Britannica Student Encyclopedia - 2010

got them back after the war ended. In

1963 these colonies and Singapore

formed the independent Federation of

Malaysia. Singapore left the federation

in 1965.

As an independent country, Malaysia

faced problems between its many groups

of people. Many Malaysians also disagreed

with the government. Nevertheless,

Malaysia built a strong economy.

..More to explore

Kuala Lumpur • Rain Forest

Muslim girls in Malaysia usually wear veils.

Wearing veils or head scarves is a common

practice among women who follow the religion

of Islam.

A farm worker in Malaysia stacks oil palm

fruits. The fruits provide oil for making margarine,

soap, and many other goods.

Facts About

MALAYSIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

27,027,000

Area

127,335 sq mi

(329,847 sq km)

Capital

Kuala Lumpur

Form of

government

Federal constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Kuala Lumpur,

Ipoh, Klang,

Petaling Jaya,

Johor Bahru

28 Malaysia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Malcolm X

Malcolm X was an African American

religious and political leader in the

1950s and 1960s. His proud stand won

him many followers but also made him

many enemies.

Early Life

Malcolm X was born on May 19, 1925,

in Omaha, Nebraska. His name at first

was Malcolm Little. His father was a

minister. The Little family moved to

Lansing, Michigan, in 1929. Malcolm’s

father was killed in 1931, and Malcolm

had a difficult childhood. He dropped

out of school after the eighth grade. As a

young man he moved to New York City

and became involved in crime.

Nation of Islam

Little was in prison when he learned of a

group called the Nation of Islam. The

Nation of Islam followed some of the

teachings of Islam. It also taught that

blacks were superior to whites.

Little joined the Nation of Islam in

1952. He gave up his last name because

he believed that slaveholders had given it

to his ancestors. He replaced it with an

X. The X stood for his unknown African

family name.

Malcolm X was a gifted speaker. He won

many new members for the Nation of

Islam. At the time, the civil rights movement

was beginning in the United

States. Its leaders sought equal rights for

blacks. For example, they wanted black

children to be able to attend the same

schools as white children. Malcolm X

did not agree with the ideas of the civil

rights movement. Instead he wanted to

establish a separate black nation. He did

not rule out violent methods.

Last Years

Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam in

1964. He converted to traditional Islam

and took the name el-Hajj Malik

el-Shabazz. He made a pilgrimage, or

religious journey, to Mecca, Saudi Arabia.

He changed his views about whites.

Malcolm X’s new beliefs angered some

people. On February 21, 1965, he was

speaking in New York City when he was

shot and killed. Three members of the

Nation of Islam were convicted of his

murder.

#More to explore

African Americans • Civil Rights

Movement • Islam

Alex Haley

wrote The

Autobiography

of Malcolm X.

He based it on

interviews with

Malcolm X.

Malcolm X

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Malcolm X 29

Maldives

The Republic of Maldives is a chain of

about 1,200 small islands in the Indian

Ocean. People live on only about 200 of

the islands. Male is the capital.

Maldives lies southwest of India. The

islands extend more than 475 miles (764

kilometers) from north to south and 80

miles (130 kilometers) from east to west.

Maldives has a hot, humid climate.

Maldives’ islands are made of coral. The

coral sits on the peaks of old underwater

volcanoes. Some islands are still being

formed. Others are being washed away.

Lots of plants, including coconut palms

and breadfruit trees, cover the islands.

Many fish and sea turtles live in the

waters around the islands.

The people of Maldives have a mixture

of Indian, Sri Lankan, and Arab roots.

They speak the Divehi language. Nearly

everyone is Muslim. Most of the people

live in villages on small islands. The

population includes many people from

other countries who work in Maldives.

Tourism and fishing are the most important

parts of Maldives’ economy.Workers

also build boats, repair boats, and

make clothing. A small number of

people grow fruits and vegetables.

People from southern Asia came to

Maldives more than 2,000 years ago. By

the AD 1600s the Dutch controlled the

islands. The British took over in 1796.

In 1965 Maldives won full independence

from Great Britain. In 2004 a

huge wave called a tsunami destroyed

some of the islands and killed many

people.

..More to explore

Coral • Male

Maldives is a group of islands located to the

southwest of India in the Indian Ocean.

Facts About

MALDIVES

Population

(2008 estimate)

386,000

Area

115 sq mi (298

sq km)

Capital

Male

Form of

government

Republic

Major city

Male

30 Maldives BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Male

Male is the capital of Maldives, a country

made up of many small islands in the

Indian Ocean. It is the largest city in

Maldives. The city occupies all of Male

Island, which is the country’s largest

island.

About one fourth of the people of

Maldives live in Male. The city features

several schools, markets, and mosques

(Muslim houses of worship). It is also

home to the National Museum.

Male is a center for trade and tourism.

The main goods produced in the city are

fish, coconuts, breadfruit, and woven

palm mats.

People from Sri Lanka and India settled

on the islands of Maldives more than

2,000 years ago. Male has long been the

main settlement on the islands. In the

1500s Portugal took control of the

islands. Later the Dutch and then the

British ruled the islands. In 1965

Maldives became an independent country

with Male as its capital. In 2004 a

huge wave called a tsunami flooded

much of the city.

#More to explore

Maldives

Malecite

The Malecite were a group of Native

American people who lived in what are

now Canada and the U.S. state of

Maine. They were members of the

Abnaki, a larger group of Native Americans

who spoke the language called

Algonquian.

The Malecite grew corn and hunted and

fished for food. They used bark and

wood to make tools and weapons. Two

chiefs and representatives of each family

governed the Malecite.

Europeans began to settle on Malecite

land in the 1600s. The Malecite traded

with French settlers, and eventually

some Malecite people married French

people. The French and the English

often fought over land in North

America. The Malecite sided with the

French against the English.

Later the English took over Malecite

land. By the middle of the 1800s, the

Malecite controlled little land. Today,

descendants of the Malecite live in the

Canadian provinces of New Brunswick

and Quebec and in Maine.

#More to explore

Abnaki • Native Americans

Muslims pray at a mosque in Male. Islam is

the main religion of Maldives.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Malecite 31

Mali

Mali is a large country in northwestern

Africa. Bamako is its capital.

Mali borders Senegal, Mauritania, Algeria,

Niger, Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire,

and Guinea. Northern Mali lies within

the Sahara Desert. The Niger River runs

through the south. The land is mostly

flat. Most of Mali is hot and dry.

Grasses and mahogany, kapok, and

baobab trees grow in the south. The dry

north has few plants. Many monkeys,

snakes, and birds live in Mali. Other

animals include hippopotamuses, lions,

hyenas, gazelles, giraffes, and elephants.

Mali has a mixture of many different

peoples. Peoples who settle in one place

include the Bambara, the Senufo, the

Soninke, the Malinke, and the Songhai.

The Fulani, the Tuareg, and the Moors

often move around in search of water

and food for their animals. French is the

main language, but people also speak

local languages. Most of the population

is Muslim.

Mali’s economy depends on agriculture.

Farmers grow millet, rice, sorghum,

cotton, corn, sugarcane, and peanuts.

People also raise livestock and go

fishing.

As early as AD 300 people traded gold

and slaves across the western Sahara.

The Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires

ruled the region in turn.

In 1591 Moroccans, or Moors, defeated

the Songhai. France took over in the late

1800s. Mali gained independence in

1960. The military ruled the country for

many years. Mali finally held free elections

in 1992.

..More to explore

Bamako • Mali Empire

Women build a house in Mali.

Facts About

MALI

Population

(2008 estimate)

12,324,000

Area

482,077 sq mi

(1,248,574 sq

km)

Capital

Bamako

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Bamako, Sikasso,

Segou, Mopti,

Gao

32 Mali BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Mali Empire

The great empire known as Mali thrived

inWest Africa from the 1200s to the

1500s. It grew from a small kingdom

called Kangaba on the Niger River to a

vast area that included some of the most

important trading regions of the time.

Trading and gold mining made Mali

rich.

Mali was a kingdom of the Malinke

people. The founder was named Sundiata.

He took control of Kangaba in

about 1230. He then started to take over

surrounding lands that had valuable

minerals such as gold and salt. His

empire grew rapidly.

The most famous Mali emperor was

Musa. Musa was a Muslim, even though

many of his people worshipped traditional

gods. His grand pilgrimage (religious

trip) in 1324 to the holy city of

Mecca made Mali famous. It was said

that he brought with him 60,000 richly

dressed followers and slaves. It was also

said that each one of the 80 camels in

his caravan carried 300 pounds (135

kilograms) of gold.

Musa added the trading cities of Timbuktu

and Gao to his empire. He

ordered many buildings to be built in

these cities and other places. Some of

these buildings were mosques, or Muslim

places of worship, including the

Great Mosque in Timbuktu. Musa also

supported artists and scholars.

The empire began to decline in the

1400s. Some of the cities rebelled

against their Mali rulers, and others were

attacked by neighboring people. By

1550 Mali had lost most of its power.

The name Mali lives on today in the

modern country of Mali.

#More to explore

Islam • Mali

An illustrated map from the 1300s shows

the Mali emperor Musa (lower right) seated

on his throne.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mali Empire 33

Malta

Malta is a small island country in the

Mediterranean Sea. Its capital is Valletta.

Geography

Malta lies just south of Sicily, an island

belonging to Italy. The country consists

of five islands: Malta, Gozo, Comino,

Kemmunett (Comminotto), and Filfla.

Malta is the largest island. The islands

are mostly low and rocky.

Plants and Animals

Malta’s islands have few wild plants.

Animals in Malta include hedgehogs,

weasels, shrews, and bats.

People

The people of Malta have a mixture of

Italian, Arab, English, and other roots.

Almost everyone is Roman Catholic.

English and Maltese are the main languages.

The Maltese language is a form

of Arabic, but it is written in the Latin

alphabet (the alphabet used for English).

Economy

Tourism is Malta’s major industry. Ship

repair and other services are also important.

Factories make electronics, clothing,

and plastic products. Small farms

grow vegetables, wheat, and fruits.

History

People have lived on the Maltese islands

for more than 5,000 years. Invaders

from Carthage, a city in North Africa,

arrived in Malta by the 500s BC. The

ancient Romans took over the islands in

218 BC. Arabs, Normans, and Roman

Catholic knights later ruled Malta. The

knights built many palaces and military

forts. Great Britain won control by

1814. Malta gained independence in

1964.

..More to explore

Knight • Mediterranean Sea • Valletta

Valletta, the capital of Malta, is located on

the northeastern coast of the main island.

Facts About

MALTA

Population

(2008 estimate)

412,000

Area

122 sq mi (315

sq km)

Capital

Valletta

Form of

government

Republic

Major

localities

Birkirkara,

Qormi, Mosta,

Zabbar, Valletta

34 Malta BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Malvinas

#see Falkland Islands.

Mammal

A mammal is an animal that breathes

air, has a backbone, and grows hair at

some point during its life. In addition,

all female mammals have glands that can

produce milk to feed their young. Mammals

are among the most intelligent of

all living creatures. They have an ability

to learn that no other type of animal can

match.

Mammals include a wide variety of animals,

from cats to humans to whales.

There are about 5,000 species, or kinds,

of living mammal. More than half of all

mammals are rodents, a group that

includes mice and squirrels.

Where Mammals Live

Mammals are found in every major

habitat around the world. Most mammals

live on land—on the ground, in

trees, or even underground. Some

mammals—including otters, beavers,

and seals—live on land and in the water.

Whales, dolphins, and manatees are

mammals that spend their whole life in

water.

Physical Features

Mammals range in size from a tiny bat

to a huge whale. The Philippine

bamboo bat weighs only about 0.05

ounce (1.5 grams). The blue whale is

the largest animal on Earth. It may be

more than 100 feet (30 meters) long

and may weigh 200 tons (180,000

kilograms).

Bats and whales are unusual mammals,

however. Most mammals have four legs

for moving around on land. But bats

have two wings for flying and two hind

legs for grasping. Whales have two flippers

and a tail for swimming.

Although dolphins look like fish and live in

the water, they are actually mammals.

A polar bear mother feeds milk to her two

cubs. Mammals are the only animals that

nurse their young.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mammal 35

Mammals are the only animals that

nurse their young with milk that they

produce. The female has special glands

called mammary glands. After childbirth,

the mother’s glands produce milk.

The mother feeds the young with this

milk until the young are old enough to

get food for themselves.

All mammals have hair at some stage of

development. Many whales have hair

only before they are born. But other

mammals have thick coats. Hair helps to

keep the body warm. The color and

pattern of the hair also may help a mammal

to blend in with its surroundings.

This may keep a mammal hidden from

its enemies. In some mammals, hair

takes a special form. The hair of porcupines

is hardened into sharp spines. A

cat’s whiskers are special hairs that are

highly sensitive to touch.

Mammals are warm-blooded. This

means that they are able to keep their

body at roughly the same temperature

no matter what the surrounding temperature

is. This allows mammals to live

in a wide range of climates.

Finally, mammals have a highly developed

brain. The mammal brain is the

most complex organ known. This complex

brain allows mammals to learn

from experience and adapt, or change,

their behavior.

Behavior

Young mammals learn many

behaviors—for example, how to hunt—

from their parents. Some young mammals

go off on their own once they have

grown up. Others stay within their family

groups for life.

Individual mammals or groups may live

in areas called territories. These mammals

may fight off other mammals of

the same species that try to enter their

territory. Some groups of mammals

migrate, or move between places during

different seasons.

Some mammals, including ground

squirrels and hedgehogs, hibernate during

winter. Hibernation is a very deep

form of sleep during which an animal’s

body temperature drops.

Mammals eat a wide variety of foods.

Mammals that eat other animals are

called carnivores. Cats, dogs, weasels,

walrus, and many other mammals are

carnivores. Mammals that eat plants—

such as lemmings, deer, cattle, and

Highland cattle have long coats of hair. All

mammals grow hair at some point in their

development.

36 Mammal BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

elephants—are called herbivores. Mammals

that eat both animals and plants

are called omnivores. Omnivores include

raccoons, bears, and primates.

Reproduction

Mammals reproduce through mating. In

nearly all mammals, the female carries

the developing young in her body after

mating. The young develop inside a part

of the mother’s body called the uterus,

or womb. They receive nutrition

through the mother’s body.

Gestation, or the length of time that the

mother carries the young in the womb,

varies between species. Pregnancies in

hamsters last about two weeks.

Elephants may be pregnant for up to 22

months. Human pregnancies last about

nine months.

Nearly all female mammals give birth to

live young. At birth, the young of some

mammals are well developed and able to

move about at once. For example, newborn

horses and camels can walk within

hours after birth. In other mammals—

including rabbits and most rodents—the

young are born mostly developed but

blind, hairless, and helpless.

Marsupials are a group of mammals that

give birth to underdeveloped young.

Marsupials have short pregnancies of

about six weeks. After birth, the young

marsupial crawls into a pouch or fold on

the mother’s belly. The young stays there

for several months. It feeds on the mother’s

milk until it is fully developed. Marsupials

include kangaroos, koalas,

opossums, and others.

The platypus and echidnas are the only

mammals that lay eggs. After the young

hatch, they drink milk from their

mother, just as other mammals do.

Humans and Other Mammals

Humans have long depended on other

mammals for meat and milk. They also

have used mammals’ skins and hair for

clothing and other products. In addition,

people have domesticated, or

tamed, many mammals. Tamed horses

and other animals have provided transportation

and have helped in farm work.

Tamed cats and dogs have provided

companionship.

However, today many mammals compete

with humans for food or space. As a

result, many species of mammals have

died out or exist only in zoos. Other

Most mammals

pant to

avoid getting

too hot.

Humans and

some other

mammals also

get rid of heat

by sweating.

Some mammals, including

humans, are born helpless.

Other mammals have babies

that can walk within hours after

birth.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mammal 37

types are now endangered because of

overhunting or the destruction of their

habitats.

..More to explore

Animal • Bat • Cat • Dog • Echidna

• Endangered Species • Gestation • Hair

• Hibernation • Horse • Marsupial

• Platypus • Primate • Rodent • Whale

Mammoth

..see Mastodon and Mammoth.

Managua

Population

(2005 estimate)

908,892

Managua is the capital of Nicaragua, a

country in Central America. It is the

largest city in Nicaragua. It lies on Lake

Managua.

Managua is Nicaragua’s center for education,

business, and manufacturing.

Many people in the city work in government

or business offices, banks, schools,

and hospitals. Factories in the city produce

such goods as oil, furniture, cloth,

chemicals, and foods.

Hundreds of years ago American Indians

settled a town on the site of what is now

Managua. Spain ruled the area from the

1500s until the early 1800s. Nicaragua

became an independent country in

1821. Managua became the country’s

capital in 1857.

Major earthquakes in 1931 and 1972

nearly destroyed Managua. Each time

much of the city had to be rebuilt. In

the late 1970s heavy fighting took place

in Managua between rebels and government

troops. In 1998 Hurricane Mitch

damaged many homes, farms, and roads

in and around Managua.

..More to explore

Nicaragua

Manama

Population

(2001 census)

143,035

Manama is the capital of the Middle

Eastern country of Bahrain. The city is

A view of Managua, Nicaragua, includes

Lake Managua in the background.

38 Mammoth BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

on Bahrain’s main island, which is also

named Bahrain. Manama is an important

port in the Persian Gulf. It is also

the country’s largest city.

The government of Bahrain has used

money from the oil industry to help

build the economy in Manama. The city

is a major center of banking in the

Middle East. Much of the country’s

business takes place in the city. Shipping

goods through the port also brings

money to Manama.

Arab Muslims have lived in Bahrain for

hundreds of years. Portugal ruled

Manama and the rest of Bahrain for

much of the 1500s. Persian rulers took

control of the area in 1602. In 1783 a

family from Arabia took control of

Bahrain. Great Britain began controlling

the country’s foreign affairs in the

1800s. In 1971 Bahrain became an

independent country with Manama as

its capital.

#More to explore

Bahrain

Manatee

Manatees are slow-moving mammals

that are shaped like seals. From a distance

they can look like a person who is

swimming. For this reason manatees

may have inspired people to create stories

about mermaids. Mermaids are

mythical creatures that are part human

and part fish.

