Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

ore. South America also has large quantities

of oil and natural gas. Copper, tin,

lead, and zinc are mined in the Andes.

Brazil mines many gems.

Agriculture is a large part of the South

American economy. Cattle and sheep are

raised throughout the continent. Argentina

is a leading exporter of beef. Farmers

also raise llamas and alpacas for their

wool. Coffee, cacao, sugarcane, pineapples,

and bananas grow in the tropical

and subtropical regions. Farther from

the equator, people grow corn, oranges,

wheat, and vegetables. But some countries

cannot produce enough food for

their people. Those countries must

import food.

Brazil is the leading manufacturing

country in South America. Factories in

Brazil and Argentina make cars and

trucks. Clothing is made in a number of

countries. Financial and business services

are vital to every country in South

America. Tourism has become increasingly

important.

A Peruvian farmer leads a llama. In the

Andes Mountains, especially in Bolivia,

Peru, and Ecuador, people raise llamas for

their wool.

Facts About

SOUTH AMERICA

Area

6,882,027 sq mi (17,824,370 sq km)

Population

(2008 estimate) 378,448,500

Largest Country by Area

Brazil: 3,287,612 sq mi (8,514,877 sq km)

Smallest Country by Area

Suriname: 63,251 sq mi (163,820 sq km)

Largest Country by Population

Brazil: (2008 estimate) 187,163,000

Smallest Country by Population

Suriname: (2008 estimate) 516,000

Largest Cities

Sao Paulo, Brazil; Buenos Aires, Argentina;

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Lima, Peru; Bogota,

Colombia

Longest River

Amazon River: 4,000 mi (6,400 km)

Largest Lake

Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela: 5,150 sq mi

(13,300 sq km)

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA South America 143

History

American Indians have lived in South

America for many thousands of years.

By about 2000 BC several groups had

societies with highly developed cultures.

By at least the AD 1400s, these had

developed into such large Indian groups

as the Inca of the Andes Mountains,

the Chibcha of Colombia, and the

Guarani of Paraguay. When the

Europeans came to South America, the

Inca Empire covered a large section of

the continent.

European exploration of the continent

began when Christopher Columbus

arrived in the north in 1498. In the early

1500s Spanish and Portuguese sailors

began exploring—and then taking

over—large areas of the continent. The

Portuguese gradually took possession of

what is now Brazil. The Spanish claimed

the rest of the continent. They ruled

over the Native Americans. The Spanish

forced them to mine for gold and silver

and to work the land. Huge numbers of

Indians died from diseases they caught

from the Europeans and from harsh

working conditions. The Europeans

brought enslaved Africans to the continent

to replace the lost workers.

In the 1800s growing numbers of people

in South America began to demand

independence from Spain. The main

revolutionary campaigns were directed

by two outstanding military leaders: Jose

de San Martin and Simon Bolivar. They

were ultimately successful. By the

middle of the century all the Spanish

colonies had become independent

nations. There was very little fighting in

Brazil, however. In 1822 the Portuguese

recognized Brazil as an independent

empire. In 1889 the Brazilians formed a

republic.

Many of the new countries in South

America set up governments based on

the democratic pattern of the United

States and France. However, over the

years military leaders have often seized

power and created dictatorships. At the

beginning of the 21st century, there

were many economic problems in South

America as well. A small number of rich

people owned most of the land, farms,

and businesses. Many more people lived

in poverty.

#More to explore

Amazon River • Andes • Argentina

• Brazil • Inca • Llama

The military leader Simon Bolivar helped

South American countries to win independence

in the 1800s.

144 South America BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

South Australia

South Australia is one of Australia’s six

states. It contains some of the driest,

emptiest areas of the country. Adelaide is

the state’s capital and main port.

Geography

South Australia borders Western

Australia on the west; the Northern

Territory on the north; Queensland,

New South Wales, and Victoria on the

east; and the Indian Ocean on the

south. South Australia covers an area of

379,725 square miles (983,482 square

kilometers).

South Australia’s land is mostly low and

flat. More than two thirds of the inland

area is a dry region with little plant life

and few people. In the northeast is a

part of the Great Artesian Basin. The

basin is the world’s largest region of

natural springs (water that flows from

underground). The Murray River is the

only major river in the state. It provides

most of the water for Adelaide. The state

has a dry climate, with cool winters and

warm summers.

Plants and Animals

In the dry areas of South Australia few

plants other than acacia trees and shrubs

grow. Eucalyptus trees grow in the

rainier areas of the south. People have

also planted forests of pine trees in the

southeast.

South Australia’s animals include many

types of birds and reptiles. The state is

also home to many marsupial mammals

(animals that usually carry their young

in a pouch). These include kangaroos,

possums, and the hairy-nosed wombat.

People

South Australia has a population of

about 1.5 million. Most of the people

have British or other European ancestors.

Less than 2 percent of South Australians

are Aborigines, the original

people of Australia.

About three quarters of the state’s

people live in Adelaide. The other large

cities are Whyalla, Mount Gambier, Port

Augusta, and Port Pirie.

Clumps of grass grow in South Australia’s

Strzelecki Desert.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA South Australia 145

Economy

Many people in South Australia work in

services—for example, health care, education,

and retail shops. Many others

work in manufacturing. The state’s

manufactured goods include cars, metal

pipes, chemicals, paper, and cloth.

South Australian farmers grow grapes,

vegetables, oranges, wheat, and barley.

They also raise cattle, pigs, chickens, and

sheep. The state produces most of Australia’s

wine and much of its wool.

Mining is another important part of the

economy. Mines in South Australia provide

iron, salt, and the mineral gypsum.

The state is also a major world source of

precious gems called opals. Large natural

gas fields in the north produce much of

Australia’s natural gas supply.

History

Aborigines have lived in what is now

South Australia for at least 23,000

years. Dutch explorers traveled along

the coast in the 1600s. The British

navigator Matthew Flinders explored

the area in about 1802.

Colonists from Great Britain began to

settle in South Australia in 1836. In the

mid-1800s the colonists began to produce

wheat, wool, and copper. This

activity helped the colony to grow.

South Australia gained control of what is

now the Northern Territory in 1863.

When Australia gained independence

from Britain in 1901, South Australia

became a state. The Northern Territory

was separated from the state in 1911.

#More to explore

Australia • Northern Territory

The Murray River is one of Australia’s longest rivers. It flows through South Australia.

The Adelaide Festival Centre is a group of

theaters near the Torrens River in Adelaide,

South Australia.

146 South Australia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

South Carolina

South Carolina was the first Southern

state to withdraw from the United States

on the eve of the American CivilWar.

South Carolina was also the site of the

first battle of the war. The state capital is

Columbia.

Geography

South Carolina is located in the southeastern

part of the United States. The

state borders North Carolina on the

north, Georgia on the west, and the

Atlantic Ocean on the east.

The southern and eastern parts of South

Carolina are covered by a broad coastal

plain. Along the coast are sandy islands

separated from the mainland by marshes

and lagoons. One of those islands is

Hilton Head, a resort area off the state’s

southern tip. The western part of South

Carolina is an area of rolling hills. A

portion of the Blue Ridge Mountains

rises in the northwest corner of the state.

South Carolina has long, hot, humid

summers and mild winters.

People

White people of European heritage

account for about two thirds of South

Carolina’s population. The percentage

of African Americans in South Carolina

is more than double the national average.

African Americans make up about

30 percent of the state’s population; the

national average is 12 percent. More

than 2 percent of the population is Hispanic

American.

Economy

Chemicals, metal products, and

textiles (cloth goods) are leading manufactured

goods in South Carolina. Historically,

the state has been known for

the production of textiles. Since the late

1990s, however, South Carolina’s textile

industry has declined. The main chemical

products include plastic resins, dyes,

and medical drugs.

Tourism is popular because of South

Carolina’s warm climate and beautiful

coastline. Some of South Carolina’s

major agricultural products are chickens,

turkeys, and tobacco.

History

Native American groups, including the

Catawba, the Cherokee, and the Yamasee,

lived in the area when Europeans

first arrived. The first permanent

English settlement was Charles Town,

established in 1670 and named for King

Charles II. In 1729 the colony was

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA South Carolina 147

divided into North Carolina and South

Carolina.

South Carolina planters prospered during

the colonial period. By 1775, however,

the people of South Carolina were

unhappy with British rule. They joined

with other American colonies in fighting

against the British during the American

Revolution. Many of the war’s battles

were fought in South Carolina.

Cotton became the state’s main crop

after the invention of the cotton gin in

1793. The machine removed the seeds

from raw cotton, making it easier to

process. Slavery became widespread as a

way to provide free labor for picking

cotton on the plantations (large farms).

Like other Southern states, South Carolina

disagreed with Northern states,

which wanted to end slavery. These tensions

eventually resulted in South Carolina

leaving the Union on December 20,

1860, to join the Confederacy. The

American CivilWar began on April 12,

1861. On that day Confederate soldiers

opened fire on Fort Sumter, a U.S.

Army post near Charleston, South Carolina.

The Confederacy lost the war in

1865. South Carolina rejoined the

Union in 1868.

In the 20th century many New England

textile mills relocated to Southern states

such as South Carolina. Although pockets

of poverty still existed in the state,

the mills provided work for many South

Carolinians. In 1989 Hurricane Hugo

caused great damage to the South Carolina

coast. In the early 21st century the

textile industry in South Carolina suffered

as foreign competition increased.

But the state continued to attract tourists

to resort areas such as Hilton Head

Island and Myrtle Beach.

..More to explore

American CivilWar • Columbia

Historic homes and landmarks line the

Battery, a park overlooking the harbor in

Charleston, South Carolina.

Crowds of people enjoy South Carolina’s

Myrtle Beach.

Facts About

SOUTH

CAROLINA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

4,012,012—

rank, 26th state;

(2008 estimate)

4,479,800—

rank, 24th state

Capital

Columbia

Area

32,020 sq mi

(82,932 sq km)—

rank, 40th state

Statehood

May 23, 1788

Mottoes

Animis

Opibusque Parati

(Prepared in

Mind and

Resources); Dum

Spiro Spero

(While I Breathe,

I Hope)

State bird

Carolina wren

State flower

Yellow jessamine

148 South Carolina BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

South Dakota

The U.S. state of South Dakota is

named for the Dakota, or Sioux, Indians

who first lived in the region. South

Dakota is known as the Mount Rushmore

State because of its most famous

tourist attraction. The Mount Rushmore

National Memorial is a huge, man-made

sculpture carved into a granite mountainside.

The sculpture features the faces

of four U.S. presidents. The state capital

is Pierre.

Geography

South Dakota is bordered on the south

by Nebraska, on the west by Montana

andWyoming, on the north by North

Dakota, and on the east by Minnesota

and Iowa.

Eastern South Dakota is a flat prairie

region. The western two thirds of the

state consists of plains that are higher in

elevation than the eastern prairies. The

landscape in this area is broken by hills

and canyons.Within the western plains

is a large, rugged region called the Badlands.

In the far west is a mountainous,

forested area known as the Black Hills.

The Black Hills are home to Mount

Rushmore and to Harney Peak.With a

height of 7,242 feet (2,207 meters),

Harney Peak is the nation’s highest

point east of the Rocky Mountains.

The Missouri River runs downward

through the middle of the state. It then

turns eastward and becomes South

Dakota’s southeastern boundary with

Nebraska. South Dakota has

warm summers and cold winters.

People

The great majority of the state’s residents

are of European heritage. Many

are of German, Scandinavian, or Irish

descent. Native Americans are the largest

minority group, making up more than 8

percent of the population. Most of the

approximately 62,000 Native Americans

in South Dakota are Sioux.

Economy

Service industries such as tourism, trade,

and financial services are the largest part

of the state’s economy. The main manufacturing

industries include food processing

and the production of computer

and electronic goods. South Dakota’s

major crops are corn and soybeans.

Cattle and hogs are also valuable.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA South Dakota 149

History

Native Americans lived in the area for

centuries before the arrival of

Europeans. French explorers claimed

the region for their country in the

1740s. France sold the land to the

United States in 1803 as part of the

Louisiana Purchase. The Lewis and

Clark Expedition traveled through the

region in 1804.

The first permanent European settlement

in the area was a trading post

established on the Missouri River in

1817. The Dakota Territory was created

in 1861. White settlement in the area

expanded after gold was discovered in

the Black Hills in 1874. South Dakota

was admitted to the Union as the 40th

state in 1889.

Native Americans and white settlers

fought wars from the 1850s to 1890. In

that year U.S. troops massacred more

than 200 Sioux in the battle of

Wounded Knee. Afterward most Native

Americans lived on reservations.

In 1973 members of the American

Indian Movement occupied the town of

Wounded Knee. They wanted to call

attention to the needs of Native Americans.

In 1979 the U.S. government gave

the Sioux millions of dollars as repayment

for forcing them from the Black

Hills region. In the 1990s many tribes

built casinos on reservation lands as a

way of making money.

..More to explore

Pierre • Sioux

The Mount Rushmore National Memorial in the Black Hills of southwestern South Dakota

features the faces of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and

Abraham Lincoln.

Facts About

SOUTH DAKOTA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

754,844—rank,

46th state; (2008

estimate)

804,194—rank,

46th state

Capital

Pierre

Area

77,117 sq mi

(199,731 sq

km)—rank, 17th

state

Statehood

November 2,

1889

Motto

Under God the

People Rule

State bird

Chinese ringnecked

pheasant

State flower

Pasque

150 South Dakota BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

South Korea

#see Korea, South.

Soviet Union

#see Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics.

Space

Exploration

Through space exploration humans have

learned a great deal about the planets,

stars, and other objects in space. More

than 5,000 spacecraft have been

launched into space to gather information

since 1957. They include spacecraft

with humans on board, space probes,

and satellites.

Astronauts

Astronauts (called cosmonauts in Russia

and taikonauts in China) go through a

thorough training program. They study

math and science in classrooms. They

learn to operate their spacecraft by using

computer-controlled simulators. These

devices present astronauts with conditions

that they will later experience during

actual flight. Astronauts also make

special trips in airplanes to get used to

the feeling of weightlessness.

Humans cannot survive in outer space

on their own. The environment is not

the same as it is on Earth. Astronauts

therefore travel in space in tightly sealed

compartments. They bring their own

supply of oxygen with them. Once in

space, astronauts may conduct scientific

experiments. They also may make

repairs to their spacecraft or other equipment

in space.

The Race into Space

In the 1900s scientists developed rockets

that could travel fast enough to overcome

the pull of the force called gravity.

This knowledge allowed the Soviet

Union to launch the first artificial satellite

on October 4, 1957. It was called

Sputnik 1, and it orbited around Earth.

On April 12, 1961, Yury Gagarin

became the first human to circle Earth

in space. In 1963 Valentina Tereshkova

became the first woman in space.

The National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) took charge of

the U.S. effort. The first U.S. satellite

was launched on January 31, 1958. On

May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan B. Shepard,

Jr., became the first American to

enter space. Shepard flew for only 15

minutes. On February 20, 1962, John

H. Glenn, Jr., completed three orbits

The space shuttle Discovery prepares to

dock with the International Space Station in

July 2006.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Space Exploration 151

around Earth. On July 20, 1969, astronaut

Neil Armstrong became the first

human to walk on the Moon.

Space Stations

Scientists began building space stations

in the early 1970s. Space stations are

spacecraft that stay in orbit for a long

period of time. Scientists can spend days

or even months at a station doing

experiments. The Soviet station Mir

stayed in orbit from 1986 to 2001.

In the 1990s, 16 countries agreed to

build and operate a large space station

together. The new project was called the

International Space Station (ISS). The

first crew began to live in the station in

November 2000.

Space Shuttles

In 1981 the United States launched the

first reusable spacecraft, called a space

shuttle. The main section has wings and

is called the orbiter. Attached to the

orbiter are rockets, fuel tanks, and oxygen

tanks. These boost the craft through

the thickest part of Earth’s atmosphere.

When their fuel is used up, the boosters

fall into the ocean, where they can be

recovered. At the end of a mission, the

orbiter returns to Earth and lands like

an airplane.

The first shuttle missions were successful.

Astronaut Sally Ride became the

first U.S. woman in space on June 18,

1983. But in January 1986 the shuttle

Challenger exploded 73 seconds after

liftoff. All seven crew members were

killed. NASA stopped the shuttle program

to study the cause of the explosion.

The United States returned to space in

September 1988 with the launching of

the shuttle Discovery. The shuttles made

many successful trips. But then in February

2003 the shuttle Columbia broke

apart as it was returning to Earth. The

seven crew members on board were

killed. The shuttle program did not

resume until 2005.

Space Probes

Space probes are vehicles that carry scientific

equipment but no passengers.

Some make one-way voyages into deep

space. Probes are controlled from Earth

by radio. They send back their findings

the same way.

Probes have landed on Mars and Venus

and have flown past Jupiter, Saturn,

Uranus, and Neptune. They have collected

information on the planets’ atmospheres,

moons, and ring systems.

#More to explore

Armstrong, Neil • Exploration • Ride,

Sally • Rocket • Satellite

Two robots were sent to the planet Mars in

2003. An artist’s computer drawing provides

an idea of what the robot Opportunity

might look like on the planet.

The space

shuttles are

used to bring

astronauts and

supplies to

and from the

space station.

They also

allow scientists

to conduct

experiments in

outer space.

152 Space Exploration BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Spain

Spain is a large country in western

Europe. It once controlled a huge

empire in the Americas. Spain’s capital is

Madrid.

Geography

Spain takes up most of the Iberian Peninsula,

a block of land in southwestern

Europe. Spain shares borders with Portugal,

France, and Andorra. South of

Spain is Gibraltar, a British colony. The

Mediterranean Sea lies to the east and

southeast. The Atlantic Ocean lies to the

north, northwest, and southwest.

Two groups of islands also belong to

Spain. The Canary Islands are in the

Atlantic Ocean, northwest of Africa.

The Balearic Islands are in the Mediterranean.

