the presidential
election to
Woodrow Wilson.
Taft becomes
chief justice
of the U.S.
Supreme Court.
Taft resigns
from the Court.
Taft dies in
Washington,
D.C.
T I M E L I N E
William Howard Taft was the 27th
president of the United States.
4 Taft, William Howard BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
tary of war under President Theodore
Roosevelt.
Presidency
Roosevelt supported Taft in the presidential
election of 1908. He believed
that Taft would continue his reforms. A
Republican, Taft defeated the Democrat
William Jennings Bryan to become
president.
As president, Taft failed to solve the
growing split between conservative and
progressive Republicans. The progressives
wanted Taft to continue Roosevelts
reforms. Taft did continue to attack the
big business groups known as trusts.
However, Taft disappointed progressives
by approving a high tariff, or tax on
imports. He also refused to hire progressives
as his advisers.
Roosevelt and the progressives soon left
the Republican Party to form the Progressive
Party. In the 1912 presidential
election the Republican Taft ran against
the Progressive Roosevelt and the
DemocratWoodrowWilson. The split
in the Republican Party allowedWilson
to win the election.
Later Years
After leaving office Taft taught law at
Yale University. In 1921 PresidentWarren
G. Harding appointed Taft chief
justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Taft
was happier in this post than he was as
president. He helped the Court to work
faster and to focus on the most important
national cases.
Suffering from heart disease, Taft
resigned on February 3, 1930. He died
on March 8 inWashington, D.C.
#More to explore
Harding,Warren G. Philippines
Roosevelt, Theodore United States
United States Government
Taiga
The taiga is one of the major biomes of
the world. Biomes are regions with similar
climates and plants and animals. The
main feature of the taiga is its conifer
forests. Conifers are trees that form seeds
inside cones. The taiga grows across the
northern parts of Europe, Asia, and
North America. Another name for taiga
is boreal forest.
Features
In addition to its forests the taiga is
known for its long, cold, snowy winters
and short, cool summers. It lies just
south of the cold, treeless area called the
tundra. Where the two regions meet,
there are few trees. The forests are
Shallow ponds and cone-bearing trees are
common sights in the taiga.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Taiga 5
thicker in the southern taiga. Many
lakes and bogs are found in the taiga.
Life in the Taiga
The main trees of the taiga are conifers
with needle-shaped leaves. In the south,
trees with broad leavesfor example,
alders, aspens, and birchesgrow
among the conifers. Mosses, liverworts,
and lichens grow on tree trunks, rocks,
and the ground.
The conifers in the taiga have features
that help them to survive in the cold,
snowy climate. Their branches point
downward. This helps snow to slide off
easily and keeps the branches from
breaking off. In addition, conifers are a
dark green color. This means they have
more of the substance that allows green
plants to soak in sunlight. They need to
absorb as much sunlight as possible during
the short summer.
Mammals in the taiga include lynx,
wolves, moose, reindeer, beavers, shrews,
voles, squirrels, and martens. Many
birds come to the taiga in summer. Only
a few types, including ravens and
chickadees, stay through the long winter.
Resources
People cut down many of the trees of
the taiga for wood. The earth under
certain areas of the taiga is rich in petroleum
(oil), natural gas, and coal. However,
logging, oil drilling, and mining
have harmed the environment in many
parts of the taiga.
#More to explore
Biome Conifer Forest Tundra
Tail
Many animals have a tail, which is a
body part that extends from the hindquarters,
or rear of the body. In animals
that have a backbone, the tail is an
extension of the backbone. This type of
tail contains bones. In animals without a
backbone, the tail does not contain
bones.
The tails of most animals have one or
more uses. Tails help many animals to
move. Some types of monkeys use their
tail to grab branches as they swing
through the trees. A squirrel uses its tail
to balance and steer as it leaps through
the air. The tip of a moles tail is very
sensitive. This helps it to move backward
through tunnels quickly. The tails
of lobsters, fishes, and whales push them
through water.
Some animals use their tails as weapons.
Crocodiles and alligators swing their
Few coldblooded
animals, such
as snakes, live
in the taiga
because of the
low temperatures.
A young opossum hangs from a
branch by its tail.
6 Tail BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
heavy, strong tails at enemies. A porcupine
has sharp quills, or needles, at the
end of its tail. A ring-tailed lemur marks
its bushy tail with a bad-smelling odor
and then waves it at other lemurs. A
scorpion stings enemies or prey with its
tail.
Many animals use their tails to communicate
with other animals. A rattlesnake
shakes its tail as a warning when it feels
threatened. A male peacock displays his
long tail feathers to attract females. This
display shows the female how strong and
healthy the male is.
..More to explore
Animal
Taino
..see Arawak.
Taipei
Population
(2008
estimate), city,
2,629,270;
urban area,
6,698,320
Taipei is the capital of Taiwan, an island
off the southeast coast of China. Taiwan
is a province of China. However, Taiwan
elects its own government to rule the
island. Taipei is Taiwans largest city. It is
also the islands center of business,
industry, and culture.
Service industries such as banking, trade,
and transportation are important to
Taipeis economy. Many businesses in
the city involve computers or other
high-technology goods and services.