Manatees live in rivers and shallow,

coastal waters. There are three species, or

types, of manatee. The Amazonian

manatee lives in the Amazon River and

other freshwater in South America. The

African manatee lives in tropicalWest

Africa. The Caribbean manatee is found

in Florida and theWest Indies.

Adult manatees may reach a length of 15

feet (4.6 meters) and a weight of 3,650

pounds (1,660 kilograms). They use

their flat, rounded tails to move forward.

Like all mammals, manatees have lungs.

In order to breathe, they must swim to

the water’s surface for air. Manatees are

herbivorous, meaning that they eat

The Grand Mosque in Manama, Bahrain,

can hold about 7,000 people.

A young manatee (left) swims with an adult

female manatee.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Manatee 39

plants. They use their flippers to push

the food toward their mouths.

Manatees live alone or in small family

groups. Females give birth to one calf, or

baby, every two to three years.

All three types of manatee are declining

in number. In some cases, the water

where they live has become polluted.

Many manatees have also been hurt or

killed by boat propellers. Most areas

now have laws protecting manatees.

Mandan

The Mandan are Native Americans who

traditionally lived along the Missouri

River in what is now North Dakota.

Today most Mandan live on a North

Dakota reservation with the Arikara and

Hidatsa peoples.

The Mandan traditionally lived in

dome-shaped, earth-covered homes

called lodges. These lodges were large

enough to house as many as 50 people.

The Mandan grew corn, beans, squash,

and pumpkins. They also fished and

hunted for food.

In the early 1700s French explorers

arrived in Mandan lands. The Mandan

welcomed the settlers who followed. The

tribe became wealthy by trading with

them. But many Mandan fell ill with

deadly diseases brought by the settlers,

such as smallpox and cholera. In 1837

an outbreak of smallpox killed all but

about 100–150 of the Mandan.

The surviving Mandan went to live with

the Hidatsa on the Fort Berthold Reservation

in what is now North Dakota.

The Arikara people joined them later. In

1934 the tribes of Fort Berthold became

known as the Three Affiliated Tribes. At

the end of the 20th century there were

fewer than 500 Mandan. Most lived on

the reservation.

#More to explore

Arikara • Hidatsa • Native Americans

Mandela, Nelson

Nelson Mandela spent almost 30 years

in prison for fighting against apartheid

in South Africa. Apartheid was a government

policy that separated people of

different races. After being freed from

prison, Mandela became South Africa’s

first black president.

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born on

July 18, 1918, in Umtata, South Africa.

He graduated from the University of

South Africa in 1941. Then he studied

law and became a lawyer.

The Mandan lived in earth homes called

lodges.

40 Mandan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Mandela wanted equal rights for South

Africa’s black people. Although blacks

made up most of the country’s population,

whites controlled the government.

Blacks had few rights under apartheid.

In 1944 Mandela joined a group called

the African National Congress (ANC).

The ANC was leading the fight against

apartheid. In 1949 Mandela became a

leader of the ANC.

Mandela’s work got him in trouble with

South Africa’s government. In 1962 the

government put him in prison. Mandela

became famous during his years in

prison. South Africa’s blacks worked to

free him. So did people in other countries

who opposed apartheid.

In 1990 South African President F.W. de

Klerk finally freed Mandela. The next

year Mandela became president of the

ANC. Mandela and de Klerk worked

together to end apartheid. They wanted

to make South Africa a democracy in

which all the people could take part. In

1993 the two men were awarded the

Nobel peace prize.

South Africans of all races voted in an

election in 1994. Mandela was elected

president. He improved housing, education,

and living standards for blacks.

Mandela stepped down as head of the

ANC in 1997. He retired from politics

in 1999 after one term as president.

#More to explore

African National Congress • Apartheid

• South Africa

Mango

A mango is the fruit of a tree that grows

in warm parts of the world. The mango

tree is a member of the sumac, or

cashew, family. Its scientific name is

Mangifera indica.

The mango tree first grew in India and

parts of eastern Asia. Today people grow

the tree in the Americas and Africa as

well.

Nelson Mandela

Mangoes are widely grown in tropical

areas of the world.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mango 41

The mango tree may grow to 60 feet (18

meters) tall. The fruits develop from

small, pinkish flowers. The smallest

mangoes are the size of a plum. The

largest mangoes weigh as much as 5

pounds (2.3 kilograms). Mangoes may

be round, oval, kidney-shaped, or heartshaped.

Their smooth, thin skin may be

green, red, yellow, purple, or a combination

of these colors. Their juicy flesh is

yellow-orange. They have one large pit,

or seed, inside.

Mangoes are a major source of food in

India, theWest Indies, and other places.

People eat mangoes fresh and in main

dishes and desserts. People also use mangoes

to make sauces called chutneys.

Mangoes are rich in vitamins A, C, and

D.

#More to explore

Fruit • Tree

Mangrove

Mangroves are trees or bushes that grow

in thick clusters along seashores and

riverbanks. They have a thick tangle of

roots that sticks up through the mud.

These roots help to keep waves from

washing away the dirt and sand of the

coastline.

There are more than 60 species, or

types, of mangrove. They are found in

and near the tropical parts of Asia,

Africa, Australia, and the Americas.

Mangroves can grow in places where

very few other trees can. They can grow

in salty water because they are able to

filter out the salt from the water they

need. They can stand in soft, wet soil

because of their strong roots. Plus,

unlike other trees, mangroves do not

have to struggle to get air from wet soil.

Instead, they take oxygen through holes

in their aboveground roots.

Mangroves can be short bushes, or they

grow to about 130 feet (40 meters) tall.

The common mangrove reaches a height

of about 30 feet (9 meters). A mangrove’s

leaves are typically green and

may be fuzzy or waxy. The flowers can

be yellow or white.

Mangroves have hard wood that people

use to make boats and other products.

The bark of the common mangrove is

full of tannin. Tannin is a chemical used

for turning animal hides into leather.

The fruit of some mangroves can be

eaten. Also, mangrove leaves, roots, and

bark have been used in medicine.

#More to explore

Root • Tree

Mangroves have tangled roots that are

partly aboveground.

The mango

tree is an evergreen

tree of

the cashew

family.

42 Mangrove BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Manila

Population

(2007 estimate)

1,660,714

Manila is the capital of the Philippines,

an island country in Southeast Asia. It

has been the country’s main city for

about 400 years. It lies on Manila Bay,

on Luzon Island. The Pasig River runs

through the middle of the city.

A flowering plant called nilad once grew

all over the banks of the Pasig River. The

city was named Maynilad after this

plant. Its name was later shortened to

Manila.

Manila is the Philippines’ center of business,

trade, and industry. It is also the

country’s main port. Factories in the city

make fabrics, clothes, processed foods,

medicines, and many other products.

In the 1500s Manila was a Muslim

settlement. Spanish conquerors

destroyed the settlement in 1571 and

built a new town there. It became the

capital of the Spanish colony of the Philippines.

Spain ruled the colony for more

than 300 years.

U.S. forces captured Manila during the

Spanish-AmericanWar of 1898. After

the war the United States took control

of the whole country. It made Manila its

headquarters in the Philippines. The city

became a center of trade and tourism.

DuringWorldWar II (1939–45) the

Japanese captured Manila. U.S. forces

recaptured the city in 1945. Manila was

damaged during the fighting but was

later rebuilt. In 1946 the Philippines

became an independent country with

Manila as its capital.

..More to explore

Philippines

Manila is a busy, modern city.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Manila 43

Manitoba

Manitoba is one of Canada’s

three Prairie Provinces. Manitoba

is also called the Keystone Province

because it is centrally located within

Canada, like the keystone in an arch. Its

capital is Winnipeg.

Geography

On the west, Manitoba borders

Saskatchewan, another of the Prairie

Provinces. (Alberta is the third Prairie

Province.) Nunavut lies to the north,

and the cold waters of Hudson Bay are

to the northeast. To the east is Ontario.

To the south are the U.S. states of Minnesota

and North Dakota.

Flat prairies with rich soils cover much

of southern Manitoba. Most of the rest

of the province is rocky land with many

forests and rivers. The land near Hudson

Bay in the far north is treeless tundra.

Manitoba has more than 38,000 lakes.

The three largest—LakesWinnipeg,

Manitoba, andWinnipegosis—are in

the south.

People

Manitoba has more ethnic groups than

any other Canadian province. More

than half of its people have ancestors

who came from Great Britain or Ireland.

People of German, Ukrainian, French,

and Polish ancestry also make up large

segments of the population. More than

100,000 people have American Indian

roots. Most of them are Chipewyan,

Assiniboin, Cree, or Ojibwa. The Metis

people have both American Indian and

European (mostly French) ancestry.

Winnipeg and its suburbs are home to

about 60 percent of Manitoba’s people.

Winnipeg is the largest city in central

Canada.

Economy

Manitoba’s location in central Canada

has made transportation and shipping

important to its economy. Lying 60

miles (95 kilometers) north of the U.S.

border,Winnipeg is a key linking point

for air, railroad, and truck routes. Products

made in Manitoba are shipped in

all directions. They include foods and

drinks, airplane parts, buses, computers,

clothing, and paper. Mines in the north

produce copper, zinc, nickel, and gold.

44 Manitoba BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

About 20,000 farms, mostly on the

southern prairies, contribute to Manitoba’s

economy. Wheat, canola, alfalfa,

barley, oats, and flax are the most important

crops. Farmers also raise hogs and

cattle.

History

The first residents of Manitoba were

American Indians who arrived thousands

of years ago. European explorers

came in the early 1600s. They found

that the area was rich in fur-bearing

animals. In 1670 the English government

created the Hudson’s Bay Company

to build fur-trading posts in the

area. The company faced fierce competition

from French fur traders. After the

English drove the French from Canada

in 1763, the Hudson’s Bay Company

controlled the whole area.

The Hudson’s Bay Company soon had

another competitor, a Canadian furtrading

company called the NorthWest

Company. In 1811 the Hudson’s Bay

Company started the first farming

colony in Manitoba along the Red River,

near what is nowWinnipeg. The North

West Company attacked the colony, but

it survived. In 1821 the NorthWest

Company became part of the Hudson’s

Bay Company.

In 1869 the Hudson’s Bay Company

turned its territory over to the new

country of Canada. The Metis who lived

in the area feared that the Canadians

would take their land and change their

way of life. Led by Louis Riel, the Metis

rebelled. The Canadian government

defeated the rebels, but Riel won rights

for his people.

Canada made Manitoba a province in

1870. Manitoba grew slowly at first, but

in the early 1900s many immigrants

arrived from eastern Canada and

Europe. Many of the early settlers were

farmers, but mining and manufacturing

soon developed. Later in the 1900s

Manitoba’s government worked to

expand the economy in the north.

..More to explore

Assiniboin • Canada • Chipewyan

• Cree • Fur Trade • Hudson Bay

• Hudson’s Bay Company • Ojibwa

A farmer in Manitoba, Canada, examines

his crop of flax.

A young polar bear makes its way across

ice on Hudson Bay in northern Manitoba.

Facts About

MANITOBA

Flag

Population

(2006 census)

1,148,401

Area

250,116 sq mi

(647,797 sq km)

Capital

Winnipeg

Motto

Gloriosus et Liber

(Glorious and

Free)

When

Manitoba

Became a

Province

1870

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Manitoba 45

Manufacturing

Manufacturing is the process of making

products, or goods. The businesses that

make products are called manufacturers.

Manufacturers sell their products to

people and companies.

Making Products

Manufacturers take raw materials and

turn them into products to sell. Raw

materials include wood, steel, cloth, and

many other materials. Using raw materials,

manufacturers make cars, electronics,

clothing, furniture, home appliances,

machinery, ships, airplanes, and

many other goods.

Manufacturers have many different ways

of making goods and doing business.

They usually use machines to make large

amounts of products. Human workers

or computers may operate these

machines. Some manufacturers sell their

products to the public. Others sell their

products to other companies.

Different companies may work together

to create a single product. For example,

a shoe manufacturer may not have the

equipment to make shoelaces. Or it may

not want to take the time to make them.

So it buys the shoelaces for its shoes

from a shoelace manufacturer.

History

Until about 200 years ago people made

most goods either at home or in small

workshops. They made products one at

a time, by hand. During the 1800s the

Industrial Revolution changed how

goods were made. Newly invented

machines could do jobs that people had

to do before. Manufacturers started to

build factories to replace small workshops.

Factories could make thousands

of products quickly and cheaply. This

caused the prices of products to fall.

People could now buy more types of

goods.

However, large numbers of people

worked for very long hours in unpleasant,

often dangerous, factories. They

made little money.Workers soon formed

labor movements to demand better

working conditions. Today factories in

many countries are safer.Workers work

fewer hours and get better pay. They also

receive benefits such as health insurance

and paid vacation time.

#More to explore

Industrial Revolution • Labor

Assembly lines are a common sight in factories.

Each worker or machine on an assembly

line does a certain task over and over

again to put products together quickly.

46 Manufacturing BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Maori

The Maori were the first people to live

on the islands of New Zealand. They

arrived on the islands about 1,200 years

ago. Their name means “ordinary

people.”

The earliest Maori are sometimes called

the Moa Hunters. Their main source of

food was the moa, a huge flightless bird

that is now extinct. After the moas were

gone, the Maori ate smaller birds. They

also caught fish and grew crops for

food.

The Maori were skilled artists. They

carved wooden war canoes big enough

to hold 100 people. They also excelled

in weaving.

According to Maori history, the Maori

sailed to New Zealand from a tropical

island called Hawaiki. This history says

that a “great fleet” of canoes arrived in

New Zealand in the 1300s. But experts

believe the Maori reached the islands

much earlier, by 800. Those experts

believe that “Hawaiki” was actually

Tahiti.

Dutch explorers arrived in New Zealand

in 1642. The Maori fought them and

chased them away. Later the Maori welcomed

European settlers. In 1840 the

Maori accepted British rule. Soon,

though, the Maori and the British began

fighting over land. The Maori lost much

of their land in the wars.

Today the Maori make up about 10

percent of New Zealand’s population.

Most Maori live in cities among New

Zealanders of European ancestry. Many

Maori have kept alive their language and

traditional culture. They also have

worked to regain control of their traditional

lands.

#More to explore

French Polynesia • New Zealand

Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong ruled China from 1949

until 1976. He also led China’s Communist

Party. Mao brought major

changes to China. Some of these

changes led to periods of great disorder

in the country.

Early Life

Mao was born on December 26, 1893,

in the village of Shaoshan in southeastern

China. His parents were farmers. In

1911 Mao fought in a revolution against

China’s rulers. The revolution forced

China’s last emperor from power.

A Maori man greets a tourist using the traditional

Maori form of welcome.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mao Zedong 47

While studying at Beijing University,

Mao became interested in Communism.

Communists wanted all people to own

everything together. Mao came to

believe that China should have a Communist

government. In 1921 he joined

the Chinese Communist Party.

Rise to Power

In the early 1920s the Communists

worked together with another party, the

Nationalists. In 1926, however, a new

Nationalist leader named Chiang Kaishek

turned against the Communists.

Mao fought back.

Mao set up a Communist base in southeastern

China. The Nationalists attacked

it. Mao then led his forces, called the

Red Army, on a journey called the Long

March. In 1935 they arrived at a new

base in the northwest.

In 1937 the Communists and the

Nationalists joined forces to fight the

Japanese, who had invaded China. The

Japanese were defeated in 1945. Then

Mao’s forces again fought the Nationalists.

The Communists won in 1949.

Mao formed the People’s Republic of

China and became its chairman (leader).

Chairman Mao

Mao tried to transform China’s

economy. In 1958 he started a program

called the Great Leap Forward. Among

other changes, he made peasants work

on huge farms called communes. The

program failed. Farm production went

down so much that 20 million people

starved to death.

In 1966 Mao began a movement called

the Cultural Revolution. His goal was to

strengthen the Communists’ hold on

China. Mao shut down the schools and

formed groups of young people called

Red Guards. The Red Guards attacked

people who disagreed with the government.

They also destroyed much property.

The Cultural Revolution weakened

China. Even so, it continued as long as

Mao lived. He died in Beijing on September

9, 1976.

#More to explore

Chiang Kai-shek • China

• Communism

Map and Globe

A map is a drawing of all or part of

Earth’s surface. Its basic purpose is to

Mao Zedong

48 Map and Globe BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

show where things are. Maps may show

visible features, such as rivers and lakes,

forests, buildings, and roads. They may

also show things that cannot be seen,

such as boundaries and temperatures.

Most maps are drawn on a flat surface.

A map displayed on a round surface is

called a globe.

Types of Maps and Globes

The most familiar kinds of maps are

topographic and political maps. Topographic

maps show the location and

shape of features on Earth’s surface.

These often include natural features,

such as mountains and lakes. They can

also include things that humans have

built, such as roads, bridges, tunnels,

and railroads. Political maps show the

boundaries of countries, states, provinces,

counties, and cities. Most maps

combine features of both topographic

and political maps.

Globes provide the same kinds of information

that flat maps do. Because Earth

is almost round, a globe represents it

best. A globe shows Earth as it looks

when seen from outer space.

Scale

A map is always smaller than the area it

represents. Most maps include something

called a scale to show how much

smaller the map is. The scale shows how

distances on the map are related to the

actual distances.

Map scale can be shown in a number of

ways. The simplest way is a graphic

scale. A graphic scale is a ruled line or

bar that is usually marked off in miles or

kilometers. Such a scale can be used to

measure distances on the map.

People can learn about geography by

studying a globe.

Globes can represent planets other than

Earth. An astronomer, or person who studies

outer space, helped to make a globe of

the planet Mars in 1892.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Map and Globe 49

Some maps use a mathematical expression

called a ratio to describe scale. A

ratio is a written way of showing the

relationship of two amounts to each

other. For example, 1:50,000 is a ratio.

