states. The state passed several laws in
the late 1900s to protect the environment.
..More to explore
Lewis and Clark Expedition Oregon
Trail Salem
Portland is the largest city in the U.S. state
of Oregon. It is located in the scenic northwestern
corner of the state.
Facts About
OREGON
Flag
Population
(2000 census)
3,421,399
rank, 28th state;
(2008 estimate)
3,790,060
rank, 27th state
Capital
Salem
Area
98,381 sq mi
(254,805 sq
km)rank, 9th
state
Statehood
February 14,
1859
Motto
She Flies with Her
Own Wings
State bird
Western
meadowlark
State flower
Oregon grape
148 Oregon BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oregon Trail
In the middle years of the 1800s many
thousands of U.S. pioneers traveled west
on the Oregon Trail. The trail ran from
Independence, Missouri, to what is now
northern Oregon, near the Columbia
River. It was about 2,000 miles (3,200
kilometers) long. The Oregon Trail was
one of two main routes to the FarWest.
The other was the Santa Fe Trail, which
led to New Mexico.
Unlike a modern highway, the Oregon
Trail was not a single clear path. In
places it was 10 miles (16 kilometers)
wide. There were also many shortcuts
and side paths. Some people who used
the trail were bound for Utah or California,
not Oregon.
Pioneers traveled the Oregon Trail in
covered wagons pulled by horses, mules,
or oxen. The trip to Oregon took about
four to six months. The pioneers
brought some food with them and also
hunted along the trail. They got water
from rivers.
The Oregon Trail followed paths that
had already been discovered. Between
1804 and 1806 the explorers Meriwether
Lewis and William Clark traveled
from Missouri to Oregon and back.
Fur traders and missionaries later found
other paths that became part of the trail.
Wagon trains carrying hundreds of pioneers
first used the trail in the early
1840s. In the 1860s railroads began
replacing much of the travel by wagon
train. However, people still used the trail
until 1880.
#More to explore
Lewis and Clark Expedition Pioneer
Life Santa Fe Trail
The Oregon Trail began in the U.S. state of Missouri and ended in what is now Oregon.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Oregon Trail 149
Organization of
American States
Twenty-one countries in North America,
Central America, and South America
formed theOrganization of American
States (OAS) in 1948. The countries had
several goals.One goal was to bring order
and justice to all the member countries.
Another goal was to protect the member
countries. A third goal was to maintain
each countrys independence.
Today the OAS has 35 member countries.
The countries work together in
several different bodies, or groups. The
General Assembly is the most important
body of the OAS. It meets once a year to
make decisions about the OASs plans
and actions. Each country has one vote
in the General Assembly.
The OAS works to support democracy.
Members promote democratic governments
throughout theWestern Hemisphere.
For example, the OAS has
watched over elections in member countries
to make sure that they are fair.
TheOAS also supports human rights.
Many of its programs and services help
people to be treated well.
In the early 21st century the OAS
focused on fighting terrorism. It also
encouraged trade among member
countries.
#More to explore
Democracy Human Rights Trade
Organization of
the Petroleum
Exporting
Countries
The members of the Organization of the
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
are countries that produce more petroleum
(oil) than they need. OPEC tells
these countries how much oil to export,
or ship to other countries. It also tells
them how much money to charge for
the oil. OPECs head office is in Vienna,
Austria.
Oil is used to make gasoline and other
fuels. Many countries produce no oil.
Others, including the United States,
produce less oil than they use.
In 1960 the oil-rich countries of Iran,
Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela
created OPEC. They wanted to gain
greater control over oil prices. Qatar,
The OAS protects
the rights
of women and
children. It
also works to
improve peoples
health
and education.
A news conference gives OPEC representatives
a chance to explain their actions.
150 Organization of American States BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Indonesia, Libya, the United Arab Emirates,
Algeria, Nigeria, and Angola joined
OPEC later.
OPECs Growing Power
In 1973 the Arab members of OPEC
became angry because the United States
and some European countries were supporting
Israel in the Arab-Israeli wars. As
punishment, OPEC began raising the
price of oil. For a time OPEC also
stopped shipping oil to the United
States.
As oil prices rose, OPEC countries
became wealthy. The countries that
depended on OPECs oil had economic
problems caused by the high prices.
Gradually these countries looked for
other sources of oil and for other forms
of energy so they would not need to buy
as much oil. As a result, OPECs power
was reduced. However, OPEC countries
still controlled about two thirds of the
worlds oil supplies.
..More to explore
Arab-IsraeliWars Petroleum
Orpheus and
Eurydice
In ancient Greek and Roman mythology
Orpheus was a hero and outstanding
musician. Eurydice was his wife. Several
books, movies, and musical pieces have
been written about their tragic love story.
According to legend, Orpheus mother
was a Muse. The Muses were goddesses
who inspired musicians and artists.
Orpheus sang and played a stringed
instrument called a lyre. No one could
resist Orpheus music. Even the animals
and trees moved around him in dance.
The story of Orpheus and Eurydice was a
tragic love story. Orpheus failed to bring
Eurydice back from the land of the dead.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Orpheus and Eurydice 151
Orpheus married Eurydice. But she died
of a snakebite shortly after their wedding.
Overcome with grief, Orpheus
went to the land of the dead to try to
bring her back.
Orpheus played his lyre for Hades, the
god of the underworld. Hades was so
moved, he agreed to let Orpheus get his
wife. But there was one condition:
Orpheus could not look back at her
until they were out of the underworld.
So Orpheus and Eurydice climbed up
through the darkness. When Orpheus
first saw the suns light, he turned back
to share his happiness with his wife. She
then disappeared from view and was lost
to him forever.
#More to explore
Greece, Ancient Hades Muse
Mythology
Osage
The Osage are a Native American
people distantly related to the Sioux.
They first lived in eastern North
America, along the coast of the Atlantic
Ocean. Later they moved westward
along with several other related tribes,
including the Kaw, the Omaha, the
Ponca, and the Quapaw.
The Osage built their villages in river
valleys. Families lived in longhouses,
which were made of pole frames covered
with grass mats or animal skins. The
Osage grew corn, beans, squash, and
pumpkins. They also hunted bison (buffalo)
on the Great Plains. While on the
hunt the Osage lived in tepees.
In the early 1800s the U.S. government
forced the Osage to move to the Kansas
area. In 1871 the tribe moved to a reservation
in northern Indian Territory
(now Oklahoma).
In the 1890s oil was discovered on the
Osage reservation. The Osage sold the
oil and made a lot of money. At the end
of the 20th century there were more
than 7,500 Osage. Most of them lived
in Oklahoma.
#More to explore
Kaw Native Americans Omaha
Ponca Quapaw Sioux
Osceola
Osceola was a military leader of the
Seminole, a Native American people. In
the 1830s the U.S. government tried to
force the Seminole to leave their homeland
in Florida. Osceola fought a war to
prevent that.
Peter Bigheart was a chief of the
Osage.
French explorers
Jacques
Marquette and
Louis Jolliet
were the first
Europeans to
come into contact
with the
Osage.
152 Osage BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Osceola was born in Georgia in about
1804. His mother belonged to the
Native American group called the
Creek. His father may have been a
white trader.
When Osceola was a boy, the U.S. government
forced many Creek out of Alabama
and Georgia. Osceolas family
moved to northern Florida. They joined
the Seminole.
Osceola first attracted attention by
speaking out against the Treaty of
Paynes Landing. This was an agreement
that called for the Seminole to be moved
to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma).
Osceola went to prison for fighting
against the move. He was released after
pretending to change his mind. He then
organized a fighting force. The warriors
killed the U.S. official who had jailed
Osceola. They also killed the Seminole
chief who had signed the treaty. These
attacks sparked the Second Seminole
War in 1835.
Osceolas warriors killed as many as
2,000 U.S. soldiers. Osceola himself was
slightly wounded.
In 1837 Osceola agreed to meet with
U.S. officials. They seized him during
peace talks. The public was outraged.
Osceola was put in a South Carolina
prison. He died there on January 30,
1838. The Seminole continued fighting
until 1842. Then most of them moved
to Oklahoma.
..More to explore
Native Americans Seminole
Osiris
..see Isis and Osiris.
Oslo
Population
(2008
estimate), city,
560,484; urban
area, 856,915
Oslo is the capital of Norway, a country
in northern Europe. It is Norways largest
city and busiest seaport. Most of the
countrys major museums, theaters, and
other cultural centers are in Oslo.
Most people in Oslo work for the government
or businesses that provide services.
Oslo is Norways center of trade,
banking, industry, and shipping. Ship-
Osceola
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Oslo 153
building and engineering also are leading
industries in the city. Many
companies in Oslo are involved in high
technology, communications, medicine,
research, and energy.
People settled in the Oslo area in about
1000. King Harald III Sigurdsson of
Norway founded a town there in about
1050. In 1624 a fire completely
destroyed Oslo.
King Christian IV, who ruled Denmark
and Norway, then built a new town
across the river. The new town was
named Christiana. It became the capital
of Norway in 1814. During the 1800s
Christiana grew rapidly and became
Norways largest city. In 1925 the city
was renamed Oslo.
#More to explore
Norway
Ostrich
The ostrich is the largest living bird. Its
scientific name is Struthio camelus.
Unlike most other birds, the ostrich
cannot fly. But it can run very fast. An
ostrich can run at a speed of 45 miles
(72 kilometers) per hour.
In the wild ostriches are found in the
countryside in parts of Africa. Some
people also raise ostriches for the birds
meat, eggs, and hides.
Ostriches are tall birds. The males may
reach a height of 8 feet (2.4 meters) or
more. The females are somewhat
smaller.
Male ostriches are mostly black, with
white feathers on the wings and tail. The
females are mostly brown. An ostrichs
head and neck are lightly covered with
short feathers. The legs are strong and
do not have any feathers. Each leg ends
in two toes.
Ostriches use their short, wide bills to
graze on grasses and other plants. They
sometimes eat insects, too.
The eggs of ostriches are the largest eggs
in the world. They average about 6
inches (15 centimeters) in length and 5
inches (13 centimeters) across.
#More to explore
Bird Bird, Flightless
Oto
The Native Americans known as the
Oto were once part of a Great Lakes
Ostriches have
big brown
eyes with thick
lashes.
Male ostriches have black and
white feathers.
154 Ostrich BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
people called the Winnebago. Long ago
a large group ofWinnebago broke away
and moved west. There they split into
three tribes called the Iowa, the Missouri,
and the Oto. The Oto settled in
what are now the states of Missouri,
Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska.
The Oto lived in houses that they made
by covering a wood frame with mud.
They grew crops such as corn, beans,
squash, and melons. They hunted deer,
raccoons, turkeys, and rabbits. They also
hunted bison (buffalo) on the Great
Plains.
The Oto rejoined the Missouri people in
1829. The U.S. government made the
Oto and the Missouri give up most of
their land. In the 1880s the government
forced the tribes to move to a reservation
in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma).
There they became known as the Otoe-
Missouria Tribe of Oklahoma. In the
late 20th century there were about
1,500 Otoe-Missouria in the United
States.
..More to explore
Native Americans Winnebago
Ottawa
Population
(2006 census),
city, 812,129;
metropolitan
area,
1,130,761
Ottawa is the capital of Canada, a country
in North America. The city lies
where the Gatineau, Ottawa, and
Rideau rivers meet in the province of
Ontario. Across the Ottawa River is the
province of Quebec.
Many people in Ottawa work for the
government. Many others work in
health care, trade, education, or communications.
Tourism is also one of the
citys leading industries. Hundreds of
companies in Ottawa design and make
electronics, computers, software, and
other high-technology products.
American Indians lived in the Ottawa
area hundreds of years ago. In the 1600s
French explorers and traders began traveling
along the areas rivers. Great Britain
took control of Canada in the late
1700s.
In 1826 a British engineer named John
By began building the Rideau Canal in
the area. The canal joined the Ottawa
River and Lake Ontario. Many builders
came to work on the canal. A settlement
called Bytown soon grew near the building
site. In 1855 Bytown was renamed
Ottawa, after the Ottawa Indians. The
British queen Victoria named Ottawa
the capital of Canada in 1857.
..More to explore
Canada Ontario
Otter
Otters are mammals that live in and
around water. Unlike most other animals,
otters are playful even as adults.
They like to slide down riverbanks and
in snow. Otters are found throughout
Ottawa is one
of the largest
Frenchspeaking
cities
in Canada.
Over half of
the residents
speak the
language.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Otter 155
Africa, North and South America,
Europe, and Asia. They belong to the
weasel family.
Most species, or kinds, of otter live near
rivers. Some live near lakes or streams.
The sea otter lives in the ocean. Otters
are great swimmers and divers. They eat
fish, shellfish, and other water animals.
Otters have a slender body, a long neck,
and short legs. They are typically 3 to 5
feet (1 to 1.5 meters) long and weigh
between 6.5 and 60 pounds (3 and 27
kilograms). The sea otter is the heaviest.
It weighs almost 90 pounds (41 kilograms).
Webbed feet and a long, flattened
tail help otters swim. Thick fur
keeps them warm in cold water. The fur
is usually brown, sometimes with white
markings. Female otters have one to five
young at a time.
Some otter species are endangered, or in
danger of dying out. Pollution has damaged
land where otters once lived. Also,
people hunt otters for their fur.
#More to explore
Endangered Species Mammal
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire began in what is
now Turkey in about 1300. Eventually,
it grew to cover much of the Middle
East, southeastern Europe, and North
Africa. During the 1400s and 1500s the
Ottoman Empire was one of the worlds
great powers. In the 1900s the remains
of the empire became the Republic of
Turkey.
Growth of the Empire
The empire was named after its founder,
Osman I. Osman was born in 1258 in
Anatolia, or Asia Minor (modern Turkey).
His people were the Turks, who
were Muslims (followers of Islam).
Osman led the Turks against the Byzantines,
who were Christians. He and the
leaders who followed him took over
many Byzantine territories.
In 1453 the Ottomans captured Constantinople,
the capital of the Byzantine
Empire. They renamed the city Istanbul
and made it their own capital.
In 1517 the Ottomans took control of
Mecca and Medina, the holiest cities of
Islam. After that, the Ottoman ruler, or
sultan, was seen as the leader of Islam.
Suleyman I, the sultan from 1520 to
1566, expanded the empire further.
During his reign, the Ottoman Empire
stretched from Hungary to the Persian
There are 13 species, or types,
of otter. They all have long, flat
tails that make it easier to swim.
156 Ottoman Empire BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gulf. Its lands also included Egypt and
the coast of North Africa.
End of the Empire
The Ottoman Empire began to lose
power in the late 1500s. Economic
problems led to unrest among people
ruled by the empire. In 1683 the Ottomans
failed in an attempt to capture the
city of Vienna in Austria. This battle led
to a century of wars with European leaders.
The Ottomans lost a great deal of
territory as a result.
In WorldWar I (191418) the empire
fought with Germany on the losing side.
This defeat caused the empire to fall
apart completely. In 1923 a group of
young Turks formed the new country of
Turkey.
..More to explore
Islam Istanbul Turkey
Ouagadougou
Population
(2006 census)
1,181,702
Ouagadougou is the capital of Burkina
Faso, a country in western Africa. It is
the largest city in Burkina Faso.
Many people in Ouagadougou work for
the government. Many other people
work in service industries such as health
care and banking.
Ouagadougou was founded in the 1000s
or 1100s. It became the capital of a
kingdom of the Mossi people in the
The Ottoman Empire once controlled lands in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ouagadougou 157
1400s. The Mossi are the largest group
of people in Burkina Faso today. The
leader of the Mossi people still lives in
Ouagadougou.
In 1919 France made the area into a
colony called Upper Volta. In 1960
Upper Volta became an independent
country with Ouagadougou as its capital.
The country was renamed Burkina
Faso in 1984.
#More to explore
Burkina Faso
Oviraptor
When scientists discovered Oviraptor it
appeared to be lying on top of the eggs
of another dinosaur. They named the
dinosaur Oviraptor, which means egg
thief.
When and Where Oviraptor
Lived
Oviraptor lived 99 to 65 million years
ago. Remains of Oviraptor have been
found mainly in Asia, but some also
have been found in North America.
Physical Features
Oviraptor grew to a length of about 6
feet (1.8 meters) and stood about 3 feet
(0.9 meter) tall. It weighed about 70
pounds (32 kilograms). The dinosaur
had a razor-sharp beak instead of teeth.
Its head was short and deep and looked
like the head of a parrot. It stood and
walked on its two slender back legs. Its
front legs were shorter than the back
legs. Oviraptor had a long tail, which
may have helped it to balance.
Behavior
Scientists found the first Oviraptor skeleton
in the nest of what they believed
was a horned dinosaur. They assumed
that it fed on eggs stolen from the nest.
Later discoveries made scientists believe
that Oviraptor was trying to hatch its
own eggs.
#More to explore
Dinosaur
Oviraptor was much larger than a modern chicken.
158 Oviraptor BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Owens, Jesse
African American track-and-field athlete
Jesse Owens won four gold medals at
the 1936 Olympic Games. His achievements
were important for himself and
for many other people at the time. The
Games were held in Berlin, Germany.
Nazi leader Adolf Hitler was in power
there. The Nazis believed white athletes
were best. But Owens proved that they
were wrong.
James Cleveland Owens was born in
Oakville, Alabama, on September 12,
1913. His family later moved to Cleveland,
Ohio, in search of better opportunities.
In school James, or J.C., became
known as Jesse.
Jesse became a track star at a young age.
In 1928 he set track records in the high
jump and the running broad jump (long
jump). In 1933, while he was in high
school, he broke three other records. He
then went to Ohio State University.
In the Olympics Owens won gold
medals for the running broad jump, the
100- and 200-meter races, and the 4 .
100-meter team relay. He also set new
Olympic and world records.
Owens graduated from college in 1937
and worked for the Illinois Athletic
Commission. He later got involved in
guidance activities for young boys. He
also made goodwill visits to countries in
Asia for the U.S. government. Owens
died from cancer in Phoenix, Arizona,
on March 31, 1980.