Factories in Taipei make such products
as electronics, software, cloth, and
chemicals.
People from the Chinese mainland
founded Taipei in the early 1700s. In
1886 China made Taiwan a province
with Taipei as its capital. Japan ruled the
island from 1895 to 1945. Taipei
remained the capital during that period.
The Nationalist political party controlled
mainland China in the early
1900s. In 1949 Chinese Communists
took over the mainland. The Nationalists
fled to Taiwan. They made Taipei
their capital. The Nationalists and the
Communists each claimed to be the true
The 2-28 Peace Park is a popular place to
visit in Taipei, Taiwan. It was named to
honor a group of people who made a protest
against their government on February
28, 1947.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Taipei 7
government of China. However, in 1971
the United Nations began treating the
Communist mainland government as
the only government of China.
Taipei grew greatly in the late 20th century.
Many people now live in a relatively
small city area.
#More to explore
China Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan is a small island off the southeast
coast of China. Taiwan is a province of
China, not an independent country.
However, Taiwans government has the
power to rule the island. Taiwan also
calls itself the Republic of China. The
capital is Taipei.
Geography
Taiwan lies in the Pacific Ocean about
100 miles (160 kilometers) from mainland
China. The Philippines is to the
south. Japan lies to the northeast.
Mountains and hills cover the eastern
two thirds of Taiwan. Low plains make
up the western third of the island. The
weather is warm and humid. Severe
storms called typhoons often strike the
island during the summer.
Plants and Animals
Thick forests cover much of Taiwan.
Cyprus, cedar, juniper, maple, and pine
trees grow in the mountains. Palm trees,
bamboo shoots, and tropical evergreens
grow in the lowlands.
Taiwans animals include foxes, deer,
wild boars, monkeys, and goats. The
native Formosan black bear lives only in
the mountains.
People
Nearly all the people in Taiwan are Chinese.
Most of the Chinese have roots in
southeastern China. They are often
called the Taiwanese. A smaller group of
Chinese came to Taiwan in 1949. Their
descendants are called mainlanders.
The original people of Taiwan form only
a tiny group. They live mostly in the
mountains.
Mandarin Chinese is the main language.
Taiwans major religions are Buddhism
and Daoism. Most people also follow
traditional Chinese religions. Most of
the population lives in cities and towns
in the west.
Economy
Taiwan has a strong economy based on
manufacturing and services such as
banking. Factories make electronics,
8 Taiwan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
cement, iron and steel, cloth, chemicals,
cars, and other goods.
Farmers in Taiwan grow rice, sugarcane,
citrus fruits, bananas, and other crops.
Fish, pigs, and chickens are other
sources of food.
History
People from other Pacific islands and
Asia first came to Taiwan between
12,000 and 15,000 years ago. Portuguese
sailors arrived in 1590 and gave
the island the name of Formosa. Dutch
traders later took control of the island.
Chinese and Japanese Rule
In 1661 armies for the Ming Dynasty, or
royal family, of China pushed out the
Dutch. The Qing Dynasty of China
took over in 1683. The Qing Dynasty
ruled Taiwan for the next two centuries.
Many Chinese people settled in Taiwan
during this time.
In 189495 Japan and China fought
each other in the Sino-JapaneseWar. At
the end of the war, Japan took control of
Taiwan. DuringWorldWar II (1939
45) the Japanese used Taiwan as a military
base. Taiwan returned to Chinas
control in 1945.
Nationalist Government
In the late 1940s two groups, the Communists
and the Nationalists, fought for
control of China. In 1949 the Communists
won. The Nationalists fled to Taiwan
and set up their government there.
Both the Communists and the Nationalists
claimed to be the true government
of all of China.
The United Nations (UN) treated Taiwans
government as the government of
China until 1971. That year the UN
accepted the mainland Communist government
as the only Chinese government.
Taiwan Today
Taiwan held its first free elections in the
1990s. The Nationalists lost control of
the government in 2000. A party called
the Democratic Progressives took
power. Meanwhile, some people began
calling for complete independence from
China.
#More to explore
China Taipei
The full
Portuguese
name of
TaiwanIlha
Formosa
means
Beautiful
Island.
A huge statue of the Buddha overlooks
many other Buddha sculptures at a religious
center in Taiwan. Many people in Taiwan
practice Buddhism. Buddhism is a religion
based on the teachings of the Buddha.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Taiwan 9
Tajikistan
The small country of Tajikistan lies in
the heart of central Asia. Tajikistans
capital is Dushanbe.
Geography
Tajikistan shares borders with Uzbekistan,
Kyrgyzstan, China, and Afghanistan.
Almost all the land is mountainous.
Tajikistan has a dry climate with
hot summers and cold winters.
Plants and Animals
Grasses, bushes, and shrubs are the most
common plants. Tajikistans animals
include great gray lizards, gophers, deer,
tigers, jackals, and brown bears.
People
The Tajik people make up most of the
population. The Uzbeks form the second
largest group. The countrys other
peoples include Russians and Kyrgyz.