If a map has a scale ratio of 1:50,000 it

means that one unit on the map is equal

to 50,000 of the same units on the

ground. If the unit of measurement is a

centimeter, then one centimeter on the

map equals 50,000 centimeters (500

meters) on the ground.

Finding a Place

Any place on Earth can be located using

a system called latitude and longitude.

Latitude and longitude are sets of imaginary

lines that circle Earth. Lines of latitude

run east and west. Lines of

longitude run north and south. They are

often printed on maps, and they each

have a number. Any place can be

described by the two numbers that tell

where a particular line of longitude

crosses a particular line of latitude.

Maps often include a legend, a compass rose, and a scale. The legend is a list of symbols

used on the map. The compass rose shows which way is north on the map. The scale

shows how distances on the map are related to the actual distances.

50 Map and Globe BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Some maps are divided into sections

that are like squares on a checkerboard.

Rows across may be lettered “A,” “B,”

“C,” and so on. Rows that go up and

down may be numbered “1,” “2,” “3,”

and so on. These maps often have an

index that tells where to find a place by

using the letters and numbers. If the

index says a place is located at “B 2,” for

example, it can be found on the map in

the area where the “B” and “2” rows

cross.

Map Symbols

In the past mapmakers used drawings to

show where things such as castles and

mountains were located. The drawings

were large so they could be clearly seen.

Over time maps were made more

simple. Mapmakers replaced pictures

with symbols. Each symbol represents

one particular thing. A map may have

different symbols for cities, rivers, lakes,

roads, railroad tracks, and so on.

Mapmakers usually show the most

important information using symbols

that stand out. For example, a main

road may be shown by double black

lines with red between them. A legend

is a list that describes the symbols used

on a map.

History

People began making maps thousands of

years ago. The earliest maps showed

features that were important to the

people in a particular area. The ancient

Greeks were the first to show Earth as

being round. But their maps only

showed the world that was known at the

time. Later, as people began to explore

the world, they made maps of where

they had been. Today detailed maps

show every part of Earth.

#More to explore

Geography • Latitude and Longitude

Maple

Maples are trees and shrubs that are

often planted in parks and along city

streets. They are good shade trees

because their leaves form a thick dome.

In autumn the leaves turn spectacular

shades of yellow, orange, and scarlet.

There are about 200 different species, or

kinds, of maple. They grow throughout

much of North America, Europe, and

northeastern Asia.

Maples range from small shrubs to large

trees. They can grow to be more than

130 feet (40 meters) tall. The leaves usually

have several fingerlike sections called

lobes. Flowers appear in early spring.

They vary from deep red to greenish

yellow. Maples also bear papery wings

The art and

science of

making maps

is called

cartography.

Sugar maples have sweet sap that is used to

make maple syrup.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Maple 51

containing seeds. These flutter to the

ground, scattering the seeds away from

the tree. The seeds can grow into new

maples.

Maple syrup and sugar come from the

sap of the sugar maple. These trees grow

in Canada and the United States. People

collect the sap in late winter or early

spring. They cut holes into the trunk of

the tree and gather the sap in buckets.

Then they boil the sap to make it

thicker. Sugar maples and some other

species also provide wood for building

furniture and other products.

..More to explore

Tree

Maputo

Population

(2007 estimate)

1,099,102

Maputo is the capital of Mozambique, a

country in southeastern Africa. The city

lies on a bay of the Indian Ocean. It is

the largest city in Mozambique. It is also

one of eastern Africa’s most important

ports.

The economy of Maputo depends

heavily on the shipping of goods

through the port. The repairing of ships

also brings money to the city. Factories

in Maputo make processed foods and

other goods.

In 1787 the Portuguese built a fort

where Maputo is now. A town grew

around the fort. The town was

originally named Lourenco Marques,

after a Portuguese trader. In 1907 it

became the capital of Portugal’s

colonies in East Africa.

In 1975 Mozambique became an independent

country with Lourenco

Marques as its capital. The city was soon

renamed Maputo. Different groups

fought for control of Mozambique from

the 1970s to the early 1990s. The long

war hurt Maputo’s shipping and tourism

industries.

..More to explore

Mozambique

Marathon

A marathon is a footrace with a distance

of exactly 26 miles and 385 yards (42.2

kilometers). Marathon runners usually

Maputo, the capital of Mozambique, is

located on a bay of the Indian Ocean.

52 Maputo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

do not run on a track. Instead they run

over land, including city streets.

The marathon is the longest of all the

racing events in the Olympic Games.

Many cities throughout the world also

host their own marathons. The bestknown

marathons in the United States

are the Boston Marathon and the New

York City Marathon.

Both men and women compete in the

city and Olympic marathons. The fastest

runners complete the race in slightly

more than two hours.

The marathon’s name comes from a

legendary event that happened about

2,500 years ago. Marathon was the

name of a plain in ancient Greece.

There, in 490 BC, a fierce battle broke

out between the Athenians and the Persians,

who wanted to rule the city-state

of Athens. After defeating the Persians,

the Athenians supposedly sent a runner

back to Athens to announce the victory.

The distance from Marathon to Athens

was about 25 miles (40 kilometers). In

1896 the first modern Olympic Games

included a marathon race to honor that

ancient Greek runner.

#More to explore

Olympic Games • Track and Field

Marconi,

Guglielmo

Guglielmo Marconi was an Italian scientist

and inventor. He built the first wireless

telegraph, which sent messages

through the air for the first time. This

invention was the starting point for

radio.

Marconi was born on April 25, 1874, in

Bologna, Italy. At about age 20 he

became interested in radio waves. Radio

waves are streams of energy that carry

electric signals through the air. Marconi

thought that radio waves could be used

in communication.

The Boston Marathon includes a

division for marathoners in

wheelchairs.

Guglielmo Marconi is pictured with his telegraph

equipment.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Marconi, Guglielmo 53

Marconi experimented with radio waves

and the telegraph. The telegraph used at

the time could send and receive coded

messages in the form of electric signals.

However, it needed wires to do so. Marconi

created a telegraph that could send

electric signals using radio waves. The

signals traveled through the air instead

of through wires. In 1897 he formed a

wireless telegraph business in England.

It made him rich.

In 1901 Marconi sent radio signals

across the Atlantic Ocean for the first

time. Some scientists had thought this

could not be done. They believed that

radio waves traveled in straight lines. As

Earth’s surface curved, they said, the

waves would go out into space. Marconi

believed that the upper level of the

atmosphere would reflect the radio

waves back to Earth. He was right.

Marconi’s wireless telegraph sent messages

in the form of coded clicks, like

earlier telegraphs did. Then other scientists

added their inventions to it. The

new devices could also send voices and

music.

Marconi was awarded a share of the

Nobel prize in physics in 1909. He continued

to experiment until his death. He

died in Rome, Italy, on July 20, 1937.

#More to explore

Radio • Telegraph

Mardi Gras

Mardi Gras is a festive holiday celebrated

with feasts and parades. It comes

before the Roman Catholic season of

Lent. Lent is a period of 40 days that

ends with Easter.

The name Mardi Gras is French for “Fat

Tuesday.” The holiday takes place on the

Tuesday before AshWednesday, the first

day of Lent. Traditionally during Lent,

Roman Catholics stopped eating meat,

fish, eggs, and other foods. On Mardi

Gras, therefore, households consumed

all the remaining foods that they would

not be allowed to eat during Lent.

The festivities of Mardi Gras can last for

many days before the actual holiday. In

some countries this period is called carnival.

One famous carnival takes place in

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This festival lasts

about 4 days. New Orleans, Louisiana,

has the most famous carnival celebration

in the United States. Its Mardi Gras

festivities begin about 2 weeks before Fat

Tuesday.

#More to explore

Easter

One of the first

uses of

Marconi’s

“wireless

telegraphy”

was to report

the progress of

the America’s

Cup yacht

race in 1899.

A Mardi Gras parade in France includes

large balloon figures and colorful, decorated

floats.

54 Mardi Gras BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Marie-Antoinette

Marie-Antoinette was the wife of the

French King Louis XVI. While the common

people of France suffered, Queen

Marie-Antoinette spent money wildly

and thought only of herself. This helped

lead to the French Revolution. Marie

Antoinette stood for everything that the

people of France disliked about the royal

family.

Early Life

Marie-Antoinette was born in Vienna,

Austria, on November 2, 1755. Her

parents were the emperor and empress

of the Holy Roman Empire. When she

was 14 years old, she married Louis.

Queen of France

Louis and Marie-Antoinette became

king and queen in 1774. At the time,

France was a feudal society. This means

that the aristocracy, or noble class,

owned the land, and the peasants paid

to farm the land. The peasants suffered

greatly under this system.

By the late 1700s the country was also

running out of money. The French had

spent a great deal to help the colonists

during the American Revolution. Even

though the French people were suffering,

the king and queen spent large

amounts of money to pay for their

expensive lifestyle.

The French people finally rose up in

protest and began the French Revolution

in 1789. Louis and Marie-

Antoinette stayed king and queen, but

they became afraid. In 1791 they tried

to escape France and move to Austria.

The people caught them and took them

back to Paris. Marie-Antoinette then

asked Austria to help stop the revolution.

The French people grew even

angrier at her.

Last Days

In August 1792 revolutionaries took

Louis and Marie-Antoinette prisoner. In

September France became a republic—a

country ruled by the people. In January

1793 the people put the king to death.

They put Marie-Antoinette to death on

October 16, 1793.

#More to explore

French Revolution • Louis XVI

Marigold

Marigolds are plants that bear brightly

colored blooms. They are popular in

flower gardens. People also plant mari-

According to a

famous story,

Marie-

Antoinette said

“Let them eat

cake” to someone

who told

her that the

poor people

had no bread.

The story is

probably not

true.

Marie-Antoinette

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Marigold 55

golds among vegetables. Their leaves

have a strong scent that can drive away

insect pests.

Marigolds are native to southwestern

North America, Central America, and

South America. There are about 30 different

species, or types. They are annual

plants, which means that they live for

only one year. The most popular varieties

include the French and African

marigolds.

Marigolds usually grow to a height of

about 1 to 5 feet (0.3 to 1.5 meters).

Their flowers are usually red, orange, or

yellow. There may be just one flower or

a few on each stem.

Marigolds grow well in sunny areas.

They typically bloom from summer

until the first frost.

#More to explore

Flower • Plant

Marines

Marines are a type of soldier. The first

marines were soldiers trained to fight

aboard warships. Later marines traveled

to enemy lands on ships and then went

onshore to fight. Today marine forces

are still usually attached to navies, or the

armed forces of the sea. But marines

may serve on land or in the air as well as

at sea.

Marines Today

A number of countries have marine

forces. They include Brazil, China,

France, Indonesia, Mexico, The Netherlands,

and Pakistan. The Royal Marines

is the marine force of the United Kingdom.

It is a part of the Royal Navy.

The United States Marine Corps is the

most famous marine force. The U.S.

Marine Corps is within the U.S. Department

of the Navy. U.S. Marines have

served in all the wars of the United

States. They are mainly land and air

fighters. But they do use ships to attack

coastlines and to carry supplies. U.S.

The French marigold is a bushy

plant with bright flowers.

A Sea Knight helicopter used by U.S.

Marines lands on a ship near the Philippines.

56 Marines BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Marines also provide protection for certain

U.S. government workers in foreign

countries. The U.S. Marine Corps’

motto is Semper Fidelis, which is Latin

for “always faithful.”

History

The use of marines in wars dates back to

ancient times. During the 400s BC wellarmed

soldiers fought aboard Greek

warships. During the 200s and 100s BC

some Roman soldiers were specially

trained to fight on warships as well.

The Dutch and the English organized

the first modern groups of marines during

the 1660s. It was at this time that

the word marine first came into use.

However, as cannons and other large

guns were developed, marines did less

fighting on ships. Today such fighting

rarely, if ever, happens.

#More to explore

Navy •War

Marquette,

Jacques

Father Jacques Marquette and Louis

Jolliet were the first white men to

explore the upper Mississippi River.

Marquette’s writings told Europeans

about the river and its course.

Jacques Marquette was born on June 1,

1637, in Laon, France. He became a

Roman Catholic priest as a young man.

In 1666 Marquette went as a missionary

to New France (now Canada). In 1671

he moved to the north shore of the

Straits of Mackinac (a channel that connects

Lake Michigan and Lake Huron).

There he founded the Saint Ignace mission.

Louis Jolliet, a young explorer, visited

Saint Ignace in December 1672. The

governor of New France had sent him to

explore the Mississippi River. On May

17, 1673, Marquette, Jolliet, and five

A drawing shows Father Jacques Marquette

during his travels.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Marquette, Jacques 57

other men set out from Saint Ignace in

two bark canoes. They used the Fox and

Wisconsin rivers to get from Lake

Michigan to the Mississippi River. Marquette

preached to the Native Americans

along the way.

At the mouth of the Arkansas River, in

what is now Arkansas, they learned from

the Native Americans that the Mississippi

flowed into the Gulf of Mexico.

They went no farther because the land

further along was Spanish territory.

They turned back, though Marquette

went only as far as Green Bay, in what is

nowWisconsin. There he wrote a report

about the journey.

During the journey, Marquette had

fallen ill. In 1674 he traveled to what is

now Illinois. He wanted to start a mission

among a group of Native Americans.

He reached them in the spring of

1675, but there his health grew worse.

On May 18, 1675, on the way back to

Saint Ignace, he died.

#More to explore

Jolliet, Louis • Mississippi River

Mars

Mars is one of the planets that orbit, or

travel around, the sun in the solar

system. It is the fourth planet from the

sun. It is also Earth’s outer neighbor.

Mars travels around the sun at an

average distance of about 142 million

miles (228 million kilometers). It has

two small, rocky moons, Phobos and

Deimos.

For centuries people have wondered

whether there is life on Mars. Studies

have shown that there are no obvious

signs of life on the planet. However,

scientists are still trying to find out if

very tiny, simple life-forms may have

ever existed on Mars.

Physical Features

Mars is the second smallest planet in the

solar system, after Mercury. Its diameter,

or distance through its center, is about

4,200 miles (6,800 kilometers). That is

about half the size of Earth’s diameter.

Mars has layers like Earth’s. These layers

consist of a metal core; a thick, rocky

middle; and a crust.

The surface of Mars consists of rock and

dust. There are many large dust storms.

Parts of the planet have many pits called

craters. The landscape includes plains,

deep valleys, and high mountains.

Mars was

named for the

ancient Roman

god of war.

People saw the

planet’s red

color and

thought of

anger and

blood.

A picture of Mars taken by the Mars Global

Surveyor shows an ice cap at the top of the

planet. White clouds made of water and ice

are also visible.

58 Mars BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The atmosphere, or layer of gases, surrounding

Mars is thin. It does not trap

heat well. The temperature at the surface

of Mars is about .28° F (.33° C) in the

afternoon. But it cools to about .118° F

(.83° C) before dawn.

Water is rare in the solar system, except

on Earth.Water exists on Mars as ice

caps at its north and south poles, or

ends, and as patches of ice beneath its

surface. Small amounts of water are also

found as a gas in the air. Some evidence

suggests that in the past Mars had some

liquid water on its surface. For example,

Mars has hundreds of channels that look

like dried-up riverbeds. Some scientists

think Mars was once a warm planet with

large seas.

Orbit and Spin

Like all planets, Mars has two types of

motion: orbit and spin. Mars orbits, or

travels around, the sun. It completes one

orbit every 687 Earth days. In other

words, a year on Mars lasts 687 Earth

days. Mars spins about its center at

nearly the same rate as Earth does. Mars

takes about 24.6 hours to complete one

rotation. So a Mars day lasts about as

long as an Earth day.

Observation and Exploration

People have observed Mars since

ancient times. Since 1964 many

unmanned spacecraft have collected

information about the planet. The

United States and the Soviet Union

each sent several spacecraft to Mars

from the 1960s to the 1980s. Some of

them flew past Mars or orbited around

it. Others, including the U.S. Viking

crafts, landed on Mars.

Since the 1990s the United States and

Europe have sent several spacecraft to

orbit the planet. They include the U.S.

Mars Global Surveyor and Odyssey and

Europe’s Mars Express.

The U.S. spacecraft Pathfinder landed on

Mars in the 1990s. It released a robot

A camera on the spacecraft Pathfinder photographed the rover called Sojourner after the

rover was released onto the surface of Mars in 1997.

A volcano on

Mars named

Olympus

Mons is the

biggest known

volcano in the

solar system.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mars 59

called a rover onto the surface. They both

sent back information about the surface,

interior, and atmosphere ofMars. The

United States sent two more rovers, called

Spirit and Opportunity, to the planet in

2003. The rovers moved around on the

surface. They performed experiments

and took many photographs.

#More to explore

Planets • Solar System • Space

Exploration

Mars, god

#see Ares.

Marsh

A marsh is a type of wetland with watery

mud that is rich in minerals. Marshes

are very similar to swamps. The main

difference between them is the type of

plant life they support. Marshes have

mostly grasses, while swamps have

mostly trees.

Marshes form in low-lying areas near

rivers and along seacoasts. They can have

either fresh or salty water. Marshes are

especially common in the areas called

deltas. These form at the mouths of rivers.

The flow of a river slows down near

the mouth. The rock and soil that the

river is carrying then settles to the bottom.

This material is called sediment. It

creates a rich mud in which marsh

plants grow.

Grasses, sedges, reeds, and rushes are

common marsh plants. Rice grown in

marshes provides a major portion of the

world’s grain. It is the most important

Marshland covers a delta region in Alaska. Marshes often form in deltas, which are areas

of land at the mouths of rivers.

60 Mars, god BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

kind of marsh plant. Crabs, snails,

turtles, and many kinds of fish and birds

are some of the animals that are found

in marshes.

#More to explore

Delta • Swamp •Wetland

Marshall,

Thurgood

Thurgood Marshall was the first African

American to serve as a justice (judge) on

the U.S. Supreme Court. Marshall

strongly supported equal rights for African

Americans.

Marshall was born in Baltimore, Maryland,

on July 2, 1908. After attending

high school in Baltimore, Marshall

graduated with honors from Lincoln

University in Pennsylvania. In 1933 he

graduated from Howard University Law

School inWashington, D.C. He was the

best student in his class.