#More to explore
African Americans Olympic Games
Owl
Owls are birds of prey, meaning that they
hunt and eat animals. Unlike most other
birds of prey, owls are nocturnal, or active
Like all owls, the common barn owl has
large eyes, a hooked beak, and sharp claws.
Jesse Owens runs in the 1936 Olympic
Games.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Owl 159
at night. Common types of owl include
barn owls and the short-eared owl.
Owls live around the world in almost
every kind of habitat. Their length varies
from about 5 to 28 inches (13 to 71
centimeters). Most owls have brown,
gray, or white feathers with streaks or
spots.
All owls look about the same. Each owl
has a large head, a flat face, a hooked
beak, and large eyes. It also has a short
tail, long wings, and sharp claws. Owls
have excellent eyesight and hearing. An
owl cannot move its eyes much. But it
can turn its head far around to look
directly backward.
Most owls eat small animals such as
mice, voles, and rabbits. Some owls eat
insects, birds, or other animals.
Owls make a variety of sounds. An owl
may snap its bill, clap its wings in flight,
or sing. Its song may be anything from
deep hoots to chirps or whistles.
#More to explore
Bird Bird of Prey
Oyster
#see Bivalve.
Ozone
Ozone is a pale blue gas. It is a form of
oxygen. The common form of oxygen is
a gas that all animals need to breathe.
But ozone is poisonous and explosive. It
differs from common oxygen in its
chemical makeup. Each molecule of
common oxygen has two atoms. Each
ozone molecule has three atoms.
Ozone is a natural part of Earths upper
atmosphere. This part of the atmosphere,
about 15 miles (24 kilometers)
above the surface, is called the ozone
layer. It protects people by absorbing
harmful rays from the sun. If they reach
Earth, these rays can cause skin cancer,
eye diseases, and other health problems.
Some chemicals used in industry can
destroy this protective ozone. Scientists
have found a hole in the ozone layer
over Antarctica.
Though ozone is helpful high above
Earth, it is a form of air pollution near
Earths surface. Even very small
amounts can irritate peoples eyes and
cause coughing. Automobile exhaust
combined with sunlight can increase
the amount of ozone in the air.
#More to explore
Atmosphere Molecule Pollution
Images from satellites high above Earth
show the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica.
Most owls
swallow their
prey whole.
They later spit
up the bones,
fur, and feathers
that they
cannot digest.
160 Oyster BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7
eBook edition January, 2010
Baseball great Satchel Paige
entered the major leagues in
1948, when he was about 42
years old.
(See Paige, Satchel.)
The Russian tsar Peter the Great
disguised himself and worked
in shipyards in England and the
Netherlands. He did this to
learn about the West.
(See Peter the Great.)
Philosophy means love of
wisdom in Greek.
(See Philosophy.)
The Spanish artist Pablo Picasso
created many famous paintings,
including a masterpiece
called Guernica.
(See Picasso, Pablo.)
Bees and other animals carry
pollen, the substance that
causes plants to form seeds,
from flower to flower.
(See Pollen.)
Pp
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific is the largest of Earths
oceans. It covers more of Earths surface
than all the dry land put together. The
explorer Ferdinand Magellan named the
ocean El Mar pacifico, which means the
peaceful sea.
Physical Features
The Pacific Ocean extends to North
America and South America to the east.
Asia and Australia lie to the west. From
north to south, the Pacific extends from
the Arctic Ocean to the broad coast of
Antarctica. It covers about 63,800,000
square miles (165,250,000 square kilometers)
in area.
The deepest point in the Pacificor
anywhere on Earthis the Mariana
Trench, near the Mariana Islands. At
36,201 feet (11,034 meters), it is much
deeper than Earths highest mountain,
Mount Everest, is high.
Under most of the Pacific Ocean lies the
enormous Pacific Plate. A plate is a rigid
section of Earths crust that moves
slowly in relation to other plates. Several
of these other plates surround the Pacific
Plate. Many volcanoes and earthquakes
occur where these plates meet. The
chain of volcanoes around the edges of
the Pacific is called the ring of fire.
Many large islands lie in the western
Pacific. These include the island groups
of Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and
New Zealand. Smaller islands are scattered
over a large area of the central and
western Pacific, called Oceania. Volcanoes
formed some of these islands, like
Hawaii. Other islands are made of coral.
Currents and Climate
Winds drive the water near the oceans
surface into patterns called currents. In
the North Pacific, the main current
moves in a clockwise direction. The
main current in the South Pacific runs
counterclockwise. This means that in
the extreme north and south, most
winds and currents run eastward, while
near the equator they run westward.
Ocean winds and currents affect climate
on land. For example, the Kuroshio, or
Many islands in the Pacific Ocean were
formed from the stony skeletons of countless
coral animals.
4 Pacific Ocean BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Japan Current, carries warm weather
north to Japan and then east to the
Pacific coast of Alaska and Canada.
Heat and water vapor (gas) sometimes
combine to create large, circular storms
with destructive winds and drenching
rainfall. This type of storm is known as a
typhoon. Typhoons are similar to hurricanes,
which form in the Atlantic
Ocean. Typhoons are most common in
warm areas of the western Pacific.
Economy
The Pacific Ocean has abundant mineral
resources. People take salt, bromine, and
magnesium from the water. They take
sand, gravel, and phosphate rock from
the seabed. The ocean also has a rich
variety of fish and other marine life. In
addition, many ships on the Pacific carry
goods between countries.
Exploration
People from Southeast Asia settled the
islands of the Pacific over a long period
starting about 3,000 to 4,000 years ago.
The first known Europeans to see the
Pacific Ocean were Spanish explorers
led by Vasco Nunez de Balboa. Balboa
saw the ocean from what is now
Panama in 1513. The navigator
Ferdinand Magellan entered the Pacific
Ocean from the south in 1520. Dutch,
French, and British explorers followed
the Spanish. Captain James Cook of
Great Britain explored the islands of the
South Pacific in the 1700s. After he
died in 1779, there were few islands
that remained to be discovered by the
outside world.
Environmental Issues
People have polluted some parts of the
Pacific, especially near the shores of big
cities and ports. Large amounts of factory
waste, sewage, fertilizers, and pesticides
have found their way into the
ocean. Oil spills from ships have caused
major problems in coastal areas. In addition,
overfishing in the Pacific has
greatly reduced the numbers of some
types of fish and other sea animals.
#More to explore
Magellan, Ferdinand Ocean Oceania
Ring of Fire
Paige, Satchel
Satchel Paige was an outstanding U.S.
baseball player. He was a pitcher known
for the speed and control of his fastball.
A Pacific
Ocean current
called El Nino
can cause
storms in
California,
droughts in
Australia, and
other unusual
weather.
Container ships carry goods
across the Pacific Ocean
between Asia and North American
ports, such as Seattle, Washington.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Paige, Satchel 5
Leroy Robert Paige was born in Mobile,
Alabama, probably on July 7, 1906. As a
child he earned money by carrying
satchels, or bags, for people at the railroad
station. This might be how he got
the nickname Satchel. Paige became a
good pitcher of fastballs while he was in
school.
Paige spent most of his professional
baseball career in the Negro leagues. He
and other African Americans could not
play in the major leagues at the time.
Paige entered the Negro leagues in 1926.
He played for a number of teams,
including the Birmingham Black Barons,
the Pittsburgh Crawfords, and the
Kansas City Monarchs.
Paige was finally allowed into the major
leagues in 1948. At about 42 years old,
he was the oldest rookie ever in the
major leagues. Paige helped the Cleveland
Indians win theWorld Series that
year. Paige later pitched for the Saint
Louis Browns.
Paige retired after the 1953 season. He
had played for almost 30 years. He
might have won as many as 2,000
games. Paige was elected to the Baseball
Hall of Fame in 1971. He died on June
8, 1982.
#More to explore
Baseball
Paine, Thomas
Thomas Paine was an important writer
and thinker during the American Revolution.
His powerful words moved many
American colonists to join the fight
against British rule.
Paine was born in Thetford, England,
on January 29, 1737. At age 13 he left
school to work for his father. As he grew
up Paine moved from job to job.
Satchel Paige
Common Sense by Thomas
Paine used plain language to
convince American colonists to
demand independence from
Great Britain.
6 Paine, Thomas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Paine never did well in England. When
he was in his 30s he met Benjamin Franklin
in London. Franklin encouraged
Paine to move to America.
In 1774 Paine moved to the American
colonies.With Franklins help Paine
began publishing his opinions in articles
and pamphlets.
One of Paines most famous pamphlets
was Common Sense, published in 1776.
Common Sense urged the colonies to
declare independence from Great Britain.
Paines simple but strong message
moved many people to action.
After the American Revolution Paine
wrote against the rich. He recommended
ways to help the poor. He refused to
take money for his writing and fell into
poverty.
In his later years Paine wrote against
organized religion. This angered people
in Britain and the United States. He
became an outcast and suffered poor
health. Paine died on June 8, 1809, in
New York City.
#More to explore
American Revolution Franklin,
Benjamin
Painting
The art of creating pictures using colors,
tones, shapes, lines, and textures is called
painting. Museums and galleries show
the paintings of professional artists. But
painting is also a popular form of entertainment
and creative expression.
People of all ages create pictures using a
variety of materials. Experienced painters
usually use a brush to apply oil paints or
acrylic paints to a canvas cloth surface.
Young painters usually use watercolors
on sheets of paper. Very young children
may use finger paints to create paintings.
Subjects
Painters can use their art to express
devotion to a religion, to tell a story, to
express feelings and ideas, or simply to
present a pleasing image. Religious
paintings often portray a god or a scene
from a sacred text. Other common subjects
have been famous legends and
events in history, as well as scenes from
daily life. Artists also paint portraits, or
pictures of people. Sometimes artists
make portraits of themselves, which are
called self-portraits. All of these types of
paintings portray the human figure in
some way.
Some kinds of painting do not focus on
people. In landscape painting the focus
is on scenes from nature. Artists also
paint motionless objects such as fruits
A young painter uses paint, a brush, and
her imagination to fill up a blank sheet.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Painting 7
and vegetables. These works are called
still-life paintings. Some artists communicate
their ideas through images that do
not represent any specific object. These
works are called abstract paintings.
Elements of Design
The design of a painting is the arrangement
of its lines, shapes, colors, tones,
and textures into a pattern. The combination
of colors and shapes can communicate
a particular mood or produce a
sensation of space, volume, movement,
and light. Paintings are two-dimensional
because they are created on a flat surface
that has length and width but not
depth. Some paintings look flat. Others,
though, can look three-dimensional
because of the way the painter uses lines,
shading, and geometric shapes.
History
Humans have been making paintings for
thousands of years. Paintings dating
back 15,000 years have been found on
the walls of caves in France and Spain.
Cave paintings generally show animals
that early humans hunted. Samples of
painted pottery from at least 5,000 years
ago have been found in China and Iran.
The ancient Egyptians decorated their
tombs and temples with elaborate paintings.
People in ancient Greece painted
decorative objects such as vases in addition
to the walls of temples.
Middle Ages
In many places, including ancient
Egypt, Greece, Rome, and China, artists
created miniature (very small) paintings
to illustrate written texts. These texts are
known as illuminated manuscripts.
Miniature painting was long an important
art form in India and parts of the
Middle East. In Europe many illustrated
handwritten Bibles and other special
books were made during the Middle
Ages (AD 500 to 1500).
Artists in eastern Europe also started
painting religious pictures on wooden
About 14,000 years ago prehistoric artists
filled the ceiling of a cave in Spain with
images of bison.
A small painting of chess players
decorates a manuscript that was
created in Persia (now Iran) in
about 1560.
8 Painting BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
panels. Toward the end of the Middle
Ages European painters began creating
easel paintings, or smaller works created
on a portable frame called an easel. Easel
paintings can be moved and hung on
walls.
Meanwhile the Chinese and Japanese
began a long tradition of creating watercolor
and ink paintings on long scrolls
of paper or silk. Many of the Chinese
scrolls were landscapes, while the Japanese
scrolls often told a story by mixing
text with pictures.
Renaissance
Great developments in European art
occurred during a period called the
Renaissance (mid-1300s to 1500s).
Renaissance artists began to paint more
realistic pictures than those of the
Middle Ages. To do this, they carefully
observed the world around them. They
also developed many painting
techniques to create the illusion of a
three-dimensional world on a flat
painting.
In Florence and Rome (now in Italy)
artists such as Raphael, Leonardo da
Vinci, and Michelangelo introduced
bold ideas. Leonardo in particular
experimented with ways to create more
natural shades of color and light. Later
the Italian painters Titian, Tintoretto,
and Paolo Veronese made Venice a
major center of art. The Italian
Renaissance influenced many artists in
other parts of Europe, including
Albrecht Durer in Germany, Pieter
Brueghel in what is now Belgium, and
El Greco, who created his great works
in Spain.
Chinese painters have often used
ink instead of paint.
In the 1500s the Italian Renaissance artist
Titian painted a portrait of a young woman
arranging her hair.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Painting 9
Baroque, Rococo,
and Neoclassicism
In the 1600s a style of art known as
baroque became popular in Europe.
Baroque paintings use rich colors and
dramatic effects of light and shade to
express strong emotions. The bestknown
baroque painters were the Italian
artist Caravaggio and the Flemish artist
Peter Paul Rubens. Other great painters
of the 1600s were the Spanish artist
Diego Velazquez and the Dutch artists
Rembrandt and Jan Vermeer.
In the 1700s French painters such as
Jean-AntoineWatteau created a style
known as rococo. Their paintings featured
soft landscapes and decorative
scenes of elegantly dressed people.
Reacting against the rococo style, artists
such as Jacques-Louis David created a
style called neoclassicism (meaning new
classicism) in the late 1700s. They
painted scenes from the classical world
(ancient Greece and Rome) with clean
lines and no extra details.
Romanticism and Realism
Some artists of the 1800s wanted to
express their imagination and emotions
in very personal paintings. They were
part of a movement called romanticism.
Many of these painters also had a strong
appreciation for nature. For example,
the English painters John Constable and
J.M.W. Turner used light and color with
great freedom in their landscapes.
Other artists of the 1800s painted in a
style called realism. Instead of focusing
on historical themes or grand ideas, they
were interested in realistically showing
everyday life and its problems. For
example, the French realist painter
Gustave Courbet believed that paintings
should inspire social change.
Impressionism and Beyond
In the late 1800s a group of French artists
tried to capture the fleeting effects of
light on colors in nature. Some tried to
reproduce the effect of reflected light by
putting thick touches of bright, contrasting
color side by side. This style of
painting came to be known as impressionism.
Some of the greatest impressionists
were Edouard Manet, Pierre-
Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro,
Claude Monet, and Edgar Degas.
Artists known as postimpressionists carried
the movement further, with their
own approaches to colors, shapes, and
subject matter. Georges Seurat of France
developed a style in which he painted
entirely by using dots of color. This style
was called pointillism. The Dutch artist
The color in
paint comes
from substances
called
pigments. Pigments
are
ground into a
powder and
mixed with oils
or other
substances.
The French impressionist artist Camille Pissarro
tried to show how sunlight falls on
objects in an orchard.
10 Painting BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Vincent van Gogh expressed powerful
emotions by using rich colors and strong
brushstrokes. A French painter, Paul
Gauguin, used startling color to capture
nontraditional scenes, especially of the
South Pacific island of Tahiti.
Modern Painting
The impressionists and postimpressionists
paved the way for modern forms of
painting. Many modern painters have
created abstract art, which does not represent
anything from the outside world.
Instead of showing recognizable people,
places, or objects, these paintings focus
on shapes, lines, colors, and textures.
The Russian-born artist Wassily Kandinsky
created some of the first abstract
paintings in the early 1900s.
Pablo Picasso, a major painter of the
1900s, helped create a partly abstract
style of painting called cubism. In cubism
forms were broken apart into
simple, flat shapes. Often more than one
side of a person or object was shown at
the same time. For example, the side of a
persons nose might show, along with
the front of both eyes.
In the 1920s artists such as Salvador
Dali and Joan Miro of Spain combined
images from fantasy and reality in a style
called surrealism. Surrealist painters
sometimes showed ordinary objects in
unexpected settingsfor instance, a
train emerging above a fireplace.
Several important painters of the time
had highly individual styles. The French
artist Henri Matisse experimented with
bold color and repeated patterns. The
Russian-born French artist Marc Chagall
filled his paintings with dreamlike
images in rich colors.
In the United States there had been a
strong tradition of realism. Some U.S.
painters of the 1900s, including Edward
Hopper, GrantWood, and Andrew
Wyeth, continued in that tradition.
Others, such as Georgia OKeeffe, were
influenced by newer styles. OKeeffe is
known for her partially abstract paintings
of animal bones, flowers, and rocks.
In the 1940s several artists in New York
City created a style of painting called
abstract expressionism. Painters such as
Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning,
and Mark Rothko used new techniques
to create abstract pictures that expressed
their feelings or free creativity. For
instance, Pollock would lay a large canvas
on the floor and drip and spill paint
onto it.
In the 20th century Mexican artist Jose
Clemente Orozco made colorful paintings
on Mexican subjects.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Painting 11
In the 1950s a movement known as pop
art began. Artists such as Roy Lichtenstein
and AndyWarhol used objects
from popular (or pop) culture such as
soup cans, street signs, advertisements,
and comic strips in their work.
Artists continued to explore new ways of
painting into the 21st century. They
experimented with new materials and
sometimes caused controversy by portraying
religious and historical subjects
in startling ways.
#More to explore
Color Greco, El Leonardo da Vinci
Michelangelo Museum Picasso,
Pablo Rembrandt Van Gogh,
Vincent Warhol, Andy
Paiute
The Paiute are Native Americans of the
western United States. The tribe is
divided into two groups, the Southern
Paiute and the Northern Paiute. The
Southern Paiute traditionally lived in
what are now Utah, Arizona, Nevada,
and California. The Northern Paiute
lived in what are now Oregon, Idaho,
Nevada, and California.
