orchids grow in most parts of the world

except for the areas near the North and

South poles. Most orchids prefer warm,

tropical areas. Orchids can grow in soil,

completely underground, or on other

plants or rocks. The species that grow on

other plants or rocks get moisture and

nutrients from rainwater, rotting plant

matter, or the air.

Orchid plants can measure from less

than an inch (2.5 centimeters) to more

than 15 feet (4.6 meters) tall. There can

be a single flower or clusters. The

flowers can be as small as 0.1 inch (2.5

millimeters) or as large as 15 inches (38

centimeters) across. They can be almost

any color, and some have spots or

streaks. Many orchids have a strong

fragrance, or smell, but some have no

fragrance at all.

The flavoring known as vanilla comes

from the seedpods of some orchid

plants. It is used in baked goods and

beverages, and it is an ingredient in perfumes

as well.

#More to explore

Flower • Plant

Moth orchids come from Indonesia and the

Philippines.

The violin

player who sits

in front is

called the concertmaster.

This person

helps the conductor

lead

the orchestra.

146 Orchid BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Oregon

The state of Oregon is at the heart of the

Pacific Northwest region of the United

States. Oregon’s countryside is filled

with beautiful scenery. It has seaside

beaches, mountain ranges, canyons, and

waterfalls. Oregon is nicknamed the

Beaver State. During the region’s early

history, the beaver’s valuable fur was the

area’s most important trade good. Salem

is the state capital.

Geography

Oregon is bordered by Washington to

the north and the Pacific Ocean to the

west. California and Nevada are to the

south. Idaho is to the east. The Columbia

River serves as most of Oregon’s

northern boundary. The Snake River

marks part of the eastern boundary.

The Cascade Mountains are located in

west-central Oregon. The mountains

divide the state into two geographical

sections, west and east. To the

west of the Cascades are rain

forests, mountains, and lush valleys.

Mount Hood is located in the Cascades.

It is the state’s highest peak at 11,239

feet (3,428 meters). East of the Cascades

the land is drier. This section includes

plateaus, deserts, and mountains. The

Blue andWallowa mountains are in the

northeast.

People

The population of Oregon increased by

more than one fifth between 1990 and

2000. This rate of growth was much

higher than in most other states in the

nation. Whites of European descent

represent more than four fifths of the

population. Hispanics are the largest

minority group. They make up about 8

percent of the state’s population.

Most of Oregon’s people live west of the

Cascade Mountains in theWillamette

River valley. The state’s three largest

A hiker stops to enjoy Elowah Falls in

Oregon’s Mount Hood National Forest.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Oregon 147

cities—Portland, Eugene, and Salem—

are located in this area.

Economy

Oregon’s economy has traditionally

been dependent on natural resources

such as forest products. Harvesting trees

for lumber and plywood remains an

important industry. In the late 1900s,

however, high-technology and service

industries became increasingly important.

The production of computer and

electronic equipment became a major

manufacturing industry. The state also

produces clothing and other textiles.

Tourism is an important service industry

in Oregon. It provides jobs in hotels and

restaurants.

Greenhouse and nursery plants, cattle,

and milk and cheese are leading agricultural

products. Oregon’s fisheries catch

seafood products such as salmon, tuna,

and crab.

History

Many Native American tribes lived in

the Oregon region before the arrival of

white settlers. Among them were the

Chinook, the Nez Perce, and the Klamath

peoples.

In 1579 the English explorer Francis

Drake claimed the region for his country.

The land remained unexplored for

two centuries, however. In 1792 Boston

merchants made the first United States

claim to the Pacific Northwest. The

explorers Lewis and Clark reached the

mouth of the Columbia River in 1805.

The first white settlers were fur trappers

and traders who arrived in the early

1800s. In the mid-1800s, settlers from

every state traveled to the area along the

famous Oregon Trail. At the time both

the United States and Great Britain

claimed the land that is now Oregon

andWashington. The two countries

finally settled their boundary dispute in

1846, and the United States soon created

the Oregon Territory. In 1853

Washington Territory separated from

Oregon, and in 1859 Oregon became

the 33rd state.

By the early 1880s railroad lines reached

Oregon. The railroads linked Oregon

with the rest of the United States. During

the 1900s Oregon’s cities grew rapidly.

Many people were drawn by the

environment to move there from other