In 1936 Marshall became a lawyer for

the National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People

(NAACP). At that time African Americans

did not have the same rights as

whites. The NAACP fought in the

courts to win equal rights for blacks. In

the 1940s and 1950s Marshall argued

32 cases before the Supreme Court. He

won 29 of those cases.

Marshall’s most important courtroom

victory was in the case of Brown vs.

Board of Education of Topeka in 1954.

Before this case, the law allowed states to

have separate schools for whites and

blacks. Marshall convinced the Supreme

Court that this practice went against the

U.S. Constitution. This ruling helped to

end all forms of legalized segregation, or

separation, by race.

In 1961 President John F. Kennedy

made Marshall a judge. In 1965 President

Lyndon B. Johnson made Marshall

the U.S. solicitor general. In that job he

represented the government in cases

before the Supreme Court. Then in

1967 Johnson put Marshall on the

Supreme Court.

As a Supreme Court justice, Marshall

continued to support equal rights for

blacks. He also opposed the death penalty.

Marshall retired in 1991. He died

in Bethesda, Maryland, on January 24,

1993.

#More to explore

African Americans • National

Association for the Advancement of

Colored People • United States Supreme

Court

Thurgood Marshall

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Marshall, Thurgood 61

Marshall Islands

The Republic of the Marshall Islands

includes 29 atolls and five islands in the

central Pacific Ocean. Atolls are reefs, or

chains, of coral that surround a lagoon

(a shallow area of water). The country’s

capital is on Majuro Atoll.

Geography

The Marshall Islands are part of the

region known as Oceania. They are scattered

over about 770,000 square miles

(2,000,000 square kilometers). The

atolls and islands are made of coral

attached to the tops of underwater volcanoes.

The land is low and flat. The

climate is hot and humid all year.

Plants and Animals

Palms and breadfruit trees are the Marshall

Islands’ main plants. Many fish,

dolphins, octopuses, and turtles live in

the surrounding waters.

People

Most of the people are Micronesians.

They speak Marshallese. English is also

common. Christianity is the main religion.

More than half of the population

lives on Majuro and Kwajalein atolls.

The rest of the people live in villages on

other islands.

Economy

The economy of the Marshall Islands

depends on money received from the

United States. Many people work at a

U.S. missile-testing area on Kwajalein

Atoll. Other people in the cities work

for the government or in tourism. On

the outer islands, fishing and farming

are common. Crops include coconuts

and breadfruit.

History

Micronesians arrived on the islands

more than 2,000 years ago. John Marshall,

a British sea captain, explored the

area in 1788. The islands were named

after him. Germany took control of the

islands in 1886, but Japan seized them

in 1914.

DuringWorldWar II (1939–45) the

United States took over the islands. The

United States used Bikini and Enewetak

atolls to test nuclear weapons. The testing

badly damaged the atolls.

The Marshall Islands gained independence

from the United States in 1986.

However, the U.S. military still protects

the country.

..More to explore

Coral • Majuro • Oceania

Facts About

MARSHALL

ISLANDS

Population

(2008 estimate)

53,200

Area

70 sq mi (181 sq

km)

Capital

Majuro

Form of

government

Republic

Major towns

Majuro, Ebeye,

Laura, Ajeltake,

Enewetak

62 Marshall Islands BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Marsupial

Marsupials are a group of mammals that

are known for carrying their young in a

pouch. The name marsupial comes from

the Latin word marsupium, which means

“pouch.” Kangaroos, koalas, and opossums

are well-known marsupials.

Marsupials live in forests, lakes and

streams, grasslands, and even underground.

More than 170 species, or

kinds, live in Australia, New Guinea,

and nearby islands. About 70 species live

in South and Central America. One

species, the Virginia opossum, lives in

North America.

Most marsupials range in size between a

small cat and an average-sized dog. But

they can be much larger or smaller. The

largest marsupial is the red kangaroo of

Australia. It can be 10 feet (3 meters)

long from its head to the tip of its tail.

The smallest marsupials are the mouselike

planigales. They grow to only about

4 inches (10 centimeters) long.

Marsupials are not fully developed at

birth. They are tiny and blind. Right

after birth they climb up their mother’s

belly and begin to drink milk from the

mother’s nipples. In most species the

nipples are in a pouch that the young

crawl into. The young stay in the pouch

Marsupials have a wide range of body shapes and sizes.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Marsupial 63

for weeks or months, drinking the

mother’s milk. Some marsupials do not

have pouches. In these species the young

simply cling to the mother’s nipples.

After the young stop depending on their

mother’s milk, they can leave the pouch

and look after themselves. But they run

back to the pouch when danger threatens.

The young of the koala and some

other marsupials cling to the mother’s

fur after they have outgrown the pouch.

#More to explore

Kangaroo • Koala • Mammal

• Opossum

Martial Art

Martial arts are fighting skills that

people practice for sport or for selfdefense.

Most of them developed in

eastern Asia. The word martial comes

from Mars, the ancient Roman god of

war. However, most of the martial arts

are not violent. Many followers of the

religion of Buddhism use martial arts to

help achieve spiritual awareness. Other

people use martial arts to develop selfdiscipline.

Martial arts require high levels

of both physical and mental training.

Students of the martial arts are commonly

ranked according to skill level.

They wear colored belts that represent

their degree of skill. The darker the

color, the higher the rank. The black

belt represents the highest skill level.

Martial arts can be divided into armed

and unarmed arts. The armed arts use

weapons; the unarmed arts do not. In

the unarmed arts opponents use their

feet and hands to strike or wrestle with

each other. In Japan the warriors called

samurai were trained in both armed and

unarmed arts.

Armed Martial Arts

The armed martial arts historically

included archery (shooting arrows with a

bow) and fighting with swords or spears.

The martial art called ninjutsu used a

wide variety of weapons. Ninjutsu is a

Japanese word that means “fighting

methods of the ninja.” The ninja were a

secret group of highly trained martial

artists. They were spies and fighters for

Japanese rulers known as warlords. The

ninja used such weapons as blowguns

with poisoned darts, brass knuckles, and

throwing devices.

In modern times versions of the armed

martial arts are practiced as sports. The

sport called kendo developed from the

fighting methods of the samurai. Opponents

in kendo use wooden swords for

attack and defense. Kendo means “the

way of the sword.” Kyudo is a tradi-

T’ai Chi ch’uan, or T’ai Chi for short, is a

slow-moving, graceful type of martial art.

64 Martial Art BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tional form of archery that is common

in Japan.

Unarmed Martial Arts

Karate is a very popular martial art that

started in Japan. The word karate means

“empty hand” in Japanese. Karate was

probably developed by people who were

forbidden to carry weapons. Karate

opponents use their arms and legs for

punching, kicking, and defending themselves.

They try to focus the entire

body’s power into the hand, foot, or

other body part used for striking. A

karate expert can break thick boards

with a quick strike from a bare hand or

foot.

Tae kwon do is a Korean martial art.

The name means “art of kicking and

punching.” Tae kwon do blends karate

and an earlier form of Korean selfdefense.

It includes standing kicks, jump

kicks, and punches.

Judo is another Japanese martial art.

Judo opponents usually do not attack

each other directly. Instead they try to

turn their opponent’s power to their

own advantage. They use quick moves

to try to make each other fall. This is

called throwing the opponent. They also

try to pin each other to the ground.

Sometimes they cause the opponent to

give up by applying pressure to arm

joints or to the neck.

Kung fu is a martial art that began in

China. Kung fu means “skill.” Many

kung fu movements imitate the fighting

styles of animals. There are hundreds of

forms of kung fu. Most forms are

unarmed, but some use swords or other

weapons.

T’ai Chi ch’uan is an ancient Chinese

martial art similar to kung fu. It is often

called T’ai Chi for short. T’ai Chi is a

popular form of exercise. The slow, flowing

movements used in T’ai Chi can

help to reduce stress.

Other unarmed martial arts include

aikido, jujitsu, and Thai boxing. Aikido

and jujitsu are Japanese. Thai boxing is

the national sport of Thailand.

#More to explore

Buddhism • Samurai

Martinique

Martinique is an oval-shaped island in

the Caribbean Sea. It is an overseas

department (a type of province) of

France. Fort-de-France is Martinique’s

capital and largest city.

Three boys practice karate. Karate is one of

the most popular martial arts.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Martinique 65

Geography

Martinique is part of the group of

islands called the West Indies. Its

nearest neighbors are Dominica, to the

north, and Saint Lucia, to the south.

The island is mostly mountainous.

Short rivers flow down from the island’s

mountains. Martinique’s highest peak is

Mount Pelee, an active volcano.

Martinique has a warm, humid climate

with one rainy season each year.

Hurricanes sometimes hit the island.

Plants and Animals

Forests cover almost half of Martinique.

Palm, rosewood, white gum, and

mahogany trees are common. Ferns and

orchids grow in the lowlands. The

southern coast has mangrove swamps.

Martinique’s few animals include mongooses,

snakes, rabbits, and birds.

People

Most of the people of Martinique have a

mixture of black, white, and Asian

ancestors. There are small groups of

French whites and East Indians. French

and a local version of French are the

main languages. Most people follow

Roman Catholicism. Almost all the

people live in cities or towns.

Economy

Tourism is the most important part of

Martinique’s economy. Factories make

petroleum (oil) products, cement, sugar,

and rum. The island’s main crops are

sugarcane and bananas. Martinique also

depends heavily on aid from France.

History

Arawak Indians were Martinique’s first

settlers. The Carib Indians eventually

drove the Arawak Indians off the island.

Christopher Columbus visited

Martinique in 1502. France established

a colony on the island in 1635. The

French brought people from Africa to

work as slaves in the colony’s sugarcane

fields. Slavery finally ended in 1848.

In 1946 Martinique became a French

overseas department. Since then some

of the island’s people have called for

independence. France has responded by

giving the island more control over its

own affairs. Martinique elects

representatives to its own legislature. It

also sends representatives to the

legislature in France.

#More to explore

Caribbean Sea • France •West Indies

A cathedral, or large church, stands in Fortde-

France, the capital of Martinique.

66 Martinique BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Martyr

A martyr is someone who is willing to

die for his or her religious beliefs. Martyrs

are important in Christianity, Judaism,

and Islam.

The ancient Romans sometimes killed

Christians who refused to give up their

religion. The apostles Peter and Paul

were martyrs of this time. Many Christian

martyrs became saints.

Jewish martyrs include members of a

family known as the Maccabees, who

died long ago in a fight to keep their

religion. The Jewish holiday Hanukkah

is based on the story of the Maccabees.

Most Muslims agree that there are two

groups of martyrs: those killed in jihad,

or holy war, and those killed unjustly

because of their religion. Every year

Shi!ite Muslims remember the death of

martyr al-Husayn ibn !Ali. Husayn was

killed in battle in the 600s.

#More to explore

Religion

Mary, Queen of

Scots

Mary Stuart became the queen of Scotland

when she was a baby. She grew up

hoping to be queen of England, too.

Mary was born on December 8, 1542,

in Scotland. Her father was King James

V of Scotland. When he died only a few

days after her birth, she became queen.

Mary was raised as a Roman Catholic.

However, Scotland followed the Protestant

branch of Christianity. Many Scots

did not want a Catholic queen. Others

did not like the advisers she chose or her

husband, Henry Stewart, called Lord

Darnley.

In 1568 Mary fled her many enemies.

Hoping that Queen Elizabeth I would

help her, she rushed to England. But

Elizabeth did not trust Mary. She knew

that Mary had wanted to become queen

of England. To protect herself, Elizabeth

threw Mary into prison.

Mary remained in prison for the rest of

her life. She went on trial in 1586 and

was found guilty of plotting to have

Elizabeth killed. Mary was beheaded on

February 8, 1587.

#More to explore

Elizabeth I • Scotland

Mary, Queen of Scots

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mary, Queen of Scots 67

Maryland

In the 1630s King Charles I of

England gave Lord Baltimore, an

English nobleman, the right to set up a

colony in America. The new colony was

named Maryland in honor of the king’s

wife, Queen Henrietta Maria (Mary).

Maryland is nicknamed the Old Line

State. The nickname refers to Maryland’s

RevolutionaryWar troops, known

as the Maryland Line. The capital of

Maryland is Annapolis.

Geography

Maryland is bordered on the north by

Pennsylvania. Delaware and the Atlantic

Ocean are on Maryland’s eastern border.

West Virginia is on Maryland’s western

border. To the south, the Potomac River

separates Maryland fromWest Virginia

and Virginia. The District of Columbia

is on the Maryland side of the Potomac.

The district is surrounded by Maryland

on three sides.Within the district is

Washington, D.C., the country’s capital.

One of Maryland’s most notable features

is Chesapeake Bay. This large body

of salt water juts into the state from the

south. From east to west Maryland has

several different types of landscape. A

coastal plain along the water merges into

a rolling plateau. To the west of the plateau

is a section of the Blue Ridge

Mountains. The Appalachian Mountains

are located in the far west of the

state. The Cumberland Valley lies

between the two mountain ranges.

People

Today, whites of European heritage

make up about two thirds of Maryland’s

population. In the 1600s the first Europeans

to move to Maryland were mostly

from England. German-speaking farmers

from Pennsylvania moved to western

Maryland during the 1700s. In the

1800s many British, German, Irish,

Russian, Polish, Greek, Czech, and Italian

people arrived.

Maryland has a significant African

American population. African Ameri-

Modern and historic buildings line the Inner

Harbor in Baltimore, Maryland.

68 Maryland BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

cans now make up more than one fourth

of Maryland’s residents. After the

American CivilWar, former slaves from

the South moved north to Baltimore. In

Baltimore they joined a well-established

community of blacks who had been free

for several generations. People of Asian

heritage and people of Hispanic heritage

each represent about 4 percent of the

population.

Economy

Food processing is a major manufacturing

industry, as is the making of chemical

products. Leading products from

Maryland’s farms are broiler chickens

and plant products raised in greenhouses.

Farmers also grow soybeans,

corn, and wheat. Dairy goods and cattle

are important as well. Chesapeake Bay

fishermen catch blue crab, a famous

Maryland shellfish. The U.S. government

is the largest employer in Maryland.

Many government employees live

in counties nearWashington, D.C.

History

Native Americans had villages in the

area by AD 1000. Most Indians in Maryland

were Susquehanna or Algonquian.

By the mid-1700s, the majority of

Native Americans had moved farther

west.

In the early 1630s, Lord Baltimore

began planning an American colony for

English Roman Catholics. At the time

Catholics faced discrimination in

England because of their religion. The

colony was started in 1634. In 1649

Maryland passed America’s first law

regarding religious toleration. The law

granted religious freedom to all Christians

in the colony.

Many people from Maryland fought in

the American Revolution. Following

England’s defeat, Maryland became the

seventh state in the Union on April 28,

1788. In 1791 Maryland provided land

to help form the District of Columbia.

Maryland remained part of the Union

during the American CivilWar. During

that period some Marylanders owned

slaves. A few Maryland men joined the

Southern cause and fought against the

Union.

During the 1800s the state had a strong

economy and its population grew. The

state continued to grow in the 1900s.

The population more than doubled in

the 50 years from 1950 to 2000.

..More to explore

Annapolis •Washington, D.C.

A long scenic bridge crosses Chesapeake

Bay near Annapolis, Maryland. Sailboats in

the distance compete in a race. Sailing in

the bay is a popular recreational activity.

Facts About

MARYLAND

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

5,296,486—

rank, 19th state;

(2008 estimate)

5,633,597—

rank, 19th state

Capital

Annapolis

Area

12,407 sq mi

(32,133 sq km)—

rank, 42nd state

Statehood

April 28, 1788

Motto

Fatti Maschii,

Parole Femine

(Manly Deeds,

Womanly Words)

State bird

Baltimore oriole

State flower

Black-eyed Susan

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Maryland 69

Maseru

Population

(2004

estimate), urban

area, 178,300

Maseru is the capital of Lesotho, a country

in southern Africa. It is the country’s

only large city. It lies on the Caledon

River.

Maseru is a center of transportation. A

short railway connects the city with

South Africa’s railroad network. In addition,

farmers from the surrounding area

sell their crops in the city.

In the 1800s a people called the Sotho

took control of what is now Lesotho.

The chief of the Sotho, named Moshoeshoe,

founded Maseru in 1869. Great

Britain made the area a colony in 1871.

Maseru was the colony’s capital. In 1966

Lesotho became an independent country

with Maseru as its capital. Since then

the city has grown rapidly.

..More to explore

Lesotho

Massachuset

The Massachuset were Native Americans

who lived along the coast of what is now

the U.S. state of Massachusetts. The

state was named after the tribe.

The Massachuset lived in bark-covered

homes called wigwams.Wigwams were

large enough for several families. The

Massachuset grew corn, beans, and

squash. They also fished and hunted

deer and other animals.

In 1605 French explorers arrived in

Massachuset territory. The tribe welcomed

the traders who followed. But

many of the Massachuset died from

smallpox and other diseases brought by

the Europeans.

In 1646 an English pastor named John

Eliot came to live with the Massachuset.

He convinced many tribe members to

become Christians. The Christian Massachuset

moved to villages with Christian

Indians from other tribes. The

Indians in these villages became known

as Praying Indians. The most important

of the villages was Natick, near Boston.

In 1675 neighboring tribes declared war

on English settlers who were taking their

lands. This war became known as King

Philip’sWar. During the war neither

side trusted the Praying Indians. The

English raided the Praying Indians’ villages

and took some Massachuset captive.

They sold some of the captives as

slaves.

The surviving Massachuset scattered.

Many found homes among other Indian

tribes. By the 1800s the Massachuset no

longer existed as a separate tribe.

..More to explore

King Philip’sWar • Native Americans

A

Massachusetlanguage

Bible was the

first Bible ever

printed in

what is now

the United

States. It was

completed in

1663.