In addition, Spain controls the

cities of Ceuta and Melilla in northern

Morocco.

Most of the land is a high plain in the

center of the country. Mountain ranges

surround the plain. The Pyrenees

Mountains form a natural border

between Spain and France. Spain has

many rivers, including the Duero, the

Tagus, and the Ebro.

Most of Spain has hot summers and cool

winters. The south is drier than the

north.

Plants and Animals

Meadows and forests cover northern

Spain. Oak and pine trees grow in the

mountains. Scattered evergreen oaks and

grasses grow in central and southern

Spain.

Spain’s wildlife includes deer, wild boars,

and ibex (a type of wild goat). The

Pyrenees are home to many birds of prey,

including eagles, owls, and buzzards.

The Pyrenees Mountains are a feature of

northeastern Spain.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Spain 153

People

Most of the people of Spain are Spanish.

Roma (or Gypsies) are the largest minority

group. Roman Catholicism is the

main religion. Most people live in cities

or towns.

Most people in Spain speak Castilian,

which is generally called Spanish. People

in the east also speak Catalan. Those in

the northwest also speak Gallego, or

Galician. The Basque people of northern

Spain also speak Euskara, or Basque.

Economy

Spain’s economy depends on services,

manufacturing, and mining. Tourism is

one of the most important service industries.

The country’s manufacturers make

clothing, shoes, food products, chemicals,

metals, machinery, and cars. Spain’s

mines provide coal, zinc, iron ore, lead,

and other minerals.

Farming is a small part of the economy.

Spain’s crops include grains, sugar beets,

olives, citrus fruits, and vegetables. Spain

is also a major producer of wine. Farmers

raise sheep, pigs, cattle, and goats.

Fishing is another source of food.

History

Roman and Muslim Rule

In ancient times many different peoples

from Europe and North Africa settled in

Spain. The Romans ruled the region

from the 200s BC to the AD 400s.

Muslim Arabs invaded in 711. They

quickly captured most of the Iberian

A flamenco dancer whirls in a

ruffled dress. Flamenco is a form

of traditional music and dance

of the Roma (Gypsy) people of

southern Spain.

The Spanish architect Antoni Gaudi

designed many amazing buildings in the

early 1900s. The church of the Holy Family

in Barcelona, Spain, is one of his most

famous buildings. It was still not finished in

the early 21st century.

Facts About

SPAIN

Population

(2008 estimate)

45,661,000

Area

195,363 sq mi

(506,988 sq km)

Capital

Madrid

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Madrid, Barcelona,

Valencia,

Seville, Zaragoza

154 Spain BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Peninsula. The Muslims held power for

more than 700 years.

Christian Spain

After many years Christian kingdoms in

the north began to take back territory

piece by piece. By the late 1200s the

kingdoms of Castile and Aragon had

conquered most of the area controlled

by the Muslims. In 1469 Prince Ferdinand

of Aragon married Princess Isabella

of Castile. The two kingdoms were officially

united in 1479. By that time Ferdinand

had become king of Aragon and

Isabella had become queen of Castile. In

1492 Castile and Aragon captured the

last Muslim kingdom, Granada. Spain

was then a united Christian country.

Ferdinand and Isabella banned all religions

other than Roman Catholicism. A

court called the Inquisition punished

people who were not Catholic. Spain

also forced thousands of Jews to leave

the country.

World Empire

In 1492 Spanish ships commanded by

Christopher Columbus reached the

Americas. Spanish explorers soon

claimed territories around the world for

Spain.

Spain also stretched its empire through

Europe. Charles, the grandson of Ferdinand

and Isabella, belonged to a powerful

family called the Hapsburgs. In 1516

he became the king of Spain. In 1519 he

became Emperor Charles V of the Holy

Roman Empire as well.

Loss of Power

Spain lost power in the 1600s, when

the country fought many costly wars.

In 1700 the last of the Spanish

Hapsburgs died. Many European

countries fought to take the Spanish

throne in the War of the Spanish

Succession. At the end of the war Spain

lost its European territory. A French

prince became king of Spain.

711 1492 1519 1701 1936 1939 1975

Muslims invade

Spain.

Christians

defeat the last

Muslims in

Spain.

Spain’s king

becomes head

of an empire in

Europe and the

Americas.

The War of the

Spanish

Succession

begins.

The Spanish

Civil War

breaks out.

Dictator

Francisco

Franco takes

power.

Juan Carlos

becomes king

of Spain and

makes Spain a

democracy.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Spain 155

Most of Spain’s overseas colonies won

independence in the 1800s. Spain lost

other territory to the United States after

the Spanish-AmericanWar of 1898.

CivilWar and Dictatorship

Spain became a democratic republic in

1931. However, a civil war broke out in

1936 between two Spanish groups.

Rebel forces called the Nationalists

fought the Republicans, who wanted to

keep the republic form of government.

The fighting was very fierce and destructive.

The Nationalists won the civil war

in 1939.

The Nationalist leader Francisco Franco

soon took control of the country. He

ruled Spain as a dictator (a ruler with

unlimited power) for 36 years.

Recent Events

After Franco died in 1975, Spain

became a kingdom again. King Juan

Carlos made the country a constitutional

monarchy. Spain then developed a

closer relationship with other western

European countries. It joined the European

Community (now the European

Union) in 1986.

Meanwhile, Spain faced a number of

terrorist attacks. A group of Basques

carried out many of the attacks. In 2004

terrorists from the Muslim group

al-Qaeda blew up trains in Madrid.

#More to explore

Basque • European Union • Ferdinand

and Isabella • Hapsburgs • Inquisition

• Madrid • Spanish CivilWar • Spanish-

AmericanWar

The Alhambra is a palace and fortress in Granada, Spain. The Muslim rulers of Granada

built it during the 1200s and 1300s.

156 Spain BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Spanish-

AmericanWar

The United States easily defeated Spain

in the Spanish-AmericanWar of 1898.

The war forced Spain to give up control

of Cuba, the last of its colonies in the

Americas. It also helped to make the

United States a world power.

Path toWar

Cuba is an island in the Caribbean Sea,

close to the U.S. state of Florida. Spain

ruled Cuba harshly. The people of Cuba

rebelled against the Spanish in 1895.

Many people in the United States

wanted their government to help the

Cubans. Owners of U.S. companies that

did business in Cuba also wanted their

government to act. They were afraid that

a long revolution would hurt their companies.

William McKinley became president of

the United States in 1897. At first he

wanted to stay out of Cuba. Even so, he

sent a warship called the Maine to Cuba

to protect U.S. citizens. On February

15, 1898, an explosion sank the Maine.

No one knew who set off the blast, but

it made people in the United States even

angrier at Spain.

Fighting theWar

In April 1898 the U.S. Congress threatened

Spain. Spain declared war on April

24. The United States declared war one

day later. The war was fought both in

the Caribbean and in the Philippines.

The Philippines is an island group in the

Pacific Ocean that Spain then ruled as a

colony.

On May 1 the U.S. Navy, led by George

Dewey, destroyed all the Spanish warships

in the Philippines. By August U.S.

forces controlled Manila, the capital of

the Philippines.

Meanwhile, U.S. forces attacked Spanish

troops in Cuba. Among the U.S. forces

were Theodore Roosevelt and his group

of volunteer soldiers, called the Rough

Riders. As they pushed into the city of

Santiago, the Spanish ships in the city’s

harbor had to move out to sea. Then the

U.S. Navy quickly defeated them. The

Spanish surrendered on July 17.

Results

The United States and Spain signed a

peace treaty in Paris, France, in Decem-

Soldiers in the Spanish-American War

stand ready to defend their camp.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Spanish-American War 157

ber 1898. Spain gave up Cuba, which

became an independent country. Spain

gave the United States control of Puerto

Rico (another Caribbean island) and the

Pacific Ocean island of Guam. The

United States paid Spain 20 million

dollars for control of the Philippines.

The war made Theodore Roosevelt a

national hero. He was elected vice president

in 1900. He became president

when President McKinley was assassinated

in 1901.

#More to explore

Cuba • Guam • McKinley,William

• Philippines • Puerto Rico • Spain

• United States

Spanish Civil

War

From 1936 to 1939, two opposing

groups of citizens waged a bitter fight

for control of Spain. The Spanish Civil

War decided Spain’s government until

the 1970s.

Background

In the decades afterWorldWar I (1914–

18), politics in Spain became deeply

divided. One group wanted things to

stay as they were. This was the ruling

class made up of wealthy landowners,

businesspeople, military leaders, and

conservative Roman Catholics. On the

other side were those who wanted social

change. This group included farm workers,

labor union members, and educated

middle-class people.

In 1931 King Alfonso XIII allowed elections

to be held. When the people voted

to set up a republic, the king fled the

country. The people soon became dissatisfied

with the new government, however.

There were many demonstrations

and protests. On February 16, 1936,

elections were held to choose a new government.

The groups that were pressing

for reforms banded together as the

Popular Front. They won the election.

War

But the people who had been the ruling

class were not willing to give up control

of Spain. They became known as

Nationalists because they wanted to

preserve the nation as it was. On July 17

they launched a military uprising against

the government. General Francisco

Franco led the uprising. This soon

turned into war.

Franco got help from the governments

of Italy and Germany. The Republican

side (those who supported the Popular

Republican troops and supporters stand

behind a roadblock during the Spanish

Civil War. The Spanish Republicans fought

a group called the Nationalists.

158 Spanish Civil War BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Front) got help from the Communist

government of the Soviet Union. The

Republicans also had the aid of about

40,000 individuals from other countries.

Groups of these foreign fighters became

known as the International Brigades.

The Nationalists had two big advantages.

They controlled the military, and

they were united under Franco. The

Republicans did not have enough weapons.

They also began to fight among

themselves.

The Nationalists steadily won territory

in the north and south. In the spring of

1938 they moved east toward the Mediterranean

seacoast. On March 28, 1939,

they marched into Madrid, the capital

city, without even having to fight. General

Franco then had control of the

entire country.

Results

The Spanish CivilWar was very bloody.

Between 500,000 and 600,000 people

may have died, not counting those who

starved or died from diseases. The foreign

supporters of each side in the war fought

each other again inWorldWar II. That

war started later in 1939, but Franco kept

Spain out of the war.He ruled Spain as a

dictator (ruler with unlimited power)

until his death in 1975.

#More to explore

Spain

Sparrow

Many types of small, brownish or grayish

songbird are called sparrows. They

are among the best-known birds in the

world. They live in a wide range of

places, including cities, farms, grasslands,

woodlands, and marshes. Sparrows

eat mostly seeds and insects.

Many types of sparrow look fairly similar.

They all have cone-shaped bills,

which they use to crush seeds. They all

are small birds with various patterns and

streaks. For instance, the house sparrow

is about 5 to 6 inches (12 to 15 centimeters)

long. It has brown or reddish

brown upper parts and a gray underside.

The male has black on the throat and

around the eyes. The song sparrow is

about the same size or slightly larger. Its

wings and tail are reddish brown. Its

breast is white with many dark streaks,

often with a dark spot in the center.

Despite their similarities, not all sparrows

are closely related. There are two

main groups of sparrows: OldWorld

sparrows and NewWorld sparrows.

These groups belong to separate bird

families.

OldWorld Sparrows

OldWorld sparrows come from Europe,

Asia, and Africa. However, some types

have spread to other areas. For instance,

the house sparrow is an OldWorld sparrow

that is now common nearly all over

the world. It is also called the English

sparrow. Many people consider this

tough, noisy bird a pest. It takes the

nesting sites of bluebirds and other

songbirds. Other OldWorld sparrows

include the Eurasian tree sparrow and

the chestnut sparrow.

The dusky seaside

sparrow

was a type of

sparrow that

lived in

Florida. In the

1900s people

destroyed its

habitat. The

last such sparrow

died in

1987.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sparrow 159

NewWorld Sparrows

NewWorld sparrows are found in North

America and South America. They are

related to finches, buntings, and cardinals.

The song sparrow is a NewWorld

bird named for its complex, musical

songs. Among the many other types of

NewWorld sparrow are the chipping

sparrow, the savannah sparrow, and the

American tree sparrow.

#More to explore

Bird • Bluebird • Cardinal • Songbird

Sparta

Sparta was a city-state of ancient Greece.

It was the chief city of a region called

Laconia. Spartans loved military

strength and ruled harshly.

Society

Sparta was very different from Athens,

another great city-state of ancient

Greece. The Spartans did not care about

art or philosophy. Instead they valued

bravery, strength, and obedience.

At age 7, Spartan boys had to leave their

parents. They grew up together in military

style groups. They built up their

bodies by exercising and playing sports.

The strongest and bravest became captains.

Girls also learned Spartan values,

but their upbringing was less strict.

All male Spartan citizens became soldiers

at age 20. Men retired from soldiering at

age 60 and could then become elders.

Sparta had two kings who ruled

together. A council of elders helped the

kings to rule. Only citizens of Sparta

could participate in the government.

A group of people who lived outside of

the city worked in Sparta as merchants

and craftspeople. A third group called

the helots farmed the lands of the Spartans.

The helots were almost like slaves.

They made up most of the population

of Laconia.

A Eurasian tree sparrow perches in a holly

bush.

A Spartan warrior is pictured on

a Greek vase from the 400s BC.

160 Sparta BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

History

Sparta was most likely founded in the

800s BC. Spartan armies helped to fight

off Persian invaders of Greece in wars

called the PersianWars (492–449 BC).

Athens won the biggest victories in the

PersianWars. However, in the PeloponnesianWar

(431–404 BC), Sparta

defeated Athens and became the most

powerful Greek city.

Sparta’s power did not last long. Later

battles weakened many of the Greek

city-states. By 339 BC King Philip II of

Macedonia had conquered most of

Greece, including Sparta. In the 100s

BC, Roman armies took over Sparta. A

Germanic group called the Visigoths

destroyed the city in AD 396.

#More to explore

Athens • City-State • Greece, Ancient

• PersianWars

Special Olympics

Special Olympics is a worldwide organization

that offers sports programs for

people with intellectual (mental) disabilities.

The programs are free and yearround.

They include athletic training

and competition in more than 20 sports.

Special Olympics helps its athletes to

gain physical fitness and self-confidence.

It also helps them to gain the respect of

their communities.

More than 1.7 million children and

adults in more than 150 countries

participate in SpecialOlympics activities.

Every two years athletes from around the

world participate in the SpecialOlympics

World Games. TheWorld Games

alternate betweenWinter Games and

Summer Games. Before the games begin,

athletes take an oath that gladiators

(professional fighters) used in ancient

Rome: “Let me win. But if I cannot win,

let me be brave in the attempt.”

Special Olympics was the idea of Eunice

Kennedy Shriver. Shriver was a sister of

U.S. president John F. Kennedy. In 1962

Shriver started a day camp at her home

for children with intellectual disabilities.

The Special Olympics programs grew

from there. In 1968 the First International

Special OlympicsWorld Games

took place in Chicago, Illinois.

#More to explore

Olympic Games • Sports

Speech

Speech, or talking, is the form of language

that people can hear. (Writing is

the other main form of language.)

People use speech to communicate with

others.

Children in a Special Olympics program

take part in a 50-meter footrace.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Speech 161

From birth, babies make many different

kinds of sounds. They learn to speak by

copying the sounds that they hear

around them. Children usually begin to

say some words between the ages of 1

and 2. However, it takes years for a child

to master the ability to speak.

How Humans Produce Speech

People speak by forming different

sounds in a certain order. These sounds

make up words that others can understand.

At the base of the throat is the larynx, or

voice box. Inside the larynx are the vocal

cords. These are a pair of stretchy folds

that create the voice. When a person

exhales air from the lungs, it passes

between the vocal cords. The air makes

the vocal cords vibrate, or tremble. This

vibration creates sounds. The larynx

makes these sounds louder. Then they

pass through the throat, mouth, and

nose.

Sounds simply passing out of the mouth

are not speech. People use the tongue,

teeth, lips, jaw, and palate (roof of the

mouth) to shape the sounds to make

words. For example, placing the tongue

between the teeth makes a “th” sound.

Speech Disorders

Sometimes people have speech disorders,

or problems with speech. Children often

develop a lisp as they are learning to

speak. A lisp is the use of a “th” sound

for “s” and “z” sounds. Some children

develop a stutter. Stuttering includes

repeating sounds, making sounds longer

than normal, or pausing before making

sounds. People who suffer a head injury

or a stroke may develop aphasia. This

disorder makes it difficult for a person

to speak or to understand speech.

Do Animals Speak?

Animals do not use language in the same

way that people do. But many animals

do communicate using sounds. For

example, dogs can whine, bark, growl,

snarl, and howl. These sounds may

express fear, danger, hunger, or other

information. Some birds, such as the

gray parrot, can even copy human

speech. Nevertheless, humans are the

only animals that can use speech to

express complicated ideas.

#More to explore

Communication • Language • Sound

•Writing

Speaking face-to-face is one of the many

ways people communicate with one another.

162 Speech BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sphinx

The sphinx is a creature in mythology. It

has the body of a lion and the head of a

human. Sphinxes appear in the art and

legends of ancient Egypt and ancient

Greece.

Ancient Egyptians made many large

statues of sphinxes. The city of Luxor

has a street lined with sphinxes. The

largest and most famous Egyptian

sphinx was carved near the pyramids of

Giza in about 2500 BC. Called the Great

Sphinx, it has the head of an Egyptian

king.

The ancient Greeks started creating

sphinxes in about 1600 BC. Their

sphinxes had wings. Later Greek

sphinxes were always female. A story of

Greek mythology tells that the Sphinx of

Thebes asked a riddle and ate people

who could not solve it. She asked,

“What animal walks on four legs in the

morning, two legs at noon, and three

legs at night?” Eventually the Greek hero

Oedipus gave the correct answer: a person.

(A person crawls on all fours as an

infant, walks on two legs when grown,

and leans on a cane in old age.) Then

the Sphinx killed herself.