Most of the Paiute traditionally got their
food by hunting, fishing, and gathering
wild plants. They moved as the seasons
changed. They stopped in places where
food and water were available. While on
the move the Paiute lived in wickiups.
Wickiups were simple huts covered with
brush.
White traders arrived on Paiute lands in
the early 1800s. They offered the Paiute
guns and other goods in exchange for
furs. In the 1830s and 1840s many settlers
traveled through Paiute territory on
the way to California and Oregon. Late
in the 1800s the U.S. government
forced the Paiute to give up their land
and move to reservations.
At the end of the 20th century there were
about 10,000 Paiute. They lived mostly
on or near reservation lands in Arizona,
California, Nevada,Oregon, and Utah.
#More to explore
Native Americans
Two people view an abstract painting by
the 20th-century Spanish artist Joan Miro.
A photograph from the early
1900s shows a Paiute woman
making a basket.
12 Paiute BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Pakistan
Pakistan is a Muslim country in southern
Asia. It shares its early history with
its neighbor India. Pakistan separated
from India in 1947. Pakistans capital is
Islamabad.
Geography
Pakistan shares borders with Iran,
Afghanistan, China, and India. The
Arabian Sea, a part of the Indian
Ocean, lies to the south. The region
called Kashmir is to the northeast.
Pakistan and India have long fought for
control of Kashmir.
In northern Pakistan the Himalayas and
the Karakoram Range include some of
the highest mountains in the world.
Among them is K2, the worlds second
tallest peak at 28,251 feet (8,611
meters). (Only Mount Everest is taller.)
Western Pakistan is a very dry region of
deserts, salt lakes, and a narrow plain
along the coast. The Indus River flows
through fertile plains in the east.
Pakistan has hot summers and cool or
cold winters. It is generally very dry.
Winds called monsoons bring some rain
in the summer.
Plants and Animals
Some forests grow on Pakistans
mountain slopes. Grasses, dry bushes,
and small trees grow in the rest of the
country.
Brown bears, black Himalayan bears,
wild sheep, and rare snow leopards live
in the northern mountains. The area
near the mouth of the Indus River has
crocodiles, pythons, and wild boars.
Jackals, foxes, wildcats, and many
rodents and reptiles live throughout the
country.
People
The people of Pakistan are a mixture of
different groups that have come to the
region over thousands of years. The five
major groups are the Punjabis, the
Pashtuns, the Sindhis, the Balochis, and
the muhajirs. Punjabis make up about
half of the population. Their language,
called Punjabi, is the most commonly
spoken one.
Almost everyone in Pakistan practices
Islam. When Pakistan separated from
the Hindu state of India, millions of
Muslims left India to settle in Pakistan.
Those people and their descendants are
the muhajirs. They speak Urdu. Urdu is
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Pakistan 13
also the language of government and
education.
The majority of the people live in rural
areas, but the cities have grown rapidly.
Most people live in the east.
Economy
Many Pakistanis work in services,
including transportation, communications,
and government work. Many others
work in agriculture. The main crops
are wheat, rice, sugarcane, and cotton.
Farmers also raise goats, sheep, cattle,
and water buffalo.
Agriculture provides raw materials for
some of Pakistans most important
industries. Pakistan sells cotton cloth and
clothing to other countries.Workers
make carpets out of wool and leather
goods from hides and skins. Other
industries in Pakistan make fertilizers,
processed foods, and cement. The
country also mines some coal, oil, and
natural gas.
History
Pakistan shares much of its early history
with India. More than 4,000 years ago
people in what is now Pakistan built
great cities in the valley of the Indus
River. The Indus Valley civilization
lasted until 1700 BC. Greeks, Turks,
and other peoples later invaded the
region.
The Mughal Empire took power in the
early AD 1500s. The Mughal rulers practiced
Islam. Some of the finest mosques
(Muslim houses of worship), shrines,
tombs, and gardens in Pakistan were
created under the Mughal Empire.
In the 1850s the government of Great
Britain took over India. The Pakistan
region was a part of British India until
the mid-1900s.
Separation from India
In 1947 Britain divided British India
into two new countries: Pakistan and
India. The parts of British India that
A Pakistani girl works in a cotton field.
Ancient tombs stand in ruins in southeastern
Pakistan.
Facts About
PAKISTAN
Population
(2008 estimate)
161,910,000
Area
307,374 sq mi
(796,096 sq km)
Capital
Islamabad
Form of
government
Military-backed
constitutional
regime
Major cities
Karachi, Lahore,
Faisalabad, Rawalpindi,
Multan
14 Pakistan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
had more Muslims became Pakistan.
The parts with more Hindus became
India. Pakistan included two regions,
West and East Pakistan. They were separated
by more than 1,000 miles (1,600
kilometers) of Indian territory.
After the British left, many Muslims left
India for Pakistan, and many Hindus
left Pakistan for India. Many Muslims
and Hindus killed each other during this
period.
War
Both Pakistan and India wanted the
region called Kashmir. The conflict over
Kashmir led to war between the
countries in 1965. Pakistan and India
agreed to end the war later that year,
but they continued to battle over the
territory from time to time.
Meanwhile, the people of East Pakistan
demanded independence fromWest
Pakistan. A civil war between the two
Pakistans began in 1971.With the help
of the Indian army, East Pakistan
became the independent country of
Bangladesh in 1972. Pakistans territory
now included onlyWest Pakistan.
Recent Times
The government of Pakistan changed
often after independence. The military
seized control of the country several
times. In 1999 an army general named
Pervez Musharraf took power. In 2001
Musharraf supported the United States
in its war on terrorists in nearby
Afghanistan. Many Pakistanis protested
Musharrafs decision to help the United
States. Musharraf also faced terrorist
attacks within Pakistan. In 2008 he was
forced to give up control of the country.
A new president was elected in September
of that year.
..More to explore
Bangladesh India Indus Valley
Civilization Islam Islamabad
Mughal Empire
about
2500 BC 1526 1858 1947 1965 1972 1999
The Indus
Valley
civilization
develops.
The Muslim
Mughal Empire
begins.
The British
government
takes over
India.
Pakistan gains
independence.
Pakistan fights
India over the
territory of
Kashmir.
East Pakistan
wins
independence
as Bangladesh.
General Pervez
Musharraf
takes power in
Pakistan.
T I M E L I N E
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Pakistan 15
Palau
The Republic of Palau is a chain of small
islands in the western Pacific Ocean.
After gaining independence in 1994,
Palau established a temporary capital on
Koror Island. In 2006 Palau established
a new capital at Melekeok on Babelthuap
Island.
Geography
Palau is part of the island group known
as Micronesia, which is in the Pacific
region called Oceania. Palau includes
about 340 small islands. Babelthuap is
the largest island. Koror Island is much
smaller, but most of the countrys people
live there. Raised ridges of coral called
coral reefs surround the islands. Palau
has a hot climate with heavy rain.
Plants and Animals
Grasslands and rain forests cover
Babelthuap Island. Coconut palm trees
grow throughout Palau. More than 350
kinds of coral and 1,400 types of fish
live in Palaus waters. The islands colorful
birds include Palau doves and Palau
fantails.
People
Most of the islanders are Palauans. Filipinos
and other Asians form the next
largest group. Palauan and English are
the main languages. Christianity is the
main religion.
Economy
Tourism and fishing are important parts
of Palaus economy. Many people work
for the government. Others make clothing
or crafts. Small farms produce root
vegetables and eggs.
History
Palaus first settlers came from Indonesia,
the Philippines, New Guinea, and
other Pacific islands more than 2,000
years ago. Spanish explorers arrived in
1543. In 1899 Spain sold the islands to
Germany. Japan seized Palau at the start
ofWorldWar I (191418).
The United States took Palau from Japan
duringWorldWar II (193945). Palau
became an independent country in 1994.
..More to explore
Oceania
Palau is made up of more than 300 small
islands.
Facts About
PALAU
Population
(2008 estimate)
20,300
Area
188 sq mi (488
sq km)
Capital
Melekeok
Form of
government
Republic
Major town
Koror
16 Palau BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Paleontology
Paleontology is the study of plants and
animals that lived millions of years ago.
Scientists called paleontologists study
the remains of these ancient organisms,
or living things. The remains, called
fossils, were preserved in rocks.
Paleontologists look for fossils all over
the world. They use special tools to carefully
remove fossils from the surrounding
rock. They note exactly where the
fossils were found. This helps them figure
out how old the fossils are.
Paleontologists can learn a lot about
ancient living things by studying fossils.
They can find out where an organism
lived and what it looked like. They can
identify what an organism ate and which
animals killed it for food. They can also
see how ancient animals and plants are
related to animals that live today.
Paleontology shows how plants, animals,
and other living things evolved, or
changed over time. Fossils help scientists
to build models of dinosaurs, early
humans, and other early animals. Paleontology
can also tell scientists about
how Earth itself has changedfor
example, how climates were different in
the past. Scientists use this information
to understand events that are happening
now and what might happen in the
future.
Paleontology is similar to the science
called archaeology. Like paleontologists,
archaeologists study life in the past. But
archaeologists focus on the remains of
things that early humans made, such as
tools and buildings.
#More to explore
Archaeology Dinosaur Evolution
Fossil Prehistoric Life
Palestine
Palestine is a region in the Middle East.
It lies between the Jordan River and the
Mediterranean Sea. Many different
peoples have lived in Palestine over
thousands of years. In 1948 most of
Palestine became the country of Israel.
The Holy Land
Palestine is sometimes called the Holy
Land. It is a sacred place for three major
religions: Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam. Palestine is important to Jews
because the ancient kingdom of Israel
was located there. It is important to
Christians because Jesus lived and
worked there. Palestine also has several
sites that are holy to Muslims.
The word
paleontology
comes from
the Greek
words for
old (paleo-),
being (-ont-)
and study
(-ology)
meaning the
study of old
beings.
A paleontologist marks dinosaur
tracks on the surface of a desert.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Palestine 17
Early History
Long ago Palestine was called Canaan.
Tribes of people called Canaanites controlled
the area for more than 1,000
years. In about 1500 BCHebrew, or Jewish,
tribes began to arrive. In about 1000
BC King David united these tribes in the
kingdom of Israel. The capital of the
kingdom was Jerusalem. In about 922
BC the kingdom split into two weaker
kingdoms. Both fell under the rule of
more powerful neighbors.
During the time that Jesus lived, Palestine
was part of the Roman Empire. By
the AD 300s Christians ruled the eastern
part of the empire, which included Palestine.
Muslim Arabs invaded in the
600s. Muslims controlled Palestine for
most of the time until the 1900s.
The boundaries of Palestine have changed through the years. When King David ruled Palestine
in ancient times, its boundary was east of the Jordan River. In modern times most
people think of Palestine as a smaller area. In 1947 the United Nations approved a plan
to split Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem in an international district.
Israel was created in 1948.
18 Palestine BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Modern Palestine
In 1917, duringWorldWar I, British
forces took control of Palestine. Great
Britain governed Palestine from the end
of the war until 1948. During this
period many Jews moved to Palestine
from around the world. In 1948 Israel
was created as a Jewish homeland.
The surrounding Arab countries did not
like having a Jewish country in Palestine.
They fought several wars with Israel.
During the wars Israel took land from
the Arabs. That land included two parts
of Palestine called the West Bank and
the Gaza Strip.
The Arabs who lived in Palestine before
Israel was created are called Palestinians.
After Israel was created, many Palestinians
had to leave their homeland. Some
started a movement to take back Palestine.
In 1964 they formed the Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO). Palestinians
sometimes attacked Israelis, who
fought back. In the 1990s Israeli and
Palestinian leaders began looking for a
peaceful solution for sharing Palestine.
However, fighting continued.
#More to explore
Christianity Islam Israel Jerusalem
Judaism Middle East
Palestine
Liberation
Organization
The Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO) is a political group that represents
the Palestinian people. The Palestinians
are Arabs who live in the region called
Palestine, at the eastern end of the
Mediterranean Sea. They lost much of
their land when the country of Israel was
created in 1948. Since then the Palestinians
have worked for the creation of an
independent Palestinian state.
The PLO was formed in 1964. It
brought various Palestinian groups
together in one organization. In 1969
Yasir Arafat took control of the PLO.
Beginning in the late 1960s the PLO
launched many attacks against Israel. Its
goal was to wipe out Israel as a country.
In the 1980s some people within the
PLO moved away from the goal of
destroying Israel. They believed that a
Palestinian state could exist alongside
Israel. In 1988 the PLOs leaders
declared an independent Palestinian
state. They also stated that Israel had a
right to exist. Some Palestinian groups
disagreed. They continued to call for
Israels destruction.
Yasir Arafat (left) of the Palestine Liberation
Organization signs a peace agreement in
1998. With him are (left to right) King Hussein
of Jordan, President Bill Clinton of the
United States, and Prime Minister Benjamin
Netanyahu of Israel.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Palestine Liberation Organization 19
In 1993 the PLO and Israel took part in
secret talks in Oslo, Norway. The talks
led to a series of peace agreements. For
the first time, Israel and the PLO each
admitted that the other had a right to
exist. Israel also agreed to gradually give
up some of the Palestinian areas it controlled.
A group called the Palestinian
Authority was created to govern these
areas. In 2005 Israel gave up the Gaza
Strip and parts of theWest Bank.
#More to explore
Israel Palestine
Palikir
Palikir is the capital of the country
named the Federated States of Micronesia.
The country is made up of many
small islands in the western Pacific
Ocean. Palikir is located near the northern
coast of Pohnpei Island. The town
has several government buildings. The
College of Micronesia has a campus just
outside Palikir.
The islands of the Federated States of
Micronesia were ruled by Spain, Germany,
Japan, and then the United
States. In 1986 Micronesia became an
independent country.
#More to explore
Micronesia, Federated States of
Palm
Palms are plants of the tropics and other
warm regions. There are about 2,800
different species, or kinds, of palm. They
grow as trees, shrubs, or vines.
A palm has a single trunk with a tuft of
large leaves at the top. The trunk can be
very tall, up to 200 feet (60 meters)
high. Or it can be so short that the plant
is almost trunkless.
Palm leaves can be shaped like fans or
feathers. They are also called fronds.
Some types of palm leaves are very long
with prickly tips.
Palms produce dry or fleshy fruits that
vary in size, shape, and structure. The
date and the betel nut are soft, fleshy
fruits. The fruit of the coconut palm is
hard on the outside and has moist
meat and liquid inside.
People of the tropics depend on palms
for food, oils, shelter, clothing, timber,
fuel, building materials, and more.
Coconuts are one of the most valuable
tropical crops. They provide oil for
cooking. The fiber of the coconut husk,
or outer covering, can be woven into
ropes and mats. Coconut shells are used
to make cups and bottles. The liquid in
the center is called coconut milk.
#More to explore
Date Fruit Tree
Palikir is not a
residential
town. That is,
no one lives
there.
Palms are a common sight on tropical
beaches.
20 Palikir BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Panama
The Central American country of
Panama links the continents of North
America and South America. The
Panama Canal cuts through the country.
It allows ships to travel easily between
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Panamas
capital is Panama City.
Geography
Panama is on the isthmus, or narrow
strip of land, that connects North and
South America. Panama borders Costa
Rica to the west and Colombia to the
east. The Caribbean Sea (part of the
Atlantic Ocean) lies to the north. The
Pacific Ocean is to the south. More
than 1,600 islands are also part of the
country.
Tall volcanic mountains extend across
Panama. The countrys highest peak is
the inactive volcano Baru, in the west.
Hundreds of rivers flow down from the
mountains. The Panama Canal cuts
through a low-lying region in central
Panama. The countrys climate is warm
and rainy.
Plants and Animals
Tropical rain forests grow in the northwest
and the east. Grasslands cover the
dryer side of the country, next to the
Pacific.
Panama has a rich mixture of animals
from both North and South America.
The South American animals include
sloths, anteaters, and armadillos. The
North American animals include jaguars,
tapirs, and deer. Among Panamas
birds are quetzals, hummingbirds, parrots,
and flycatchers.
On Panamas border with Colombia is
Darien National Park. It was established
to protect the areas many plants and
animals. The park covers about 2,305
square miles (5,970 square kilometers).
People
More than half of Panamanians are mestizos,
or people with both European and
American Indian roots. Many other
people have African roots. The rest of
the population is white, American
Indian, or Asian.
Spanish is the most common language.
Most of the people are Roman Catholics.
Some people practice Santeria, a
religion that mixes Catholic and African
beliefs. More than half of the population
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Panama 21
lives in cities or towns, especially in and
around Panama City.
Economy
Services related to the Panama Canal are
very important to Panamas economy.
Other services include banking, insurance,
and tourism.
Panamas factories make petroleum (oil)
products, beverages, clothing, and
cement. Farmers grow sugarcane,
bananas, rice, corn, and oranges. Cattle
and pigs are the main livestock. Shrimp
is the most valuable product of Panamas
fishing industry.
History
Hundreds of thousands of American
Indians lived in the region when Spanish
explorers arrived in 1501. The Spanish
killed many Indians. They also brought
in slaves from Africa. Panama became a
center of trade. English pirates called
buccaneers destroyed many Spanish
settlements in the 1500s and 1600s.
In 1821 Panama gained independence
from Spain. It joined a new union
called Gran Colombia, which also
included Colombia, Venezuela, and
Ecuador. When the union broke up in
1830, Panama remained part of
Colombia.
In 1903 the United States helped
Panama win independence from Colombia.
Panamas new government gave the
United States the right to build a canal
through a strip of land called the Canal
Zone. The Panama Canal opened there
in 1914. The United States continued to
control the Canal Zone.
Panama went through a long period of
unrest. The government was overthrown
many times. People also were angry at
having U.S. troops in the Canal Zone. In
the 1980s the military dictatorManuel
Noriega took power. He did not allow
anyone to question his rule. He also
made money from selling illegal drugs.
In 1989 the United States invaded
Panama and removed Noriega from
power. Democratic government returned
to the country. The United States gave
Panama full control over the Panama
Canal in 1999.