70 Maseru BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Massachusetts

The U.S. state of Massachusetts got its

name from the region’s local Native

Americans, the Massachuset tribe. They

lived in the Great Blue Hill region in the

southeastern part of the state. The

Native American words that make up

the name Massachuset are thought to

mean “at or about the great hill.” Massachusetts

is nicknamed the Bay State

because early settlers made their home

along Cape Cod Bay. The state capital is

the historic city of Boston.

Geography

Massachusetts is located in the northeastern

United States in a region known

as New England. The state is bordered

on the north by New Hampshire and

Vermont. New York is on the western

border of Massachusetts. Massachusetts

shares its southern border with Connecticut

and Rhode Island. The Atlantic

Ocean shapes the state’s eastern border.

Cape Cod is in the southeastern part of

the state. It is a large peninsula that juts

into the Atlantic Ocean. Several islands

are also part of Massachusetts: Martha’s

Vineyard, the Elizabeth Islands, and

Nantucket.

Massachusetts has several natural

regions. It rises from a coastal plain and

lowland in the east to a raised, flat plateau

region in the center of the state.

The Berkshire Hills region is in western

Massachusetts.

People

Whites of European heritage

account for about four fifths of the

state’s population. The earliest European

settlers in what is now Massachusetts

were the English who arrived in the early

1600s. During the mid-1800s the Irish

arrived. They fled from Ireland in order

to escape the poverty and hunger of the

Irish potato famine. Later Italians, Portuguese,

Scandinavians, Poles, and others

came to the state.

Hispanic Americans now make up the

largest minority group in Massachusetts.

Puerto Ricans represent about half of

the Hispanic population in Massachusetts.

African Americans and Asians are

the next largest minorities.

Economy

A significant part of the economy in

Massachusetts is devoted to the research

and development of new technology.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Massachusetts 71

Many high-technology companies are

located in the Boston area.

Service industries such as education and

tourism are also important to the

economy. Massachusetts is famous for its

excellent colleges and universities. These

include the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, Tufts University, and Harvard

University. The state’s many

schools employ a large number of people

as teachers and administrators. Tourism

businesses such as hotels and restaurants

also employ many people in Massachusetts.

Popular tourist areas include Boston,

the Cape Cod region, and the

Berkshires.

The state’s manufacturing businesses

make industrial machinery, electronic

equipment, medical supplies, and computer

parts. Because of the state’s poor

soil conditions, farming has never been

central to the economy.

History

Native Americans had been living in the

Massachusetts area for thousands of

years before Europeans arrived. In 1620

the first European settlers landed at Plymouth

on a ship named the Mayflower.

These settlers, called Pilgrims, were

people who had broken away from the

Church of England to form a separate

church. They established Plymouth

Colony. Another group called the Puritans

later established the larger Massachusetts

Bay Colony to the north. In

1691 the Plymouth Colony became part

of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

During the 1700s Massachusetts became

known as a trading center. As wealth

A brook winds through a wooded area of Moore State Park in Massachusetts.

72 Massachusetts BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

increased, so did the desire for selfgovernment.

Colonists resented all of

the taxes Britain made them pay. A series

of events led Britain and the colonists to

war. In 1770 British soldiers and an

angry mob clashed in an event known as

the Boston Massacre. In 1773 some

colonists dumped British tea into Boston

Harbor to protest the tea tax. This

act was known as the Boston Tea Party.

In April 1775 the “shot heard round the

world” was fired at Concord to start the

American Revolution. Massachusetts

was the site of many conflicts in this

war, including the battle of Bunker Hill.

Britain was defeated and the colonies

became independent in 1783. In 1788

Massachusetts became the sixth state to

approve the U.S. Constitution.

The state’s economy declined after the

American Revolution. It continued to

struggle until after theWar of 1812,

when textile mills and factories were

opened in Lowell. The opening of new

factories brought jobs to thousands of

workers. As a result of this new type of

business activity, Massachusetts became

the North American center of the Industrial

Revolution. The state also became a

center for literature, the arts, sciences,

and social-reform movements.

Massachusetts was strongly against slavery.

As a result, it fought on the side of

the Union during the American Civil

War (1861–65).

In the 1900s the state’s economy went

through a number of changes. The textile

and shoe industries left the state,

causing years of economic decline. The

economy improved when the electronics

and communications industries emerged

afterWorldWar II. In the late 20th century

Massachusetts became a leader of

the high-technology industry. This

revived the state’s economy.

..More to explore

American Revolution • Boston

• Industrial Revolution • Puritans

Cape Cod is a popular destination for tourists

in the summertime.

Students sit on the grass on the campus of

Harvard University, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

It is one of the top universities in

the United States. It is also the country’s

oldest school of higher learning.

Facts About

MASSACHUSETTS

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

6,349,097—

rank, 13th state;

(2008 estimate)

6,497,967—

rank, 15th state

Capital

Boston

Area

10,555 sq mi

(27,336 sq km)—

rank, 44th state

Statehood

February 6, 1788

Motto

Ense Petit

Placidam Sub

Libertate Quietem

(By the Sword We

Seek Peace, but

Peace Only

Under Liberty)

State bird

Black-capped

chickadee

State flower

Mayflower

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Massachusetts 73

Massachusetts

Bay Colony

In 1630 a group of people called Puritans

left England for North America.

The settlement they started in America

was called the Massachusetts Bay

Colony.

The Puritans were a group of Protestant

Christians with strict religious beliefs.

They disagreed with some practices of

England’s official church, the Church of

England. The English government mistreated

them because of their beliefs.

The Puritans wanted to find a place

where they could practice their religion

in peace. In 1629 King Charles I of

England gave a group of Puritans permission

to trade and settle in America.

The group was called the Massachusetts

Bay Company.

The Massachusetts Bay Company sent

more than 1,000 Puritans across the

Atlantic Ocean in 1630. They were the

first settlers of the Massachusetts Bay

Colony. Their leader was JohnWinthrop.

They set up their own government

and started several towns. Boston

was the most important town.

The Puritans did not allow people who

disagreed with their religious beliefs to

live in the colony. RogerWilliams was

one of the people who was forced to

leave. He then founded the colony of

Rhode Island.

Trouble gradually built up between

England and the Massachusetts Bay

Colony. The king had not wanted the

74 Massachusetts Bay Colony BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

colonists to govern themselves. In 1684

King Charles II put the Massachusetts

Bay Company out of business. In 1691

England created a new Massachusetts

Bay Colony by combining the old

colony with Plymouth Colony and other

lands. The new colony was controlled by

the English government.

#More to explore

Boston • Colony • Plymouth Colony

• Puritans

Massasoit

Massasoit was a chief of the Wampanoag

in the 1600s. TheWampanoag were

Native Americans who lived in what is

now Massachusetts and Rhode Island.

Massasoit is remembered for keeping

peace with the Pilgrims, a group of

English settlers who set up a colony on

his tribe’s land.

Massasoit was born in about 1590. In

1620 the Pilgrims arrived from England

and started Plymouth Colony. By that

time Massasoit was a chief. In 1621 he

visited Plymouth. He was friendly to the

Pilgrims and signed a peace treaty with

them. He encouraged his people to show

the colonists how to farm, fish, and

hunt. To thank Massasoit, the English

invited him and otherWampanoag to a

great feast. The event is now celebrated

as the first Thanksgiving.

Massasoit kept the peace until he died in

1661. But tension had started to build

up because some colonists refused to

follow his treaty. They took more and

more Indian land. In 1675 Massasoit’s

son Metacom (called King Philip by the

English) tried to drive out the colonists.

This led to a war called King Philip’s

War. The war was a disaster for the

Wampanoag. The tribe was defeated,

and most of its people were killed.

#More to explore

Metacom •Wampanoag

Mastodon and

Mammoth

Mastodons and mammoths were

elephantlike animals that roamed Earth

in large numbers thousands of years ago.

These animals later became extinct.

Where and When Mastodons

and Mammoths Lived

Mastodons were early relatives of mammoths.

They first dominated Earth

Early Native

Americans

hunted both

mammoths

and

mastodons.

An illustration shows an English

colonist visiting with Chief

Massasoit in 1621.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mastodon and Mammoth 75

about 25 million years ago. Mastodons

lived all over the world.

Mammoth remains have been found on

every continent except Australia and

South America. The animals lived sometime

between 1,800,000 and about

10,000 years ago.

Physical Features

Mastodons were shorter than modern

elephants but were more heavily built.

The legs were short, massive, and like

pillars. Mastodons were covered with

long, reddish brown hair.

In comparison, most of the mammoth

species, or types, were about as large as

modern elephants. They were about 10

to 13 feet (3 to 4 meters) tall. Mammoths

had a woolly, yellowish brown

undercoat about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters)

thick.

Study of Fossils

The bodies of many mammoths and

mastodons have survived for thousands

of years because they were trapped in

ice. These frozen remains were

eventually discovered by humans and

used for study. Early humans also made

paintings of some of the animals on the

walls of caves in Europe. The paintings

provide more clues about these wild

beasts.

Extinction

Scientists are not sure why mastodons

and mammoths died out. It may have

been because of a change in the weather

where they lived. Experts think that as

the weather got colder, thick ice sheets

covered vast areas of land. This

destroyed the grasslands on which the

animals lived and fed.

Mathematics

Mathematics, or math, is the study of

numbers and how they are related to

each other and to the real world. Math is

as important as language. In fact, people

sometimes describe math as a kind of

language. Everyone uses math every

day—to tell time, to play games, to

Mastodons were smaller than mammoths and modern elephants. Both mastodons and

mammoths had more hair than modern elephants.

76 Mathematics BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

cook, to build things, and to do almost

any kind of work.

Types of Mathematics

There are many branches of mathematics.

Some of the main ones are arithmetic,

algebra, geometry, trigonometry,

calculus, statistics, and probability.

Mathematics also may be divided into

two general areas: pure and applied.

Pure math is the study of math for its

own sake. Applied math is the study of

math for the purpose of solving real-life

problems. People use applied math to

build skyscrapers, make computers, predict

earthquakes, explain how the

economy works, and many other things.

History

People have used mathematics since

ancient times. The Egyptians could not

have built the pyramids without a very

good understanding of math, especially

arithmetic and geometry. The Babylonians

of ancient Mesopotamia (now in

Iraq) invented a complex number system

and used fractions.

The ancient Greeks greatly expanded

math with many new ideas. In about

300 BC the Greek mathematician Euclid

wrote an important book on geometry

called Elements. Later, the Arabs also

contributed greatly to math. In the AD

800s an Arab mathematician named

al-Khwarizmi described a problemsolving

system that is now known as

algebra.

The ancient Greek and Arab ideas about

math eventually spread to western

Europe. Math progressed as European

scientists used it to research other subjects.

In the 1600s the astronomer

Johannes Kepler used new mathematical

ideas to study the skies. Other scientists

in the 1600s, namely Galileo and Isaac

Children study different types of mathematics

at school. One of the first types they

learn is basic arithmetic—adding, subtracting,

multiplying, and dividing.

Workers look at the plans for a building.

The use of mathematics to construct buildings

is an example of applied math.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mathematics 77

Newton, applied math to the study of

motion. In the 1800s and 1900s scholars

developed many new ways to study

and use math.

#More to explore

Arithmetic • Geometry • Numbers and

Number Systems • Statistics

Matter

Anything that takes up space is called

matter. Air, water, rocks, and even

people are examples of matter. Different

types of matter can be described by their

mass. The mass of an object is the

amount of material that makes up the

object. A bowling ball, for example, has

more mass than a beach ball.

States of Matter

Matter exists in several different forms,

called states. The three most familiar

states are solid, liquid, and gas.

Rocks, books, desks, and balls are

examples of solids. Matter in the solid

state has a set size and shape. A solid’s

size and shape do not change easily. For

example, when a person moves a book

from a smaller to a bigger box, the book

looks the same.

Milk and water are examples of liquids.

In the liquid state, matter has a set size,

or amount. However, its shape depends

on its container. For example, milk

changes shape when a person pours it

from a carton into a glass. But the

amount of milk stays the same.

The air and the helium used to fill balloons

are examples of gases. Matter in

the gaseous state does not have either a

set size or a set shape. It can expand to

fill a large container, or it can be

squeezed into a smaller container.

Matter can change from one state to

another. For example, heat causes ice

(solid water) to melt into a liquid. Heat

also causes liquid water to evaporate, or

turn into water vapor—a gas.

Properties of Matter

All matter has physical properties. A

physical property is one that a person

can measure without changing the matter.

Color, amount, and temperature are

examples of physical properties.

All matter also has chemical properties.

A chemical property tells how matter

will change under special conditions.

For example, certain metals turn to rust

if they sit out in the rain. Paper and

wood burn to ashes if they touch a

flame. Burning and rusting are called

chemical reactions. Chemical reactions

change matter into new types of matter.

The three most familiar states of matter are

solid, liquid, and gas. Water exists in all

three states.

78 Matter BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Mauritania

Mauritania, a country inWest Africa,

lies in the huge desert called the Sahara.

Its capital is Nouakchott.

Geography

Mauritania shares borders withWestern

Sahara, Algeria, Mali, and Senegal. The

Senegal River forms part of the southern

border. The Atlantic Ocean is to the

west. Most of the land is flat. Sand

dunes cover about half of the country.

Plants and Animals

The northern part of Mauritania is a

desert with few plants. The savanna, or

grassland, in the south has baobab and

palm trees. Lions, elephants, ostriches,

and panthers live on the savanna.

People

Most of the people are Moors. These are

the descendants of Arabs and Berbers

(the original inhabitants of North

Africa). Black Africans make up the rest

of the population. The main language is

Arabic. Islam is the national religion.

More than half of the people live in cities

or towns. But many people follow a

nomadic (wandering) lifestyle.

Economy

Mining, fishing, and farming are important

parts of Mauritania’s economy. Iron

ore and fish are valuable exports. In the

early 21st century Mauritania also

started to export oil. Many of Mauritania’s

people raise sheep, goats, cattle, or

camels. Rice, millet, sorghum, beans,

and dates are major crops.

History

The first people in what is now Mauritania

were black African and Berber

peoples. Arab tribes moved into the area

in the 1400s. France set up settlements

in the 1800s. In 1920 the area became a

French colony. Mauritania gained independence

in 1960.

A woman paints the wall of her house in

Mauritania.

Facts About

MAURITANIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

3,204,000

Area

398,000 sq mi

(1,030,700 sq

km)

Capital

Nouakchott

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Nouakchott,

Nouadhibou,

Rosso, Boghe,

Adel Bagrou

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mauritania 79

Mauritius

Mauritius is a small island country off

the southeast coast of Africa. Mauritius’

capital is Port Louis.

Geography

Mauritius lies in the Indian Ocean

about 500 miles (800 kilometers) east of

Madagascar. The country includes the

large island called Mauritius as well as

several smaller islands.

Plants and Animals

Most of Mauritius’ forests were cut

down to make room for sugar plantations.

Its remaining plants include bamboo,

coconut palms, and ebony trees.

The country’s unique wildlife includes

the samber (a long-tailed deer) and the

tenrec (a spiny mammal). A large bird

called the dodo once lived in Mauritius,

but the last dodo died before 1681.

People

Most Mauritians have roots in southern

Asia. About a quarter of the people are

Creoles. Creoles have a mixture of

white, Asian, and African roots. English

and Creole are the main languages.

People follow Hinduism, Christianity, or

Islam.

Economy

Tourism and banking are important to

the economy. Factories make clothing

and sugar. Crops include sugarcane,

bananas, and vegetables.

History

In 1598 the Dutch arrived on the island.

They named it Mauritius after Maurice

of Nassau, the governor of the Netherlands.

In 1715 France took control. In

1810 Great Britain seized the island.

Mauritius gained independence in 1968.

..More to explore

Indian Ocean • Port Louis

Farmland and low mountains are common

sights in Mauritius.

Facts About

MAURITIUS

Population

(2008 estimate)

1,269,000

Area

788 sq mi (2,040

sq km)

Capital

Port Louis

Form of

government

Republic

Major urban

areas

Port Louis, Beau

Bassin-Rose Hill,

Vacoas-Phoenix,

Curepipe, Quatre

Bornes

80 Mauritius BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Mauryan Empire

Before 321 BC the region of India contained

many small kingdoms and territories.

But with the beginning of the

Mauryan Empire that year, many of

those small parts came under one ruler.

At one point the Mauryan Empire

stretched from the Himalayas in the

northeast to what is now Afghanistan in

the northwest. It also reached south,

almost to the tip of India. This unity of

territory brought progress in many areas

of Indian life, including art, trade, and

politics.

The first leader of the empire was Candra

Gupta. He founded the Maurya

dynasty, or ruling family, in 321 BC. To

expand his territory, Candra Gupta conquered

many surrounding lands. His son

Bindusara, who took the throne in 297

BC, conquered more lands to the south.

Asoka, Bindusara’s son, is the best

known of the Mauryan emperors. After

becoming a Buddhist, Asoka began writing

about his new religion. Much of this

work included rules that he expected his

people to follow. People carved many of

Asoka’s Buddhist rules on pillars and

rocks and in caves. Asoka’s religious

influence was so great that he is one of

the most famous rulers in Indian history.

The land of the Mauryan Empire was

divided into four provinces, or states.

These were further divided into districts

and villages. A prince of the royal family

governed each province.

Mauryan society was divided into seven

groups, or castes. These included philosophers,

farmers, soldiers, herdsmen,

artisans, judges, and councillors. Monks,

priests, and teachers belonged to the

philosopher caste.

A military commander assassinated the

last Mauryan emperor, Brhadratha, in

185 BC. The commander founded his

own dynasty, and the Mauryan Empire

ended.

#More to explore

Buddhism • Caste • India

Maya

The Maya are Native Americans of

Mexico and Central America. Between

about AD 250 and 900 the Maya had a

way of life that was very advanced for

the time. The Mayan civilization began

a fast decline after 900. No one knows

for sure why this happened.

After the

Mauryan

Empire ended,

the Shunga

dynasty ruled

in central

India for about

a century.

The region around Bodh Gaya, India, was

once a part of the Mauryan Empire. In the

200s BC the Mauryan emperor Asoka built

a shrine where a large Buddhist temple now

stands.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Maya 81

How the Maya Lived

The Maya lived first in villages and later

in cities. Their cities had large temples,

stone pyramids, palaces, and ball courts.