#More to explore

Animals, Legendary • Egypt, Ancient

• Greece, Ancient • Pyramid

Spice

Spices are the dried parts of various

plants that have strong fragrances or

flavors. People use spices to flavor foods.

They also use the oils of spice plants to

make perfumes, cosmetics, toiletries,

and toothpastes. Spices have played an

important role in world history. The

search for spices led many explorers to

discover new lands.

Spices come from the seeds, fruits, or

other parts of certain plants. Cardamom,

black pepper, coriander, poppy,

sesame, and nutmeg are seeds. Cloves

are flower buds, and chilies and allspice

are fruits. Cinnamon is made from the

bark of a tree. Ginger and turmeric are

roots. When leaves of certain plants are

used in a way similar to spices, they are

usually known as herbs.

In ancient times people used spices in

medicines and skin creams. They used

them in religious ceremonies, too.

Sometimes people used spices to keep

foods from spoiling. They also used

spices to hide the bad flavor of meats

that had already spoiled.

The Great Sphinx at Giza, Egypt, is a huge

statue that is roughly 4,500 years old. It has

the body of a lion and the head of an

ancient Egyptian king.

Black pepper

is probably the

most popular

spice. It comes

from a vine

that was originally

found in

India.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Spice 163

Most spice plants grow in warm

regions. Hundreds of years ago, the

people of Europe had to get many of

their spices from India and several

islands that are now part of Indonesia.

Traders used ships and camel caravans

for transportation. The journey

sometimes took as long as two years.

This made spices very expensive. In the

1400s Europeans began searching for

sea routes to East Asia that would make

getting spices easier. These explorations

led to the European discovery of the

Americas.

#More to explore

Americas, Exploration and Settlement of

the • Herb • Plant

Spider

Spiders are eight-legged creatures

known for making silk webs to catch

insects. They live everywhere in the

world except for Antarctica. There are

about 38,000 species, or types, of

spider. They are related to scorpions,

ticks, and mites.

Physical Features

Spiders are about 0.02 to 3.5 inches (0.5

to 90 millimeters) long. The largest spiders

are tarantulas. A spider’s body is

separated into two parts: the cephalothorax

and the abdomen. The cephalothorax

contains the stomach and brain.

The legs are attached to this part of the

body. The abdomen contains the gut,

the heart, the reproductive parts, and

the silk-making parts.

Spiders have four pairs of legs. The legs

may have claws at the tip. A few species

use the first pair of legs as feelers to find

prey.

Spiders have silk-making organs called

spinnerets near the back of their body.

They spin silk from a liquid made by

special glands. It becomes solid thread

after the spider pushes it out of its body.

Many spiders make venom, or poison,

that they shoot into their prey. The

Many kinds of colorful spices are sold in

markets.

A spider waits for insects to fly

into its sticky silk web.

164 Spider BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

venom of most spiders is not harmful to

people. But a few spiders, including the

black widow and the brown recluse, can

cause pain and sometimes death in

humans.

Behavior

Spiders feed mostly on insects. Some

spiders are hunters that chase and overpower

their prey. These spiders typically

have a good sense of touch or sight.

Other spiders instead weave silk webs to

trap flying insects. Some spiders also use

silk to wrap their prey, protect their

eggs, or make nests.

Spiders are the only animals that digest

their food outside their bodies. After

capturing its prey, a spider covers it with

digestive juices. The juices break down

the prey’s body into a liquid form that

the spider sucks up. Spiders repeat this

process many times and eventually

digest most of the prey.

Life Cycle

Female spiders lay egg sacs that hold

several to a thousand eggs. The young of

most species go off on their own when

they come out of the egg sac. Spiders

change little in appearance as they grow.

They molt, or shed their outer covering,

multiple times before becoming adults.

#More to explore

Insect • Scorpion • Silk • Tick and Mite

Spinach

Spinach is a green leaf vegetable. It is a

rich source of vitamins A and C and the

mineral iron. The scientific name of

spinach is Spinacia oleracea.

Spinach is widely grown in northern

Europe and the United States. Growing

spinach requires cool weather and rich,

moist soil. Spinach is one of only a few

vegetables that can live through some

frost.

The spinach plant is an annual. This

means that it grows for only one season

and must be replanted each year. People

grow spinach to eat its leaves. Spinach

leaves can be either smooth or wrinkled.

They are roughly triangular in shape.

The leaves are clustered in a circle called

a rosette.

Spinach is sold fresh, canned, and frozen.

People eat it as a salad green or as a

cooked vegetable. It also can be used to

make soups and dips.

Spinach leaves are a source of the vitamins

that every person needs.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Spinach 165

Spiny Anteater

#see Echidna.

Spokane

The Spokane are Native Americans of

northeasternWashington State. They

traditionally lived along the Spokane

River. The city of Spokane,Washington,

was named after the tribe.

The Spokane hunted deer, elk, antelope,

and other animals. They also gathered

wild plants and fished, especially for

salmon. In the 1730s they were introduced

to horses. They used the horses to

hunt bison (buffalo) on the plains to the

east.

The Spokane built cone-shaped homes

made of pole frames covered with mats

or animal skins. They moved these

homes from place to place while on the

hunt. The Spokane also built larger,

rectangular houses in shallow pits.

By the early 1800s white settlers had set

up trading posts in Spokane territory. At

first the Spokane welcomed the newcomers.

But the tribe became angry as

the number of settlers grew. In 1858 the

Spokane joined the Coeur d’Alene and

other Native American neighbors in a

war against U.S. troops. The war is

known as the SpokaneWar or the Coeur

d’AleneWar. The Native Americans

were defeated. They had to give up some

of their land.

In the 1870s and 1880s the Spokane

agreed to settle on reservations. In 1881

the United States set up the Spokane

Reservation northwest of the city of

Spokane. At the end of the 20th century

there were about 2,000 Spokane living

in the United States. Many lived on the

reservation.

#More to explore

Coeur d’Alene • Native Americans

Sponge

Sponges are unusual animals that live in

water. They do not have the body parts

that most animals have. They do not

even move around. Instead sponges stay

attached to an underwater rock or coral

reef. For a long time people thought

sponges were plants. Scientists decided

that sponges are animals only after

watching them eat food by drawing it

into their bodies.

Three Spokane men display their weapons

in a photograph that was taken in the 1860s.

166 Spiny Anteater BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

There are nearly 5,000 different species,

or kinds, of sponge. Most live in the

ocean, but some live in freshwater.

Sponges can be flat like spreading moss.

Or they can look like trees with branching

arms. Some are as small as a bean,

while others are as tall as a person.

Sponges can be smooth and mushy, or

they can be rough, hard, and prickly.

Some are dull and drab, but others are

brightly colored.

A sponge’s body is a soft mass of cells

supported by a skeleton. Holes in a

sponge’s skin let water flow inside.

Sponges take food and oxygen from the

water. They do not have organs for

breathing, eating, and getting rid of

wastes. Each cell has to do these things.

Sponges are useful to people. People

collect sponges and then dry, clean, and

trim them. The fleshy parts are thrown

away, and only the skeleton is used. The

ancient Greeks and Romans used

sponges to pad their war helmets and

armor. People still use sponges for bathing,

mopping, and painting. However,

most of the sponges used today do not

come from animals. They are products

made in factories.

#More to explore

Animal • Ocean

Sports

A sport is a physical activity that people

do for fun and as a way to compete with

others. People have enjoyed sports for

thousands of years. Every sport has a set

of rules that the players follow.

Types of Sports

In some sports one person competes

against other individuals. Examples of

these sports include boxing, wrestling,

gymnastics, figure skating, diving, pole

vaulting, and horseback riding.

An orange sponge is shaped somewhat like

a fan. Sponges vary greatly in color, shape,

and size.

Soccer is a popular team sport for children

and adults around the world.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sports 167

In team sports a group of people plays

against another group, or team. A team

may have as few as two members, or it

may have many members. A doubles

team in tennis has two players. Five

players make up a basketball team. An

ice hockey team has six players, and a

baseball team has nine. Eleven players

make up a football, soccer, or cricket

team.

Sports can be amateur or professional.

Amateur athletes do not get paid for

participating in a sport. Professional

athletes play for money.

Sports also can be organized or unorganized.

Children who get together for

neighborhood football games are playing

unorganized sports. No organization

controls their games. In organized sports

athletes play for a school, a business, a

club, a community, or some other organization.

The organization schedules

games and enforces the rules of the

sport. Organized sports can be amateur

or professional.

History

Since ancient times people have run

races, wrestled, and hunted for sport.

Ancient people in many parts of the

world also played games with balls.

In some ancient cultures sports were a

part of religious practices. This was especially

true of the Greek Olympic Games,

which began in 776 BC. The ancient

Greeks played these games to honor

their gods.

The ancient Romans related athletic

games to military skills, not religion.

They did such sports as boxing, wrestling,

chariot racing, and throwing

spearlike sticks called javelins.

After ancient times people continued to

play sports, but they were usually unorganized.

Organized sports became more

common in the 1700s and 1800s.

People created leagues and other organizations

to control athletic competitions.

They also wrote down sets of rules for

different sports.

..More to explore

Baseball • Basketball • Boxing • Cricket

• Football • Gymnastics • Hockey, Ice

• Ice Skating • Olympic Games • Soccer

• Tennis • Track and Field •Wrestling

Springfield

Population

(2000 census)

111,454;

(2007 estimate)

117,090

Springfield is the capital of the U.S.

state of Illinois. The city lies on the Sangamon

River. Abraham Lincoln lived in

Springfield for more than 20 years

before he became the president of the

United States.

The physical

activity of

sports can

make people

healthier.

168 Springfield BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Many people in Springfield work for the

government. Many others work in service

industries such as health care, tourism,

communications, or insurance. The

city is also a trading center for crops and

livestock produced on nearby farms.

In about 1818 a man named Elisha

Kelly built a cabin in what is now

Springfield. He was the city’s first settler.

Lincoln and eight other Illinois lawmakers

helped make Springfield the capital

of Illinois in 1837. Lincoln lived in the

city from 1837 until he became president

in 1861. Today tourists can visit

Lincoln’s tomb and former home in

Springfield. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential

Library and Museum was

opened in the city in 2005.

#More to explore

Illinois • Lincoln, Abraham

Spy

A spy is a person whose job is to get

secret information. Governments and

businesses hire spies. Spies try to keep

others from discovering who they are

and what they do. The work of spying is

also called espionage.

SpyWork

Spying often takes place during wartime.

Spies for one side try to find out what

the enemy is planning. Government

spies may also gather information about

other countries during peacetime.

A different type of spy works in business.

These spies try to get information

about products or processes that other

companies keep secret.

Spies usually gather information that

people cannot get in ordinary or legal

ways. They may buy or steal secret information

from people. They may use cam-

A statue of U.S. President Abraham

Lincoln stands near the state

Capitol in Springfield, Illinois.

Lincoln lived in Springfield

before he became president.

Some spies use cleverly hidden microphones

to listen in on secret conversations.

Microphones disguised in a piece of wood

and in the heel of a shoe are displayed at

the International Spy Museum in Washington,

D.C.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Spy 169

eras, microphones, or other technology

to gather information. Some spies pretend

to work for one government or

business while actually spying on it for

another government or business. These

spies are called double agents or moles.

Spy History

Spying has gone on since ancient times.

The ancient Egyptians and Chinese used

spies more than 2,000 years ago. European

kings and queens almost always

had spies. These spies kept track of

enemies at home and in other countries.

Spies were an important part of the

American Revolution and the American

CivilWar. Spies also played major roles

inWorldWar I,WorldWar II, and the

ColdWar.

In the 1900s many governments created

organizations to collect secret information

about enemies. The KGB was the

main spying group for the Soviet Union.

The British Secret Intelligence Service

(also called MI6) and the U.S. Central

Intelligence Agency (CIA) are still active

today.

#More to explore

War

Squanto

Squanto was a Native American who

helped the Pilgrims of Plymouth

Colony. He belonged to the Pawtuxet

tribe of Massachusetts and Rhode

Island.

Little is known about Squanto’s early

life. According to one story, explorers

took Squanto to England in 1605. Captain

John Smith brought him back to

North America nine years later. Then

one of Smith’s men kidnapped Squanto

and sold him into slavery in Spain.

Squanto escaped to England. Upon

returning to North America, he found

that disease had killed the other Pawtuxet.

Squanto went to live with the

Wampanoag.

Squanto met the Pilgrims in 1621. Their

settlement was onWampanoag land.

Squanto could talk to the Pilgrims

because he knew the English language.

He showed them how to plant crops and

where to fish. He also helped them work

out a peace treaty with Massasoit, chief

of theWampanoag.

The governor of Plymouth Colony

made Squanto his representative to the

Nathan Hale

was one of the

first U.S. spies.

He was caught

and killed by

the British

during the

American

Revolution

(1775–1783).

Squanto served as a guide for

the Pilgrims, who were unfamiliar

with the land.

170 Squanto BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Indian groups. But Squanto sometimes

abused his power. The Indians began to

distrust him. In 1622 Squanto falsely

told the colonists that Massasoit was

planning to attack Plymouth. The Pilgrims

found him out, but they let him

stay in Plymouth and protected him

from Massasoit. Squanto died in what is

now Chatham, Massachusetts, in

November 1622.

#More to explore

Native Americans • Plymouth Colony

•Wampanoag

Squash

Squashes are fruits that are grown

throughout the world in all but the

coldest climates. They are related to

gourds, melons, and cucumbers. Some

types of pumpkin are also called

squashes.

Squashes grow on plants with large, dark

green leaves. The trumpet-shaped flowers

range in color from yellow to orange.

The fruits can be round, oval, or shaped

like a shell. Their color can be white,

yellow, orange, green, gray, or speckled

or striped. The rind, or skin, can be

smooth or covered with bumps.

Squashes are divided into summer

squashes and winter squashes. Despite

the names, both types grow throughout

the year. Summer squashes typically

grow on bushes. They are much softer

than winter squashes. They contain soft

seeds that can be eaten. Summer

squashes must be eaten soon after they

are picked. Zucchini and yellow squash

are types of summer squash.

Winter squashes grow on long vines.

They are usually much larger than summer

squashes. They have a thick, hard

rind and seeds that are not eaten.Winter

squashes will last for months after being

picked. Acorn and butternut squashes

are types of winter squash.

Squashes are often cooked as side dishes

or used in soups. Zucchini and other

summer squashes can be added to breads

or muffins. The flowers of squash plants

are also sometimes eaten. Squashes are

used as food for farm animals, too.

#More to explore

Fruit • Gourd • Pumpkin

Squid

Squid are mollusks that live in the

ocean. Mollusks are a group of animals

with soft bodies. Squid are closely

related to octopuses, but they have 10

arms instead of 8. Squid can live either

near the coast or in very deep water far

Gardens produce many summer squashes. out in the ocean.

Native

Americans

were probably

the first people

to grow

squashes.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Squid 171

A squid has a long, tube-shaped body

with a short head. A shell supports the

body from the inside. Giant squid can

be 60 feet (18 meters) long and weigh

1,000 pounds (454 kilograms). Some

other squid are less than an inch (2.5

centimeters) long. A squid has large

eyes, usually on the sides of its head.

Two of a squid’s 10 arms are longer than

the others. Suckers on the long arms

help the squid catch fish and shellfish

to eat.

Squid can be fast swimmers, or they can

just drift along. Whales, sea birds, and

other animals eat squid. Squid often use

their speed to escape enemies. They also

can hide from enemies by changing

color to blend in with rocks or seaweed.

Like an octopus, a squid can spray a

cloud of inky fluid into the water to

confuse the enemy.

After mating, a female squid lays

hundreds to thousands of eggs. The

eggs are grouped together in jellylike

strands. The female leaves the eggs

alone to develop. Within several weeks

they hatch into a small form of the

adult.

#More to explore

Mollusk • Octopus

Squirrel

Squirrels are rodents that have long

bushy tails. In many cities squirrels are

seen more often than any other wild

mammal. The squirrel family also

includes groundhogs, prairie dogs, and

chipmunks. There are more than 250

different animals in the family.

Squirrels live on all continents except

Australia and Antarctica. Tree squirrels

make their homes in trees. Ground

squirrels live in burrows, or holes, under

prairies, deserts, and fields.

The 10 arms of a reef squid are arranged

in a circle around its mouth.

The Eurasian red squirrel is a common

squirrel of Europe and Asia.

172 Squirrel BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Squirrels are small. The African pygmy

squirrels are the smallest. They are only

about 4 inches (10 centimeters) long.

The largest are the giant squirrels of

Asia. They can be 36 inches (90 centimeters)

long and weigh 6.5 pounds (3

kilograms). Most squirrels have large

eyes and short fur.

Squirrels are known for their quick

movements. Tree squirrels can make

great leaps between branches. Flying

squirrels can glide through the air by

leaping and then spreading out the flaps

of skin that connect their front and hind

legs. The skin acts like a parachute.

Some flying squirrels can glide almost

1,500 feet (450 meters).

Squirrels have four large front teeth.

These teeth are used for gnawing. They

grow throughout the animal’s life.

Squirrels eat mostly plants, including

berries and tree bark. Most squirrels eat

a lot of seeds and nuts. Tree squirrels

bury nuts in the ground to eat later.

Most tree squirrels are active year-round.

But many ground squirrels spend the

winter in their burrows in a state of

inactivity called hibernation.

Some squirrels are considered pests

because they eat farm crops. Others

carry diseases. Some squirrels are hunted

for their fur. People also eat squirrel

meat.

..More to explore

Chipmunk • Groundhog • Hibernation

• Prairie Dog • Rodent

Sri

Jayewardenepura

Kotte

Population

(2004 estimate)

120,800

Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte is one of the

two capitals of Sri Lanka, an island

country in the Indian Ocean. It is where

Sri Lanka’s lawmakers and highest court

meet. It is a suburb of Colombo, Sri

Lanka’s other capital. The offices of the

country’s president and prime minister

are in Colombo.

Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte was originally

named Kotte. The city dates back to the

1300s. The rulers of the Sinhalese

people built their capital at Kotte in

1415. In 1565 the Sinhalese moved their

capital to Colombo.

Colombo later became the capital of Sri

Lanka. In the 1980s the Sri Lankan government

was running out of office space

in Colombo. Officials then began developing

Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte as

another capital. Some of the government

offices were moved there.

..More to explore

Colombo • Sri Lanka

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte 173

Sri Lanka

The country of Sri Lanka occupies a

pear-shaped island in the Indian Ocean.

It was once a British colony known as

Ceylon. Sri Lanka has two capitals,

Colombo and Sri Jayewardenepura

Kotte.

Geography

Sri Lanka lies about 18 miles (29 kilometers)

from the southeastern tip of

India. The waterway separating Sri

Lanka from India is called the Palk

Strait.

Flat or hilly plains make up most of Sri

Lanka’s land. There are high mountains

and deep river valleys in the southcentral

part of the country. The longest

river is the Mahaweli.

Because Sri Lanka is near the equator, it

has warm weather year-round. The

southwest receives heavy rainfall. The

rest of the island is much drier.

Plants and Animals

The wet areas of Sri Lanka have tropical

evergreen forests. Trees that shed their

leaves grow in the drier regions. The

driest areas have thorny shrubs and

other plants that can survive without

much water.

Leopards, bears, wild pigs, elephants,

peacocks, and monkeys live in the forests.

The government has created a number

of national parks to protect the

country’s wildlife.

People

The Sinhalese people make up nearly

three fourths of the population. They

speak the Sinhala language and practice

Buddhism. Tamils form the next-largest

group. They speak Tamil, a language

also spoken in southern India. The

Tamils practice Hinduism, the main

The stilt fishers of Sri Lanka catch fish in

shallow water while clinging to a pole.

174 Sri Lanka BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

religion of India. Muslims, who are also

called Moors, make up Sri Lanka’s third

major group. They follow Islam and

mostly speak Tamil. Many Sri Lankans

also speak English. Most people live in

villages.

Economy

Services—including telecommunications,

insurance, and banking—have

become key parts of Sri Lanka’s

economy. Manufacturing and mining

are also important. Sri Lanka produces

clothing, tea, rubber products, processed

foods, tobacco, and chemicals. The

country mines graphite (which is used to

make pencils) and gems.

Many Sri Lankans grow rice and other

crops to feed their families. Tea, rubber

trees, and coconuts are grown on large

farms called plantations.

History

The first people on the island were the

Vedda. In about the 400s BC they began

to mix with settlers from India. The

island’s people came to be known as the

Sinhalese. They later built an advanced

Buddhist civilization. Beginning in the

AD 900s Tamil invaders from India

pushed the Sinhalese to the southwest.

In the 1300s the Tamils set up a kingdom

in the north.

European Control

The Portuguese arrived in 1505. By

1619 they controlled most of the

island. The Dutch took over beginning

in 1658. In the late 1700s the British

took the island from the Dutch. The

British called the island Ceylon. They

grew coffee at first and then tea, rubber,

and coconuts. Ceylon gained

independence from Great Britain in

1948. The country adopted a new

constitution in 1972 that changed the

name to Sri Lanka.

Independence

The Sinhalese dominated the country’s

government. They supported the Sinhala

language and Buddhism over other languages

and religions. The island’s Tamils

soon wanted to set up a separate Tamil

homeland in the northeast. In the 1980s

heavy fighting broke out between Tamil

groups and the Sri Lankan government.

Tamil terrorist attacks continued into

the 21st century.

In 2004 a tsunami, or huge wave, struck

Sri Lanka. Tens of thousands of people

were killed.

..More to explore

Buddhism • Colombo • Hinduism • Sri

A woman picks tea leaves in Sri Lanka. Jayewardenepura Kotte

Facts About

SRI LANKA

Population

(2008 estimate)

19,394,000

Area

25,332 sq mi

(65,610 sq km)

Capitals

Colombo (executive),

Sri Jayewardenepura

Kotte

(Colombo suburb;

legislative and

judicial)

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Colombo,

Dehiwala–Mount

Lavinia, Moratuwa,

Negombo,

Sri Jayewardenepura

Kotte

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sri Lanka 175

Stalin, Joseph

Joseph Stalin led the country known as

the Soviet Union for about 25 years. He

made the Soviet Union into a world

power, but he was known for his harsh

rule.

Early Life

Joseph Stalin was born on December 21,

1879, in the country of Georgia. Georgia

was then a part of Russia. Stalin’s

Georgian name was Ioseb Dzhugashvili.

As a young man Stalin became interested

in Communism. Communists

believe that all citizens should get an

equal share of their country’s wealth.

In 1903 the Communists of Russia split

into two groups, Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.

Stalin joined the Bolsheviks.

Their leader was Vladimir Lenin. Stalin

tried to get people to revolt against the

Russian tsar. Because of this he was

imprisoned several times.

Rise to Power

In 1912 Stalin became a party leader. By

1913 he was using the name of Stalin,

which is based on the Russian word for

“steel.”

The Russian Revolution of 1917

brought down the Russian emperor. By

1921 the Bolsheviks, now known as the

Communist Party, had all the power.

Lenin died in 1924. By then, the Communists

had formed a new country

called the Soviet Union. Party leaders

fought for power, and Stalin came out

on top.

Stalin wanted to make his country

stronger and more modern. He built

steel mills and factories. In 1928 he

ordered small farms to be joined

together. Farmers who resisted were shot

or sent to punishment camps.

Starting in 1934, Stalin ordered his

secret police to arrest and shoot many

party members and army officers. He

wanted to get rid of all possible threats

to his power.

Later Years

In 1941 the Soviet Union entered

World War II on the side of the Allies

(including the United States and Great

Britain). Soviet armies helped to win

the war.

After the war Stalin turned against the

Allies. His armies brought Communist

rule to eastern European countries. Sta-

Joseph Stalin

176 Stalin, Joseph BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

lin remained in power until his death on

March 5, 1953.

#More to explore

Communism • Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics •WorldWar II

Stamp

Stamps are small, sticky labels sold by

postal services. They are also called postage

stamps. People buy stamps as a way

to pay for the service of mailing a letter

or package. They attach stamps to letters

and packages before sending them. The

postal service cancels, or marks, stamps

before delivering the mail. The purpose

of cancellation is to prevent people from

using the same stamp a second time.

Kinds of Stamps

Postal services sell regular stamps in

many different values—from 1 cent, for

example, to 5 dollars or more. The more

expensive stamps are used to pay for the

delivery of heavy packages or for speedy

delivery.

Most countries also issue special stamps

for limited periods of time. Some special

stamps honor people and groups. Others

call attention to important issues. Such

stamps are often large and colorful.

Stamp Collecting

Some people collect stamps as a hobby.

Stamp collecting is called philately.

Stamp collectors, or philatelists, get

stamps by soaking them off letters. They

also buy stamps from the post office or

shops. Collectors keep their stamps

clean by using a tool called stamp tongs

to handle them. They carefully place

their stamps in books called albums.

Collectors learn how to identify rare and

valuable stamps. Stamps that are worth

thousands of dollars sometimes look

almost exactly like other stamps that are

worth only a few cents. One rare U.S.

stamp that is easy to identify is a 24-cent

airmail stamp of 1918. It was printed by

mistake with the airplane upside down.

History

An English schoolteacher named Rowland

Hill invented the postage stamp.

The United Kingdom issued the first

stamps in 1840. The first U.S. postage

stamps appeared in 1847.

Early stamps were printed on sheets of

paper with no easy way to separate them

from each other. People had to cut the

stamps apart with scissors. In the 1850s

stamp makers started punching rows of

The stamps of

the United

Kingdom

always include

a picture of

the king or

queen as part

of the design.

In 1918 the U.S. Post Office printed an airplane

picture on a stamp upside down by

mistake. It sold only 100 of these stamps.

Today each one is worth thousands of dollars.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Stamp 177

holes called perforations between the

stamps.

Until the late 20th century people licked

stamps to make them sticky before

attaching them to letters. Then postal

services started making stamps that

stuck without being licked.

#More to explore

Postal Service

Stanton,

Elizabeth Cady

Elizabeth Cady Stanton helped to start

the women’s rights movement in the

United States. She led the fight to give

women the right to vote in elections.

Early Life

Elizabeth Cady was born in Johnstown,

New York, on November 12, 1815. She

was a good student, but she could not

go to college. Colleges did not accept

women then. Instead, she attended Troy

Female Seminary in New York. In 1840

she married a lawyer named Henry

Stanton.

Career

Stanton thought it was unfair that

women had fewer rights than men. In

1848 Stanton and her friend Lucretia

Mott held a meeting in Seneca Falls,

New York. It was the first women’s

rights meeting in the United States.

Stanton helped to write a statement that

called for many kinds of rights for

women, especially voting rights.

After 1851 Stanton worked closely with

another women’s rights activist named

Susan B. Anthony. Stanton and

Anthony gave speeches, talked to politicians,

and wrote books and pamphlets

on women’s rights.

After the American CivilWar (1861–

65), the 15th Amendment to the U.S.

Constitution gave voting rights to men

of all races. Stanton was angry that

women were not included. She organized

and led clubs for people who

wanted voting rights for women.

Stanton had other interests besides voting

rights.Women then found it hard to

divorce their husbands. She wanted to

make it easier. Married women also had

to give everything they owned to their

husbands. Stanton wanted married

women to keep their own money and

property.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

178 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Stanton died in New York City on

October 26, 1902.Women in the

United States gained the right to vote in

1920.

#More to explore

Anthony, Susan B. • Mott, Lucretia

• Voting •Women’s Rights

Star

Stars are huge, glowing balls of gases.

The closest star to Earth is the sun.

Most of the pinpricks of light that shine

in the night sky are also stars. Countless

more stars are too far from Earth to be

seen without a telescope. Most stars are

incredibly far away.

Stars are found in huge groups called

galaxies. The sun and its solar system,

including Earth, are part of the Milky

Way galaxy. That galaxy alone contains

hundreds of billions of stars. There are

many billions of galaxies in the universe.

Source of Energy

Nearly all stars are made up mostly of a

gas called hydrogen. A star’s core is very

hot. Great pressure squeezes the core,

causing some of the hydrogen to change

into a gas called helium. This process

produces huge amounts of energy and

makes the star shine.

Physical Features

Stars vary in size, temperature, brightness,

and color. A star’s temperature, as

well as its chemicals, makes it shine in a

certain color. The bluer stars are usually

hotter, while the redder stars are cooler.

The sun is somewhere in between. It

Stars are found in large groups called galaxies.

A galaxy may contain millions or

even hundreds of billions of stars, plus gas

and dust.

A time line shows the stages in the life of a medium-sized star.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Star 179

gives off yellow light. The sun is a fairly

average star in terms of its brightness

and size.

Life of a Star

Stars probably begin as clouds of hydrogen

and dust. This material slowly pulls

itself together into clumps. As the material

gets packed in tighter, the clumps

get hotter. Pressure builds up. Eventually

the star begins changing hydrogen into

helium—and so begins to shine brightly.

After shining for billions of years, a star

uses up all its hydrogen. Small and

medium-sized stars slowly cool down

and stop shining. This will happen to

the sun billions of years in the future.

Large stars end with a violent explosion

called a supernova. After that the material

gets crushed much smaller. It no

longer shines. Huge stars may end up as

objects called black holes. The crushed

material is so heavy for its size that it

develops a powerful inward pull. This

pull, called gravity, is so strong that it

sucks in anything that gets near the

black hole.

#More to explore

Black Hole • Constellation • Energy

• Galaxy • MilkyWay • Sun • Universe

Starfish

Starfish are animals that live in all the

world’s oceans. They have five arms and

look like stars. But they are not fish. Fish

have backbones; starfish do not.

There are about 1,800 species, or kinds,

of starfish. They can be brown, red,

orange, pink, or other colors. Most starfish

are 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 centimeters)

across. The body has a disk in

the center with five or more arms

attached. The disk and the arms are covered

with short spines. Many starfish

can grow another arm if they lose one.

A starfish moves using hundreds of tube

feet on its underside. The tube feet are

like little legs. In most starfish each tube

foot has a suction cup on the end. These

are good for creeping and clinging to

steep surfaces.

Most starfish eat clams, oysters, and

snails. They use their tube feet to pull

apart the shells of larger prey. Some starfish

sweep food into the mouth, which is

on the underside of the body. Others

turn the stomach outward to take in

their prey. Certain starfish swallow the

prey whole.

A starfish clings to a piece of

coral in the ocean.

For thousands

of years

people have

imagined that

certain stars in

the sky form

outlines of pictures.

These

pictures are

called

constellations.

180 Starfish BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

State

Government

The United States has 50 state governments

as well as a national government.

This type of government system is called

a federal system. Other countries that

have a federal system include Australia,

Canada, Germany, and Switzerland.

These systems are different in some ways

from the U.S. system. Some countries

call their regions provinces or cantons

instead of states. But there are many

similarities. Each country’s constitution

gives its regions specific powers. The

national government (also called the

federal government) has other powers

that apply to everyone in the country.

Each region has its own executive (leader

such as a governor), legislature, and

court system. In addition, each region

sends representatives to a national legislature.

The U.S. Federal System

The founders of the United States did

not want a strong national government.

But the first U.S. constitution, called the

Articles of Confederation, made the

government so weak that the country

could not hold together. For this reason,

the writers of the U.S. Constitution

balanced power between a large central

government and the smaller governments

of the states.

The Constitution also balances power

between large and small states. This is

shown in the way the two houses of the

U.S. Congress are organized. The more

people a state has, the more members it

gets to send to the House of Representatives.

This favors large states. But every

state, whether large or small, gets to

send two members to the Senate. This

favors small states.

The U.S. Constitution lists certain

things that state governments cannot do.

For example, states must not make

agreements called treaties with other

countries. Apart from these few rules,

state governments have much freedom.

In fact, the 10th Amendment to the

Constitution gives all powers to the

states, except where the Constitution

specifically says otherwise.

U.S. State Governments

U.S. state governments are organized

much like the federal government. Every

state has a constitution. Almost every

state has a legislature with an upper

house and a lower house. (Nebraska has

a one-house legislature.) Every state has

a governor who serves as the chief executive

(president). Every state has a high

One role of the state governments in the

United States is to issue license plates.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA State Government 181

court, usually called the supreme court.

The high court judges state laws in

much the same way as the U.S. Supreme

Court judges federal laws.

States also have the power to tax their

people to pay for state programs. States

pay for education and health care, as

well as for the building of roads, bridges,

and other projects.

States’ Rights

State law may not go against federal law.

Even so, U.S. states have sometimes

claimed that a certain federal law did

not apply to them. South Carolina tried

to ignore a federal tax law in 1832.

When President Andrew Jackson threatened

to send in the army, the state

backed down. Beginning in 1860, the

Southern states claimed the right to

secede, or separate from the rest of the

country, over the issue of slavery. This

time they did not back down. The result

was the American CivilWar (1861–65),

which is sometimes called theWar

Between the States. Since then the issue

of states’ rights has come up whenever a

state disagrees with the federal government.

#More to explore

American CivilWar • Government

• United States Constitution • United

States Government

Statistics

Statistics is a branch of mathematics. It

involves gathering information, summarizing

it, and deciding what it means.

The numbers that result from this work

are also called statistics. They can help to

predict such things as the weather and

how sports teams will perform. They

also can describe specific things about

In the United States, state governments issue

drivers’ licenses. In most states, the Department

of Motor Vehicles handles this task.

A worker gathers information from a

weather station. Such stations record many

statistics, including temperatures, wind

speeds, and rainfall amounts. Scientists can

then study the statistics to learn about

weather patterns in an area.

182 Statistics BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

large groups of people—for example, the

reading level of students, the opinions of

voters, or the average weight of a city’s

residents.

Collecting Data

The people who gather statistics are

called statisticians. They collect pieces

of information, or data, in three basic

ways. They refer to trustworthy sources,

such as newspapers and reports from

reliable organizations. They perform

scientific experiments. They also

conduct surveys, or ask people

questions.

Sometimes statisticians cannot gather

data about every member of a group,

often because the group is too large. In

such cases they study only part of the

group, called a sample. A sample must

accurately represent the larger

population. For example, if women

make up 60 percent of the population,

then 60 percent of the sample must be

women.

Summarizing Data

Once statisticians have collected their

information, they summarize it. They

often put the data in graphs or charts,

which are easier to read than long lists of

data.

Statisticians also summarize data by calculating

numbers called averages. There

are three kinds of averages: mean, mode,

and median.

The mean is the sum of a set of numbers

divided by the amount of numbers in

the set. If 100 people weigh a total of

1,500 pounds, then the mean weight is

1,500 pounds divided by 100, or 150

pounds. The mean is the most common

kind of average.

The mode is simply the number that

occurs most often in a sample. If the

most common weight in a sample of

people is 139 pounds, then the mode is

139. Modes also can describe information

not made up of numbers—for

example, letter grades.

The median is the number right in the

middle of the sample. If the sample

weights are 125, 130, 145, 150, and 160

pounds, then the median weight is 145

pounds. Medians are helpful when there

are some unusually high or low numbers

in the sample.

Using Statistics

Once the data are summarized, people

interpret them, or decide what they

mean. Newspaper articles, books, and

Every sport has its own set of statistics for its

athletes. Fans often use those statistics to

compare the athletes.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Statistics 183

political speeches often include statistics.

People use them to support their opinions.

Because statistics are represented by

charts, graphs, and numbers, people

tend to believe them. However, people

can use statistics to twist the truth. It is

important to know whether the statisticians

collected the data carefully and

summarized them accurately.

#More to explore

Graph • Mathematics • Numbers and

Number Systems

Statue of Liberty

#see Liberty, Statue of.

Steel

Steel is a hard metal that people use to

make many different products. Car bodies,

bridges, building frames, and containers

are just a few of the things made

from steel.