..More to explore
Central America Panama Canal
Panama City
A hut stands in the shade of some palm trees on a beach in Panama.
Facts About
PANAMA
Population
(2008 estimate)
3,310,000
Area
28,973 sq mi
(75,040 sq km)
Capital
Panama City
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Panama City, San
Miguelito, David,
Arraijan, La
Chorrera
22 Panama BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Panama Canal
The Panama Canal is a waterway that
connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
It cuts through a narrow strip of land in
Panama, a country of Central America.
Before the canal was built, ships traveling
between the east and west coasts of
North America had to go all the way
around South America. The canal made
the trip about 9,200 miles (14,800 kilometers)
shorter.
The Panama Canal is about 40 miles (65
kilometers) long. It connects two of
Panamas port cities. One is Colon,
which lies on the Caribbean Sea, an arm
of the Atlantic Ocean. The other is Balboa,
on the Pacific. The canal runs
through Gatun Lake and the much
smaller Miraflores Lake.
Locks
The different parts of the canal are at
different heights above sea level. Gated
sections called locks raise and lower
ships so they can pass from one water
level to another. The canal has three sets
of locks.
History
The Panama Canal was built in the early
1900s. In 1903 Panama gave the United
States the right to build a canal through
the country. It also gave the United
States control of a strip of land called the
Canal Zone. Building the canal was a
huge job. At times more than 40,000
people worked on it. The canal took 10
years to build. It was opened to ships on
August 15, 1914.
Even though the canal cut through
Panama, the United States governed it
through the 1900s. This situation caused
much trouble between the United States
and Panama.On December 31, 1999,
the United States turned over the canal
and the Canal Zone to Panama.
..More to explore
Atlantic Ocean Canal Pacific Ocean
Panama
Panama City
Population
(2000 census),
city, 415,964;
(2005
estimate), urban
area,
1,216,000
Panama City is the capital of Panama, a
country in Central America. It is Panamas
largest city. It lies on a gulf of the
Pacific Ocean. The Panama Canal is
nearby. The canal links the Pacific and
Atlantic oceans.
Large and small ships pass through one set
of locks on the Panama Canal.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Panama City 23
The economy of Panama City depends
largely on the canal. Many businesses in
the city provide services to ships traveling
on the canal and to canal workers.
Panama City is also an important banking
center.
An American Indian fishing village was
once located on the site of Panama City.
Spain took over the area in the 1500s. A
Spanish soldier named Pedro Arias
Davila founded Panama City in 1519.
Pirates destroyed the city in 1671, but
the Spanish later rebuilt it.
In 1903 Panama became an independent
country with Panama City as its
capital. Soon afterward the Panama
Canal was built. It was opened to world
trade in 1914. Panama City then developed
rapidly into a modern city.
#More to explore
Panama Panama Canal
Pancreas
The pancreas is a part of the bodys
digestive system. It produces juices
called enzymes, which help the body to
digest food. The pancreas also produces
two kinds of hormones, or substances
that control certain activities in the
body. All animals that have a backbone
have a pancreas.
Structure
In human beings the pancreas is soft and
yellowish. It is about 6 to 8 inches (15 to
20 centimeters) long and about 1 inch
(2.5 centimeters) thick. It lies behind the
stomach on the left side of the body.
Jobs of the Pancreas
When food enters the small intestine,
the intestine releases hormones. These
hormones cause the pancreas to produce
digestive enzymes. The enzymes travel
through tubes from the pancreas into
the small intestine. There the enzymes
help digest fats, starches, and proteins.
The pancreas also produces hormones.
They are called insulin and glucagon.
The job of these hormones is to control
the amount of glucose, or sugar, in the
blood. Glucose is the main source of
energy for the bodys cells.
Panama City has mountains and the Pacific
Ocean nearby.
Tubes carry enzymes from the pancreas to
the small intestine.
24 Pancreas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Insulin moves through the bloodstream
and helps cells throughout the body take
the glucose they need from the blood.
Glucagon does the opposite. It causes
the liver to add glucose to the blood.
Together these hormones keep glucose
in the blood at a healthy level.
Problems with the Pancreas
Infections and cancer can affect the pancreas.
One type of an illness called diabetes
happens if the pancreas produces
too little insulin. The lack of insulin
means that the blood contains too much
sugar. People with this type of diabetes
must eat a diet low in sugar. They may
also have to take medicines that contain
insulin.
#More to explore
Diabetes Digestive System Enzyme
Hormone
Panda
The name panda is used for two mammals
that live in Asia: the giant panda
and the lesser panda. Even though they
share a name, the two animals look very
different. The giant panda belongs to
the bear family. The much smaller lesser
panda is related to raccoons. Both the
giant panda and the lesser panda are
endangered species, meaning that they
are in danger of dying out.
Giant Panda
The giant panda is found only in bamboo
forests in central China. The giant
panda has a bulky body and a round
head. Its fur is white with black on the
shoulders, legs, and ears and around the
eyes. Males grow to about 5 feet (1.5
meters) tall and weigh about 220
pounds (100 kilograms). Females are
usually smaller.
Giant pandas usually live alone. They
spend most of their time on the ground,
but they can also climb trees. They eat
mostly bamboo.Wild pandas spend up to
16 hours each day eating up to 40 pounds
(18 kilograms) of bamboo. In zoos they
also eat grains, fruits, and vegetables.
Lesser Panda
The lesser panda lives in high mountain
forests in China, Myanmar, and Nepal.
It is also called the red, or common,
panda. It has thick reddish brown fur
and a long, bushy tail like a raccoons.
The lesser panda only grows to about 20
to 26 inches (50 to 65 centimeters)
long, not including the tail. It weighs
The giant panda is found in
bamboo forests in the mountains
of central China.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Panda 25
about 6 to 10 pounds (3 to 4.5 kilograms).
Its face is white, with a redbrown
stripe running from each eye to
the corners of the mouth.
Lesser pandas travel in pairs or small
family groups. They eat bamboo and
other plants, fruit, and sometimes small
animals. They feed on the ground at
night. During the day they sleep in trees.
#More to explore
Bamboo Bear Endangered Species
Mammal Raccoon
Pandora
In ancient Greek mythology Pandora
was the first woman on Earth. Her story
begins with the fire god Prometheus.
Prometheus stole fire from the gods and
gave it to humans. This angered Zeus,
the ruler of the gods. He plotted to punish
humans.
Zeus ordered Hephaestus, the god of fire
and craftsmen, to make Pandora out of
earth. Each god then contributed something
to her. For instance, Aphrodite,
the goddess of love, gave her beauty.
The lesser panda looks more like a raccoon
than a bear.
Pandora was the first woman on Earth
according to ancient Greek mythology.
When she opened a jar (known as Pandoras
box) troubles flew out into the world.
26 Pandora BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Zeus then sent Pandora to Earth. There
she found a mysterious jarwhich is
sometimes called Pandoras box. Pandora
was warned not to open the jar.
But she was overcome by curiosity.
According to one story, as she lifted the
lid, all kinds of evils flew out. She
replaced the lid, but it was too late.
Troubles had already covered the world.
The only thing left in the jar was hope.
#More to explore
Greece, Ancient Mythology
Prometheus Zeus
Panther
#see Leopard.
Papacy
#see Pope.
Papago
#see Tohono Oodham.
Papaya
Papayas are tropical fruits. They look
like small cantaloupes or honeydew melons.
In some places papayas are called
papaws or pawpaws. The scientific name
of the papaya plant is Carica papaya.
Papayas grow in tropical areas around
the world. The papaya plant is as tall as
a tree. Some papaya plants reach 26 feet
(8 meters) in height. Their leaves can be
as big as 2 feet (0.6 meter) across.
Papaya fruits are usually yellow or
orange. Some types remain green when
ripe. Papayas are about 3 to 20 inches
(7.6 to 51 centimeters) long. They can
weigh as much as 20 to 25 pounds (9 to
11 kilograms). The inside of a papaya is
very juicy. In the center are many round,
wrinkled black seeds.
Papayas have a slightly sweet taste. They
are also a good source of vitamins A and
C. Many people eat papayas at breakfast.
Papayas are also used to make salads,
jellies, pies, and juices.
#More to explore
Fruit Melon
Paper
Paper is a thin material that people use
for writing, printing, wrapping, and
many other purposes. People usually
make paper out of natural fibers, or
long, thin strands of plant material.
Today most paper contains wood fibers,
called wood pulp.
A papaya fruit contains many small seeds.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Paper 27
How Paper Is Made
Hundreds of years ago people made
paper by hand. Today machines produce
most paper. But the papermaking process
remains much the same. First, the
wood fibers are soaked in water. This
creates a soupy mixture. Next, this mixture
is spread on a screen. The fibers
stick to the screen and bond together
while the water drains through it. Rollers
then press out more water. The
fibers also may be dried with heat. Once
the fibers are dry, they have become a
sheet of paper.
The paper may be pressed again to
flatten and smooth it. Machines also
may coat the paper with chemicals to
make it better for printing or other
purposes.
Types and Uses
There are many different types, or
grades, of paper. Everyday writing and
printer paper, called bond, is thin and
smooth. Some paper, especially paper
used for arts and crafts, is thicker and
sometimes textured. Cardboard is a
rough, thick type of paper used to
make boxes and other packaging. Paper
used for newspapers, called newsprint,
is thin and cheap. Recycled paper is
made from used paper or leftover bits
of new paper.
Paper has many other practical and creative
uses. People use paper to make
books, cards, gift wrap, money, egg cartons,
and hundreds of other items.
History
People in China made the first paper
almost 2,000 years ago. This early paper
was made from linen fibers, ground up
mulberry bark, and other materials.
From China the art of papermaking
slowly spread throughout the world.
Until the early 1800s people usually
made paper from rags and other cloth
fibers. Then they began to use wood
pulp. At about this time people also
began to use machines to make paper.
#More to explore
Book and Bookmaking Fibers
Recycling
Modern paper mills have equipment to
make large amounts of paper very easily.
After paper has dried it can be peeled off
the screen that it formed on.
28 Paper BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is an island country
in the Pacific Ocean. Port Moresby is
the capital and largest town.
Papua New Guinea lies north of Australia.
Most of the countrys land is on the
eastern half of the island of New
Guinea. (Papua, a province of Indonesia,
takes up the western half.) About 600
smaller islands make up the rest of the
land. Tall mountains rise on the main
island. Papua New Guineas climate is
warm and rainy.
Rain forests cover much of the land.
Pine, oak, and cedar trees grow in the
higher regions. The countrys animals
include tree kangaroos, wallabies, and
egg-laying mammals called echidnas.
More than 700 different ethnic groups
live in Papua New Guinea. The groups
are divided into two categories: Papuan
and Melanesian. Papuans make up most
of the population. They live mainly on
the island of New Guinea. Melanesian
peoples live near the coasts and on other
islands. English, Tok Pisin, and Motu
are common languages. Most of the
people are Christians.
Mining is an important part of the
economy. The country has deposits of
gold, copper, oil, and coal. However,
most of the people are farmers. Crops
include coffee, cocoa, coconuts,
bananas, sweet potatoes, tea, and oil
palm fruit.
Humans first came to the islands thousands
of years ago. In 1884 Germany
and Great Britain divided the islands
between themselves. Australia took control
in the 1900s.
In 1975 Papua New Guinea gained
independence. It joined the Commonwealth,
a group of countries with ties to
Britain.
..More to explore
Echidna Indonesia Port Moresby
Masked warriors dance at a gathering of
some of the many different peoples of
Papua New Guinea.
Facts About
PAPUA NEW
GUINEA
Population
(2008 estimate)
6,474,000
Area
178,704 sq mi
(462,840 sq km)
Capital
Port Moresby
Form of
government
Constitutional
monarchy
Major cities
Port Moresby,
Lae, Madang,
Wewak, Goroka
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Papua New Guinea 29
Paraguay
The country of Paraguay in South
America is landlocked, or surrounded by
land. However, Paraguay has many rivers
that flow to the Atlantic Ocean. The
name Paraguay came from an American
Indian word meaning river that gives
birth to the sea. Paraguays capital is
Asuncion.
Geography
Paraguay borders Bolivia, Brazil, and
Argentina. The Paraguay, Apa, Parana,
and Pilcomayo rivers run along most of
the countrys borders.
The Paraguay River also runs through
the center of Paraguay.West of the river
is a dry, flat region called the Chaco
Boreal. Few people live there. East of the
river are wooded hills and grassy plains.
The countrys highest peak is Mount
San Rafael in the southeast. Paraguays
summers are hot and rainy.Winters are
warm and fairly dry.
Plants and Animals
The trees in eastern Paraguay are mostly
evergreens. The leaves of one type of
tree are used to make yerba mate, a
popular tea in South America. Cacti,
thorny shrubs, and quebracho trees
grow in the west. The bark of the
quebracho tree contains a substance
called tannin, which is used in making
leather.
Animals found in Paraguay include
monkeys, armadillos, anteaters, otters,
boars, tapirs, and jaguars. Brightly colored
parrots, toucans, and other birds
live in the forests. Snakes and iguanas
are also common.
People
Most of Paraguays people are mestizos,
or people with a mixture of Spanish and
American Indian roots. Spanish and
Guarani are the main languages. About
90 percent of the population is Roman
Catholic. More than half of the people
live in cities or towns. Almost all of
Paraguays people live in the east.
Economy
Paraguays economy is based on agriculture.
The country sells soybeans, meat,
and cotton to other countries. Many
farmers, however, grow only enough
food for their own families. Cassava,
sugarcane, corn, oranges, sweet potatoes,
and bananas are important crops. Cattle
are the main livestock.
30 Paraguay BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Paraguays industries make soybean oil,
sugar, cloth, leather goods, and wood
products. Dams on Paraguays rivers
produce electricity.
History
Guarani Indians lived between the Paraguay
and Parana rivers long before Europeans
arrived in the 1520s. Spanish
settlers mixed peacefully with the
Guarani. Beginning in 1776 Spain ruled
Paraguay as part of a territory called Rio
de la Plata. In 1811 Paraguay declared
its independence.
In the 1860s Paraguay fought a war
against Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay.
When the fighting ended in 1870, Paraguay
had lost more than one third of its
population. During 193235 Paraguay
fought the ChacoWar with Bolivia.
Both countries wanted the same land in
the Chaco region. Paraguay won most of
the Chaco territory.
In 1954 General Alfredo Stroessner
seized power in Paraguay. The military
finally forced Stroessner to step down in
1989. In the 1990s Paraguay returned to
democracy. However, the country still
faced many problems.
..More to explore
Asuncion Bolivia
Dancers in Paraguay wear colorful clothing.
The Itaipu Dam on the Parana River is one
of the largest hydroelectric (waterpower)
projects in the world. The dam was built by
Paraguay and Brazil.
Facts About
PARAGUAY
Population
(2008 estimate)
6,238,000
Area
157,048 sq mi
(406,752 sq km)
Capital
Asuncion
Form of
government
Republic
Major urban
areas
Asuncion, Ciudad
del Este, Encarnacion,
Pedro
Juan Caballero,
Caaguazu
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Paraguay 31
Paramaribo
Population
(1996 estimate)
222,800
Paramaribo is the capital of Suriname, a
small country on the northern coast of
South America. The city lies on the Suriname
River near where it flows into the
Atlantic Ocean. It is Surinames largest
city and main port. More than half the
countrys people live in Paramaribo.
Factories in Paramaribo make paint,
margarine, cement, and beer. Shipping
goods through the port is also important
to the citys economy. The fishing industry
catches shrimp, which is sold to
North America. Tourism also brings
money to the city.
Paramaribo began as an American
Indian village. The French built a settlement
there in about 1640. In 1651 the
English made it a colony. The Dutch
took control of Paramaribo and the rest
of Suriname in 1667. In 1975 Suriname
became an independent country with
Paramaribo as its capital.
#More to explore
Suriname
Parasite
A parasite is an organism, or living
thing, that lives on or inside another
organism. It depends on the other
organism for food and other things that
it needs to live. The parasites victim is
called its host. The host is usually much
larger than the parasite.
Different kinds of parasites have different
effects on their hosts. Some parasites
cause disease. Others cause pain. Others
are almost never noticed by their hosts.
However, the basic relationship is always
the samegood for the parasite, harmful
for the host.
Kinds of Parasites
Parasites occur among all the major
groups of living things. Viruses, bacteria,
protozoans, fungi, plants, and animals
all may live as parasites.
All viruses and many bacteria are parasites.
They live inside cells of the hosts
body. Diseases caused by viruses include
measles, chicken pox, and AIDS. Parasitic
bacteria cause diseases ranging from
acne to the plague.
Paramaribo still has many buildings from
when the Dutch ruled Suriname.
32 Paramaribo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Protozoans are one-celled organisms that
may live either on their own or as parasites
in animals. About one third of the
thousands of types of protozoans are
parasitic. The protozoans of the scientific
group Plasmodium cause the disease
malaria.
Parasitic fungi attack both plants and
animals. Rusts, mildews, and smuts are
parasitic fungi that cause diseases in
plants. In humans, parasitic fungi cause
the skin conditions called ringworm and
athletes foot.
Some types of plants live as parasites on
other plants. For example, mistletoe
grows on trees and uses them for support.
It also gets some nutrients from
the trees.
Parasitic animals live either on or inside
the host. Certain worms make up one
large group of animal parasites. Many
live in their hosts digestive system and
feed on the food that passes through.
Fleas and lice are parasitic insects that
live on the bodies of mammals or birds.
How Parasites Are Spread
Parasites can be spread from one host to
another through the air, contaminated
water or food, or feces. Some parasites
rely on a third organism to spread them
to their host. Plasmodium protozoans,
for example, are spread through the bites
of certain mosquitoes. Other parasites
pass through more than one host. The
roundworms that cause the disease called
trichinosis are an example. Pigs are their
first host, and the humans that eat the
meat of the pigs are their second host.