The Maya created farmland by cutting

away the trees and vines of the surrounding

rain forest. They grew corn,

beans, and squash.

The Maya created a writing system

called hieroglyphics, which used pictures

instead of words. They also studied the

planets and the stars. They used their

observations of the heavens to make a

very accurate calendar. The Maya also

developed a system of mathematics.

The Maya worshipped a number of

nature gods. These included gods of the

sun, the moon, rain, and corn. In religious

ceremonies, the Maya killed

people they had captured during battle.

They thought that the gods needed

human blood for nourishment.

History

The Maya lived in villages by about

1500 BC. By AD 200 they were living in

cities. By 900 they had built more than

40 cities. Some of the most important

cities were Tikal, Palenque, Copan, and

Bonampak. Today these cities are found

in Guatemala, Honduras, and southern

Mexico.

After 900 the number of Maya fell.

They abandoned many of their cities.

War may have been one of the causes of

this decline. In the early 1500s the

Spanish arrived in Mayan territory. The

Spanish forced the Maya to work for

them. Many Maya died from diseases

that the Spanish brought with them.

Today descendants of the Maya live in

Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize.

#More to explore

Calendar • Native Americans

May Day

May Day is a spring holiday celebrated

on May 1. Many people celebrate May

Day with festivals or flowers. One of the

Mayan buildings still stand in the ancient

city of Chichen Itza in Mexico.

Schoolchildren celebrate May Day with a

traditional maypole.

82 May Day BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

oldest May Day traditions is the maypole.

A maypole is a tree trunk or pole

decorated with colorful ribbons. On

May Day dancers hold the ribbons and

dance around the pole. In some countries

May Day is a holiday that honors

workers, similar to Labor Day. May Day

is not an official holiday in the United

States.

May Day began as a spring festival in

Europe. In ancient times and during the

Middle Ages (AD 500–1500) Europeans

welcomed the end of winter.With the

arrival of spring, they were able to grow

crops again. They celebrated with eating,

singing, and dancing. The tradition of

May Day as a workers’ holiday began in

the late 1800s.

#More to explore

Labor Day

Mayflower

In 1620 a ship called the Mayflower carried

a group of English people across the

Atlantic Ocean to North America. These

people set up the first permanent European

colony in New England at what is

now Plymouth, Massachusetts. Later

they became known as the Pilgrims.

Background

The Pilgrims were Separatists, or people

who had separated from the Church of

England. They were looking for the freedom

to practice their own strict form of

Protestant Christianity, known as Puritanism.

A group of English Separatists settled in

Holland (now The Netherlands) in

1608. They had religious freedom there,

but they did not feel at home. They

decided to go to North America, where

they could keep their English ways.

The Separatists first returned to

England on a small ship called the

Speedwell. Then they got the Mayflower

in a deal with some merchants. People

hired by the merchants also traveled on

the Mayflower. They outnumbered the

Separatists.

Voyage

The Mayflower set sail from Plymouth,

England, in September of 1620. The

captain was Christopher Jones.With

more than 100 passengers, the ship was

overcrowded. The sanitary conditions

were terrible. Many suffered from seasickness.

After 66 days, the Mayflower

An illustration shows the Mayflower sailing

across the Atlantic Ocean to North America.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mayflower 83

landed on Cape Cod, in what is now

Massachusetts, on November 21, 1620.

Arrival

While still aboard ship, the travelers

prepared an agreement called the Mayflower

Compact. In it they agreed to

govern themselves with “just & equal

laws.” All the adult males on the ship,

including the non-Separatists, signed the

compact.

The travelers stayed on the ship until the

leaders decided where to settle. Finally

in December they chose a place, which

they named Plymouth. The Mayflower

remained nearby throughout the first

winter. People stayed on it until they

built houses. The ship went back to

England in the spring of 1621.

#More to explore

Plymouth Colony • Puritans

Mays,Willie

Willie Mays was a great baseball player

known for both his batting and his fielding.

He ranks among the all-time leaders

in home runs, hits, runs scored, and

runs batted in (RBI).

Willie Howard Mays was born on May

6, 1931, inWestfield, Alabama. In 1948

he joined the Birmingham Black Barons

of the Negro National League. He was

still in high school.

In 1950 Mays graduated and signed a

contract with the New York Giants of

the National League. He played two

seasons in the minor leagues before joining

the Giants at the major league level.

Mays was named rookie of the year for

the 1951 season.

Mays missed almost all of the 1952 and

1953 seasons while serving in the U.S.

Army. He returned to baseball in 1954

and became a star. He played for the

Giants in New York and, from 1958 to

1972, in San Francisco. Mays led the

league in home runs four times. He also

led in stolen bases four times. As a center

fielder he won 12 Gold Glove awards

for outstanding defensive play. Mays

played in 24 straight All-Star games.

In 1973 Mays finished his career back in

New York as a member of the Mets. He

retired with 660 home runs, 3,283 hits,

2,062 runs scored, and 1,903 RBI. Mays

was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame

in 1979.

#More to explore

Baseball

It is believed

that the

Mayflower

made a few

voyages after

returning to

England and

was then broken

apart and

sold for wood.

Baseball player Willie Mays hits

a home run in 1964.

84 Mays, Willie BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Mbabane

Population

(2006 estimate)

78,700

Swaziland, a country in southern Africa,

has two main capitals—Mbabane and

Lobamba. Most of Swaziland’s government

offices and its High Court are in

Mbabane. The country’s lawmakers

meet in Lobamba.

Mbabane is among the larger cities in

Swaziland. It lies on the Mbabane River

within a hilly region. The city is a center

of government and business. The main

tourist center in Swaziland lies just outside

Mbabane.

Mbabane developed in the late 1800s

around the place where the Swazi king

kept his cattle. Great Britain took control

of Swaziland in the early 1900s. The

British made Mbabane the capital of

Swaziland. In 1968 Swaziland became

an independent country. Mbabane

remained the center for much of the

country’s government.

..More to explore

Swaziland

McKinley,

Mount

Mount McKinley is the highest

mountain in North America. It rises to

a height of 20,320 feet (6,194 meters).

It is located near the center of the

Alaska Range in south-central Alaska.

The mountain has two peaks, the

southern peak being the higher. The

upper two thirds of the summit is

covered year-round with snow and huge

glaciers.

The Athapaskan Indians who lived in

the region called the mountain Denali,

meaning “the high one.” In 1889 it was

named Densmores Peak after Frank

Densmore, an explorer. The mountain

was renamed Mount McKinley in 1896

A market in Mbabane overflows with local

crafts and artwork.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA McKinley, Mount 85

to honor William McKinley, who was

elected president of the United States

later that year. Climbers first reached the

northern peak in 1910 and the southern

peak in 1913. Mount McKinley is part

of Denali National Park and Preserve.

#More to explore

Alaska • Glacier • Mountain

McKinley,

William

The 25th president,William McKinley

helped make the United States into a

world power. After a war with Spain, the

United States controlled an empire

stretching from the Caribbean Sea to the

Far East.

Early Life

William McKinley was born on January

29, 1843, in Niles, Ohio. He attended

college for a few months, taught school,

and worked in a post office. During

1861–65 McKinley fought in the

American CivilWar.

After the war McKinley studied law.

McKinley married Ida Saxton in 1871.

The couple had two children, but they

both died.

Political Career

In 1876 McKinley was elected to the

U.S. House of Representatives. He

served for six terms. From 1892 to 1896

McKinley was the governor of Ohio.

In 1896 the Republican Party chose

McKinley to run for president. After

defeating his opponent,William Jennings

Bryan, McKinley became president

on March 4, 1897.

Presidency

During McKinley’s presidency many

people wanted the United States to help

Cuba gain independence from Spain.

Congress declared war in April 1898.

The United States easily defeated the

Spanish forces in a few months. The

Mount McKinley rises high above Denali

National Park in Alaska.

William McKinley was the 25th president of

the United States.

86 McKinley, William BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Spanish-AmericanWar ended with a

treaty that gave Puerto Rico, Guam, and

the Philippines to the United States.

Cuba became independent.

The successful war and a good economy

made McKinley very popular. He won

reelection in 1900. Theodore Roosevelt

became vice president. (McKinley’s first

vice president, Garret A. Hobart, had

died.) During McKinley’s second term,

he proposed trade agreements with other

countries to lower the taxes charged on

each other’s goods.

Assassination

In 1901 McKinley attended the Pan-

American Exposition in Buffalo, New

York. While the president was meeting

with the public, a man in the crowd shot

him in the chest and stomach. The

shooter was an anarchist—a person who

believes that all government is unnecessary.

McKinley was rushed to a nearby

hospital, but doctors could not save

him. The president died eight days later,

on September 14, 1901.

#More to explore

Roosevelt, Theodore • Spanish-

AmericanWar • United States

Measles

Measles is a disease that is caused by a

germ called a virus. Children get

measles most often, but adults can get

it, too. Adults tend to have more severe

cases.

Measles spreads very easily from person

to person. When a person with measles

coughs or sneezes, the virus spreads into

the air. People who breathe in the virus

are infected.

The first symptoms, or signs, of measles

appear about 10 days after a person is

infected with the virus. At first measles

is like a severe cold. The infected person

January 29, April 25,

1843 1876 1892 1896 1898 1900 1901

McKinley

is born in

Niles, Ohio.

McKinley is

elected to the

U.S. House of

Representatives.

McKinley

becomes

governor of

Ohio.

McKinley is

elected

president.

Congress

declares war

on Spain.

McKinley is

reelected.

McKinley is

killed; Theodore

Roosevelt

becomes

president.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Measles 87

has a runny nose, a fever, and red,

watery eyes. Then bluish white spots

appear on the insides of the cheeks. The

fever gets higher, and a red rash appears

on the face and behind the ears. The

rash then spreads to the rest of the body.

Measles usually goes away after a few

days. In some people, however, it can

lead to more serious health problems.

These include pneumonia and encephalitis,

or swelling of the brain.

There is no drug to fight measles. A

person with the disease must get plenty

of rest and drink a lot of fluids. People

can prevent measles by getting a shot of

a substance called a vaccine. The vaccine

protects the body from the measles

virus.

#More to explore

Vaccine • Virus

Measurement

Length, volume, and weight are

examples of measurements. People use

measurements every day at home, at

work, and in school.

In order to be accurate, all measurements

must make a comparison with

something called a standard. A standard

is a quantity, or amount, that everyone

agrees on. For example, everyone agrees

that 1 pound is a certain amount of

weight. So, 2 pounds equal twice that

amount, 3 pounds equal three times that

amount, and so on. There are different

standards for measuring length, volume,

area, and many other things.

Units are the names used for different

standards. For example, a pound is a

Before the late 1960s, nearly

every child got measles.

A cylinder that weighs exactly 1 kilogram is

kept by the International Bureau of Weights

and Measures in Paris, France. The kilogram

is a unit of weight in the metric system

of measurement.

88 Measurement BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

unit of weight. Units may also be

divided into smaller units. For example,

a foot is a unit of length that may be

divided into 12 smaller units, called

inches. Measuring instruments, such as

scales and rulers, are marked with these

units.

All standards belong to a particular system

of measurement. Throughout history,

people have come up with many

systems of measurement. Each system

has its own set of standards. That is,

each has a different way of measuring.

Pounds and kilograms are both units of

weight, but each belongs to a different

system. Therefore a box that weighs 2.2

pounds in one system weighs 1 kilogram

in another. The two most widely used

systems are the English system and the

metric system.

English System

The system of measurement most

commonly used in the United States is

based on the English system. This

system developed in England, and

English settlers brought it to the

American colonies.

In this system the inch is a unit of

length. There are 12 inches in 1 foot and

5,280 feet in 1 mile. The cup is a unit of

volume (used to measure liquids). There

Some Metric Prefixes

Prefix Name Equal to Examples

mega million 1,000,000 One megabyte equals one million bytes. (A byte is a

unit of measurement for computer storage space.)

kilo thousand 1,000 One kiloliter is equal to one thousand liters.

hecto hundred 100 One hectogram is equal to one hundred grams.

deka (also ten 10 One decameter is equal to ten meters.

spelled deca)

deci tenth 0.1 One deciliter is equal to one tenth of a liter.

centi hundredth 0.01 One centimeter is equal to one hundredth of a meter.

milli thousandth 0.001 One millisecond is equal to one thousandth of a second.

micro millionth 0.000001 One microgram is equal to one millionth of a gram.

Note: To convert from one metric measurement to another, simply move the decimal point in the measurement

being converted. For example, to convert millimeters to centimeters, move the decimal point over one place to

the left. 27 millimeters is equal to 2.7 centimeters. To convert kilograms to decigrams, move the decimal point

four places to the right. 3.3 kilograms is equal to 33,000 decigrams.

Some Basic Measures in the

U.S. Measurement System

Length

12 inches = 1 foot

3 feet = 1 yard

5,280 feet = 1 mile

Weight

16 ounces = 1 pound

2,000 pounds = 1 ton

Liquid Volume

16 fluid ounces = 1 pint

2 pints = 1 quart

4 quarts = 1 gallon

Area

640 acres = 1 square mile

Cooking

3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon

2 tablespoons = 1 fluid ounce

8 fluid ounces = 1 cup

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Measurement 89

are 2 cups in 1 pint, 2 pints in 1 quart,

and 4 quarts in 1 gallon. The ounce is a

unit of weight. There are 16 ounces in 1

pound and 2,000 pounds in 1 ton.

Many of the names for these units come

from the fact that, at first, people used

everyday objects to measure things. The

length of a person’s foot was used to

measure short distances. A household

cup might be used to measure liquids.

But without standards, these measurements

were not the same for everyone.

Eventually people set standards, and the

English system became the first worldwide

system of measurement.

Metric System

In the 1790s France developed the metric

system of measurement. By the

middle of the 1900s most countries had

adopted this system. In the metric system,

each kind of measurement has one

basic unit. The meter is the basic unit of

length, the gram is the unit of weight,

and the liter is the unit of volume. Each

unit is divided into smaller units or

combined into larger units by multiples

of 10.

Standard prefixes, or parts of words, are

added to the beginning of the basic unit

to tell how many multiples of 10 are in a

unit. For example, “kilo-” means “thousand”

so there are 1,000 meters in 1

kilometer. And “centi-” means “1/100” so

1 meter is equal to 100 centimeters.

Mecca

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area,

1,385,000

Mecca is a city in Saudi Arabia, a country

in the Middle East. The city was the

birthplace of Muhammad, the founder

of Islam. Muslims all over the world

turn toward Mecca to pray five times

each day. It is the world’s holiest city to

Muslims. Because of that, only Muslims

are allowed to enter Mecca.

Every Muslim who is able to must make

a religious journey, or pilgrimage, to

Mecca at least once. The pilgrims visit

the Great Mosque. In the mosque’s

courtyard is the holy Ka!bah, a small

Some Conversions Between U.S.

and Metric Measurements

Length

1 inch = 2.54 centimeters

1 foot = 0.3048 meter

1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers

1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch

1 meter = 3.2808 feet

1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile

Liquid Volume

1 quart = 0.9463 liter

1 gallon = 3.785 liters

1 liter = 1.0567 quarts

1 liter = 0.2642 gallon

Weight

1 pound = 0.45359 kilogram

1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds

90 Mecca BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

building that contains the Black Stone

of Mecca. Legend says that the stone was

given to Adam, the first man, when he

was forced to leave paradise. Pilgrims

walk around the Ka!bah seven times.

They also touch or kiss the Black Stone.

The millions of pilgrims who visit

Mecca each year are important to the

city’s economy. Many city residents

work at jobs providing food, housing,

and other services to the pilgrims.

In ancient times Mecca lay on a major

trade route. Muhammad was born in the

city in about AD 570. He was forced to

leave in 622, but he returned in 630 and

took control of the city. He declared

Mecca a place of Muslim pilgrimage.

Mecca was part of the Turkish Ottoman

Empire for hundreds of years, from

1517 to 1918. A little later the city

became part of Saudi Arabia.

#More to explore

Islam • Muhammad • Pilgrimage

• Saudi Arabia

Medici Family

The Medici were a wealthy and powerful

family of Italian bankers and merchants.

Their power was at its height in

the 1400s and 1500s, when they ruled

the city of Florence, Italy. They eventually

ruled the surrounding region of

Tuscany, too.

The Medici held important positions in

Florence’s government. They also were

the bankers of the pope, the leader of

Roman Catholicism. Several popes came

from the Medici family. Two Medici

women—Catherine de Medicis and

Marie de Medicis—became queens of

France.

The Medici used their vast wealth to

keep their political power. They also

spent their money on architecture and

the arts. Some of the world’s greatest

buildings, statues, and paintings once

belonged to the Medici.

Hundreds of thousands of pilgrims gather at

the Great Mosque in Mecca.

Several paintings by the famous artist Peter

Paul Rubens show events from the life of

Marie de Medicis. Marie was a member of

the Medici family who became queen of

France.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Medici Family 91

Cosimo de’ Medici

Born in 1389, Cosimo de’ Medici was

the first Medici to gain power in Florence.

He helped to bring the ideas of

ancient Greece to Florence. These Greek

ideas became popular and helped to fuel

the Renaissance, an important period for

the arts and sciences. Cosimo also collected

works by important artists,

including Donatello and Fra Angelico.

Cosimo died in 1464.

Lorenzo de’ Medici

Lorenzo de’ Medici was born in 1449.

As his power grew, he became known as

Lorenzo the Magnificent. Lorenzo’s

daughter married a son of Pope Innocent

VIII. (The son was born before

Innocent became a priest.) This marriage

gave the Medici almost complete

control over Florence and Rome.

Lorenzo founded an academy for artists

in Florence. He supported the artists

Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

Lorenzo was also a poet. He added hundreds

of works to the family library.

Lorenzo died in 1492.

Pope Leo X

Lorenzo’s son Giovanni was born in

1475. In 1513 he was elected pope. He

took the name Leo X.