Steel is basically iron mixed with a little

carbon. But steel is better than iron in

many ways. Steel is stronger but lighter

than iron. Steel also lasts longer than

iron.

To make steel, workers heat iron until it

melts. Then they add carbon to the liquid

iron. They may also add other materials

to make different types of steel. For

example, steel with added chromium is

called stainless steel. It will not rust or

stain. Finally, workers use machines to

cool the liquid steel into bars, slabs, or

long sheets. The cooled, hardened steel

may then be made into products.

People made the first steel as early as

1400 BC. Ancient people heated iron

inside a pile of burning charcoal. This

added carbon to the iron. The result was

not the same as modern steel, but it was

stronger than regular iron.

In the 1800s people began to use huge

ovens to make large amounts of steel. In

the late 1800s builders used steel to

make some of the first skyscrapers. They

also used steel to make large, modern

bridges. In the 1900s new processes

made steelmaking easier. Today steel

remains one of the most popular building

materials in the world.

#More to explore

Iron • Metal • Skyscraper

Stegosaurus

The name Stegosaurus means “covered

lizard” or “roof lizard.” The dinosaur

called Stegosaurus was given this name

Long sheets of steel are stored on rolls in a

factory called a steel mill.

184 Statue of Liberty BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

because it had a row of enormous bony

plates that ran along its back. Stegosaurus

is the most familiar and the largest of

the stegosaurs, or plated dinosaurs.

When and Where Stegosaurus

Lived

Stegosaurus lived about 159 to 144 million

years ago. Fossils, or remains, of

Stegosaurus have been found in Colorado,

Wyoming, Utah, and Oklahoma.

Stegosaurus lived in wooded areas with

low-growing types of plants.

Physical Features

Stegosaurus was a massive dinosaur that

lumbered along on all four legs. It usually

grew to a length of about 21 feet

(6.5 meters). Stegosaurus measured about

10 feet (3 meters) tall at the hips and

weighed about 2 tons. The huge plates

that ran along its back from its neck to

its tail stood in two staggered rows down

either side of the backbone. Some of the

plates were more than 2 feet (60 centimeters)

tall. Stegosaurus also had two to

four pairs of spikes on its tail. The body

of Stegosaurus had an arched appearance.

Its back legs were longer than its front

legs. Stegosaurus had a small, narrow

head with a horn-covered beak.

Behavior

Stegosaurus was a plant eater. It used its

spiked tail and large plates to defend

itself. The plates contained blood vessels

that may have helped control its body

temperature as well. Stegosaurus most

likely lived in herds.

#More to explore

Dinosaur

Stock Exchange

A stock exchange, or stock market, is a

system for buying and selling securities,

or stocks and bonds. A stock is a share

in the ownership of a company. A bond

is an agreement to lend money to a

company for a certain amount of time.

Companies sell securities to people to

Stegosaurus

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Stock Exchange 185

get the money they need to grow. People

buy securities as investments, or ways of

possibly earning money.

Many countries have one or more stock

exchanges. Some important exchanges

are the New York Stock Exchange (in

the United States), the London Stock

Exchange (in England), and the Tokyo

Stock Exchange (in Japan). These and

other exchanges do much of their business

in buildings. NASDAQ, in the

United States, is an exchange that does

its business electronically, or online.

How a Stock ExchangeWorks

A number of companies belong to each

stock exchange. The companies sell

securities to people. People then use the

exchange to trade (sell and buy) the

securities among themselves. The

exchange lists the securities for sale and

their prices. It also handles the transfer

of securities between sellers and buyers.

The prices of different securities rise or

fall, or both, throughout the day, every

day the exchange is open. People make

money by selling securities at a higher

price than they paid for them.

Rising and Falling Prices

Many factors affect the price of a

company’s securities. If a company is

successful, the price of its stock usually

will go up. The health of the economy,

laws passed by the government, and

wars also can cause securities’ prices to

rise or fall.

Even people’s feelings can affect prices at

a stock exchange. For example, if people

fear that prices will go down, they may

start selling their securities. But if many

people sell large numbers of securities,

they can actually make prices go down.

If widespread selling continues, a stock

market crash can happen. A crash means

that the prices have fallen so low that

very few people are willing to buy securities.

As a result, the people who own

the securities have little chance of getting

their money back.

Crash of 1929

A famous stock market crash happened

in the United States in October 1929.

Over several days panicked investors

sold so many shares of stock that the

market collapsed. Almost every part of

the economy suffered. Farmers could

not sell their crops, banks and businesses

closed, and wages fell to very low levels.

This period of hardship lasted about 10

years. It became known as the Great

Depression.

#More to explore

Economics • Great Depression • Trade

The New York Stock Exchange quiets down

after a busy day of trading.

186 Stock Exchange BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Stockholm

Population

(2008 estimate)

795,160

Stockholm is the capital of Sweden, a

country in northern Europe. It is Sweden’s

largest city. It is also the country’s

center of government, culture, education,

and business.

Stockholm is known for its natural

beauty. It is located where Lake Malar

meets the Baltic Sea. The city is built on

many small islands as well as on the

Swedish mainland. Bridges connect the

different parts of the city.

The economy of Stockholm is based

mostly on industries that provide services

and on government. The city is a

center for banking, health care, education,

and research. Several companies in

Stockholm develop technology for computers

and wireless communications

equipment. Other companies develop

technology to make the environment

cleaner. Shipping goods through Stockholm’s

port is also an important industry.

Passenger ships use the port, too.

A Swedish ruler named Birger Jarl is said

to have founded Stockholm in about

1250. The city grew into an important

center of international trade.

For many years Denmark and Sweden

fought for control of Stockholm. In

1523 Gustav Vasa captured the city for

Sweden. Stockholm became the official

capital of Sweden in 1634.

Stockholm developed rapidly in the

middle of the 1600s. By the 1700s it

was a major center of the arts and sciences.

In the 1800s many streets, parks,

and buildings were constructed in

Stockholm. In the late 20th century

several new suburbs were created.

..More to explore

Sweden

Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ that is a

part of the digestive system. Food lands

in the stomach after passing down the

throat through a tube called the

esophagus. The stomach stores food

and passes it along in small amounts to

the intestines.

Riddar Island is part of the oldest area in

Stockholm, Sweden. It is known for its historic

sites and architecture.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Stomach 187

The Human Stomach

The human stomach is located in the

upper left side of the belly. An adult’s

stomach is about 10 inches (25 centimeters)

long. It can expand to hold as

much as 1 quart (0.9 liter) of food.

Glands in the stomach produce gastric

juices. These juices partly break down

food. A lining of mucus protects the

inside of the stomach from the gastric

juices.

Stomach muscles mix food and gastric

juices together. They also move the food

toward the small intestine. Food may

remain in the stomach from about one

hour to more than five hours, depending

on the type of food. Fats remain in the

stomach much longer than starches and

sugars do. After the stomach empties,

the stomach muscles continue to move.

This causes hunger pangs.

Stomachs of Other Animals

The stomachs of some animals have

more than one chamber, or section.

Each chamber has its own job. Cows

and other animals that eat grassy food

have four separate chambers in their

stomachs. Birds have three chambers.

#More to explore

Digestive System • Food and Nutrition

• Intestines

Stone Age

The Stone Age was a time in prehistory

when humans made and used stone

tools. (Prehistory is the time before

people invented writing.) Early humans

began using stones as simple tools about

2 million years ago. Humans used

mainly stone tools until about 10,000

years ago. However, the Stone Age began

and ended at different times in various

parts of the world.

Scientists divide the Stone Age into two

main periods: the Paleolithic Period and

the Neolithic Period. Sometimes scientists

put another period, called the

Mesolithic, in between these two.

Paleolithic Period

Paleolithic means “old stone age.” At

the beginning of the Paleolithic Period,

early humans made chopping tools out

of stones. These tools did not change

much for thousands of years. Then

humans learned to chip flakes off stone.

With this method they made better

tools, such as scrapers and chisels. By

about 40,000 years ago humans were

attaching stone blades to handles made

of bone or antler.

Some Paleolithic people lived in caves.

Others lived under rock overhangs or

The stomach is one of the main organs of

the human digestive system. It is connected

to the esophagus at one end and the small

intestine at the other end.

188 Stone Age BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

out in the open. They gathered wild

plants to eat. Their tools helped them to

hunt animals. Groups moved with the

seasons to find food. In the later Paleolithic

Period some groups made small

sculptures out of clay, stone, or bone.

Some groups painted or carved designs

on rocks or cave walls.

Neolithic Period

Neolithic means “new stone age.” The

Neolithic Period began about 10,000

years ago. During this period people

ground and polished stone to make

more useful tools. They also learned to

grow crops and to tame animals. They

began to settle in villages. They learned

to make pottery and to weave cloth and

baskets.

The Neolithic way of life first appeared

in southwestern Asia. Over several thousand

years it spread northward to

Europe and eastward to India and East

Asia. People in the Americas developed

Neolithic skills on their own. By about

6500 BC North Americans were growing

corn, beans, and squash.

End of the Stone Age

By about 5,000 years ago people in

Greece and China were making tools

from bronze (a mixture of copper and

tin). This development marked the end

of the Stone Age and the beginning of

the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age began

later in other parts of the world. Some

places never had a Bronze Age. In the

Americas, for example, the development

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Stone Age 189

of agriculture and towns brought an end

to the Stone Age.

#More to explore

Bronze Age • Cave • Human Origins

• Prehistoric Life

Stonehenge

Stonehenge is a circular group of huge

stone blocks in southern England. It is

located near the city of Salisbury in the

county ofWiltshire. People built Stonehenge

in stages between 5,000 and

3,500 years ago. No one knows for sure

why Stonehenge was built. Many scholars

think that it was a place of religious

worship.

Today only ruins of Stonehenge are still

standing. Hundreds of years ago builders

took many of the stones for use in other

places. Other stones have fallen down.

But the ruins still give an idea of what

Stonehenge looked like in prehistoric

times.

The largest stones were arranged in two

groups. One was a circle of flat stones

that rested on other stones that stood

upright. The other group was inside the

circle. It was a horseshoe-shaped group

of five pairs of upright stones, with a flat

stone on top of each pair. These stones

weighed as much as 50 tons each.

Stonehenge also included smaller stones

that weighed up to 4 tons each. Some of

these stones had to be moved 240 miles

(385 kilometers) from the place where

they were mined. No one knows how

this was done.

A straight path called the Avenue led

away from the circles. An upright stone

called the Heel Stone still stands near

the center of the Avenue. On the longest

day of the year (usually June 21), a person

standing in the center of the stone

circle can see the sun rise directly above

the Heel Stone. This has led some

archaeologists (people who study things

made by ancient people) to guess that

Stonehenge was built by people who

worshipped the sun.

#More to explore

Archaeology • England

Stonies

#see Assiniboin.

Stork

Storks are large birds with long legs,

necks, and bills. They are wading birds,

which means they typically walk or

A view from above the ruins of Stonehenge

shows the arrangement of its ancient stones.

In many ways, Stonehenge is still a mystery

to modern scientists and historians.

190 Stonehenge BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

stand in shallow water while feeding.

There are 17 species, or types, of stork.

The most famous type is the white

stork. In some European countries it is

said to bring good luck. Storks are

related to herons, ibises, flamingos, and

NewWorld vultures.

Most storks live in warm regions in

Africa, Asia, and Europe. They can also

be found in the Americas and Australia.

The only stork commonly seen in the

United States is the wood stork. It

breeds in the Southeast and sometimes

wanders farther north. Storks tend to

live near water, but they can also be

found on dry ground. The white stork is

known for nesting on rooftops and

chimneys in towns.

Storks usually stand about 2 to 5 feet

(0.6 to 1.5 meters) tall. The largest stork

is the marabou of Africa. Storks commonly

have black and white feathers.

Some species have no feathers on the

head and neck, only red, pink, or black

skin.

Most storks eat insects, frogs, fish, and

other small animals. They catch their

food in fields or shallow waters. The

marabou and a type called the adjutant

stork feed on carrion, or dead animals.

The stories about storks bringing good

luck have led many people to treat the

birds well. In some places, however,

storks have been hunted and killed for

food or for their feathers.

#More to explore

Bird • Flamingo • Heron • Ibis • Vulture

Storm

A storm is a disturbance in the atmosphere,

or air. Thunderstorms, tornadoes,

and tropical cyclones are powerful

and sometimes dangerous types of

storms. People also use the word storm

to describe strong winds or other forms

of severe weather.

Thunderstorms

Thunderstorms include thick clouds,

heavy rain or hail, lightning, thunder,

and strong winds. Thunderstorms happen

when hot, moist air rises quickly to

cooler parts of the atmosphere. There

the air cools, and clouds and rain form.

Lightning, which is a form of electricity,

develops inside the clouds. As the lightning

heats the air, it causes it to expand.

This causes the sound of thunder.

Meanwhile, cooled air sinks toward the

ground. This movement of air causes

heavy winds.

African wood storks stand by a lake in

Kenya.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Storm 191

Hailstorms

During a hailstorm balls of ice called

hail fall to the ground. Hailstorms often

happen during thunderstorms. As rain

falls, it pulls air down with it. The

downward draft of air may turn upward

again. This causes the rain to churn

around in the clouds. Some of the rain

may freeze to form hail. The hail grows

so heavy that it falls to the ground. Pellets

of hail are usually 0.2 to 4 inches (5

millimeters to 10 centimeters) across.

Tornadoes

Tornadoes sometimes develop during

thunderstorms. A tornado is a column

of strongly rotating winds. It may be

shaped like a funnel or a pillar. The column

reaches down from a cloud to

touch the ground. It then moves along

the ground at about 28 miles (45 kilometers)

an hour. The speed of a tornado’s

winds may be 300 miles (482

kilometers) an hour. They can destroy

buildings and throw heavy objects high

into the air.

Cyclones

A cyclone is a large system of winds

that blow in a spiral around a central

area. Cyclones that form over warm

oceans are called tropical cyclones. In

the Atlantic Ocean these cyclones are

known as hurricanes. In the western

Pacific Ocean they are called typhoons.

The winds of a tropical cyclone may

blow faster than 74 miles (119

kilometers) an hour. The swift winds

often bring heavy rain and destruction

to coastlines. The center of a tropical

cyclone is known as the eye. The

weather inside the eye is calm.

Windstorms

Windstorms are dry storms marked by

winds with a speed of 73 miles (117

kilometers) an hour or more.Windstorms

bring no rain or snow. However,

they may pick up large amounts of dust

or sand from the ground. During such a

windstorm—called a dust storm or a

A tornado travels across open land in the

U.S. state of New Mexico. Tornadoes can

produce the strongest winds found on Earth.

A woman shovels snow off her

car after a blizzard. Severe

snowstorms can make getting

around by car difficult and often

dangerous.

192 Storm BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

sandstorm—the dust or sand flying

through the air can make it difficult to

see. Sandstorms are common in deserts.

Snowstorms

Snowstorms feature low temperatures,

strong winds, and a lot of snow. Particularly

strong snowstorms are called blizzards.

A severe blizzard has winds of

more than 45 miles (72 kilometers) an

hour, visibility near zero, and temperatures

of 10° F (.12° C) or lower.

#More to explore

Atmosphere • Rain •Weather •Wind

Storytelling

Storytelling has captured the human

imagination for thousands of years.

People everywhere have told stories to

amuse, to teach, to remember, and just

to pass the time. People started telling

stories long before writing was invented.

Today stories are also written down in

books of fiction and acted out in movies,

television shows, and plays. But

people all over the world still tell one

another stories out loud. A person who

can tell a good story nearly always finds

an audience.

The Oral Tradition

Before people developed writing, storytelling

was the most important way to

pass along information. Anything a culture

wanted to preserve—its beliefs, its

history, and its traditions—had to be

told out loud. Each generation would

tell the culture’s stories to the next generation.

In this way the stories were

passed along. Knowledge passed on in

this method is called the oral, or spoken,

tradition. Even cultures that know how

to write still pass along some information

in this way.

In some cultures everyone would pass

along the stories. In other cultures only

special storytellers were entrusted with

this important job. A culture’s best storytellers

had good memories. They could

also make the tales very entertaining.

This helped ensure that people would

listen to their stories and remember

them. Sometimes people would sing the

stories or tell them in the form of poetry.

Melody, rhythm, and rhyme can all

make stories easier to remember.

Nevertheless, stories told aloud change

over time as different people tell them. A

storyteller might change a story on purpose

to make it better. Or a teller may

simply not remember all of a tale accurately.

Unlike written literature, the oral

tradition is not created by any one person.

Instead an entire culture helps

Many public libraries and museums invite

storytellers to entertain children with their

tales.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Storytelling 193

shape the changing stories across generations.

Sometimes the stories are collected

and written down long after they have

been created.

Types of Stories

Since ancient times stories have taken

many different forms. Cultures all over

the world tell traditional stories about

their gods and beliefs about life. These

legends, called myths, are related to religion.

Creation myths explain how a

culture believes, or once believed, the

world began. Other myths may explain

how people were created, why it rains,

or why there is evil in the world.

Folktales are another form of story common

to all cultures. They can be very

similar to myths. Folktales take many

forms. They may be funny, scary, or tell

of exciting adventures. Some folktales

tell about strong heroes. Other folktales

feature clever “tricksters” who fool other

characters. Other tales tell of witches,

thieves, ghosts, cowboys, talking animals,

or common villagers.

Fables, fairy tales, and nursery rhymes

are common types of folk stories. A fable

is a short folktale that teaches a lesson

about how people should behave. It usually

has animal characters that speak and

act like people. Fairy tales tell about

magical beings such as fairies, elves,

dragons, and trolls. Nursery rhymes tell

entertaining stories in short, clever

poems. People have told such stories to

children for centuries.

#More to explore

Fiction • Folktale • Literature

• Mythology • Nursery Rhyme • Poetry

Stowe, Harriet

Beecher

Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote a famous

book called Uncle Tom’s Cabin about the

difficult lives of slaves in the United

States. At the time, people argued over

whether or not slavery should be

allowed. Stowe worked to end slavery.