..More to explore
Disease, Human Living Thing
Symbiosis
Paris
Population
(2005
estimate), city,
2,153,600;
urban area,
9,854,000
Paris is the capital of the country of
France. It has long been one of western
Europes major centers of culture and
business. Some of the worlds greatest
artists, writers, scholars, fashion
designers, and chefs have lived in Paris.
The mistletoe plant is a parasite
because it digs its roots into a
tree branch and takes food from
the tree. But mistletoe also makes
some food for itself.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Paris 33
The city is also famous for its beauty.
The Seine River flows through the city
center.
Places of Interest
Paris has many famous landmarks. The
soaring curves of the Eiffel Tower can be
seen from far away. It has become a symbol
of the city. The Arc de Triomphe is a
large arch honoring the military. The
cathedral of Notre Dame is a church
built from the 1100s to the 1300s. It is
known for its windows of colored glass
and its tall stone arches.
The most important of Paris many
museums is the Louvre. It has a huge
collection of art, including Leonardo da
Vincis painting of the Mona Lisa.
Economy
Many large companies have
headquarters in Paris. It is a major
banking center. Tourism, government,
insurance, and other service industries
are also important to the economy.
Factories in the city make clothing,
jewelry, and cosmetics.
History
Paris began on an island in the Seine
River. A people called the Parisii
founded a town there more than 2,000
years ago. The Romans captured the
The Eiffel Tower rises above Paris.
Visitors can see the sights of Paris from boats on the Seine River.
34 Paris BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
town in 52 BC. The town later spread
onto the riverbanks.
In AD 987 Paris became the capital of
France. The city and its economy grew.
In the 1300s, however, a disease called
the plague killed many of its people.
Paris began to grow again in the late
1500s. The major events of the French
Revolution took place in the city in the
late 1700s. Paris was then the site of
great violence. In the 1800s construction
projects made Paris more modern
and beautiful.
German troops took control of Paris in
the 1940s, duringWorldWar II. After
the war the city rebuilt its economy. In
the late 20th century large building
projects added new landmarks to the
French city.
#More to explore
Eiffel Tower France French
Revolution
Parkinsons
Disease
People with Parkinsons disease slowly
lose control of their muscles. The disease
causes tremors, or shaking. It usually
affects people who are in their 60s or
70s. It is named for a British doctor
named James Parkinson. He first
described the disease in 1817.
The early symptoms, or signs, of Parkinsons
disease include weakness and tiredness.
A persons hands may shake. As
time passes, the arms and legs become
stiff. The persons handwriting gets
smaller. It becomes hard to speak.Walking
becomes a shuffling movement.
No one is sure what causes Parkinsons
disease. Some scientists think that it is
caused by harmful chemicals. Others
think that the disease runs in families.
Scientists do know how Parkinsons
disease affects the brain and the body.
For some reason nerve cells in the brain
begin to die. These cells normally make
a chemical called dopamine. Dopamine
helps control movement. When the
amount of dopamine is low, a person
loses control over the bodys
movements.
There is no cure for Parkinsons disease.
There is also no way to prevent it. However,
doctors can treat the symptoms.
Certain medications help create dopamine.
Others slow down its loss. These
The boxer Muhammad Ali and the actor
Michael J. Fox suffer from Parkinsons disease.
Both men have supported efforts to
find a cure.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Parkinsons Disease 35
medications can temporarily ease the
effects of the disease. Physical therapy
may also help. In some cases doctors can
perform surgery.
#More to explore
Brain Disease, Human Muscle
Parks, Rosa
In 1955 Rosa Parks refused to give up
her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama,
city bus to a white person. Her action
sparked the U.S. civil rights movement.
Early Life
Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise
McCauley on February 4, 1913, in
Tuskegee, Alabama. As an African
American in Alabama, she had to live
with segregation, which means separation
of the races.
Rosa married Raymond Parks in 1932.
After her marriage she joined the
National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP). The
NAACP worked to make life better and
fairer for African Americans. Parks
became a leader of the NAACP branch
in Montgomery.
The Bus Ride
On December 1, 1955, Parks was riding
a then segregated Montgomery city bus.
She was sitting in a section where whites
had first pick of seats. A white man
wanted her seat, but Parks refused to
move. She was arrested, jailed, and
fined.
The citys African Americans then
decided to boycott, or not ride city buses
until the segregation law was changed.
The boycott was led by Martin Luther
King, Jr., who was then just beginning
his career as a civil rights leader.
The Montgomery boycott went on
until 1956, when the U.S. Supreme
Court decided that the U.S. Constitution
did not allow segregation of
buses. This gave hope to people who
wanted all kinds of racial segregation to
end. Within the next 10 years much
progress was made.
Later Life
Parks was fired from her job and threatened
by white people. She and her family
moved to Detroit, Michigan, in
1957. She then worked in the office of
U.S. Representative John Conyers, Jr.
She was honored with two of the countrys
highest civilian awards: the Presi-
Rosa Parks sits on a bus in Montgomery,
Alabama, in 1956.
36 Parks, Rosa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
dential Medal of Freedom (1996) and
the Congressional Gold Medal of Honor
(1999). Rosa Parks died in Detroit on
October 24, 2005.
#More to explore
African Americans Civil Rights
Movement King, Martin Luther, Jr.
National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People
Parliament
Parliament is the legislature, or lawmaking
group, in the government of the
United Kingdom (Great Britain). The
government leader, called the prime
minister, is always a member of Parliament.
This makes Britain different from
the United States, which keeps Congress
and the president in separate branches of
government.
Other countries that Britain once ruled
have parliaments also. Australia, New
Zealand, Canada, and India are among
the former British colonies that have
parliaments.
Britains Houses of Parliament
Britains Parliament consists of two
houses: the House of Lords and the
House of Commons. There are about
700 members in the House of Lords,
but not all of them participate. There
are 646 members in the House of
Commons.
For many years most members of the
House of Lords were nobles, or people
born into the upper classes. These
people inherited their seats in the house.
Since 1999 the house has been made up
mainly of people chosen by the government
for outstanding achievement.
Senior judges and senior clergy (church
leaders) of the Church of England are
also members. The member in charge of
the House of Lords is called the lord
chancellor.
Members of the House of Commons are
elected by the people. The ruling party
schedules elections, but there must be an
election at least once every five years.
The member who leads the ruling party
serves as prime minister. The heads of
government departments, called the
Cabinet, are also members of Parliament.
A member called the speaker controls the
debates, or arguments, in the house.
How the British Parliament
Works
The main function of the House of
Commons is to make laws. First a
The prime minister of Canada (standing)
answers questions from members of the
House of Commons. The House of
Commons is one part of the Canadian Parliament.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Parliament 37
memberusually a Cabinet member
proposes a law. The members debate the
proposed law, or bill. If the members
agree, the bill goes to a committee. The
committee sometimes makes changes.
The committee then sends the bill back
to the House of Commons. If the house
approves the bill, it sends it to the
House of Lords. The Lords may approve
the bill or make changes and send it
back to the Commons.
Once both houses have approved a bill,
it becomes law after the monarch (king
or queen) agrees to it. Modern monarchs
agree to all bills Parliament passes.
Bills also can start in the House of
Lords, but this rarely happens. In addition,
it is possible for a bill to become
law without being passed by the Lords.
For example, if the House of Lords does
not approve a bill, it can become law if
the House of Commons passes it again
one year later.
History
The beginnings of the British Parliament
have been traced back to the
witenagemot. This was a council of
advisers to Britains Anglo-Saxon kings.
Modern Parliament developed from
meetings of nobles and important
people in the 1200s. Over time the
power of Parliament grew. In 1689 Parliament
passed a law that became known
as the Bill of Rights. This act gave Parliament
power over the monarch.
#More to explore
Congress of the United States Law
Legislature United Kingdom
Parrot Family
Most of the birds of the parrot family
are known for their colorful feathers,
noisy calls, and curved beaks. They are
among the worlds most popular pet
birds. They are smart and very social,
and they tend to live a long time. Some
types, such as the African gray parrot,
are excellent at imitating human speech.
This scientific family includes many
birds besides parrots. Among them are
macaws, lovebirds, lories, lorikeets, keas,
and parakeets, including the budgerigar,
or budgie. Cockatoos and cockatiels
belong to a closely related family. People
often call the birds of both these families
parrots.
An illustration shows Queen
Elizabeth I at the head of
Englands Parliament. Elizabeth
ruled over England, which is
now part of the United Kingdom,
from 1558 to 1603.
38 Parrot Family BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Where Birds of the Parrot
Family Live
Parrots and their relatives are found
mainly in the southern half of the world.
Most of these birds live in warm or hot
rain forests.
Physical Features
The birds of the parrot family vary
greatly in sizefrom 3 to 40 inches (8
to 100 centimeters) in length. Several
types of parrot are mostly bright green.
Red, yellow, and blue feathers are also
common. However, cockatoos are
mainly white, black, pink, or gray. They
often have tufts of feathers, called crests,
on their heads.
Parrots and their relatives have sturdy
bodies and short necks. Two of the toes
on each foot point forward, and the
other two point backward. Their feet are
useful for both climbing and grasping.
These birds also use their thick, hooked
bills to help them climb trees. Their
strong bills can crack open hard nutshells,
too. They eat mainly seeds, nuts,
and fruits.
Endangered Birds
Many types of these birds are in danger
of dying out completely. People have cut
down the trees in many forests where
parrots live in order to use the land for
farms, houses, or businesses. In addition,
people catch many of these endangered
birds to sell as petseven though this is
against the law.
#More to explore
Bird Endangered Species Pet
Parsiism
#see Zoroastrianism.
Passover
In Judaism, Passover (or Pesach) celebrates
the freedom of the Jews from
slavery in ancient Egypt. Thousands of
years ago the early Jews, called Israelites,
moved to Egypt, where they became
slaves of the Egyptians. It is believed that
Moses was chosen to go to the pharaoh,
or king of Egypt, to demand that he free
the Israelites from slavery. The pharaoh
said no, so God sent down 10 plagues
(or punishments) to force the king to
change his mind. The word Passover
comes from the 10th plague, in which
the firstborn sons of the Egyptians were
killed. The Israelites were spared from
the plague because Moses had told them
to mark their door posts so that the
angel of death would pass over them.
The son of Egypts pharaoh died from
the plague. In his grief the pharaoh
ordered Moses and the Jews to leave
Egypt.
Brightly colored lorikeets perch on the
branch of a tree.
Passover is
celebrated for
seven or eight
days
beginning on
Nisan 15 of
the Hebrew
calendar.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Passover 39
The festival of Passover is one of great
joy. It takes place for about one week in
March or April. A special family meal
called a seder is held the first and sometimes
the second night of Passover.
Before the meal the story of Passover is
told through the songs and prayer of the
Haggadah, which is the book used during
the seder. The most important food
of the holiday is matzo, which is a bread
made with only flour and water. It is
unleavened, which means that it is flat.
This reminds the Jews of the bread the
Israelites took with them when they fled
Egypt for freedom. They did not have
time to let it rise because they were in a
hurry to leave.
#More to explore
Judaism
Pasteur, Louis
Louis Pasteur was a French scientist who
made important discoveries about the
role of microbes (germs) in disease and
in food spoiling. These discoveries have
saved many lives. They have also made
food safer to eat and protected the
health of farm animals. Pasteur was a
courageous scientist who constantly
asked questions, searched for answers,
and challenged incorrect ideas.
Pasteur was born on December 27,
1822, in Dole, France. He received a
Doctor of Science degree in 1847. He
then taught chemistry at French universities.
While working at the University of Lille,
Pasteur discovered that fermentation
involved microbes. Fermentation is a
chemical change used to make bread,
wine, cheese, and other foods. Pasteur
showed that heat killed the microbes
that cause fermentation. This discovery
led to his invention of a process for
destroying harmful microbes in food.
This process became known as pasteurization.
It slows down the spoiling of
food. Pasteurization is still used today,
especially to make milk safe to drink.
Families and friends often gather for a meal
called a seder to celebrate Passover.
Louis Pasteur performs a scientific experiment
in a laboratory.
40 Pasteur, Louis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Pasteur discovered that many diseases
are caused by microbes. He developed a
method of preventing disease called
vaccination. Vaccination involves
putting weakened germs into an
animals or persons body. The
weakened germs do not make the
animal or person sick. Instead, the body
learns how to fight off the disease
caused by that germ.
In 1881 Pasteur successfully vaccinated
sheep against a disease called anthrax.
He also developed a vaccination against
rabies. Pasteur died on September 28,
1895, in Saint-Cloud, France.
#More to explore
Disease, Human Fermentation
Vaccine
Pawnee
The Pawnee are Native Americans of
Oklahoma. They traditionally lived on
the plains of what is now the U.S. state
of Nebraska.
The Pawnee lived in large, dome-shaped
homes called lodges. They made their
lodges using earth, or dirt. Each lodge
was large enough for related families.
The Pawnee grew corn, beans, squash,
and pumpkins. They also hunted bison
(buffalo). The Pawnee lived in tepees
covered with bison skins while on the
hunt.
Spanish explorers arrived in Pawnee
lands in the 1500s. In the 1600s and
1700s the Pawnee got horses from the
Spanish. They used the horses to hunt
bison. However, unlike other tribes of
the Great Plains, they continued to farm
for much of their food.
The Pawnee generally had a peaceful
relationship with white settlers. Many
Pawnee worked for the U.S. Army. But
diseases brought by the settlers, such as
smallpox, killed many Pawnee.
In the middle of the 1800s the Pawnee
turned over their Nebraska land to the
U.S. government. In 1876 the
government moved the Pawnee to a
reservation in Indian Territory (now
Oklahoma).
At the end of the 20th century there
were about 2,500 Pawnee. Most lived on
or near the Oklahoma reservation.
#More to explore
Native Americans
A photograph from the late 1800s shows
Pawnee men wearing traditional clothing.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Pawnee 41
Payton,Walter
Walter Payton was one of the best professional
football players in the United
States. As a running back for the Chicago
Bears, Payton set many records. His
impressive abilities quickly made him a
superstar.
Walter Jerry Payton was born on July
25, 1954, in Columbia, Mississippi. He
was the youngest of three children. He
began playing football as a junior in
high school.
Payton went on to attend Jackson State
University in Jackson, Mississippi. There
he earned the nickname Sweetness for
his charming personality and his graceful
athletic style. While at Jackson State,
Payton set a National Collegiate Athletic
Association record for most points
scored. Payton graduated in 1975 with a
degree in special education.
In 1975 Payton joined the Chicago
Bears of the National Football League.
He played with the Bears for his entire
career. While playing for the Bears, Payton
set one record after another. Most of
the records were for rushing, or gaining
yards toward the goal while carrying the
ball. Payton also made 125 touchdowns
during his career.
Payton retired at the end of the 1987
football season. He was elected to the
Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993.
After his retirement, Payton worked
with several charities, helped to open a
restaurant, and set up his own business,
the Payton Power Equipment Company.
Payton died of a rare liver disease
on November 1, 1999, in Barrington,
Illinois.
#More to explore
Football
Pea
Peas are small, round vegetables. They
are high in protein and full of vitamins.
Peas are among the oldest plants grown
Peas are considered members of the legume
family because they have seeds that grow
inside pods.
Walter Payton was a running
back for the Chicago Bears.
42 Payton, Walter BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
in the world. They belong to the family
of plants called legumes. Beans, peanuts,
and clover are other examples of
legumes.
Many types of pea plant are grown
throughout the world. They are hardy
and leafy. Most like well-drained soil,
cool temperatures, and warm sun. The
climbing stem of a pea plant may reach
up to 6 feet (1.8 meters) in length. The
plant produces reddish purple, pink, or
white flowers. Peas are annuals,
meaning that they need to be replanted
each year.
Peas grow in what is called a pod. A
pod grows to about 4 inches (10
centimeters) long. Inside are 5 to 10
seeds, or peas. The seeds can be smooth
or wrinkled, and they can be green,
yellow, or white in color. The pea pods
split in half when they are ripe, or
ready to be eaten.
Most pods are valued only for the peas
inside. But some varieties, including
snap and snow peas, have pods that are
eaten. Peas are sold fresh, dried, canned,
and frozen.
#More to explore
Bean Legume Peanut
Peace Corps
The organization called the Peace Corps
promotes good feelings between the
United States and countries around the
world. The U.S. government runs the
Peace Corps. People who work in the
Peace Corps go wherever they are
needed in the world. They build schools,
teach important skills, and do many
other types of work. Members of the
Peace Corps include U.S. volunteers and
people from the countries that host the
volunteers.
Background
The Peace Corps was created in 1961
under President John F. Kennedy.
Kennedys brother-in-law Sargent
Shriver oversaw the program.
The number of volunteers has varied
over time. In 1966 there were more than
15,000 Peace Corps workers. By the
early 21st century there were fewer than
8,000 volunteers.
Volunteers have to be at least 18 years
old. They sign on for a two-year term of
service. They get three months of training
and money for food and shelter.
Volunteers are also rewarded in other
ways. They learn new languages and
customs. They often make lifelong
friends.
A Peace Corps volunteer teaches a class in
Paraguay.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Peace Corps 43
Goals
The Peace Corps has three main goals.
The first goal is to help people in other
countries meet their needs. The second
goal is to help the host countries better
understand people from the United
States. The third goal is to help the
United States better understand people
in other countries. All these goals are
meant to help bring about world peace.
The Peace Corps Today
The Peace Corps has served in about
140 countries. More than 170,000
people have worked as volunteers. Today
most Peace Corps volunteers have college
degrees. Most are single women
under the age of 30.
The services provided by the Peace
Corps change according to countries
needs. In the past many volunteers
worked as teachers and farmers. Today
many developing countries also need
help with computer skills. Other fields
include health, trade, and community
development.
#More to explore
Kennedy, John F. United States
Peace
Movements
War has been a constant part of history.
People throughout the world hope for
peace, but it is hard to achieve. Since the
1800s groups of people have started
organized movements to try to make the
dream of peace a reality.
Those who oppose war for any reason
are called pacifists. Before peace
movements started, some religious
groups already opposed all wars.
Buddhists think all violence is wrong.