Pope Leo brought in artists and architects

to work on the Vatican Palace (the

pope’s home) and Saint Peter’s Basilica

(a huge church) in Rome. Among the

artists Leo hired were Raphael and

Michelangelo. Leo died in 1521.

The Last Medici

Over time the power of the Medici

weakened. In 1743 Cosimo de’ Medici’s

great-great-great-granddaughter, Anna

Maria Luisa, died. She was the last of

the family. Her will gave the Medici art

collection to Florence and Tuscany.

Many of the Medici treasures remain in

Florence for all to see.

#More to explore

Italy • Pope • Renaissance

Medicine

Medicine is the science of keeping

people healthy and healing the sick.

Humans have practiced forms of medicine

for thousands of years. Today specially

trained people called physicians, or

doctors, practice medicine.

Doctors

There are many parts to a doctor’s job.

Doctors first need to identify what is

Three children

of Catherine

de Medicis

and the French

king Henry II

also became

kings of

France—

Francis II,

Charles IX,

and Henry III.

Young children need frequent check-ups to

make sure that they are healthy and growing

well. Doctors who specialize in treating

children are called pediatricians.

92 Medicine BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

making a person sick. Then they decide

on a treatment. They also predict when

the patient will feel better. In addition,

doctors try to prevent illnesses. When

treating patients, doctors work with

many other people, including nurses,

therapists, and physician assistants.

Becoming a doctor involves years of

education and training. Medical students

first graduate from college. Then

they spend three to four years in medical

school. Students usually earn a Doctor

of Medicine degree in medical school.

After medical school, most graduates

enter a residency, which is a training

program usually in a hospital. During a

residency, experienced doctors train the

new doctors for three to seven years.

During this time, new doctors can specialize

in a particular type of medicine in

such areas as internal medicine or surgery.

Finally, new doctors must pass a

test to get a license to practice medicine.

History

The ancient Greek doctor Hippocrates is

considered the Father of Medicine. He

treated medicine as a science. He made

detailed observations of his patients and

thought that diseases had a physical

cause. Before that people had thought

that diseases were caused by the gods or

evil spirits. Another important ancient

doctor was Galen of Pergamum, in the

Roman Empire. He wrote many works

about the human body.

In about AD 1000 a doctor from Iran

named Avicenna wrote an important

medical book. Doctors in the Middle

East and Europe followed the teachings

of this book for centuries.

From the 1500s to the 1700s Europeans

used science to make many medical discoveries.

By the late 1700s an English

doctor discovered vaccines. These are

substances that can prevent disease.

Doctors in the 1800s began to use

stethoscopes, X-rays, and many other

helpful devices. They learned how germs

cause disease. They also learned that

cleaning hands and medical instruments

helps to kill germs.

In the 1900s scientists developed vaccines

to prevent many diseases and drugs

to treat many others. Doctors transplanted

organs from one person into

another. They used many machines to

help them to identify and treat diseases.

They also learned how good nutrition

helps people to stay healthy.

Today doctors have many ways to help

patients heal. But there are still many

Two surgeons look at X-rays of a patient’s

body. Surgeons are doctors who perform

surgery, or operations.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Medicine 93

unanswered questions in medicine. For

example, scientists are still searching for

cures for cancer, AIDS, and many other

diseases.

..More to explore

Disease, Human • Drug • Hospital

• Nursing • Surgery • Transplant

• Vaccine • X-rays

Mediterranean

Sea

The Mediterranean is a large sea that

separates Europe from Africa. It

stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the

west to Asia in the east. Many early civilizations

developed in the Mediterranean

region.

Geography

The Mediterranean Sea covers about

970,000 square miles (2,510,000 square

kilometers). In the west a narrow waterway

called the Strait of Gibraltar connects

the Mediterranean with the

Atlantic Ocean. The Dardanelles Strait,

the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus

Strait connect the Mediterranean to the

Black Sea in the northeast. In the southeast

the Suez Canal links the Mediterranean

to the Red Sea. The large islands of

the Mediterranean include Corsica, Sardinia,

Sicily, Crete, and Cyprus. The

region has mild, wet winters and hot,

dry summers.

Some parts of the Mediterranean have

their own names. For example, the

Aegean Sea lies between Greece and

Turkey. The Adriatic Sea separates Italy

from the Balkan Peninsula.

Economy

Tourism is a major source of money for

many countries around the Mediterranean.

Tuna, sardines, and anchovies are

valuable fish catches. Some Mediterranean

countries produce petroleum (oil)

and natural gas.

History

The Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the

Greeks, and other peoples created great

civilizations in the Mediterranean region

in ancient times. They sailed across the

sea to trade with other peoples. They

also used the sea as a route to expand

their territories. The Romans did this for

almost 1,000 years, beginning in about

Italy’s Amalfi coast looks out onto the Mediterranean

Sea.

94 Mediterranean Sea BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

500 BC. They called the Mediterranean

Sea Mare Nostrum, which means “our

sea.” Beginning in the AD 600s Muslim

Arabs began to move from Arabia into

North Africa and Spain. In the centuries

that followed, the sea continued to serve

as a trading route for all the people of

the region.

#More to explore

Adriatic Sea • Aegean Sea • Atlantic

Ocean • Suez Canal

Meiji

The emperor Meiji ruled Japan from

1867 until 1912. When his reign began,

Japan was a simple country that kept

itself apart from other countries. By the

time it ended, Japan was a modern

world power.

Meiji was born on November 3, 1852,

in Kyoto, Japan. His original name was

Sachi No Miya. He was the son of the

emperor Komei. As a child, Meiji was

called Mutsuhito. At his coronation

(crowning ceremony) in 1868, he took

the name Meiji, which means “enlightened

government.”

At the time when Meiji became emperor

Japan was undergoing major changes. In

1854 Japan had opened its borders to

the rest of the world for the first time in

250 years. Many leaders and citizens

began calling for change.

At the beginning of Meiji’s rule, Japan’s

shoguns (mighty warlords) fell from

power. They had controlled the country

for hundreds of years. Under Meiji,

however, the emperor became the head

of the government.

During his reign Meiji approved many

more changes. He made powerful

landowners turn over their land to

farmers. He ordered a new school

system. He also ordered a modern

system of government. A new

constitution went into effect in 1889.

The Japanese Diet, a national assembly,

first met in 1890.

In addition, Meiji pushed for a modern

army and navy to replace Japan’s traditional

warriors, the samurai. During

Meiji’s reign, Japan won wars with

China and Russia.

Unlike earlier emperors, Meiji allowed

the common people to see him. He also

woreWestern clothing. Meiji died in

Tokyo, Japan, on July 30, 1912.

#More to explore

Japan

A priest of the Japanese religion called

Shinto blesses children during a festival at

the Meiji Shrine. The Meiji Shrine in Tokyo,

Japan, was built to honor Emperor Meiji.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Meiji 95

Mekong River

The Mekong is the longest river in

Southeast Asia. It flows for about 2,700

miles (4,350 kilometers) through China,

Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

The Mekong begins at a height of more

than 16,000 feet (4,900 meters) in the

mountains of Tibet. At first it flows very

swiftly through the rugged land of

southwestern China. Later in its course

the river becomes calmer and wider. It

forms the boundary between Laos and

Myanmar and part of the boundary

between Laos and Thailand.

Near Phnom Penh, Cambodia, the

Mekong is linked to the Tonle Sap, or

the Great Lake. During the rainy season

the river’s swollen waters back up into

the Tonle Sap. South of Phnom Penh,

the Mekong flows through Vietnam. It

eventually empties into the South China

Sea south of Ho Chi Minh City.

The Mekong creates a huge delta, or

triangular piece of land, in southern

Vietnam. The delta has rich soil and is

one of the world’s great producers of

rice. Farmers are able to grow rice even

during the dry season because they can

use the Mekong’s waters to irrigate, or

water, their fields.

#More to explore

Delta • Irrigation • River

Melon

Melons are sweet fruits. They have a

fragrant, juicy inside that is usually eaten

fresh. Melons are a good source of vitamins

A and C. Common melons

include cantaloupe, honeydew, and

casaba. Melons are related to gourds,

cucumbers, pumpkins, and squashes.

Watermelons also are related, but they

are not considered true melons.

Melons originally grew in central Asia.

Today people grow them in warm areas

throughout the world. Melon plants are

annuals. This means that they last for

only one growing season. They must be

replanted the following year.

A woman rows a boat in the Mekong delta

region of Vietnam.

96 Mekong River BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Melon plants are vines that are 7 to 8

feet (2.1 to 2.4 meters) long. The leaves

are large and usually rounded. The flowers

are yellow and shaped like a bell.

They are about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters)

across. The fruits differ in size, shape,

texture, color, and flavor. They weigh

about 2 to 9 pounds (1 to 4 kilograms).

Melon plants need a lot of water.

All melons have hard rinds, or skins,

that protect the fleshy inside, called the

pulp. The pulp can be white, green, or

orange. Many seeds grow in the middle

of the pulp. People sometimes dry the

seeds and eat them as snacks or use them

in cooking. A melon must be ripe before

it is picked.

#More to explore

Fruit

Memorial Day

In the United States, Memorial Day

honors the memory of soldiers who died

in the nation’s wars. The holiday falls on

the last Monday in May. On Memorial

Day, Americans attend parades, church

services, and other social events. People

also decorate soldiers’ graves with flowers

and flags. The president of the

United States often visits the Tomb of

the Unknowns at Arlington National

Cemetery. The tomb honors unknown

American soldiers who fought for their

nation.

Memorial Day began in about 1866,

after the American CivilWar. People

wanted to honor the soldiers who had

died in that war’s battles.Women’s

groups began laying flowers on soldiers’

graves. Because the day included decorating

graves, it was originally called

Decoration Day. AfterWorldWar I

(1914–18) the name of the holiday was

changed from Decoration Day to

Melons, including cantaloupe and honeydew,

are healthy and tasty fruits. Watermelons

are related to these fruits, but they are

not true melons.

People visit a World War II memorial in

Washington, D.C., on Memorial Day.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Memorial Day 97

Memorial Day. For many, the holiday

also signals the beginning of summer.

#More to explore

American CivilWar •WorldWar I

Memory

Memory is the process of storing experiences

in the brain and recalling them

later. People use their memories during

every moment of their lives. They must

remember words and ideas to speak or

to write. Even to walk or to eat, people

remember the movements they learned

as children.

Scientists know that memories cause

chemical changes in the neurons (nerve

cells) in the brain. The chemical changes

create what are called memory paths.

These paths can remain in the brain for

seconds or for a person’s entire life.

Levels of Memory

Many scientists believe that there are

two levels of memory. One level is shortterm

memory, or working memory. The

other level is long-term memory, or permanent

memory.

Short-term memory is a way to store

information temporarily. It lasts about

15 to 30 seconds. An example is keeping

a telephone number in mind after looking

it up and while dialing.

Long-term memory is the storage of

information for longer periods. It can

last days, months, years, or a lifetime.

Repeating and practicing motions or

tasks help the brain to store information

for a long time. If a person dials a telephone

number many times, the number

will move from short-term to long-term

memory.

Types of Memory

Scientists also think that there are different

types of memory. These include

motor-skill, factual, and emotional

memory.

Motor-skill memory tells people how to

do physical things that they have done

before. It can be short-term or longterm.

People use motor-skill memory to

copy a dance step and to ride a bicycle.

Factual memory is the storage of facts. It

can be short-term or long-term. Factual

memory lets people remember faces,

numbers, and the experiences that happen

to them.

Emotional memory is the memory of

emotions. It is long-term. For example,

people tend to remember very frightening

experiences throughout their lives.

Some scientists think this happens so

Looking at family photographs can bring

back happy memories.

Some people

can memorize

what an object

looks like after

only a glance.

This is called

having a

photographic

memory.

98 Memory BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

that people are prepared for problems in

the future.

Remembering

People can pull out information stored

in memory through either recall or recognition.

Recall means that someone

can remember something learned earlier.

Recognition is the ability to identify

something that has been seen or experienced

before. Recognition is easier than

recall. It may be easy to recognize a person’s

face, but it is more difficult to

recall the person’s name.

Patterns are also easier to remember than

random information. For example, it is

easier to remember a poem that rhymes

than one that does not.

Forgetting

Being unable to remember things is

called forgetting. A major reason for

forgetting is the passage of time. People

also tend to forget things that they do

not practice or review. Sometimes a disease

or an injury to the brain can cause

people to forget.

In general, people do not like to forget.

But forgetting serves some important

purposes. The brain forgets information

that it no longer needs. Then it may be

open to learning new information. Forgetting

can also help people to survive

painful experiences.

#More to explore

Brain

Meningitis

Meningitis is a disease that involves the

membranes, or thin coverings, around

the brain and the spine. Meningitis is

the inflammation, or swelling, of these

membranes. Germs called viruses and

bacteria can cause meningitis.

Common symptoms of meningitis are a

high fever, a headache, and a stiff neck.

People with meningitis also may be tired

and have a rash.

Viral meningitis, or meningitis caused

by a virus, is usually mild. It often goes

away without medical treatment. Bacterial

meningitis, or meningitis caused by

bacteria, is usually very serious. If not

treated right away, bacterial meningitis

can cause brain damage, deafness, or

death.

The viruses and bacteria that cause meningitis

spread easily between people.

They can be passed through touching,

coughing, or kissing. However, not

everyone in contact with the viruses or

Learning to ride a bicycle involves remembering

the movements needed to balance,

steer, and pedal.

The loss of the

ability to

remember is

called

amnesia.

Amnesia is

usually caused

by injury or

disease.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Meningitis 99

bacteria gets meningitis. Young children

and people who are already sick are

more likely to get the disease.

There are vaccines, or shots, that can

prevent bacterial meningitis. Frequent

hand washing also can help to prevent

infection by the viruses and bacteria that

cause meningitis.

If a person has meningitis, doctors need

to find out the cause. They do this by

taking fluid from the spine and testing

it. People with bacterial meningitis

receive a medicine called an antibiotic.

With quick treatment, they usually

recover. Most people with viral meningitis

just need to rest. After several days,

they usually feel better.

#More to explore

Bacteria • Disease, Human • Vaccine

• Virus

Mental Illness

When people have a mental illness, or

disorder, they cannot control certain

feelings, thoughts, or actions. Those

unusual feelings, thoughts, or actions

often cause problems in their daily life.

Some mental disorders are mild and

may go away on their own. Others are

serious illnesses that require medical

treatment.

Types of Mental Illness

Anxiety Disorders

People with anxiety disorders often

become afraid, even in safe situations.

They may feel helpless, dizzy, or short

of breath. Sometimes the fear happens

for no reason. In other cases the fear is

due to a specific thing—for example,

heights, crowds, or closed spaces.

Anxiety about a specific thing is called a

phobia.

Psychotic Disorders

People with psychotic disorders confuse

real life with fantasy. They may see or

hear things that are not there. They may

believe that they are someone else.

Schizophrenia is an example of a psychotic

disorder. People with schizophrenia

do not react in usual ways to

conversations or events.

Mood Disorders

People with mood disorders suffer from

depression (extreme sadness) or mania

(extreme excitement).With depression,

people feel sad, hopeless, and tired for

an unusually long time.With mania,

people feel extremely happy, confident,

and energetic. They are often too excited

People with a mental illness may not be

able to control their feelings.

In the

Middle Ages

(AD 500 to

1500) people

thought evil

spirits caused

mental illness.

100 Mental Illness BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

to think clearly, however, and may make

poor decisions.

Mental Disorders in Children

Some mental disorders can begin during

childhood or adolescence (the teenage

years). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity

disorder (ADHD) is the most common

one. Children with ADHD may have

trouble paying attention in class. They

may find it difficult to stay seated for

long. ADHD is more common in boys

than in girls.

Eating disorders—including anorexia

and bulimia—are serious mental illnesses

that usually start during adolescence.

People with eating disorders,

usually girls, have a strong fear of gaining

weight. They often think they are fat

when they are really thin. People with

anorexia eat very little food. People with

bulimia eat a lot of food and then make

themselves throw up. Eating disorders

can cause physical problems and even

death.

Causes

Mental illness may be caused by

chemical problems in the brain,

genetics, environmental factors, or a

combination of these things. For

example, chemical problems in the

brain may cause mood disorders or

schizophrenia. Genetics may also be

responsible, however: children whose

parents have schizophrenia or

depression are more likely to have those

disorders. Environmental factors—such

as child abuse or extreme stress—may

add to the likelihood of mental illness.

For many mental illnesses, the exact

causes are unknown.

Treatment

Psychiatrists are medical doctors who

treat the mentally ill. Psychiatrists may

prescribe medication to reduce the

symptoms of some mental disorders.

Some medications are very effective.

They allow patients to resume normal

lives.

Psychotherapy (often called simply

therapy) is another effective treatment

for many mental disorders. During

therapy, patients talk about their feelings

and behaviors with a therapist. Therapists

include psychiatrists, psychologists,

social workers, and counselors. Therapists

help people learn to control the

symptoms of their mental disorder.

Mercury

Mercury is one of the planets that orbit,

or travel around, the sun in the solar

system. It is the closest planet to the sun.

Children who survived a terrible storm in

Indonesia do art therapy. Art therapy can

help children to deal with stress. If not

treated, extreme stress can cause some

types of mental illness.

Austrian

doctor

Sigmund Freud

helped

develop “the

talking cure.”

Patients talk

about their

feelings and

actions with a

therapist.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mercury 101

Its orbit, or path, is between the sun and

the orbit of the planet Venus. Mercury’s

average distance from the sun is about

36 million miles (58 million kilometers).

It travels around the sun at a faster

speed than any other planet.

Physical Features

Mercury is the smallest planet of the

solar system. It is less than half the size

of Earth. Mercury’s diameter, or

distance through its center, is about

3,000 miles (4,900 kilometers). It is a

solid, rocky planet. Mercury is very

heavy for its size. This is because it has

a huge core, or center, made of iron.

Mercury’s landscape includes flat plains

and long, steep cliffs. Its surface is

scarred by pits called craters. The

craters form when chunks of rock or

metal called meteorites hit Mercury.