Harriet Beecher was born on June 14,

1811, in Litchfield, Connecticut. Her

father was a preacher who did not

believe in slavery. The Beechers moved

to Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1832. In Cincinnati,

Harriet married Calvin Stowe.

While living in Cincinnati, Stowe

learned more about slavery. She found

out that her servant was a runaway slave.

Stowe and her husband helped the servant

escape through the Underground

Railroad. This was a secret route that

helped runaway slaves escape to Canada

A storyteller sings tales about Australia with

a group of students. Singing a story makes

it easy to remember as well as fun to tell

and listen to.

194 Stowe, Harriet Beecher BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

from the Southern states. Stowe also

started writing articles and stories.

In 1852 Harriet published her most

famous book. Uncle Tom’s Cabin was a

book about slave families. It described

the horrors slaves faced. Many people

say that Uncle Tom’s Cabin helped bring

about the American CivilWar. One of

the main reasons for the war between

the Northern and Southern states was

that people did not agree about slavery.

Some people in the Northern states

wanted slavery to be ended throughout

the United States. The Southern states

wanted to keep slavery. During the war

Stowe met President Abraham Lincoln.

He told her that he knew her book had

influenced many people.

Harriet Beecher Stowe’s career as a

writer lasted more than 50 years. By the

end of her life, Stowe had written more

than 30 books and many articles. Stowe

died in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1896.

#More to explore

American CivilWar • Slavery

• Underground Railroad

Strawberry

Strawberries are red, heart-shaped fruits.

They are eaten fresh, often with cream.

They are also used as a filling for pastries,

pies, and cakes. Strawberries are

rich in vitamin C, and they also contain

iron and other minerals.

Strawberry plants grow in mild regions

all over the world. The United States

and Canada are leading producers of

strawberries. Many countries have developed

their own strawberry varieties to

suit their climate.

Strawberry plants grow close to the

ground. At the top of the plant is the

crown, from which the leaves sprout.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

Flowers and strawberries grow on a strawberry

plant.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Strawberry 195

The leaves have three hairy parts with

jagged edges. White flowers grow in

small groups on slender stalks. As the

plant gets older, the crown sends out

vines that spread over the ground.

Botanists (people who study plants) do

not consider strawberries to be true berries.

A true berry, such as a blueberry, is

a single fruit that forms from a single

flower. Strawberries are actually groups

of small fruits that form from a single

flower.

Strawberries need to be stored in a cool

and dry place after they have been

picked. But they still do not stay fresh

for very long. Some are frozen or canned

to make them last longer.

#More to explore

Berry • Fruit

Strep Throat

Strep throat is an infection of the throat

caused by bacteria (germs) called streptococci.

Anyone can get strep throat, but

the illness is most common in children.

People develop strep throat between two

and five days after coming into contact

with the bacteria. The illness usually

begins suddenly, with a fever. Other

symptoms, or signs, include a severe sore

throat, chills, and problems swallowing.

There also may be thick white or yellow

spots at the back of the throat.

Streptococci live in the nose and throat

of an infected person. Sneezing, coughing,

sharing dishes, and touching can

pass the bacteria to others.Washing

hands often may help to prevent the

spread of streptococci.

Doctors check for strep throat by swabbing

the back of the throat, or wiping it

with a special stick. The stick is then

tested for the presence of bacteria. Doctors

treat strep throat with medicines

called antibiotics, which kill bacteria. If

strep throat is not treated, it can lead to

scarlet fever or a more serious disease

called rheumatic fever.

#More to explore

Antibiotic • Bacteria • Scarlet Fever

Submarine

A submarine is a vessel, or ship, that can

go underwater. Submarines are called

subs for short. Militaries and scientists

use submarines to travel deep under the

ocean.

Militaries use submarines to patrol

ocean waters and to attack enemy ships

during wartime. Military submarines are

usually very large. They may carry more

A doctor checks a girl’s throat for signs of

strep throat.

196 Strep Throat BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

than 100 people. They have separate

rooms for working, eating, and sleeping.

They also carry such weapons as missiles

and torpedoes.

Scientific researchers and explorers usually

use smaller submarines. These submarines

may have mechanical arms,

cameras, and other tools to help scientists

study the underwater world.

Parts of a Submarine

A submarine has huge tanks, called ballast

tanks, that allow it to dive and to

surface. The tanks fill with water to give

the submarine the weight it needs to

sink. When the submarine is ready to

surface, the ballast tanks release the

water and fill with air. This lightens the

vessel enough for it to float.

For power, submarines use engines, batteries,

nuclear power sources, or a combination

of these. Propellers push

submarines through the water.

A submarine’s crew uses complex equipment

to find the way through deep, dark

oceans. To find enemy submarines or

other targets, submarines may use sonar.

Sonar equipment locates objects by

picking up sound waves. Other onboard

equipment provides clean air and fresh

water to the crew.

History

A Dutch inventor named Cornelis

Drebbel built the first working submarine

in 1620. It was a leather-covered

rowboat that could reach a depth of 15

feet (4.5 meters).

The U.S. inventor David Bushnell built

a submarine that he ran in 1776 during

the American Revolution. In 1800 the

famous U.S. inventor Robert Fulton

built the Nautilus. This was a small submarine

that could attach explosives to

ships.

A nuclear-powered U.S. submarine runs on

the surface of the water. The upright structure

on the submarine is called the conning

tower.

David Bushnell built a submarine for the

United States during the American Revolution

(1775–83). The operator ran it by turning

a crank that was attached to a propeller.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Submarine 197

Other inventors experimented with gas-,

steam-, and battery-powered submarines.

By the early 1900s submarines had

both a diesel engine (a type of internalcombustion

engine) and batterypowered

electric motors. The diesel

engine ran the submarine on the surface.

The electric motors ran it underwater.

Militaries used these diesel-electric submarines

inWorldWar I (1914–18) and

WorldWar II (1939–45).

The U.S. Navy introduced the first

nuclear-powered submarine in 1954. It

was named the USS Nautilus. Nuclear

submarines need only a small amount of

fuel to produce a lot of power. This

means that they can stay underwater for

an almost unlimited length of time.

#More to explore

Ship •War •WorldWar I

Sucre

Population

(2001 census)

193,873

Sucre is one of the two capitals of

Bolivia, a country in South America.

Sucre is Bolivia’s judicial, or legal,

capital. The country’s Supreme Court

meets there. Bolivia’s lawmakers and

president work in La Paz, the

administrative capital.

Many people in Sucre work in trade,

education, or other service industries.

Factories in the city process oil, cement,

and foods.

Sucre began as a Charcas Indian village.

The Spanish took over the area in the

early 1500s. In 1539 the Spanish

founded the city of La Plata at the site of

the Indian village. The city was also

called Charcas or Chuquisaca.

The people of La Plata started a revolt

against Spanish rule in 1809. In 1825

Bolivia became an independent country.

La Plata became the capital of Bolivia in

1839. The next year it was renamed

Sucre after the Bolivian leader Antonio

Jose de Sucre.

In 1898 different groups based in Sucre

and La Paz fought for power. They

solved their differences by splitting

power between the two cities. La Paz

became Bolivia’s administrative capital.

Sucre remained the judicial capital.

#More to explore

Bolivia • La Paz

Cafes line a street in Sucre, Bolivia.

198 Sucre BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sudan

Sudan is the largest country in Africa. It

is divided into northern and southern

regions. Different groups of people live

in the two regions, and this has sometimes

led to fighting. The capital of

Sudan is Khartoum.

Geography

Sudan covers a large area in northeastern

Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea,

Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, the Democratic

Republic of the Congo, the Central

African Republic, Chad, Libya, and

Egypt. In the east Sudan has a coast

along the Red Sea.

Northern Sudan is in the Sahara Desert.

Southern and central Sudan have enormous

swamps and some mountains. The

Nile River flows south to north through

the middle of the country. Its two major

branches, the White Nile and the Blue

Nile, join at the city of Khartoum.

Sudan is a hot country. The north gets

almost no rain, while the south has a

long rainy season.

Plants and Animals

The northern desert has few plants.

Shrubs and grasses grow in central

Sudan. Tropical rain forests exist in the

far south.

Sudan’s wildlife includes lions, leopards,

cheetahs, crocodiles, elephants, antelope,

giraffes, zebras, chimpanzees, rhinoceroses,

and hippopotamuses. These animals

live mainly in the south.

People

The name Sudan comes from Arab

words meaning “land of the blacks.”

However, about half of Sudan’s people

are Arabs. They follow Islam and live

mainly in northern and central Sudan.

Most of Sudan’s black Africans live in

the south. They follow Christianity or

traditional African religions. Arabic and

English are common languages, but

Sudan’s peoples speak more than 100

other languages. Most people live in the

countryside.

Economy

Most of Sudan’s people work as farmers.

The land between the two branches of

the Nile is the country’s main growing

region. Farmers grow sorghum, millet,

sugarcane, peanuts, sesame seeds, cotton,

and other crops. They raise sheep,

goats, cattle, and camels.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sudan 199

Sudan began selling petroleum (oil) to

other countries in 1999. Its factories

produce sugar, cement, vegetable oil,

shoes, and other goods. Services such as

transportation and communications are

also important to the economy.

History

People have lived on the land that is

now Sudan for tens of thousands of

years. In ancient times the northern

part of Sudan was known as Nubia.

Ancient Egypt sometimes ruled Nubia.

From the 1000s BC to the AD 300s

Nubia was part of the kingdom of Kush

(or Cush).

After Kush lost power, three kingdoms

rose up in Sudan. They converted to

Christianity in the 500s. These kingdoms

reached the height of their power

in the 800s and 900s. They collapsed

between the 1200s and the 1400s, when

Arabs from Egypt moved into northern

Sudan.

Egypt conquered all of Sudan in 1874.

The Egyptians had British governors

rule the territory. Sudan’s Muslims

revolted against the British and took

control of the region in 1885. The British

regained control in 1898. Great Britain

and Egypt then ruled Sudan until

1956. That year Sudan became independent.

Military governments, led by Muslims

of the north, soon came to power. The

non-Muslim peoples of the south fought

against the governments. The civil war

led to famines and forced millions of

people to leave the country. A peace

agreement was signed in 2005.

Meanwhile, in 2003, fighting broke out

between armed Arab groups called militias

and non-Arab Muslims in the region

called Darfur, in western Sudan. Sudan’s

government supported the militias. Tens

of thousands of people were killed, and

hundreds of thousands were forced from

their homes.

..More to explore

Khartoum • Kush • Nile River • Nubia

• Sahara

A village sits close to a branch of the Nile

River in southern Sudan.

A Sudanese man herds his cattle through a

forest.

Facts About

SUDAN

Population

(2008 estimate)

39,445,000

Area

966,757 sq mi

(2,503,890 sq

km)

Capitals

Khartoum (executive);

Omdurman

(legislative)

Form of

government

Military regime

Major cities

Omdurman,

Khartoum, Khartoum

North, Port

Sudan, Kassala

200 Sudan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Suez Canal

The Suez Canal is a waterway that links

the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea.

It separates the continents of Africa and

Asia. It cuts thousands of miles from the

routes of ships traveling between Europe

and Asia.

The Suez Canal is in Egypt. It extends

101 miles (163 kilometers) through a

narrow piece of land called the Isthmus

of Suez. Port Said, a city on the Mediterranean

Sea, is at the northern end. The

port city of Suez is at the southern end.

It lies on the Gulf of Suez, a part of the

Red Sea. From the Red Sea, ships can

reach the Indian Ocean.

Before the Suez Canal was built, ships

sailing between the Mediterranean Sea

and the Indian Ocean had to sail all the

way around the southern tip of Africa.

The canal allows ships to pass directly

between the Mediterranean and the

Indian Ocean. Before the canal, the voyage

from London, England, to Mumbai

(Bombay), India, was 12,400 miles

(19,950 kilometers). The canal shortened

the trip to 7,250 miles (11,670

kilometers).

A French-owned company built the

Suez Canal between 1859 and 1869. For

many years France and Great Britain

together owned the canal. They agreed

that the canal should be open to ships of

all countries in times of both peace and

war. But in 1956 Egypt took over the

canal. France and Britain, helped by

Israel, tried to take back the canal by

force. They failed.War between Egypt

and Israel closed the canal between 1967

and 1975. Today the canal is one of the

world’s busiest shipping routes.

#More to explore

Egypt • Mediterranean Sea • Red Sea

Sugar

Sugar is the most widely used sweetener

in the world. It makes things such as

The first step in making sugar from sugarcane

is to chop the stalks into short lengths.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sugar 201

candy and soda taste good. The sugar

most people use is called sucrose.

Sucrose is found in almost all plants.

Sugarcane and sugar beets are the best

producers of sucrose. Most of the

world’s sugar comes from them. Sugarcane

is a giant, thick grass. Major producers

of sugarcane include Brazil,

India, and China. The sugar beet is a

type of beet. Sugar is stored in its white

root. France and Germany are leading

producers of sugar beets.

Sugar is made from the juice of these

plants. The juice is boiled until it starts

to thicken and sugar crystals begin to

form. The crystals are then removed.

What is left is a syrup called molasses.

The sugar crystals go through several

more steps, including washing. They are

then packaged and sold around the

world.

Slight differences in the process can produce

other kinds of sugar. For example,

a bit of the molasses is left on sugar to

create brown sugar.

Doctors tell people to watch how much

sugar they eat. Kids who eat lots of sugar

may have trouble settling down. This is

known as being hyperactive. Too much

sugar can cause people to gain weight. It

also can lead to tooth decay.

Today some people use artificial

sweeteners—such as saccharin and

aspartame—instead of sugar. These

sweeteners are especially popular with

people who are trying to lose weight.

However, some doctors think that certain

artificial sweeteners are not safe.

#More to explore

Beet • Crystal • Grass

Sun

The sun is the star at the center of the

solar system. It is a hot ball of gases that

gives off great amounts of energy. Life

on Earth depends on light and heat

from the sun.

The sun is about 93 million miles (150

million kilometers) away from Earth.

The next-closest star to Earth is about

250,000 times farther away. That is why

the sun is by far the brightest object in

the sky.

The sun is the largest object by far in the

solar system. Its diameter, or distance

through its center, is about 865,000

miles (1,392,000 kilometers). This is

Wet sugar crystals pour out of

machinery in a factory. The

sugar is ready to be dried, packaged,

and shipped to users.

202 Sun BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

about 109 times bigger than Earth’s

diameter.

The Sun’s “Furnace”

The sun consists mostly of the gases

hydrogen and helium. Its core is very

hot, probably reaching about

28,080,000° F (15,600,000° C). The

hydrogen is packed in tightly at the core.

Great pressure squeezes the hydrogen,

causing it to change into helium. This

process releases huge amounts of energy.

Every second the sun changes, or

“burns,” more than 600 million tons of

hydrogen fuel into helium.

The sun has been shining for at least 4

billion years. It is now mostly hydrogen

with some helium. Billions of years in the

future, the sun will use up all its hydrogen

fuel. Eventually it will stop shining.

Surface and Atmosphere

Like the core, the surface of the sun is

made of gases. The surface temperature

is about 10,000° F (6,000° C). Sometimes

cooler, darker patches called sunspots

appear on the surface. Sunspots

appear and disappear in 11-year cycles.

Layers of gases, called an atmosphere,

surround the sun. Sometimes great

blasts of energy, called solar flares, erupt

from the inner atmosphere. The outer

atmosphere is called the corona. It is

very hot, reaching 3,600,000° F

(2,000,000° C).

The SolarWind

The sun’s corona shoots out streams of

tiny particles that carry an electric

charge. These streams are called the solar

wind. The solar wind moves through the

solar system at about 250 miles (400

kilometers) per second. It can disrupt

radio signals on Earth. It also causes

colorful bands of light called auroras to

appear in the sky in Earth’s far north

and south.

#More to explore

Aurora • Energy • Solar System • Star

U.S. astronauts took a photograph from

space of a huge flare of energy on the sun.

A cutaway view shows the extremely hot

core of the sun. Sunspots dot the surface,

and flares burst from the inner atmosphere.

The corona is the sun’s outer atmosphere.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sun 203

Sundial

Sundials are the oldest known instruments

for telling time. The surface of a

sundial has markings for each hour of

daylight. As the sun moves across the

sky, another part of the sundial casts a

shadow on these markings. The position

of the shadow shows what time it is.

The flat surface of a sundial is called a

dial plate. It may be made of metal,

wood, stone, or other materials. Numbered

lines on the dial plate, called hour

lines, show the hours of the day.

A part called a gnomon sticks up at an

angle from the dial plate. The sloping

edge of the gnomon is called the style.

As the day passes, the gnomon’s shadow

moves around the dial. Every hour it

falls on a new hour line.

The ancient Egyptians made the earliest

known sundial in about 3500 BC. This

sundial was simply a stick or a pillar that

cast a shadow on the ground. The

ancient Greeks made a sundial with a

bowl-shaped opening cut into a block of

stone or wood. A pointer in the center

cast shadows inside the bowl. Muslims

later invented the modern sundial—the

type with the angled gnomon. Clocks

began to replace sundials in the 1300s.

#More to explore

Clock • Time

Sunflower

Sunflowers are useful plants with large

flower heads, or blooms. They are

named for the way they turn their

blooms from east to west to follow the

sun. Sunflowers were first grown in

North and South America. Today they

are grown in many parts of the world.

Sunflowers are giants among flowers.

The rough, hairy stem grows from 3 to

15 feet (1 to 4.5 meters) tall. The leaves

are wide, rough, and 3 to 12 inches (8 to

30 centimeters) long.

The bloom of a sunflower has two parts.

The center is a disk of small flowers

packed closely together. The disk flowers

are brown, yellow, or purple. The flowers

around the outside are called ray

flowers. They are golden yellow. Some

sunflowers have disks that are 12 inches

(30 centimeters) wide.

Before the invention of the clock, many cultures

around the world used sundials to tell

time.