Many Christians, including
Anabaptists, Mennonites, and Quakers,
are also pacifists.
The first nonreligious peace movement
started in the United States in 1815. By
the late 1800s people around the world
were forming groups that supported
peace. The horrors of World War I
(191418) led people and even
governments to form peace groups.
Forty-two countries set up the League
of Nations in 1920 to maintain world
peace. After World War II (193945)
the United Nations replaced the
League.
When enemies attack and citizens die,
peace movements often lose strength.
For example, many people in the United
States did not want to join WorldWar II
War protesters in the Philippines carry a
big peace sign in 2003. The peace sign
was first used in the United Kingdom but is
now recognized around the world.
Siddhartha
Gautama,
known as the
Buddha,
taught that it is
wrong to harm
any living
creature.
44 Peace Movements BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
when it first began. However, after the
Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941,
most Americans wanted to fight.
Even during unpopular wars, peace
movements may be criticized. For
instance, in the 1960s young people
around the world formed a peace movement
to stop the VietnamWar. Many
U.S. citizens, however, felt that the protesters
were being disloyal to their country.
In 2003 many Americans also
disagreed with the peace movement to
stop the U.S.-led war in Iraq.
Still, in the late 20th and early 21st centuries
most countries agreed that peace
was an important goal. Many governments
agreed to limit the buildup of
nuclear weapons. They also looked for
ways to fight terrorism, another threat to
world peace.
#More to explore
United Nations
Peach
Peaches are fruits that have fuzzy skins.
There are thousands of varieties of
peaches. They are among the most
widely eaten fruits in the world.
Peach trees grow where the weather is
mild. The United States is a major producer
of peaches. They grow in such
states as California,Washington, South
Carolina, and Georgia.
Peach trees can be 21 feet (6.5 meters)
tall. Most farmers only let the trees grow
to about 10 to 13 feet (3 to 4 meters).
This makes it easier to pick the fruit.
Flowers appear in spring. They may be
white, pink, red, or purplish. The peach
fruits grow from these flowers.
Farmers plant peach trees in orchards.
When the fruit begins to develop, farmers
cut down some of the tree branches.
This helps the fruit left on the tree grow
larger.
Peach fruits, or peaches, are round.
They are about 3 inches (7.6
centimeters) across. Peaches may be
yellow, orange, red, or white. Their skin
is usually fuzzy, but some peaches are
smooth. These are called nectarines. In
the center of a peach is a large stone
called a pit. The pit contains a single,
oval-shaped seed.
People eat peaches fresh. They also use
peaches to make jams, pies, cobblers,
and other desserts. Peaches are sometimes
canned.
Peaches are aften a light orange color, but
they can also be yellow, red, or white.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Peach 45
Peacock
Peacocks are known for their huge fan of
colorful tail feathers, called a train.
People have kept these beautiful blue
and green birds for thousands of years.
Sometimes the word peacock is used to
describe only the male bird. The female
is called a peahen.
Peacocks belong to the pheasant family,
Phasianidae. There are three species, or
types, of peacockthe blue (or Indian)
peacock, the green (or Javanese) peacock,
and the Congo peacock. The only
peacocks that have a train of tail feathers
are the males of the blue and green types.
Peacocks usually live in lowland forests.
At night they sleep in trees. The blue
peacock comes from southern Asia,
while the green peacock comes from
southeastern Asia. The Congo peacock is
found in central Africa.
In both the blue and green types, the
males body is about 35 to 50 inches (90
to 130 centimeters) long. Its train of
metallic green tail feathers is about 60
inches (150 centimeters) long. Each tail
feather has a shining spot at the end of
the feather that looks like an eye. A
crest, or tuft of feathers, tops the males
head. The peahen of both these species
is green and brown. It is almost as big as
the male.
Male blue and green peacocks put on a
showy display when trying to attract
mates. The peacock lifts its train and
spreads it like a fan. It then struts about
and shakes its train, making the feathers
shimmer and rustle.
The Congo peacock is mainly blue and
green. Its tail is short and rounded. The
peahen is reddish and green.
#More to explore
Bird
Peanut
Peanuts are not true nuts. They are the
legumes, or pods, of the peanut plant.
Because peanuts ripen underground,
they are sometimes called groundnuts.
The peanut plants scientific name is
Arachis hypogaea. It belongs to the pea
family, which also includes peas, beans,
and clovers.
Peanuts are grown in warm areas
throughout the world. They grow best
in sandy soils. China, India, the United
States, and Nigeria grow most of the
A male peacock shows its fine tail feathers. worlds peanuts.
46 Peacock BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
The peanut plant is a low bush. Some
plants grow short branches and have an
upright stem. Others have a shorter stem
but grow long branches, called runners,
that lie close to the soil. Small yellow
flowers grow on the lower part of the
plant.
After a peanut flower receives pollen
from another flower, it begins to wither.
A stem called a peg then grows from
the bottom of the flower. It anchors
itself in the soil. The tip of each peg
develops into a pod beneath the soil.
This underground pod becomes the
peanuta shell with two to four seeds
inside.
Many people eat roasted peanut seeds
as a snack. People also crush peanuts to
make cooking oil and peanut butter. In
the early 1900s the U.S. scientist
George Washington Carver developed
many other uses for peanuts. Among
them were new forms of cheese, coffee,
flour, ink, plastic, wood stain, and soap.
Farmers feed peanut plants to livestock.
Usually the tops of the plants are fed as
hay after the pods are removed.
#More to explore
Carver, GeorgeWashington Legume
Nut Pea
Pear
Pears are a popular fruit that can be
dried, cooked, or eaten fresh. People use
pears in salads, desserts, and jams. They
also drink pear juice. Pears are a good
source of potassium and fiber.
Pears grow in mild regions throughout
the world. China, Italy, and the United
States are the countries that grow the
most pears. Among U.S. states,Washington,
Oregon, and California usually
grow the largest amount of pears.
Pear trees can grow as tall as 50 feet (15
meters) and can live for 75 years or
more. They have broad, spreading
People crack the shells of peanuts to eat the
seeds inside.
Anjou pears have green skin, often with a
touch of red.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Pear 47
branches and rounded or oval leaves.
The leaves appear on the tree about the
same time that the flowers do. Pear flowers
are about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters)
wide with five rounded, white petals.
Part of the flower later develops into the
fruit.
The fruit may be yellow, green, red, or
brownish in color. Some pears are narrow
at the stem and rounder on the bottom.
Others are round like an apple.
Pears are generally sweeter and softer
than apples, though some can be slightly
tart.Well-known types grown in the
United States include Bartlett, Bosc, and
Anjou pears.
#More to explore
Fruit
Peary, Robert E.
Robert E. Peary was the most famous
U.S. explorer of the Arctic regions. He
may have been the first person to reach
the North Pole.
Robert Edwin Peary was born in
Cresson, Pennsylvania, onMay 6, 1856.
He grew up inMaine. He studied
engineering in college and then joined
the U.S. Navy.
Early Exploring
Peary made his first expedition, or
exploring trip, to the Arctic in 1886.
Then he met Matthew Henson, who
had traveled the world while working on
a ship. Henson went with Peary on all
his later expeditions. The explorers
always depended on help from the local
Eskimo (Inuit) people.
In 1892 Peary discovered the northern
coast of the island of Greenland. This
proved that Greenland did not extend
all the way to the North Pole. In fact
there is no land at the pole, only drifting
ice. In Greenland Peary found meteorites,
or rocks that had fallen from space.
North Pole
Peary tried several times to reach the
North Pole before he succeeded. During
one trip he lost several toes due to frostbite.
In 190506 he used a powerful
ice-breaking ship for the first part of his
trip. This time Peary came closer to the
Pole than anyone before him had come.
Peary tried again in 1908. He, Henson,
and four Eskimo made the last stage of
Robert E. Peary, wearing fur
clothing, stands next to his ships
steering wheel.
A doctor and
explorer
named Frederick
A. Cook
claimed that
he reached the
North Pole in
1908, a year
before Peary.
Few people
now take
Cooks claim
seriously.
48 Peary, Robert E. BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
the trip on dogsleds. They did not
always stay together. Peary and Henson
probably both reached the North Pole
on April 6, 1909. Some people believe
that Henson reached the Pole before
Peary. As an African American,
however, Henson faced racial prejudice.
This may have kept him from receiving
credit for the accomplishment.
Peary retired from the Navy in 1911. He
died inWashington, D.C., on February
20, 1920.
#More to explore
Greenland Henson, Matthew Polar
Exploration
Pegasus
Pegasus was a winged horse in ancient
Greek mythology. According to legend,
he was created when the hero Perseus
cut off the head of a frightful monster.
Pegasus sprang from the monsters
blood.
One famous story about Pegasus
involves a young man named
Bellerophon. Bellerophon wanted to
ride Pegasus. Athena, the goddess of
wisdom, helped him catch the flying
horse. When he was riding Pegasus,
Bellerophon was unbeatable. He was
even able to kill the Chimera, a firebreathing
creature that was part lion,
part goat, and part dragon.
Pegasus and Bellerophon had many
adventures together. Bellerophon
became a hero. But one time he tried to
ride Pegasus up to Mount Olympus, the
home of the gods. Pegasus knew it was
wrong for Bellerophon to attempt such a
thing. He threw Bellerophon to the
ground.
In ancient Greek mythology, Pegasus was a
horse with wings.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Pegasus 49
According to the story, the gods rewarded
Pegasus with a home onMount
Olympus. Pegasus became the favorite of
Zeus, the chief god. The Greeks believed
that whenever Zeus wanted to throw his
thunderbolt, Pegasus brought him the
thunder and lightning. Eventually,
Pegasus was turned into a constellation,
or a group of stars.
#More to explore
Greece, Ancient Mythology Perseus
Zeus
Peking
#see Beijing.
Pele
Pele was a world-famous soccer player
from Brazil.He was known for his
tremendous speed and balance, his
jumping and ball-controlling abilities,
and his spectacular goals. During his
career Pele played in 1,363 games and
scored 1,281 goals.
Pele was born on October 23, 1940, in
the small village of Tres Coracoes, Brazil.
His real name is Edson Arantes do
Nascimento. At some point he took the
nickname Pele, which has no particular
meaning.
Peles father taught him how to play
soccer. Pele dropped out of school so he
could spend more time on the game. By
age 11, he began to receive professional
coaching.
In 1956 Pele began his professional
career. He played for the Santos Football
Club. Pele led Santos to many championships
and broke many records. He
remained with the team until 1974.
Pele led Brazils national team to three
World Cup championships. The first
time was in 1958, when he was only 17
years old. He astonished the world by
scoring six goals, including two in the
championship game.With Peles help,
Brazilian teams also won theWorld Cup
in 1962 and 1970.
In 1975 Pele joined the New York Cosmos.
He led the team to a league championship
in 1977 and then retired.
After retiring, Pele composed music,
wrote several books about his life, and
appeared in a number of films. He also
Pele takes the ball down the field. worked for childrens causes. In the
50 Peking BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
1990s Pele served as Brazils minister of
sports for four years.
#More to explore
Brazil Soccer
Pelican
Pelicans are among the largest flying
birds. They are famous for their huge
throat pouches. A pelican uses its pouch
and its very long bill to scoop up fish.
Pelicans live around lakes, rivers, and
seacoasts in many parts of the world.
They often fish and fly in small groups.
They breed in very large groups on
islands.
Scientists classify pelicans in the genus,
or group, called Pelecanus. There are
several different species, or types, of pelican.
They are related to cormorants and
gannets.
Most pelicans have mainly white feathers.
The best-known types are the North
American white pelican and the European
white pelican. The brown pelican
is darker. In all types the throat pouch
does not have any feathers.
Some kinds of pelican can be more than
70 inches (180 centimeters) long. They
may weigh more than 30 pounds (13
kilograms). Pelicans have long wingspreads.
Their wings can sometimes
stretch more than 9 feet (2.7 meters)
from tip to tip. This makes them good
flyers. Their webbed feet help them
swim. However, their short legs make
them look clumsy on land.
Pelicans eat several pounds of fish each
day. Swimming pelicans often line up in
a group and herd fish into shallow water.
There they can easily scoop up the fish. A
pelican holds fish in its throat pouch
while squeezing water out of the corners
of its mouth. Then it swallows its catch.
The brown pelican fishes in a different
way. It dives from high above the water.
#More to explore
Bird
Pendulum
In its simplest form, a pendulum is a
weight that hangs from the end of a wire
or a string. One end of the wire is
attached to a fixed point. The weight,
called the bob, hangs at the other end. If
a person pulls the bob back and lets go,
the pendulum swings freely. Once a
pendulum is moving, it never twists or
spins.
A brown pelican perches on a
net.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Pendulum 51
In the 1500s the Italian scientist Galileo
discovered that the swing of a
pendulum is constant. In other words,
it always takes the bob the same
amount of time to swing out from its
starting point and come back again.
The bob will eventually move a shorter
distance back and forth. Nevertheless,
the bob still takes the same amount of
time to complete a swing. The length
of the wire or string determines how
long the swing takes.
This information soon became useful in
clock making. In the 1600s scientists
learned to use pendulums to make more
accurate clocks. Even today many clocks
have pendulums inside them. The pendulum
swings back and forth at a regular
rate. This keeps the other parts,
including the hands on the face of the
clock, moving at a regular rate as well.
In 1851 a French scientist named Jean
Foucault used a giant pendulum to
prove that Earth rotates. He hung a
heavy bob on a thick wire attached to
the inside of a dome. As the bob moved,
it traced a line in the air. As the day
passed, the line seemed to be changing
direction. Because the pendulum was
not spinning, Earth had to be rotating
underneath it.
#More to explore
Clock Galileo
Penguin
Penguins are the only birds that can
swim but cannot fly. These black and
white seabirds move about very easily in
the water. On land they stand upright
and waddle about.
Where Penguins Live
There are 18 species, or types, of penguin.
They are found mainly in the
southern half of the world. Many types
are found in the cold regions of Antarctica
or nearby islands. Penguins also live
along the cool coasts of Africa, New
Zealand, Australia, and South America.
The Galapagos penguin lives in a warm
region off the coast of Ecuador.
Emperor penguins gather on the ice in
Antarctica.
The bob of a pendulum swings back and
forth in a path called an arc.
52 Penguin BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Physical Features
A penguin typically has a black back
and a white belly. Different types range
in height from about 14 to 45 inches
(36 to 114 centimeters). The largest
type is the emperor penguin, which
weighs about 80 pounds (36
kilograms).
Penguins are excellent swimmers and
divers. They can swim faster than 25
miles (40 kilometers) per hour. Penguins
use their short, paddlelike wings as flippers
for swimming. Their feet are
webbed, and their bodies are shaped like
torpedoes. Penguins have short legs, but
they can run fairly quickly. To travel
over ice and snow, a penguin may slide
on its belly.
A penguin is covered nearly all over with
short feathers. The feathers keep water
out and trap warm air against the skin.
A thick layer of fat also protects this bird
from the cold.
Behavior
Penguins may stay at sea for weeks at a
time. They dive after small sea animals
to eat. Different types eat small fishes,
squid, and shrimplike animals called
krill.
Penguins breed in large groups called
nesting colonies. Some types travel long
distances to reach their nesting colonies.
They may return to the same nesting
place year after year.
#More to explore
Bird
Penicillin
The discovery of penicillin was one of
the greatest scientific achievements of
the 1900s. Penicillin belongs to a group
of medical drugs called antibiotics.
These medicines fight infections caused
by small living things called bacteria.
Infectious diseases once caused many
deaths. The discovery of penicillin therefore
saved millions of lives.
In 1928 an English doctor named
Alexander Fleming discovered the
effects of penicillin. While doing
research on bacteria, Fleming noticed
that the bacteria would not grow near a
certain mold. He found that the mold
was a type called Penicillium notatum.
This mold is similar to the green fuzzy
mold that grows on bread. From the
mold Fleming developed the antibiotic
now known as penicillin.
By the late 1930s penicillin was being
used to treat infections in hospitals.
Penicillium mold is the source of penicillin.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Penicillin 53
DuringWorldWar II in the 1940s, military
doctors used penicillin to treat
infected wounds. Penicillin is now
widely used in the treatment of throat
infections, meningitis, and other infections.
#More to explore
Antibiotic Bacteria
Penn,William
William Penn founded the colony of
Pennsylvania in 1681. He wanted to
create a place where many religious
faiths would be allowed.
Early Life
William Penn was born in London,
England, on October 14, 1644. His
father was a wealthy admiral in the
English Navy. As a young man, Penn left
the Church of England and joined the
Quakers.
The Quakers (also known as the Society
of Friends) were a Christian group that
had no ministers. Instead, they held
meetings at which anyone could speak.
Other Christians saw the Quakers as
disrespectful or even dangerous. Penn
went to jail four times for his beliefs.
Founder of Pennsylvania
Like others before them, the Quakers
decided to look for religious freedom in
North America. In 1681 King Charles II
gave Penn the right to build a colony
there. The colonys name, Pennsylvania,
combined Penns family name with a
Latin word for woodland.
Penn wanted Pennsylvania to be a holy
experiment in tolerance. This meant
that the colony welcomed all Christians,
not just Quakers. In addition, Penn prepared
a constitution, or document of
government, for the colony. The constitution
provided for an assembly of
elected representatives.
Penn arrived in his colony in 1682.
Using his instructions, the colonists had
already laid out the new city of Philadelphia.
Penn signed treaties of friendship
with the regions Native Americans, the
Delaware (Lenni Lenape) people. In
1684 Penn had to return to England.
He went back to the colony in 1699 but
left again in 1701. Money problems and
bad health kept Penn from ever returning
to Pennsylvania. He died in Buckinghamshire,
England, on July 30, 1718.
#More to explore
William Penn Pennsylvania Quaker
54 Penn, William BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Pennsylvania
The U.S. state of Pennsylvania was
named afterWilliam Penn. The states
name actually means PennsWoods.