Some parts of the surface have many

craters, while other parts are very

smooth.

A thin atmosphere, or layer of gases,

surrounds Mercury. It does not keep in

heat well. Mercury has daytime temperatures

of about 755° F (400° C).

However, the temperature may fall to

about .280° F (.173° C) before dawn.

Orbit and Spin

Like all planets, Mercury has two types

of motion: orbit and spin. Mercury

orbits, or travels around, the sun very

quickly. It orbits at an average rate of

about 30 miles (48 kilometers) per second.

Mercury completes one orbit

around the sun every 88 Earth days. In

other words, one year on Mercury lasts

88 Earth days.

On the other hand, Mercury spins very

slowly. The planet takes nearly 59 Earth

days to rotate once about its center.

This combination of a fast orbit and a

slow spin leads to an unusual situation.

A day on Mercury—the time it takes for

the sun to appear straight overhead, to

set, and then to rise straight overhead

again—lasts about 176 Earth days. So

on Mercury a “day” is longer than a

“year.”

Observation and Exploration

Mercury is so close to the sun that it is

difficult to see it well from Earth. Much

of the information known about Mercury

came from Mariner 10, the first

spacecraft to visit the planet. The

unmanned U.S. craft flew by Mercury

in the 1970s. The United States

A picture taken from a spacecraft

shows the cratered surface

of Mercury.

102 Mercury BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

launched a second unmanned craft,

called Messenger, to Mercury in 2004.

#More to explore

Meteor and Meteorite • Planets • Solar

System • Space Exploration • Sun

Mercury, god

#see Hermes.

Meredith, James

James Meredith was a leader of the civil

rights movement. In 1962 he became

the first African American student at the

University of Mississippi. His struggle to

enter the school made him famous

throughout the United States.

James Howard Meredith was born on

June 25, 1933, in Kosciusko, Mississippi.

From 1951 to 1960 he served in

the U.S. Air Force. Then he entered

Jackson State College, in Jackson, Mississippi.

At that time all schools in Mississippi

were segregated by race. This

meant that black and white students

went to separate schools. Jackson State

College had only black students.

In 1961 Meredith applied to the allwhite

University of Mississippi. It

rejected him twice. Meredith then asked

the National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People

(NAACP) to file a lawsuit against the

school. In 1962 the U.S. Supreme Court

ordered the school to admit Meredith.

But the governor of Mississippi still tried

to stop Meredith from attending the

school. Violence broke out among

people who wanted to keep Meredith

out. President John F. Kennedy sent

thousands of U.S. soldiers to help

Meredith enter the school. Some soldiers

stayed to protect Meredith until he

graduated in 1963.

Meredith later earned a law degree from

Columbia University in New York City.

In 1966 he led a march through the

South to encourage African Americans

to vote. During the march he was shot,

but he recovered. In later years Meredith

turned away from the civil rights movement.

#More to explore

Civil Rights Movement • National

Association for the Advancement of

Colored People

Meredith’s

1966 march

was called the

“March

Against Fear.”

Civil rights leader James Meredith is pictured

at the University of Mississippi.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Meredith, James 103

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia is a Greek name that

means “land between the rivers.” It

describes an ancient region between the

Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the

Middle East. Some of the world’s first

civilizations developed in Mesopotamia.

Today the region is part of Iraq.

Sumer and Akkad

The earliest known civilization started in

southern Mesopotamia in about 4500

BC. It was called Sumer. The people of

Sumer found that the soil was good for

growing crops. Because there was little

rain, the people built irrigation systems

to carry water from the rivers to their

fields. After 4000 BC the world’s first

cities began in Sumer. Sumerian cities

included Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Lagash. In

about 3000 BC the Sumerians created

the world’s first writing system, called

cuneiform.

North of Sumer was the region called

Akkad. Beginning in about 2350 BC an

Akkadian ruler named Sargon conquered

Sumer and much of the rest of

Mesopotamia. This was the world’s first

empire.

Babylonia and Assyria

In about 1900 BC people called the

Amorites conquered all of Mesopotamia.

Under their rule Babylon became the

most important city in Mesopotamia.

Because the city was so powerful, the

whole region became known as Babylonia.

The most important Babylonian

king was Hammurabi. He is famous for

a set of laws made during his reign.

Babylonia began to lose strength after

about 1600 BC. The next major power

in Mesopotamia was Assyria. In the

1300s BC the Assyrians began to build

an empire in northern Mesopotamia and

beyond. In 671 BC the Assyrians

expanded their rule all the way to Egypt.

The Assyrian Empire ended in about

609 BC.

After the fall of Assyria, people called

the Chaldeans created a new Babylonian

empire. In 539 BC invaders from Persia

conquered the Chaldeans. The conqueror

Alexander the Great defeated the

Persians in about 330 BC. Then Mesopotamia

was ruled in turn by the

Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks. In

1921 Mesopotamia became the kingdom

of Iraq.

#More to explore

Civilization • Iraq •Writing

Metacom

Metacom was the leader of the

Wampanoag, a group of Native Americans.

TheWampanoag traditionally

lived in what are now Rhode Island and

Massachusetts. The English called Meta-

104 Mesopotamia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

com King Philip. Metacom is best

known for his role in King Philip’sWar,

an uprising against English settlers.

In about 1620 English settlers began

occupying theWampanoag’s land. These

settlers were the Pilgrims of the Plymouth

Colony. Metacom’s father, Massasoit,

was the chief of theWampanoag

at the time. Massasoit kept peace with

the newcomers until his death in 1661.

Metacom became chief in 1662. By this

time many new settlers were arriving.

They wanted to take increasing amounts

of theWampanoag’s land without paying

for it.

This caused Metacom to ask other tribes

to help him fight the English. The battle

came to be known as King Philip’sWar.

Metacom proved to be an able military

leader, but after a year of fighting the

Indian alliance began to fall apart. Metacom

fled to what is now Rhode Island.

On August 12, 1676, he was killed by

an Indian who was fighting on the

English side.

#More to explore

King Philip’sWar • Massasoit • Native

Americans • Plymouth Colony

•Wampanoag

Metal

Metals are a large family of more than

70 chemical elements. Chemical elements

are the basic substances that make

up the universe. People use metals to

make countless things, from toasters to

skyscraper buildings.

What Metals Are Like

Metals are usually easy to recognize.

Every metal except mercury is solid at

room temperature. (Mercury is liquid.)

Most metals are gray in color and shiny

in appearance. Many metals are quite

hard. Metals can be stretched into wire

or rolled into sheets. Many metals conduct,

or carry, electricity well.

Where Metals Are Found

Living things have certain metals within

some of their cells. But the metals that

people use to make things are found in

Earth’s crust. Only gold and a few other

metals can be found in pure form. Most

metals are always found in the form of

chemical compounds. (Chemical compounds

are mixtures of two or more

Ancient

peoples used

the metals

bronze and

iron to make

tools and

weapons.

An illustration shows Metacom,

who led the Wampanoag

against settlers in King Philip’s

War. It was one of the deadliest

wars between settlers and Native

Americans.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Metal 105

chemical elements.) A rock that contains

a metallic chemical compound is called

an ore.

Extracting Metals

Metallurgy is the science of separating

metals from ore and then working with

the metals. The first step in producing a

metal is to crush the ore into small

pieces. The next step is to purify, or

clean, the ore.

Metallurgists then take apart the

chemical compound that contains the

metal. Sometimes they heat the ore so

that the chemical elements separate and

liquid metal flows out. This process is

called smelting. Metallurgists also use

electricity and chemicals to separate

metal from ore.

Workers then shape the metal. They

may shape it by pouring it into a mold,

hammering it on a hard surface, rolling

it into sheets, or forcing it through

openings.

Alloys

Metallurgists sometimes melt metals and

mix them together with other metals or

with nonmetals. This produces new

metals called alloys. Steel is an alloy of

iron and carbon. Bronze is an alloy of

copper and tin. An alloy has different

characteristics than a metal alone. It may

be stronger or stand up better to heat.

History

Gold and copper were the first metals to

be discovered. Then came silver, lead,

tin, iron, and mercury. At first, people

simply hammered metals into shape.

Then they learned to melt metals and

The metal in a garden chair has

been shaped into flower designs.

Metals are solid and very strong

at room temperature. But when

heated, metals become liquid.

This makes it easy to form them

into different shapes.

Giant conveyor belts carry ore,

or rock containing metal, that

has been dug from the ground.

The metal must be separated

from the ore before it can be used.

106 Metal BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

pour them into molds. More than 5,000

years ago, people made the first alloy—

bronze. More than 3,000 years ago,

people learned to purify iron, which is

stronger than bronze.

During the Middle Ages (AD 500–1500)

people tried to change lead and other

metals into gold. They did not succeed,

but they found out many things about

metals. Modern scientists have discovered

many new metals and have learned

to use metals in many new ways.

#More to explore

Alloy • Bronze • Chemical Element

• Iron

Metamorphosis

Metamorphosis is a process some animals

go through to become adults. It is a

series of physical changes. Metamorphosis

is especially common in insects.

Genes and chemicals called hormones

control the process.

Many insects go through four stages of

metamorphosis: egg, larva, pupa, and

adult. An insect hatches from an egg

into a wormlike larva. Caterpillars are

examples of insect larvae. The larva eats

a lot. As it grows, the larva molts, or

sheds its outer covering. To begin the

pupa stage, the larva often builds a protective

covering, such as a cocoon. Inside

this covering the pupa develops wings

and adult body parts. It comes out of its

covering as an adult.

Beetles, butterflies, flies, and wasps are

among the insects with four stages of

metamorphosis. Some insects, such as

grasshoppers and termites, have fewer

stages.

Through metamorphosis, a frog develops

from an egg to a tadpole and then to an

adult.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Metamorphosis 107

Metamorphosis also happens in animals

other than insects. Most amphibians go

through metamorphosis. For example, a

frog begins life as a tadpole. A tadpole

has a short, oval body with a tail. It

gradually develops legs and loses its tail

to become an adult frog. Starfish, crabs,

lobsters, snails, and clams also go

through metamorphosis.

#More to explore

Amphibian • Butterfly and Moth

• Hormone • Insect

Meteor and

Meteorite

A meteoroid is a chunk of rock or metal

from space that falls through the atmosphere,

or layer of gases, surrounding

Earth. Most meteoroids burn up in the

atmosphere. This creates a bright streak

of light called a meteor. Meteors are also

called shooting stars. If a meteoroid survives

its fall and reaches Earth’s surface,

it is called a meteorite.

Almost all meteoroids are formed from

material that breaks off objects in space

called comets or asteroids. The chunk of

rock or metal may enter Earth’s atmosphere

traveling as fast as 45 miles (72

kilometers) per second. Most meteoroids

melt from the heat or break up from the

pressure within seconds.

At times people can see thousands of

meteors per hour. These meteor showers

often occur as Earth passes through the

path of a comet. Bits of rock and ice left

behind by the comet plunge through

Earth’s atmosphere, creating meteors.

Occasionally large meteorites strike

Earth and create pits called craters. For

example, Meteor Crater in the U.S. state

of Arizona is 4,000 feet (1,200 meters)

across. It was formed when a meteorite

crashed into the ground thousands of

years ago. Meteorite crashes also make

craters on other planets and moons.

#More to explore

Asteroid • Atmosphere • Comet

Mewuk

#see Miwok.

MexicanWar

From 1846 to 1848 the United States

fought a war with Mexico. North

Americans now know the conflict as the

MexicanWar. As a result of the war, the

United States took over the land that

later became New Mexico, Utah,

A meteorite formed the huge pit called

Meteor Crater in the U.S. state of Arizona.

108 Meteor and Meteorite BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Nevada, Arizona, California, Texas, and

western Colorado.

Background

In 1845Mexico and the Republic of

Texas both wanted the same piece of land.

(At the timeTexas was an independent

country.) The land they both wanted was

north of the river called the Rio Grande.

The United States soon joined the quarrel

becauseTexas was about to become a

state. Both sides sent soldiers to the area.

InMay 1846 the United States declared

war againstMexico.

War

The United States attacked from several

directions. General Zachary Taylor

crossed the Rio Grande and won

victories in Mexico. In February 1847

he defeated a major Mexican force at

the battle of Buena Vista.

GeneralWinfield Scott marched across

the Gulf of Mexico area. He captured

the important seaport of Veracruz. Scott

then marched inland. In September

1847 he captured Mexico City, the capital

of Mexico.

Colonel Stephen Kearny easily took

New Mexico. Kearny, Commodore Robert

F. Stockton, and Lieutenant Colonel

John C. Fremont conquered California.

In January 1847 the last areas were

under U.S. control.

Results

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo formally

ended the war. The United States

and Mexico signed it on February 2,

1848. The treaty gave the United States

more than 500,000 square miles

(1,300,000 square kilometers) of Mexican

territory—from the Rio Grande

west to the Pacific Ocean. The United

States paid Mexico 15 million dollars in

return.

General Taylor was considered a hero for

his actions during the war. As a result he

was elected president of the United

States in 1848.

Taylor and the U.S. Congress then had

to deal with the question of allowing

slavery in the new areas. Congress had

allowed Texas to have slavery. But in

1850 it let California ban slavery. It gave

other territories the right to vote on

whether to have slavery. Still, arguments

over slavery continued, and both sides

grew more apart. The disagreement over

slavery finally led to the American Civil

War in 1861.

#More to explore

Fremont, John Charles • Mexico

• Taylor, Zachary • Texas

General Zachary Taylor is pictured on a

white horse at the battle of Buena Vista during

the Mexican War.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mexican War 109

Mexico

Mexico is a large country that sits

between the United States and Central

America. Mexico has a rich mixture of

European and American Indian cultures.

The capital, Mexico City, is one of the

largest cities in the world.

Geography

Mexico takes up the southern part of

North America. It shares borders with

the United States, Guatemala, and Belize.

The Pacific Ocean lies to the west,

beyond a peninsula called Baja California.

The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean

Sea are to the east of Mexico.

Most of the land is a plateau, or raised

flat area, surrounded by mountains. The

nation’s highest peak is a volcano called

Citlaltepetl. It rises 18,701 feet (5,700

meters). Near the coasts are low plains.

A major river, the Rio Bravo del Norte

(called the Rio Grande in the United

States), forms part of the border between

Mexico and the United States.

Mexico’s climate depends on the height

of the land. The lowlands are hot yearround.

Temperatures are milder at the

middle heights and cold at the highest

peaks. Much of northern Mexico is dry.

The southern mountains and the coastal

plains get the most rain. Earthquakes are

common in Mexico.

Plants and Animals

Cacti and yuccas grow in the dry

regions. Rain forests and grasslands grow

in the south and the east. Some of the

mountains have evergreen forests. Mangrove

swamps are common on the

southern coast.

Monkeys, parrots, and jaguars live in the

southern forests. Deer, pumas, coyotes,

The remains of the ancient city of Teotihuacan

in Mexico include pyramids, temples,

and palaces. The city reached its peak in AD

500.

110 Mexico BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

rabbits, snakes, and armadillos live in

the dry north.

People

More than half of the people in Mexico

are mestizos. They have both American

Indian and European ancestors.

American Indians form the next largest

group. White Europeans form a smaller

group.

Most Mexicans are Roman Catholics.

The main language is Spanish. More

than 50 Indian languages are also spoken.

Most Mexicans live in cities.

Economy

Services such as transportation, education,

and health care make up a large

part of Mexico’s economy. Tourism is a

major service industry. Millions of tourists

visit Mexico’s resorts and ancient

ruins each year.

Manufacturing and mining are also very

important. Factories produce cars,

machinery, food and beverages, metals,

chemicals, clothing, and other goods.

Mexico extracts oil, natural gas, and

minerals from the earth. The country is

also the world’s largest producer of silver.

Agriculture is a smaller part of the

economy, but many Mexicans still work

as farmers. The major crops include

sugarcane, corn, fruits, vegetables, and

beans. Cattle and pigs are the main livestock.

Logging and fishing also add to

the economy.

History

Humans have lived in what is now

Mexico for more than 10,000 years. The

region’s first people were American Indians.

They built settlements after they

learned to grow corn, beans, and squash.

Eventually the Olmec, Maya, Toltec,

and Aztec peoples built great civilizations.

Spanish Rule

The Aztec ruled much of Mexico when

the Spanish arrived in 1519. Two years

later the Spanish soldier Hernan Cortes

and his troops conquered the Aztec

Empire. Mexico then became part of the

Spanish territory known as New Spain.

The Spanish forced many Indians to

become Christians. They also made the

Indians work on plantations and in

mines.

The people of Mexico fought against

Spanish rule between 1810 and 1815. In

1821 Spain gave Mexico its independence.

Mexico was a monarchy until

1823, when it became a republic.

Members of a Mexican dance company

wear colorful costumes. The dance company,

called Ballet Folklorico de Mexico,

performs traditional Mexican dances.

Facts About

MEXICO

Population

(2008 estimate)

106,683,000

Area

758,449 sq mi

(1,964,375 sq

km)

Capital

Mexico City

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Mexico City,

Guadalajara,

Puebla, Ciudad

Netzahualcoyotl,

Juarez, Tijuana,

Monterrey, Leon

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Mexico 111

Texas and the MexicanWar

General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

became president of Mexico in 1833.

He faced trouble in Texas, which then

belonged to Mexico. In 1836 the people

of Texas rebelled against Mexican rule.

Santa Anna tried to stop the rebellion,

but he failed.

The United States took over Texas in

1845. That led to the MexicanWar

between Mexico and the United States.

Mexico lost the war in 1848. It gave up

a large section of its land to the United

States.

French Invasion

Benito Juarez became president of

Mexico in 1861. Later that year European

powers invaded Mexico to collect

money that Mexico owed them. Mexico

defeated French forces in a battle that is

celebrated today on the holiday Cinco

de Mayo. However, France took control

in 1864 and ruled until 1867.

Mexican Revolution

The military leader Porfirio Diaz seized

control of Mexico in 1876. He ruled as a

dictator for 35 years. The Mexican

Revolution of 1911 forced Diaz from