Sunflowers brighten a field in France.

204 Sundial BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sunflower plants have many uses. The

flowers make a yellow dye. The leaves

are used to feed animals. Seeds that

come from the disk flowers contain a

sweet, yellow oil. Sunflower oil is used in

cooking and in making soaps and paints.

Many people eat dried or roasted sunflower

seeds as a snack.

#More to explore

Flower • Plant • Seed

Sun Yat-sen

Sun Yat-sen helped remove the emperor

of China from power in 1912. Sun

wanted China to be a strong, modern

country with free elections and policies

that benefited all citizens.

Early Life

Sun Yat-sen was born on November 12,

1866, in Hsiang-shan, in southern

China. For several years he studied with

British and U.S. teachers in Honolulu,

Hawaii. Later he studied to be a

medical doctor in Hong Kong, which

was then a British colony. He graduated

in 1892.

Revolutionary Leader

Sun soon found a new career. He

started working to bring down China’s

ruling family. Sun thought that China

had fallen behind other countries in

developing technology. He felt that

changing the government was the only

way to make China a modern country.

In 1895 he took part in an uprising

that failed. He then had to leave the

country.

Sun spent the next 16 years living in

other countries, including the United

States and the United Kingdom. During

this time he gathered followers and

planned several rebellions. The rebellions

failed, but he continued to gain

support.

In 1911 the Chinese people finally rose

up against the emperor. Sun then

returned to China. He became the

leader of a new political group called the

Nationalist Party. The emperor stepped

down on February 12, 1912.

Sun helped establish a new government,

but he disagreed with the man who

became president. He organized another

revolution in 1913, but it failed. He also

tried to gain control of the government

in 1917 and 1921. Finally, in 1923 Sun

made himself the leader of a new Chinese

government.

Last Years

Sun worked hard to strengthen the

Nationalist Party. He also established a

military academy. He died on March 12,

1925. Under the leadership of Chiang

Sun Yat-sen

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sun Yat-sen 205

Kai-shek, the Nationalist Party went on

to rule China from 1928 to 1949.

#More to explore

Chiang Kai-shek • China

Superior, Lake

Lake Superior is the largest, the coldest,

and the deepest of the five Great Lakes

of North America. It is also one of the

world’s largest bodies of freshwater. The

lake got its name from the French

words lac superieur, which mean “upper

lake.”

Lake Superior lies between the United

States and Canada. It borders the Canadian

province of Ontario and the U.S.

states of Minnesota,Wisconsin, and

Michigan. It spreads over an area of

31,700 square miles (82,100 square

kilometers). The Saint Marys River connects

Lake Superior with Lake Huron in

the east.

Lake Superior has many natural

harbors. They include Thunder Bay,

Ontario; Duluth and Two Harbors in

Minnesota; and Marquette, Michigan.

Huge ships carry minerals, flour, and

grain on the lake. They pass through

the Sault Sainte Marie canals on the

Saint Marys River. Then they travel to

other Great Lakes ports or to ports

around the world.

Tourism is an important industry in the

Lake Superior region. The lake is known

for its beautiful shoreline. Hunting and

sport fishing are popular activities.

#More to explore

Great Lakes • Sault Sainte Marie Canals

Supreme Court

of the United

States

#see United States Government.

Waves wash up on the rocky shoreline of

Lake Superior on the Upper Peninsula of

Michigan.

206 Superior, Lake BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Surgery

Surgery is a medical treatment in which

doctors called surgeons use tools to work

on a patient’s body. Surgery is also

known as an operation. Surgeons perform

operations for many reasons. They

may operate to treat injuries, to remove

unhealthy tissue, or to discover the cause

of a disease.

Before Surgery

Before performing surgery, the doctors

and nurses wash their hands thoroughly.

They also put on gowns, caps, gloves,

and masks to keep germs away from the

patient. They set up machines that will

keep track of the patient’s breathing and

heart rate. They may use drugs to numb

the part of the patient’s body on which

they will operate. Or they may put the

patient to sleep with a drug called anesthesia.

Under anesthesia, the patient

feels no pain.

During Surgery

Doctors and nurses may use many different

tools during surgery. All these

tools must be sterilized, or made free of

germs, beforehand. Surgeons commonly

use a knife called a scalpel to cut into the

body. Special instruments clamp blood

vessels to stop the patient from bleeding

too much. Sponges absorb some blood,

too. Other tools hold the cut tissue open

so that the surgeon can work inside the

body easily. When finished, doctors usually

sew or staple the cut tissue back

together.

History

In ancient times people in such places as

India, China, Egypt, and Greece performed

some types of surgery. During

the Middle Ages (about AD 500 to

1500) in Europe, barbers often performed

surgery.

Until the 1800s there was no good way

to dull the extreme pain of surgery. But

in the 1840s surgeons began using ether,

an early form of anesthesia. Surgery then

became less painful. However, many

patients who had surgery still died. Later

in the 1800s scientists learned that

infections by germs caused many of

these deaths. Surgeons began washing

their hands and tools to prevent infections

during operations. Many more

patients then survived surgery.

#More to explore

Disease, Human • Medicine

Surgeons work in operating

rooms that are brightly lit,

extremely clean, and stocked

with tools and supplies.

Surgeons now

use laser

beams instead

of knives to

perform some

of their

operations.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Surgery 207

Suriname

Suriname is the only country in South

America that was a colony of The Netherlands.

The capital is Paramaribo.

Suriname is on the northern coast of

South America. Brazil is to the south.

Suriname and its other neighbors,

Guyana and French Guiana, disagree

about where their borders lie.

The land along the coast is flat and

swampy. Hills and mountains cover the

rest of the country. Tropical rain forests

grow in most of Suriname. Monkeys,

sloths, tapirs, deer, jaguars, and parrots

live in the country.

The largest groups of people in Suriname

are the Hindustanis and the Creoles.

The Hindustanis’ ancestors came

from India. The Creoles have mixed

European and African roots. The Javanese,

whose ancestors came from Indonesia,

are the next-largest group.

Maroons (people with African roots),

American Indians, Chinese, and whites

form smaller groups.

Dutch is the national language, but

most people mainly speak the language

of their group. Christianity, Hinduism,

and Islam are common religions.

The economy of Suriname depends on

the mining of bauxite (which is used to

make aluminum), gold, and oil. Farmers

grow rice, sugarcane, bananas, and coconuts.

Fishers catch shrimp and fish.

Surinen Indians and other American

Indians were the first people in the

region. The Dutch took over in 1667.

They brought in Africans to work as

slaves and, later, Asian workers. Suriname

gained independence in 1975.

The military took over the government

in 1980. Suriname returned to a democratic

government in 1991.

..More to explore

Paramaribo

The Presidential Palace in Paramaribo, Suriname,

was built in the 1700s.

Facts About

SURINAME

Population

(2008 estimate)

516,000

Area

63,251 sq mi

(163,820 sq km)

Capital

Paramaribo

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Paramaribo, Lelydorp,

Nieuw

Nickerie, Mungo

(Moengo),

Meerzorg

208 Suriname BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Suva

Suva is the capital of Fiji, an island

country in the southern Pacific Ocean.

Suva is located on the southeastern coast

of Viti Levu, Fiji’s largest island.

Suva is one of the most modern cities in

the South Pacific. The University of the

South Pacific is near Suva. Suva also has

government buildings and the Fiji

Museum, which displays items from the

country’s history.

Suva’s harbor is a regular stop for ships

carrying goods across the Pacific Ocean.

Sugar and clothing are exported from

Suva. The city’s other economic activities

include tourism and some manufacturing,

including soapmaking.

Suva was founded in 1849. In 1874

Great Britain made Fiji a colony. The

British made Suva the capital in 1882.

In 1970 Fiji became an independent

country. Suva remained the capital.

#More to explore

Fiji

Swamp

A swamp is a type of wetland where

trees are common. Swamps are similar to

marshes because both have soils that are

rich in minerals. Marshes, however, have

grasses instead of trees.

Swamps are common in low-lying areas

near rivers, which supply the water.

Swamps also form on flat land along

seacoasts. The soil in a swamp is poorly

drained, which means that the water

flows through very slowly. The ground

becomes soaked. Shallow water often

covers the ground.

Swamps may have either freshwater or

salt water. The kinds of plants in a

swamp depend on the type of water.

Bald cypress, gum, willow, alder, maple,

and palm trees are common in freshwa-

Fiji’s lawmakers meet at the Parliament

House in Suva.

Bald cypress trees and azalea bushes grow

in the shallow water of a swamp.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Swamp 209

ter swamps. Saltwater swamps have few

plants because most plants cannot grow

in salt water. However, mangrove trees

thrive in saltwater swamps.

Swamps are often rich in wildlife. Alligators,

shrimps, crayfish, snakes, frogs,

snails, fish, and birds live in swamps.

#More to explore

Mangrove • Marsh •Wetland

Swan

Swans are waterbirds with heavy bodies

and long necks. They swim gracefully,

seeming to glide across the water. They

are also strong fliers. Along with ducks

and geese, swans belong to a family of

birds called waterfowl in North America

and wildfowl in Europe. Swans are the

largest and the least common of the

waterfowl.

Swans are found on or near water. Most

types migrate, or fly long distances to

spend different seasons in different

regions.

Five species, or types, of swan live in

the northern parts of Europe, Asia, or

North America. These are the mute

swan, the trumpeter swan, the whooper

swan, Bewick’s swan, and the whistling

or tundra swan. All five northern

species are white.

Three species of swan are found in

southern regions. The black swan lives

in Australia. Two types are found in

southern South America: the blacknecked

swan and the coscoroba.

Swans are among the larger flying birds.

The trumpeter swan is the largest waterfowl.

It can reach 5.5 feet (1.7 meters) in

length. The mute swan is also very large

and heavy.

Like the other waterfowl, swans have

webbed feet. This gives them extra paddling

power in the water.Waterfowl also

have a gland that makes oil. The oil

helps protect their feathers from water.

An inner layer of soft feathers called

down helps the birds stay warm.

Swans use their long necks to pluck

plants from below the surface of the

water. They also eat seeds, small water

creatures, and fish eggs.

Swans mate with the same partner each

year. The female lays about six eggs at a

time. The young of white swans usually

have darker feathers than their parents.

#More to explore

Bird • Duck • Goose • Migration,

Animal

Baby swans, called cygnets, ride on the

back of an adult mute swan.

210 Swan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Swaziland

The small kingdom of Swaziland is one

of the few countries in Africa with a

ruling king. Swaziland has two main

capitals, Mbabane and Lobamba.

Swaziland is almost surrounded by

South Africa. On the east it has a short

border with Mozambique. The land

slopes down from highlands in the west

to lowlands in the east. Mountains rise

sharply in the far east.

Grasses and scattered shrubs cover most

of Swaziland. Pine and eucalyptus trees

grow in the west.

Antelopes, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses,

elephants, giraffes, and zebras live

mainly in protected parks. Swaziland’s

other animals include monkeys, jackals,

mongooses, crocodiles, and snakes.

The Swazi are the main people in Swaziland.

The Zulu and the Tsonga form

smaller groups. English and Swazi are

the main languages. Most of the population

is Christian. Most people live in the

countryside.

Many people work as farmers. Crops

include sugarcane, corn, and cotton.

Cattle and goats are the main livestock.

Swaziland’s industries make soft drinks,

clothing, wood pulp, and metal products.

Mines provide coal. Tourism and

other services are also important to the

economy.

The Swazi people did not set up a kingdom

until the 1800s. The Swazi king

soon asked the British in South Africa to

help defend the kingdom against the

Zulu people. Great Britain took control

of Swaziland in the early 1900s.

Swaziland gained independence in 1968.

A Swazi king ruled the country into the

21st century.

..More to explore

Mbabane

Girls from all over Swaziland take part in a

ceremony called the reed dance.

Facts About

SWAZILAND

Population

(2008 estimate)

1,018,000

Area

6,704 sq mi

(17,364 sq km)

Capitals

Mbabane

(administrative

and judicial),

Lozitha and Ludzidzini

(royal),

Lobamba

(legislative)

Form of

government

Monarchy

Major cities

Mbabane, Manzini,

Big Bend,

Mhlume,

Malkerns

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Swaziland 211

Sweden

The Kingdom of Sweden is a large

country in northern Europe. During the

1600s Sweden was one of the most powerful

countries in Europe. Today Sweden

is a peaceful, wealthy country. The capital

is Stockholm.

Geography

Sweden is the largest country in Scandinavia,

a region that also includes Norway

and Denmark. Norway lies along

Sweden’s long western border. Sweden

shares a shorter border with Finland in

the northeast. The Gulf of Bothnia and

the Baltic Sea lie off Sweden’s east coast.

Narrow bodies of water separate Sweden

from Denmark to the southwest.

A long range of mountains runs along

the western border of Sweden. In the

east there are low plains. Many small

rivers start in the mountains and run

toward the southeast. Lakes dot the

land.

Sweden generally has a mild climate

with cool summers and cold winters.

However, northern Sweden has very

cold, dark winters. In the north it can

snow for eight months a year. North of

the Arctic Circle, the sun hardly rises

during the winter.

Plants and Animals

Forests of fir, pine, and birch trees cover

much of the land. Many berries and

mushrooms grow in the forests.

Animals in the forests include hares,

weasels, squirrels, foxes, elk, and bears.

The Sami people (or Lapps) raise herds

of reindeer in the far north. Moose and

lynx also live in the north. Many fish

swim in Sweden’s lakes, rivers, and seas.

A castle is reflected in a water garden in

Kristianstad, Sweden.

212 Sweden BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People

Most of the people of Sweden are

Swedes. Finns, Serbs, other Europeans,

and some Asians and Africans form

smaller groups. There are also several

thousand Sami in Sweden. The Sami live

in far northern Scandinavia.

Swedish is the country’s main language.

Most people belong to the Church of

Sweden, a branch of Lutheran Christianity.

Most of the people live in cities,

mainly in the south.

Economy

Services, including banking, health care,

and communications, are key parts of

Sweden’s economy. Manufacturing is

also important. Two of Sweden’s major

companies, Saab and Volvo, make cars.

Sweden also produces machinery, electronics,

paper, metals, food products,

and furniture. Mines provide iron, zinc,

copper, and other minerals. The country’s

forests provide wood.

Agriculture is a small part of the

economy. Farmers grow mainly sugar

beets, wheat, and barley. Pigs, cattle, and

sheep provide meat and dairy products.

Fishing is another source of food.

History

Humans have lived in what is now Sweden

for thousands of years. The Sami

were some of the earliest people in the

region.

Warriors known as Vikings lived in

Sweden and most of Scandinavia

beginning in the 800s. For the next 200

years the Swedish Vikings attacked

lands across northeastern Europe and

into Russia.

In the Middle Ages Sweden was divided

into a number of provinces, each with

its own laws. Powerful local kings

struggled for control of Sweden. The

provinces joined together to create a

unified kingdom by the 1200s. Sweden

took over Finland in 1323.

A Troubled Union

In 1397 a single king gained power over

Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The

three kingdoms stayed together for

about 125 years. But there were many

conflicts between Sweden and the other

kingdoms. One of the worst battles hap-

A railway station lies nestled in the snow in

a small town in northern Sweden.

The picturesque lanes of Gamla Stan, or the

Old Town, of Stockholm, Sweden, are well

suited to strolling.

Facts About

SWEDEN

Population

(2008 estimate)

9,214,000

Area

173,860 sq mi

(450,295 sq km)

Capital

Stockholm

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Stockholm, Goteborg,

Malmo,

Uppsala,

Linkoping,

Vasteras

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Sweden 213

pened in 1520. Danish armies invaded

Sweden and killed many people in an

event called the Stockholm Bloodbath.

Sweden broke away from the union in

1523.

A Great Power

In the 1600s Sweden became a great

power, led by King Gustav II Adolf.

Sweden conquered large parts of the

neighboring countries of Finland, Estonia,

Russia, and Poland. Gustav died in

battle in 1632. Nevertheless, Sweden

remained the most powerful country in

northern Europe for nearly another 100

years.

In the 1700s and early 1800s Sweden

fought a number of wars against Russia.

Sweden lost a great deal of land, including

Finland, to Russia. However, Sweden

later joined with Russia and Great

Britain in a war against France. Sweden

also took Norway from Denmark in

1814. Sweden ruled Norway until 1905.

Modern Sweden

In modern times Sweden has worked to

stay neutral—meaning that it does not

take sides in conflicts between other

countries. Sweden did not fight in either

of the world wars of the 20th century.

In the second half of the 20th century

Sweden became one of the richest countries

in Europe. The Swedish people also

paid some of the highest taxes in the

world. The government used the tax

money to provide many social services,

including free education and health

insurance for all Swedes.

In 1975 Sweden took away the last powers

of its king. A prime minister then led

the government. In 1995 Sweden joined

the European Union (EU), a group of

democratic countries. However, in 2003

Sweden voted against using the euro, the

EU’s form of money.

#More to explore

European Union • Stockholm • Vikings

1100s 1397 1523 1611 1814 1905 1975

Sweden

becomes a

united

kingdom.

Sweden,

Denmark, and

Norway form a

union.

Sweden leaves

the union.

Gustav II Adolf

becomes king

of Sweden.

Sweden takes

Norway from

Denmark.

Sweden gives

Norway

independence.

Sweden takes

power away

from its king

through a new

constitution.

T I M E L I N E

214 Sweden BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sweet Potato

The sweet potato is an important food

source. It is very nutritious and high in

vitamin A. The sweet potato grows in

most warm, moist climates. Its scientific

name is Ipomoea batatas. The sweet

potato is not related to yams or potatoes.

The sweet potato plant is a climbing

vine. Funnel-shaped flowers grow in

clusters on the vines. The flowers are

shaded with pink or rose violet.

The root of the sweet potato plant is the

part that is eaten. Each plant produces 4

to 10 of these roots. They are usually

oval with pointed ends. The skin of a

sweet potato ranges in color from tan to

brown to purplish red. The inside can be

white, orange, or even purple.