William Penn founded the original
colony in the early 1680s. Pennsylvanias
nickname, the Keystone State, refers to
its central location among the 13 original
states. The capital is Harrisburg.
Pennsylvania played an important role
in the history of the United States. From
1790 to 1800 the city of Philadelphia
served as the countrys capital. And during
the American CivilWar, one of the
most important battles was fought at the
Pennsylvania town of Gettysburg.
Geography
Pennsylvania is in the Middle Atlantic
region of the United States. Pennsylvanias
eastern boundary is the Delaware
River. The river separates Pennsylvania
from New Jersey and New York. In the
north, Pennsylvania borders New York
and Lake Erie. Southeast of Pennsylvania
is the state of Delaware.West Virginia
borders Pennsylvania on both the
south and west. Maryland is also south
of Pennsylvania, and Ohio is to the west.
Most of Pennsylvania lies within the
Appalachian Mountains. High, rugged
land called a plateau covers all of the
north and west except for a lowland
plain along Lake Erie. The Allegheny
Mountains, a section of the Appalachians,
run across the state from southwest
to northeast. In the southeast are a
hilly farming region and a plain.
People
More than four fifths of Pennsylvanias
population is white. Many
whites are of German, Irish, or Italian
heritage. African Americans are the largest
minority group in Pennsylvania.
They make up about one tenth of the
states population. About 3 percent of
the people are Hispanic, and about 2
percent are Asian.
The Amish are a unique religious group
who live in Pennsylvania. They speak a
type of German as well as the English
language. The Amish way of life is the
same as it was centuries ago. They live in
small communities of hand-built buildings
and do not use electricity. Instead of
automobiles they travel in horse-drawn
wagons.
Economy
Pennsylvania has one of the strongest
economies of all the states. The major
manufactured products are chemicals,
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Pennsylvania 55
metal goods, and processed foods. Two
companies in the state make wellknown
food products. The Hershey
company is famous for its chocolate
and H.J. Heinz is famous for its
ketchup.
Although much of the land is mountainous,
Pennsylvania has many valleys suitable
for farming. Dairy and beef cattle
and chickens account for much of the
states farm income. Pennsylvania is a
major producer of milk, cheese, eggs,
mushrooms, and fruit. Forestry is also
important.
Tourism adds billions of dollars to Pennsylvanias
economy each year. The tourism
industry creates jobs in hotels,
restaurants, and the travel business. Each
year millions of tourists visit the states
famous historical sites. Many people go
to Philadelphia to see Independence
Hall and the Liberty Bell. Tourists also
visit the historical parks at Valley Forge
and Gettysburg.
History
Before the 1600s only Native Americans
lived in the region now known as Pennsylvania.
The regions four major Native
American groups were the Delaware, the
Susquehannock, the Shawnee, and the
Iroquois. Swedes from northern Europe
founded the areas first colony in 1638.
The Dutch took over the territory in
1655, and nine years later the English
seized the land.
In 1681 King Charles II of England
granted the Pennsylvania region to William
Penn. Penn wanted to start a new
colony in America. He was a member of
the religious faith known as the Society
of Friends, or Quakers. In England, the
Quakers had been punished for their
religious beliefs. Penn established the
new colony in order to create a safe
place for the Quakers. In Pennsylvania
the religious practices of the Quakers
and other religions were respected. The
religious freedom of Pennsylvania
attracted many people to the colony.
Philadelphia, the colonial capital,
became the largest city in the American
Colonies.
Pennsylvania was a key state during the
period of the American Revolution
(177583). The Declaration of Independence
was signed in Philadelphia. Valley
Forge was the site of the Continental
Armys winter camp in 177778. After
the Revolution was won, the U.S. Constitution
was written in Philadelphia in
1787. Pennsylvania became the second
state to approve the document, on
December 12, 1787.
An Amish family works on a farm in Pennsylvania.
The Amish first came to Pennsylvania
in the 1700s.
Facts About
PENNSYLVANIA
Flag
Population
(2000 census)
12,281,054
rank, 6th state;
(2008 estimate)
12,448,279
rank, 6th state
Capital
Harrisburg
Area
46,055 sq mi
(119,283 sq
km)rank, 33rd
state
Statehood
December 12,
1787
Motto
Virtue, Liberty,
and
Independence
State bird
Ruffed grouse
State flower
Mountain laurel
56 Pennsylvania BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Pennsylvania remained with the Union
during the American CivilWar (1861
65). In 1863 one of the key battles of
the war took place at Gettysburg, in the
southern part of the state. Not long after
the bloody fight had ended, a part of the
battlefield was dedicated as a national
cemetery. During the dedication ceremony,
President Abraham Lincoln
delivered his famous Gettysburg
Address.
Many parts of Pennsylvania became
industrial centers in the 1800s. Coal
mining and steelmaking were very
important industries. The steel industry
was centered in Pittsburgh. During
WorldWar I (191418) andWorldWar
II (193945), Pennsylvanias industries
were major suppliers of iron and steel,
arms, and machinery. In the decades
afterWorldWar II, however, the states
coal and steel industries became much
less important.
In 1979 the first major nuclear accident
in the United States took place at the
Three Mile Island nuclear power plant
near Harrisburg. Cleanup of the radioactive
waste cost more than a billion
dollars.
On September 11, 2001, an airplane
flying over western Pennsylvania was
taken over by a group of hijackers. The
passengers stopped the hijackers from
continuing to the East Coast and crashing
the airplane into a building. Instead
the airplane crashed in a field southeast
of Pittsburgh. The plane was one of
several taken over by terrorists on that
day.
#More to explore
American CivilWar Appalachian
Mountains Harrisburg
The Allegheny River and the Monongahela River join to form the Ohio River in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.
An old cannon stands in the Gettysburg
National Military Park in southern Pennsylvania.
The park has many monuments to
the soldiers who fought there. It also features
exhibits that explain what happened
during the battle.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Pennsylvania 57
Peony
Peonies are flowering plants with large
blossoms. There are two basic types:
garden peonies and tree peonies. Most
garden peonies are native to Europe and
Asia. All tree peonies originated in
China.
Peonies grow best in sunny areas. Flowers
bloom in late spring or early summer
and last about one week. Then the
plants produce seed pods. Some garden
peonies can live for more than 30 years.
Garden peonies grow to about 3 feet (1
meter) in height. Most types produce
only one flower on a stem. Flowers may
grow up to 6 inches (15 centimeters)
across. They are commonly white, pink,
magenta, or deep red. Each flower has 5
to 10 petals. The flowers often have ants
crawling on them. The ants are attracted
to the nectar the buds produce.
Tree peonies are shrubby plants. Their
woody stems can grow to about 7 feet (2
meters) tall. Flowers may be white, yellow,
lilac, violet, or red. Dozens of flowers
can grow on one shrub. Blossoms
measure about 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20
centimeters) across.
Peonies are valued as garden flowers.
People also use peonies in floral arrangements.
Pepper
Peppers are the fruits of many different
garden plants. They are eaten as vegetables
and used to flavor foods. Garden
peppers come from plants of the nightshade
family, which also includes tomatoes,
potatoes, and eggplant. The spice
called black pepper comes from an unrelated
plant.
Peppers are grown widely in the tropical
parts of Asia and Central and South
America. The first Europeans to visit the
Garden peppers come in many
colors and flavors.
Garden peony flowers range in color from
white to pink to deep red.
58 Peony BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Americas carried pepper seeds back to
Spain in 1493. From there the plants
spread quickly throughout Europe.
Pepper plants reach 2 to 4 feet (0.6 to
1.2 meters) in height. The fruits differ in
size, shape, and taste. When ripe, peppers
range in color from yellow to deep
red and purple.
Peppers can be mild or hot. Mild peppers
are usually large. Bell, or sweet,
peppers are mild peppers that are bellshaped,
wrinkled, and puffy. They are
often used in salads and in cooked
dishes. Bell peppers are rich in vitamins
A and C. Paprika is a mild pepper that is
usually made into a powder and used as
a spice.
Hot peppers include tabasco, chili, and
cayenne peppers. These peppers contain
a substance called capsaicin, which gives
them a strong, burning taste. Hot peppers
are generally used as relishes or are
ground into a fine powder for use as
spices. Tabasco peppers are ground and
mixed with vinegar to make a popular
hot sauce.
#More to explore
Potato Spice Tomato
Pequot
The Pequot are a Native American
people of eastern Connecticut. In the
1600s the tribe was nearly wiped out by
disease and war with English settlers.
The Pequot lived in wigwams, which
were dome-shaped houses made from
wooden poles and bark. They grew corn
and other crops. They also fished and
hunted for deer and other animals.
Dutch and English settlers arrived in
Pequot territory in the early 1600s. At
first the Pequot got along with the settlers.
Soon, though, many Pequot died
from diseases brought by the settlers.
And within a few years the Pequot and
the English began fighting over land. In
1637 the English and other Native
American groups attacked the main
Pequot village in Connecticut. About
600 Pequot were killed.
After the war some Pequot tried to flee.
Many were captured or killed by the
English or other Indian tribes. The
English sold some Pequot as slaves. They
sent other Pequot to live with other
tribes. Many of the Pequot were put
under the control of the Mohegan. The
Mohegan treated the Pequot so badly
that the English had to separate the two
groups in 1655. The English moved the
Pequot to land along the Mystic River in
Connecticut. At the end of the 20th
A decorated Pequot canoe is displayed in a
Connecticut museum.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Pequot 59
century there were about 1,300 Pequot
in Connecticut.
#More to explore
Mohegan Native Americans
Perseus
Perseus was a hero in ancient Greek
mythology. He was the son of Zeus, the
chief god. His mother was Princess
Danae.
According to legend, a king fell in love
with Danae. But he wanted to get rid of
Perseus. So he tricked Perseus. He made
Perseus promise to get the head of the
evil monster named Medusa. Medusa
was a Gorgon, a winged creature with
snakes for hair. Anyone who dared to
look at her turned to stone. The cruel
king believed he would never see Perseus
again.
In his quest to kill Medusa, Perseus
received help from the gods. Hermes,
the messenger god, guided him on his
journey and gave him a magic sword.
Athena, the goddess of wisdom, gave
Perseus a bronze shield. Minor goddesses
called nymphs gave him a helmet that
made him invisible.
Perseus attacked Medusa while wearing
the magic helmet. He also was careful
not to look right at her. Instead, he
looked only at her reflection in the polished
shield.With one stroke of his
sword he cut off Medusas head. He
then put the head in a bag. Perseus
returned home and went to the kings
palace. There he pulled out Medusas
head. The king looked directly at it and
instantly turned to stone. Later Perseus
After his
death, Perseus
was taken up
to the sky by
Zeus and
made into a
constellation
(a group of
stars).
In ancient Greek mythology, Perseus was a
son of the god Zeus. Perseus was known for
killing Medusa, a monster with snakes for
hair.
60 Perseus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
gave the head to Athena, who placed it
on her shield.
#More to explore
Athena Hermes Mythology Zeus
Persia
Persia was a mighty kingdom centered
in what is now Iran. The Persians rose to
power in about 550 BC. For about 200
years they ruled a vast empire. It
stretched from the Indus River in southern
Asia to parts of southern Europe and
northern Africa.
After the fall of the empire, a number of
peoples ruled Persia. The present-day
country of Iran had its beginnings in the
early 1500s. But the outside world called
it Persia until 1935.
The Persian Empire
In about 550 BC Cyrus II became king
of Persia. Over the next 40 years the
Persians brought one region after
another under their control. Persian
kings treated the groups they conquered
with fairness and respect. They allowed
conquered peoples to follow their local
customs.
In 522 BC Darius I became king. During
his rule the Persian Empire grew to its
greatest size and power. The empire was
divided into 20 provinces. A governor
ruled each of the provinces. The governors
enjoyed a great deal of freedom in
ruling. However, military forces in each
province kept the governors from
becoming too strong. Persian kings also
used spies to keep track of the governors
activities.
The Persians built a series of roads to
increase communication and business
activity throughout the empire. The
most famous road was the Royal Road.
The Royal Road stretched more than
1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) west
from the Persian capital of Susa.
Later Persia
In about 500 BC the Persian Empire
slowly began to weaken. It suffered military
defeats and rebellion. In the 300s
BC a kingdom known as Macedonia had
come to power in Greece. By 330 BC the
Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great
had conquered the Persians.
Persians known as the Parthians and the
Sasanians ruled Persia from about 247
BC until the AD 600s. At that time Muslim
Arabs invaded. The Persians became
Persian kings built a hall called the
Apadana in the city of Persepolis about
2,500 years ago. A stairway still stands.
Carvings on it show a lion attacking a bull.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Persia 61
Muslims but kept their own language,
which is called Farsi or Persian. A ruling
family from Persia called the Safavids
regained control in the early 1500s.
They called their country Iran.
#More to explore
Greece, Ancient Iran PersianWars
Persian GulfWar
In 1990 an army from Iraq took over
the country of Kuwait. In January 1991
the United Nations (UN) sent in armies
from many countries to push out the
Iraqis. The war they fought is called the
Persian GulfWar. (Kuwait and Iraq lie
on the Persian Gulf, a body of water in
the Middle East.)
Background
Iraq needed money after fighting the
Iran-IraqWar, which ended in 1988.
Iraqs neighbor Kuwait was rich because
it produced oil. To get control of
Kuwaits oil, President Saddam Hussein
of Iraq sent in troops on August 2,
1990. Kuwait fell quickly to the Iraqis.
Almost every other country disapproved
of what Iraq had done. On November
29 the UN threatened Iraq with military
force unless it got out of Kuwait by
January 15, 1991.
The United States and other countries
thought that Iraq might also try to get
the oil supply in Saudi Arabia. (Saudi
Arabia is next to Kuwait and Iraq.) To
shield Saudi Arabia, they sent forces
there. This military buildup was called
Operation Desert Shield.
By January 1991 there were about
700,000 troops in the Persian Gulf
region ready to fight Iraq. These allied
troops came from the United States, the
United Kingdom, France, Canada, Australia,
Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and
several other countries. Meanwhile, Saddam
Hussein ignored the UNs deadline.
He built up his army in Kuwait to
about 300,000 troops.
War
During the night of January 1617, the
Persian GulfWar began with a massive
attack on Iraq by allied warplanes. This
campaign was named Operation Desert
Storm. A ground attack, called Operation
Desert Saber, followed on February
2324.Within just four days, Iraqs
troops stopped fighting. Arab and U.S.
forces easily recaptured Kuwaits capital.
The war ended on February 27, 1991.
About 300 allied soldiers and thousands
of Iraqis died in the war.
Results
The UN had banned most trade with
Iraq before the war. The ban remained
General H. Norman Schwarzkopf gets U.S.
troops ready to fight in the Persian GulfWar.
62 Persian Gulf War BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
in force after the fighting ended. At the
same time, the UN told Iraq that it
must destroy many of its weapons. The
UN sent inspectors to Iraq to make
sure that the Iraqis destroyed the
weapons. In about 1998, however, Iraq
stopped cooperating with the
inspectors. This and other disputes led
to another war. Troops from the United
States and other countries invaded Iraq
in March 2003.
#More to explore
Iran-IraqWar Iraq Kuwait United
Nations
PersianWars
By 500 BC Persia ruled a large empire
that was centered in what is now Iran.
The Persians had conquered a number
of ancient Greek cities, called city-states,
that lay along the eastern Mediterranean
Sea. The city-states were independent of
each other. But in about 499 BC they
united in rebellion against their Persian
rulers. This rebellion started the Persian
Wars, a long series of battles between the
Greeks and the Persians.
During the rebellion Athens sent 20
ships to help the Greek rebels. Athens
was a powerful city-state on the Greek
mainland. Despite the help from the
Athenians, the rebels lost to the
Persians.
The Persians vowed revenge against Athens
for its part in the rebellion. In 490
BC a Persian army invaded mainland
Greece. The Athenians faced the Persians
in battle on the plain of Marathon,
about 25 miles (40 kilometers) from
Athens. Although there were fewer
Athenians than Persians, the Athenian
troops badly defeated the Persians.
Ten years later the Persians returned.
This time both their army and navy
were huge and powerful. One battle
followed another. Finally, in 480 BC the
Greeks defeated the Persians in a great
sea battle in the Strait of Salamis. (The
Strait of Salamis is a narrow body of
water a few miles west of Athens.)
Another Greek victory came the following
year.
Smaller battles raged for the next 30
years, but the Persians never again conquered
the Greeks. In 449 BC the Greeks
and the Persians agreed to a final peace
treaty. The Greek victory allowed Greek
culture and political ideas to last long
after the end of the Persian Empire.
#More to explore
Athens Greece, Ancient Iran
Marathon
An illustration shows a united force of
Greeks (right) defeating the Persians in
battle in 479 BC.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Persian Wars 63
Peru
The country of Peru sits on the west
coast of South America. For hundreds of
years the great Inca Empire ruled the
land that is now Peru. The capital of
Peru is Lima.
Geography
Peru shares borders with Ecuador,
Colombia, Brazil, Bolivia, and Chile.
The Pacific Ocean lies to the west.
The Andes Mountains run north and
south through the center of the country.
In southern Peru many of the mountains
are volcanoes. Also in the south is
Lake Titicaca, one of the worlds highest
lakes.
Low desert lands lie west of the Andes.
East of the Andes is a large, humid
region called the montana. In the northeast
several rivers flow out of the Andes
to join the Amazon River. The area near
the river is hot and rainy year-round.
Plants and Animals
The dry coastal region and the mountains
have few plants besides shrubs,
cacti, and grasses. Llamas, alpacas,
vicunas, and guanacosall relatives of
the camellive in the Andes.
Thick, tropical rain forests grow in the
montana. Parrots, monkeys, jaguars, and
crocodiles live in the forests. The worlds
largest rodent, the capybara, also lives
there.
People
About half of the population is American
Indian. Mestizos, or people with
both Indian and European roots, make
up about a third of the population.
Whites, mainly with Spanish roots,
make up a small part of the population.
They control most of Perus power and
money. There are also small groups of
Japanese, Chinese, and others.
A blue-and-yellow macaw shares a perch
with five scarlet macaws in Peru. Macaws
are birds that are closely related to parrots.
64 Peru BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Most Peruvians live in cities and towns
along the coast. However, many Indians
live in the Andes or in the Amazon
region. The Indians speak Quechua or
Aymara. Other Peruvians speak Spanish.
Roman Catholicism is the countrys
main religion.
Economy
Perus natural resources are important to
its economy. Peru has deposits of gold,
copper, zinc, silver, lead, and iron ore. It
also mines some petroleum (oil). Farmers
in Peru grow sugarcane, rice, corn,
cotton, and potatoes. They also raise
sheep, cattle, pigs, goats, and chickens.
Many industries in Peru use the countrys
resources or farm products. For
example, Peruvians make cloth from the
wool of llamas, alpacas, and sheep. Factories
also make food products, metals,
clothing, and wood products.
History
More than 3,000 years ago several cultures
developed in parts of what is now
Peru. In the 1400s the Inca built a large
empire along the west coast of South
America.
In 1533 the Spanish explorer Francisco
Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. Millions
of Inca died. The Spanish grew
rich from the lands gold and silver.
In 1821 a general from Argentina captured
Lima and declared Peru independent
from Spain. From 1879 to 1883
Peru fought a war with Chile.
Military leaders ruled Peru off and on
until 1980. Alberto Fujimori became
president in 1990. However, Peruvians
accused him of illegal activities. He left
the country in 2000.
..More to explore
Andes Inca Lima
Some valleys of the Andes have good
farmland.
A town plaza, or square, in the center of Arequipa, Peru, features a Roman Catholic
cathedral (left) and church (right). Arequipa is one of Perus largest cities.
Facts About
PERU
Population
(2008 estimate)
28,534,000
Area
496,225 sq mi
(1,285,216 sq
km)
Capital
Lima
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Lima, Arequipa,
Trujillo, Chiclayo,
Iquitos
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Peru 65
Pet
Pets are animals that people keep mainly
for enjoyment and companionship.
Some pets also help or protect their
owners. Pets need a lot of attention and
care. However, they also add a lot of fun
and happiness to their owners lives.
Popular Pets
Cats and dogs have long been the most
common pets. People tamed wild dogs
thousands of years ago. Ancient Egyptians
worshipped cats and even buried
them with people. Today birds, fish,
guinea pigs, hamsters, and snakes are
also popular pets.
Working Pets
Some pets are more than just companions
for people. Cats often help people
by catching mice. Many dogs protect the
home of their owner. Sled dogs carry
people and goods across the snowy wilderness.
Farm dogs may herd sheep or
cows. Guide dogs go everywhere with
their blind owners. People with other
disabilities sometimes have animals to
help them, too.
Pet Care
Pets need almost as much care as children.
They need food, water, and shelter.
They need to be kept clean, and they
need exercise. They should also be taken
to an animal doctor, or veterinarian, on
a regular basis. The veterinarian can help
keep pets healthy by giving them shots
to protect against certain diseases.
Wild Animals as Pets
Most of the animals that people keep as
pets are tame. But sometimes people
keep wild animals as pets. But these
animals usually do better in their natural
habitat. Some rare animals cannot survive
at all if taken from the wild. Even if
they do survive, wild animals rarely
become completely tame. They need to
be watched carefully.
When people try to obtain wild pets,
animals suffer in many ways. People
called poachers illegally hunt and trap
them. Many baby animals die when they
are taken from their mothers and
shipped off to be sold as pets. Poachers
hunt some kinds of animals until almost
none of the animals are left.
#More to explore
Animal Cat Dog
Peter the Great
The Russian tsar, or emperor, Peter I is
called Peter the Great because of his
outstanding career as a ruler and
reformer. He made Russia more modern
Many children keep dogs as pets. and more powerful.
66 Pet BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Early Life
Peter was born on June 9, 1672, near
Moscow, Russia. He was about 4 years
old when his father died. Peters halfbrother
Fyodor became tsar, but he died
in 1682. Peter and another half-brother,
Ivan, were then made tsars together.
Ivans sister Sophia ran the country
while Peter grew up in a village outside
Moscow.
Peter seized power from Sophia in 1689.
In 1696 Ivan died, leaving Peter as Russias
only tsar.
Russian Expansion
At the beginning of Peters reign, Russia
covered a huge territory. However, it did
not have good access to the sea. Peter
wanted to change this. In 1700 Peter led
Russia into war against Sweden, which
controlled the Baltic Sea. During the
war Peter built a new capital city, Saint
Petersburg, on land captured from Sweden.
Russia won the war in 1721.
After the victory over Sweden, the Russian
Empire was formed. Peter expanded
the empire in a war against Persia in
172223. Russia won land around the
Caspian Sea.
Reforms at Home
Peter also made many changes within
Russia. He looked to western Europe for
ideas. The countries there had already
made some of the kinds of changes he
wanted to make in Russia. In 1697 Peter
traveled to Europe. He disguised himself
and worked in shipyards in England and
the Netherlands. He learned as much as
he could about theWest.
Peter broughtWestern ideas back to
Russia. He made the government and
the army more modern. He encouraged
industry and trade. He built schools and
hospitals. He even tried to make Russians
look moreWestern by taxing
people who wore beards and Asian
clothing. Not everyone liked the
changes. Peter died in Saint Petersburg
on February 8, 1725.
#More to explore
Russia Saint Petersburg Tsar
Petroleum
Petroleum is another name for oil, a
liquid found deep underground. Petroleum
is a valuable natural resource. It is
used to make many products that people
use every day. These products include
gasoline, paints, and even lip balm.
The war
between Russia
and Sweden
for control
of the Baltic
Sea is called
the Great
Northern War.
Peter the Great
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Petroleum 67
How Petroleum Formed
Petroleum formed from the remains of
tiny plants and animals that lived hundreds
of millions of years ago. When
these living things died, they sank into
mud. As layers of mud and rock piled
up, they pushed down on the lower layers.
Eventually this pressure and Earths
heat changed the plant and animal
remains into petroleum.
Drilling and Refining
Underground, petroleum collects in
reservoir rock. This is rock that has
thousands of tiny holes in it. Sometimes
reservoir rock has large, bowlshaped
spaces in it. These spaces trap
huge amounts of petroleum near
Earths surface. Workers drill down to
collect the petroleum from reservoir
rock traps.
After workers pump the crude, or raw,
petroleum from the ground, it goes to
large factories called refineries. There the
crude petroleum is refined, or cleaned,
to make it ready to use.
Uses
People use refined petroleum to make
many different products. Some parts of
the petroleum go into fuels such as gasoline,
diesel fuel, and jet fuel. Other parts
are used to make waxes and greases such
as petroleum jelly. Plastics, fertilizers,
explosives, and certain drugs also come
from refined petroleum.
Disadvantages of Petroleum
Burning fuel made from petroleum
releases harmful gases into the air. These
gases can mix with moisture to create
acid rain, a dangerous form of pollution.
Burning petroleum also helps to trap
heat in Earths atmosphere. This process
is called global warming. It may harm
plants and animals and cause ocean levels
to rise.
In addition, the world has a limited supply
of petroleum. It is called a nonrenewable
resource because it cannot be
replaced once it is removed from the
ground. People are using up petroleum
so fast that eventually the supply may be
gone.
#More to explore
Fossil Fuel GlobalWarming
Pollution
Pharaoh
The rulers of ancient Egypt were called
pharaohs. The word pharaoh means
great house. It originally described the
royal palace but later described the rulers
themselves.
A ship called a tanker unloads petroleum at
a port in California.
68 Pharaoh BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Role
Pharaohs were absolute, or all-powerful,
rulers. They made laws, controlled the
land and its resources, and maintained
an army. Assistants called viziers and
other officials helped pharaohs to govern.
Pharaohs were also religious leaders.
In fact, Egyptians worshipped their pharaohs
as gods.
Burial
When pharaohs died, their bodies were
preserved as mummies. Egyptians then
buried the mummies in tombs, sometimes
in or under pyramids. They buried
treasures along with the mummies.
Egyptians believed that pharaohs lived
on as gods in the afterlife.
Famous Pharaohs
One of the best-known pharaohs is Tutankhamen.
He ruled in the 1300s BC,
from about age 8 until he died 10 years
later. Archaeologists found his tomb in
1922. In addition to his mummy, there
was a gold mask of the pharaohs face,
jewelry, furniture, weapons, and other
treasures buried in the tomb.
In the 1200s BC Ramses II ruled as pharaoh
for about 67 years. He fought
many successful wars. He also ordered
many temples and statues to be built.
Giant statues of Ramses II survive in
Egypt today.
Ancient Egypt also had some female
pharaohs. Many of them ruled with
their husbands or for their young sons.
Hatshepsut, however, ruled on her own
as a pharaoh in the 1400s BC. Cleopatra
is probably the most famous woman
ruler of Egypt. Part of a line of pharaohs
from Macedonia, she ruled from 51 to
30 BC. After her death the Roman
Empire took over Egypt, and the rule of
the pharaohs ended.
..More to explore
Cleopatra Egypt, Ancient Hatshepsut
Pyramid Tutankhamen
Philadelphia
Population
(2000 census),
city, 1,517,550;
(2007 estimate)
1,449,634
Philadelphia is the largest city in the
state of Pennsylvania. It is also one of
the largest cities in the United States.
Philadelphia played a central role in the
A huge statue of the pharaoh
Ramses II stands at the temple of
Luxor in Egypt.
Tutankhamens
mummy was
found lying
within a nest
of three coffins.
The innermost
coffin
was made of
solid gold.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Philadelphia 69
countrys early history. It was the capital
of the United States from 1790 to 1800.
The city lies where the Delaware and
Schuylkill rivers meet.
Places of Interest
Two important U.S. historical
documentsthe Declaration of Independence
and the U.S. Constitution
were created in Philadelphias
Independence Hall. The city is home to
the Liberty Bell, a famous symbol of
U.S. freedom. Philadelphia also has
museums about the inventor, publisher,
and political leader named Benjamin
Franklin. He lived in the city for most of
his life.
Economy
Philadelphias economy is based mainly
on services, including health care, education,
trade, and communications. The
city is a center of banking, scientific
research, and business. Factories in
Philadelphia make medicines, processed
foods, machinery, electronics, and metal
products.
History
The Philadelphia area was once home to
Delaware Indians. The area became part
of the colony of Pennsylvania in 1681.
William Penn, a leader of the Quaker
religion, established the colony as a place
of religious freedom. Penn founded
Philadelphia in 1682. Its name is Greek
for the city of brotherly love. Philadelphia
soon grew into a major center of
trade and industry.
Philadelphia played a special role in the
American Revolution, which led to the
creation of the United States. The Declaration
of Independence was signed in
Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. Eleven
years later the U.S. Constitution was
written in the city.
For many years Philadelphia was the
center of U.S. politics, culture, and
banking. However, in the 1800s it lost
those roles toWashington, D.C., and
New York City. Today Philadelphia
remains a center of business, higher education,
and the arts.
#More to explore
Declaration of Independence Franklin,
Benjamin Liberty Bell Penn,William
Pennsylvania United States
Constitution
Philip, King
#see Metacom.
Independence Hall is part of Independence
National Historical Park in downtown Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.
70 Philip, King BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Philippines
The Republic of the Philippines is a
country of Southeast Asia. It is made up
of about 7,100 islands in the western
Pacific Ocean. The capital is Manila.
Geography
The South China Sea lies to the west
and north of the Philippines. The Philippine
Sea is to the east. The countrys
nearest neighbors are Taiwan, Indonesia,
and Malaysia.
Eleven large islands have more than nine
tenths of the land. The two largest
islands are Luzon in the north and Mindanao
in the south. Most of the Philippine
islands are mountainous. Mount
Apo, on Mindanao, is the countrys
highest peak. Some of the mountains are
active volcanoes.
The country has a hot and humid climate,
with rainy and dry seasons. Earthquakes
and typhoons (storms similar to
hurricanes) are common.
Plants and Animals
The forests of the Philippines contain
lauan (Philippine mahogany) and other
trees. Mangrove swamps, grasses, flowering
plants, and ferns also grow on the
islands.Wildlife includes monkeys, deer,
water buffalo, civet cats, bats, wild pigs,
and poisonous cobras.
People
The people of the Philippines are called
Filipinos. Nearly all Filipinos are Malay.
Their ancestors came from the Malay
Peninsula in Southeast Asia. Some of
the Malay also have Spanish or U.S.
ancestors. There are small groups of
Chinese and mixed Malay-Chinese. The
original people of the islands, the
Negritos, form a very small part of the
population.
The population is also divided into
groups based on language. The largest
groups speak Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano,
and Ilongo. Many Filipinos speak
English and Filipino (a form of Tagalog)
as second languages.
Most Filipinos are Roman Catholics.
More than half of the people live in cities,
mainly on Luzon Island.
Economy
Services and manufacturing are important
parts of the economy. Services
include transportation, health care, and
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Philippines 71
education. The countrys industries
make food products, electronics, clothing,
chemicals, and wood products.
Farming is also important. Filipinos
raise rice, corn, pigs, chickens, and goats
for food. Crops sold to other countries
include coconuts, sugarcane, bananas,
and pineapples. Fishing is another
source of food and money.
History
The ancestors of the Negrito people
lived on the islands about 50,000 years
ago. The Malay began arriving about
2,000 years ago from what are now
Indonesia and Malaysia.
Spain took over the islands in the 1500s.
In the late 1800s Filipinos began fighting
for independence from Spain. Meanwhile,
Spain fought the United States in
the Spanish-AmericanWar of 1898.
After Spain lost the war, the United
States took control of the Philippines.
The Filipinos fought against the United
States but failed. The United States
shaped the government, economy, and
culture of the islands until the 1940s.
The Japanese took over the islands duringWorldWar
II. The Philippines
gained full independence after the war,
in 1946.
Ferdinand Marcos became president in
1965. Marcos used the military to help
him rule the country. Corazon Aquino
defeated Marcos in the presidential election
of 1986. She returned democracy to
the Philippines. However, the country
continued to face problems in the
economy and in the government. Plus,
the Philippines faced two rebellions.
Communist rebels wanted to overthrow
the government. Muslim rebels wanted
more power to govern themselves.
..More to explore
Manila Spanish-AmericanWar
An active volcano called Mount Mayon
rises above a field on the island of Luzon in
the Philippines.
Workers plant rice in a flooded field. Rice is
one of the most important crops produced
in the Philippines.
Facts About
PHILIPPINES
Population
(2008 estimate)
90,227,000
Area
122,121 sq mi
(316,294 sq km)
Capital
Manila
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Quezon City,
Manila, Caloocan,
Davao,
Cebu
72 Philippines BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Philosophy
The word philosophy comes from the
Greek language. It means love of wisdom.
Philosophy is the study of some
of the most basic questions about
human life. For example, what can
people really know about life? Or, are
human beings basically good or evil?
There are many branches, or areas, of
philosophy. Some branches deal with
questions about reality and how people
understand and experience it. Other
branches deal with questions about how
people behave and what is good or bad
behavior.
Philosophers are people who study philosophy.
They usually choose a particular
branch of philosophy to study. The
work of philosophers includes observing
the world, doing experiments, and
thinking. Philosophers may write books
and articles on the issues that they study.
They also may look at the ways other
philosophers have answered questions.
Then they may agree or disagree with
what these other philosophers have said.
Some of the most famous philosophers
lived in ancient Greece more than
2,000 years ago. Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle were the most important
ancient Greek philosophers. Philosophy
was very important in the 1700s, too,
during a time called the Enlightenment.
The ideas of Enlightenment thinkers,
who were called the philosophes, helped
lead to the American and French
revolutions.
..More to explore
Enlightenment Greece, Ancient
Phnom Penh
Population
(2005
estimate), urban
area,
1,364,000
Phnom Penh is the capital of Cambodia,
a country in Southeast Asia. It is the
largest city in Cambodia by far.
Phnom Penh is a major river port and
trading center. It is also Cambodias
main center of business and industry.
Tourism also brings money to the city.
In 1434 the Khmer people built Phnom
Penh to be the new capital of their king-
Raphael, an Italian painter of the 1500s,
imagined a meeting of philosophers from
all periods of history.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Phnom Penh 73
dom. In 1865 the king of Cambodia
made Phnom Penh the countrys capital.
The French ruled Cambodia from the
city from 1886 until the 1950s.
Cambodia became an independent
country in 1953. As its capital, Phnom
Penh grew into a large center of culture
and education.
In 1975 Communist rebels called the
Khmer Rouge seized power in Cambodia.
They forced most of Phnom Penhs
citizens to work on farms in the countryside.
The city lost almost all its
people. The Khmer Rouge were forced
out of power in 1979. Afterward Phnom
Penh grew into a large city again.
#More to explore
Cambodia Mekong River
Phoenicia
Phoenicia was an ancient region at the
eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. It
covered the land where the country of
Lebanon is today. The people who lived
there were called Phoenicians. They
traded with many other peoples and set
up many colonies.
The Phoenicians lived on the seacoast
and made their living from the sea. They
were skilled shipbuilders and navigators.
Their trade routes reached as far as
Spain and the British Isles. The Phoenicians
traded wood, linen, dyes, and
wine. They also carved wood and ivory
and worked with metals and glass. The
art of glassblowing was probably
invented in Phoenicia.
The Phoenicians spoke a language that
was similar to Hebrew. They had their
own form of writing and an alphabet of
22 letters. The Phoenician alphabet was
the source of the Greek alphabet and of
the Latin alphabet, which most people
use today.
A stone carving from the 1st century AD
shows the kind of ship that the Phoenicians
used on the Mediterranean Sea.
The Royal Palace in Phnom Penh, Cambodia,
is built in the traditional Cambodian
style.
74 Phoenicia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Historians think that the Phoenicians
arrived in Phoenicia in about 3000 BC.
They probably came from the region of
the Persian Gulf, to the southeast. They
built the cities of Sidon,Tyre, and Berot
(modern Beirut). The Phoenicians set up
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