People eat sweet potatoes boiled, baked,

or fried. They can be used as a side dish

or as a filling for pies. The leaves of the

sweet potato plant also can be eaten.

Both the root and the vines are used as

food for animals, too.

#More to explore

Potato • Root

Swimming

Swimming is a popular exercise and

sport. As exercise, swimming provides

all-around conditioning for both young

and old. As a sport, swimming includes

races that are held at athletic clubs,

schools, and national and international

competitions. Swimming is a major part

of the Summer Olympic Games.

Swimming moves a person’s body

through water. Unlike many animals,

humans are not able to swim at birth. A

person must learn how to swim. A

beginning swimmer learns how to repeat

a series of arm and leg movements.

These movements are called swimming

strokes.

Swimming Strokes

Swimming strokes provide the power to

move a swimmer through the water.

There are five major swimming strokes:

freestyle (or crawl), breaststroke, butterfly

stroke, backstroke, and sidestroke.

Freestyle swimming is noted for its

speed. A freestyle swimmer’s arms

alternate, or take turns, in creating the

power stroke. In the breaststroke, both

arms perform a power stroke at the same

time. Then both legs perform a power

stroke called the frog kick. In the

butterfly, the arm movements look

something like the flapping of a

butterfly’s wings. The backstroke is

similar to the freestyle. However, it is

performed with the back to the water

instead of face down. In the sidestroke,

the swimmer lies on either side.

Sweet potatoes are not related to potatoes.

They are the large roots of a separate plant.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Swimming 215

Sport Swimming

A swimming contest is called a meet.

Meets are held in large pools marked

with swimming lanes to guide the swimmers.

The most important international

meet occurs every four years at the

Olympic Games.

The four strokes used in the Olympics

and other international competitions are

freestyle, breaststroke, butterfly, and

backstroke. There are races for individual

swimmers and for teams of four.

The team events are called relays. In

most races the swimmers use only one

stroke. However, all four strokes are used

in events called medley races. The races

cover distances ranging from 50 to

1,500 meters (164 to 4,921 feet).

Races longer than 1,500 meters are

called long-distance swimming. Longdistance

races usually take place in lakes

or other natural bodies of water.

One of the most famous distance swims

took place in 1875. In that year MatthewWebb

of Great Britain became the

first person to swim across the English

Channel. The channel is the part of the

216 Swimming BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Atlantic Ocean that separates Great Britain

from France. In 1926 Gertrude

Ederle of the United States became the

first woman to swim the channel.

History

The Egyptians practiced swimming as

early as 2500 BC. In ancient Greece and

Rome young males learned to swim as

part of their schooling. In ancient Japan

swimming races were held in the 1st

century BC.

Swimming contests first became popular

in the 1800s. The first swimming championship

was held in Australia in 1846.

In England a meeting of swimming

clubs in 1869 led to the creation of the

Amateur Swimming Association. It

became Great Britain’s governing body

of sport swimming. The Amateur Athletic

Union, founded in 1888, governs

swimming in the United States. In 1896

the first modern Olympic Games

included swimming events. The popularity

of the Olympics helped the sport

to grow.

#More to explore

English Channel • Olympic Games

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Swimming 217

Switzerland

The country of Switzerland is in the

heart of Europe’s highest mountain

range, the Alps. The country is known

for its long tradition of staying neutral,

or not taking sides, in wars. The capital

is Bern.

Geography

Switzerland is in central Europe. It

shares borders with France, Germany,

Liechtenstein, Austria, and Italy.

Mountains cover more than half of the

country’s land. The Swiss Alps are in the

central and southern parts of the country.

The Jura Mountains run along the

western border with France. A hilly

region lies between the Alps and the Jura

Mountains.

Many important rivers, including the

Rhine and the Rhone, begin in the Swiss

mountains. The largest lakes in Switzerland

are Lake Constance in the northeast

and Lake Geneva in the southwest.

Fog often covers the country’s lower

lands. The Swiss mountains receive

more rain and snow than the valleys.

About 10,000 avalanches happen each

year in the mountains.

Plants and Animals

Leafy trees and evergreens grow in the

lower areas. Shrubs, mosses, and lichens

grow in the higher regions. Grasses cover

much of the central hills.

Small, goatlike antelope called chamois

live high in the Alps. In the forests there

are deer, rabbits, foxes, badgers, and

squirrels.

People

Swiss people who speak German make

up most of the population. Swiss who

A small village in Switzerland sits in a valley

near the Swiss Alps. Much of the country

is mountainous.

218 Switzerland BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

speak French or Italian also form large

groups. A smaller group of people in the

east speak an ancient language called

Romansh. There are also small groups of

Slavs, Portuguese, Spanish, and others.

Most Swiss are Christians. There are

slightly more Roman Catholics than

Protestants. More than two thirds of the

population lives in cities.

Economy

Switzerland is one of the richest countries

in the world. The economy is based

on services and manufacturing. Tourism

and banking are important service

industries. Swiss banks are famous for

their policy of strict privacy. This has

allowed them to attract customers from

around the world. Manufacturers make

machinery, chemicals, clocks, watches,

food products, and other goods. Switzerland

has few natural resources, so most

raw materials needed for industry must

be bought from other countries.

Swiss farmers grow sugar beets, wheat,

barley, potatoes, apples, and grapes.

They also raise cattle and pigs. Switzerland

is known for its dairy products and

chocolates.

History

More than 2,000 years ago a Celtic

people known as the Helvetii lived in

western Switzerland. The ancient Rhaetians

controlled the east. After 58 BC the

region was a part of the Roman Empire.

From the AD 200s through the 500s

Germanic tribes invaded.

Hapsburg Rule

During the 1000s the Hapsburg family

of Austria gained power over Switzerland.

In 1291 some small Swiss communities,

called cantons, joined forces

against the Hapsburgs. They formed a

union known as the Swiss Confederation.

More cantons joined later. (Today

Switzerland has 26 cantons.)

During the 1500s Switzerland was a

center of the Reformation. The Reformation

began as an effort to change

some practices of the Roman Catholic

church. It turned into a revolution that

split the Christians of western Europe

into Protestants and Catholics. Protestants

battled Roman Catholics in parts

of Switzerland.

A Neutral Country

Switzerland gained independence from

the Hapsburgs in 1648. France invaded

Switzerland in 1798. In 1815 Switzerland

regained its independence. It also

became a neutral country. This meant

that the Swiss would not choose sides

during international conflicts.

Switzerland was neutral duringWorld

War I (1914–18) andWorldWar II

(1939–45). After the wars Switzerland

did not join international organizations

such as the United Nations (UN) and

the European Union. Nevertheless, the

country kept strong ties with the rest of

Europe. In 2002 Switzerland finally

joined the UN.

..More to explore

Alps, The • Bern • Reformation

Facts About

SWITZERLAND

Population

(2008 estimate)

7,617,000

Area

15,940 sq mi

(41,284 sq km)

Capital

Bern

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Zurich, Geneva,

Basel, Bern,

Lausanne

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Switzerland 219

Swordfish

The swordfish is a fish that was named

for its long, thin snout. The swordlike

snout is flat rather than rounded. For

this reason, the fish is sometimes called

the broadbill. The swordfish’s scientific

name is Xiphias gladius.

Swordfish are found in oceans around

the world. They are mainly pelagic. This

means that they live out in the open sea.

Swordfish grow to about 15 feet (4.6

meters) long. They can weigh as much

as 1,000 pounds (450 kilograms).

Swordfish are purplish blue in color. The

sword is almost black. Unlike most

fishes, the adult swordfish does not have

scales. It also does not have teeth.

The swordfish has a powerful body that

is shaped like a torpedo. Its sword is

actually a bony extension of the top jaw.

The swordfish eats smaller fishes and

squid. It uses its sword to slash through

schools of fishes.

Swordfish reproduce by laying eggs. The

young swordfish hatch after about two

and a half days. They have teeth and

scales but not a sword-shaped snout. By

the time a swordfish is about 2 to 4 feet

(0.6 to 1.2 meters) long, it has lost its

teeth and scales. It also has grown a

sword.

Swordfish are important to the fishing

industry. They are also popular with

people who fish for sport. When caught,

a swordfish will use its sword to defend

itself.

..More to explore

Fish

Sydney

Population

(2006

estimate), urban

area,

4,293,100

Sydney is a major city in Australia, a

country in Oceania. The greater Sydney

area is Australia’s largest metropolitan

area. Sydney has a huge and magnificent

harbor. It is one of the most important

ports on the South Pacific Ocean. The

city is also one of Australia’s main centers

of business and culture.

Places of Interest

The Sydney metropolitan area stretches

across a large section of land. The city

center lies along the harbor. The Sydney

Harbour Bridge is one of the longest in

the world of its kind. The city’s most

famous landmark, the Opera House, is

A swordfish swims in the Pacific Ocean

near Costa Rica.

220 Swordfish BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

also on the waterfront. It has several

white roofs shaped like shells. Sydney is

also home to a large aquarium.

Many beaches and parks surround Sydney.

The city is famous as a place for

sailing, swimming, surfing, and other

sports and recreation.

Economy

Sydney is Australia’s main center of

banking and business, especially computer

and communications services.

Tourism, education, entertainment, and

trade are also important. Many large

companies have headquarters in Sydney.

Manufacturing is a smaller part of the

city’s economy.

History

The people called Aborigines have lived

in Australia for many thousands of years.

The British began settling in Australia in

1770. Great Britain’s rulers decided to

use the island as a prison colony, where

they could send convicts to serve their

sentences. Sydney was founded as a

prison colony in 1788.

Sydney soon became a major trading

center. It continued to be a home for

British convicts until 1840. The city

grew rapidly in the late 1800s. By 1930

more than 1 million people lived in the

metropolitan area. Sydney and its

economy continued to grow throughout

the 1900s. Sydney hosted the Summer

Olympic Games in 2000.

#More to explore

Australia

Symbiosis

Symbiosis is a close relationship between

two different kinds of organisms, or

living things. There are three basic types

of symbiotic relationships: mutualism,

commensalism, and parasitism.

Mutualism is a relationship in which

both organisms benefit. For example,

bacteria live in the digestive system of

cows. The bacteria help the cows by

breaking down plants that the cows eat.

In turn, the cows provide a place to live

and a source of food for the bacteria.

The Sydney Opera House is a distinctive

feature along the city’s waterfront.

Remora fish have a symbiotic relationship

with sharks and other larger sea animals.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Symbiosis 221

Commensalism is a relationship in

which one organism benefits but the

other is neither helped nor harmed.

Remora fish and sharks have a commensal

relationship. Remora fish attach

themselves to sharks. The fish eat scraps

left over by the sharks. But the fish do

not affect the sharks.

Parasitism is a relationship in which one

organism benefits but the other is

harmed. The organism that benefits is

known as a parasite. Parasites live on

organisms known as hosts. Hosts are

usually larger than their parasites. Ticks

and fleas are examples of parasites. They

attach themselves to a dog, a cat, or

another host and feed off its blood. This

can cause itching, pain, or even disease

in the host.

#More to explore

Living Thing • Parasite

Synagogue

A synagogue is a place of worship for

people of the Jewish religion. Jews also

use synagogues as places to meet and

study. Synagogues have played an

important role in preserving the Jewish

religion and culture throughout history.

A synagogue is sometimes called a

temple or a shul. (Shul is a word in the

Jewish language called Yiddish.)

The layout and design of synagogues can

vary greatly. Older synagogues were

often built in small streets near a marketplace,

in a courtyard, or on the top

floor of a building.

The most important thing inside a synagogue

is the ark, or cabinet, that holds

the Torah scrolls. The Torah is a holy

book of Judaism. There is also a platform

called a bimah, where a reader

reads the Torah to the worshippers.

There may be a stand where the rabbi,

or leader of the synagogue, talks to the

worshippers as well.

Worshippers sit in long rows of seats

called pews. In the past, most synagogues

had separate places for men and

women to sit. In the branch of Judaism

called Orthodox, men and women still

sit separately in the synagogue.

The main part of synagogue worship is

the reading of the Torah.Worship services

usually take place on Friday nights

and Saturday mornings and on holy

days and festivals.

#More to explore

Judaism • Temple • Torah

A cabinet called the ark is a part of every

synagogue. But many other features vary

from place to place. A synagogue in

Uzbekistan features central Asian carpets.

222 Synagogue BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Syria

Syria is a country in the Middle East.

The capital is Damascus, one of the

oldest cities in the world.

Geography

Syria lies on the eastern end of the

Mediterranean Sea. Syria shares borders

with Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, and

Lebanon. Syria and Israel do not agree

on the location of their border.

A narrow plain runs along Syria’s western

coast. Mountains lie east of the plain

and in the southwest. The highest point

in Syria is Mount Hermon. It is 9,232

feet (2,814 meters) tall. East of the

mountains is the Syrian Desert. Rock

and gravel, not sand, cover the desert.

Syria has two major rivers: the Orontes

and the Euphrates.

Most of Syria has a dry climate with

cold winters and very hot summers. The

coast receives more rain and has milder

temperatures.

Plants and Animals

There are some forests of yew, lime,

pine, and fir trees in Syria’s mountains.

Date palms grow near the Euphrates

River. The Syrian Desert does not have

many plants.

Syria is home to deer, bears, squirrels,

wolves, hyenas, and foxes. Animals in

the desert include snakes, lizards,

gazelles, and jumping rodents called

jerboas.

People

Arabs make up most of Syria’s population.

A small group of Syria’s Arabs are

Bedouins, people who herd animals in

the deserts of the Middle East. After

Arabs, the next largest group is the

Kurds. Small groups of Armenians,

Turks, and others also live in Syria. Arabic

is the main language. Most people

live near the coast or in the Euphrates

River valley.

Most Syrians practice Islam. Christians

make up a small part of the population.

A small number of Syrians follow Druze,

a religion that combines Islam, Christianity,

Judaism, and other faiths.

Economy

The government controls the economy

in Syria. The largest sections of the

economy are agriculture, mining, and

manufacturing. Farmers grow wheat,

sugar beets, cotton, olives, grapes, and

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Syria 223

other crops. Many people raise sheep,

goats, and cattle. Syria’s mines provide

asphalt, salt, marble, and phosphates,

which are used to make fertilizer. Manufacturers

make cloth, cement, cooking

oil, and other goods. Petroleum (oil) is

the main product that Syria sells to

other countries.

History

Humans have lived in what is now Syria

for more than 4,500 years. Some of the

earliest peoples wrote on clay tablets that

still exist. The tablets tell about life in

Syria at that time. Many other

peoples—including Egyptians, Hittites,

and Assyrians—invaded Syria in its early

history. Syria later was controlled by the

Babylonian, Persian, and Greek empires.

In 64 BC the Romans conquered Syria.

Muslim Empires

In the AD 600s Muslim Arab armies

invaded Syria. Muslim empires ruled

Syria for most of the next 1,300 years.

However, Christian Crusaders controlled

some areas between about 1100

and 1300. The last of the Muslim

empires to rule Syria was the Ottoman

Empire. It took control in 1516.

Independence

The Ottoman Empire lost power after

WorldWar I (1914–18). In 1920 France

gained control of Syria. Syria won independence

from France in 1946. Military

leaders then ruled the country.

In 1948 part of the land to the south of

Syria became the country of Israel. Syria

and other Arab countries soon fought

several wars with Israel. In 1967 Israel

took a piece of land called the Golan

Heights from Syria.

In the 1970s Syria sent soldiers into

Lebanon during a civil war there. Syrian

forces stayed in Lebanon until early

2005. In 1991 Syria fought against Iraq

in the Persian GulfWar.

..More to explore

Arabs • Damascus • Middle East

The fortress called the Krak des Chevaliers

is in southwestern Syria. Christian Crusaders

held the fortress for a time in about the

1100s and 1200s.

Two Syrian men sell bunches of dates.

Facts About

SYRIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

19,639,000

Area

71,498 sq mi

(185,180 sq km)

Capital

Damascus

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Aleppo, Damascus,

Homs

(Hims), Latakia,

Hamah

224 Syria BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

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Student

Encyclopedia

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Volume 13

2010 Britannica Student Encyclopedia

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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7

eBook edition January, 2010

The Taj Mahal is covered in

white marble and gemstones.

(See Taj Mahal.)

A tapir has a soft, flexible

snout like a short elephant

trunk. It also has hoofed feet

like those of a horse.

(See Tapir.)

People first drank tea as a kind

of medicine.

(See Tea.)

Tigers live in the wild in China,

Russia, and the southern parts

of Asia.

(See Tiger.)

In 1985 deep-sea explorers

found the remains of the Titanic

near the Canadian island of

Newfoundland.

(See Titanic.)

Tutankhamen became a ruler of

ancient Egypt as a child.

(See Tutankhamen.)

T tt

Taft,William

Howard

William Howard Taft was president of

the United States from 1909 to 1913.

He later served as chief justice of the

U.S. Supreme Court. He is the only

person to have held the country’s two

highest offices.

Early Life

William Howard Taft was born into a

wealthy family on September 15, 1857,

in Cincinnati, Ohio. His parents were

Alphonso Taft and Louisa Maria Torrey.

His father was secretary of war and

attorney general under President Ulysses

S. Grant.

Taft graduated from Yale University in

1878 and Cincinnati Law School in

1880. He married Helen (Nellie) Herron

in 1886. They had three children.

In 1887 Taft became a judge of the

superior court of Ohio. He was named a

judge of a U.S. circuit court in 1892.

Political Career

In 1900 PresidentWilliam McKinley

asked Taft to organize a government for

the Philippines. The country had come

under U.S. control after the Spanish-

AmericanWar of 1898. In 1901 Taft

became governor of the Philippines. Taft

returned home in 1904 to serve as secre-

September 15, March 8,

1857 1901 1908 1912 1921 1930 1930

Taft is born in

Cincinnati,

Ohio.

Taft becomes

governor of the

Philippines.

Taft is elected

president.

Taft and

Theodore

Roosevelt lose