Most of the people speak Tajik and practice
Islam. Most Tajiks live in small villages
along canals or rivers.
Economy
Tajikistan is a poor country. Most
people are farmers. The main crops are
cotton, potatoes, wheat, tomatoes, and
grapes. People also raise sheep, goats,
and cattle. Tajikistans factories produce
aluminum, cloth, electricity, food products,
machinery, and chemicals.
History
The Tajiks lived in the area by about
2,500 years ago. They set up states along
the Silk Road, a trade route to China.
In the AD 600s and 700s Muslim Arabs
conquered the area. Beginning in 999,
many other groups ruled the land for
hundreds of years.
Russia took control in the 1800s. In the
1920s Tajikistan became part of the
Soviet Union. Tajikistan gained independence
in 1991.
..More to explore
Dushanbe
Many rugged, snow-covered peaks lie in
the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan.
Facts About
TAJIKISTAN
Population
(2008 estimate)
6,839,000
Area
55,300 sq mi
(143,100 sq km)
Capital
Dushanbe
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Dushanbe, Khujand,
Kulyab,
Kurgan-Tyube
10 Tajikistan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal is considered one of the
most beautiful buildings in the world. It
is located in the city of Agra in northern
India. A ruler named Shah Jahan had
the Taj Mahal built as a monument and
tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz
Mahal.
Shah Jahan was the Muslim ruler of the
Mughal Empire in India from 1628 to
1658. His wife died in 1631, and the
construction of the Taj Mahal began the
following year.
The monument is located on the bank
of the Yamuna (or Jumna) River. It is
surrounded by formal gardens and
reflecting ponds. The building rests on a
square marble base that rises 23 feet (7
meters) high. The building is roughly
square-shaped. Each of the four faces of
the structure has a large arch that rises
108 feet (33 meters) high. Above the
center of the building is an onionshaped
dome.
Pure white marble covers the outside of
the building. Set into the marble are
gemstones of various colors. These
include lapis lazuli, jade, crystal, turquoise,
and amethyst. The stones form
geometric and floral designs.
The interior of the Taj Mahal is a large
room that contains monuments to Jahan
and his wife. A carved marble screen
surrounds these monuments. Beneath
the monuments lie the actual tombs of
Jahan and his wife.
Over the years the Taj Mahal has been
affected by pollution from nearby factories
as well as from motor vehicles.
However, steps are being taken to prevent
further damage to the site.
Tallahassee
Population
(2000 census)
150,624;
(2007 estimate)
168,979
Tallahassee is the capital of the U.S. state
of Florida. The city lies on a series of
rolling hills.
Many people in Tallahassee work for the
government or in services such as health
White marble and gemstones cover the outside
of the Taj Mahal. Some 20,000 people
worked on the monument, which took 22
years to build.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tallahassee 11
care or education. The city is home to
Florida State University and other
schools of higher learning. Tallahassee is
also the trade center for crops and dairy
products produced on nearby farms.
Factories in the city make electronics
and other products.
Tallahassee was originally an Apalachee
Indian village. The village was already
established by the time the Spanish
explorer Hernando de Soto visited the
area in 1539. Creek Indians later moved
to Tallahassee. The U.S. government
forced the Indians to leave the area in
the early 1800s. In 1824 Tallahassee
became the capital of the Florida Territory.
Florida became a U.S. state in
1845. Tallahassee then became the state
capital.
#More to explore
Florida
Tallchief, Maria
Maria Tallchief was one of the greatest
U.S. ballerinas. She danced with the
New York City Ballet for 18 years. There
she performed many dances created by
George Balanchine, an important ballet
director.
Tallchief was born on January 24, 1925,
in Fairfax, Oklahoma, a town on an
Osage Indian reservation. Her father was
Osage. She began dancing at a young
age. In 1942 she joined the Ballet Russe
de Monte Carlo. In 1946 she married
Balanchine, the companys choreographer,
or dance arranger. The couple soon
moved to New York City. There Balanchine
founded what later became the
New York City Ballet.With that company
Tallchief became known for her
performances in The Firebird and The
Nutcracker. For one season she was the
prima ballerina, or lead dancer.
Tallchief retired as a dancer in 1965. She
then taught ballet and directed the Lyric
Opera Ballet in Chicago. In 1980
Cypress trees grow from beneath the waters
of Lake Bradford, in Tallahassee, Florida.
Maria Tallchief was a famous ballerina. She
was known for her fine ballet technique.
12 Tallchief, Maria BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tallchief and her sister, who was also a
dancer, founded the Chicago City Ballet.
The company lasted until 1987.
..More to explore
Ballet Dance
Tallinn
Population
(2007 estimate)
396,850
Tallinn is the capital of Estonia, a country
in northeastern Europe. Tallinn has a
port on the Baltic Sea. It is Estonias
largest city.
Tallinns economy is based mainly on
engineering, banking, trade, and other
services. The shipment of goods through
the port also brings money to the city.
Factories in Tallinn make electronic
equipment, machinery, cloth, and food
products.
People settled in the Tallinn area in
ancient times. The town was established
by the 1100s. It suffered many invasions.
It was ruled by Denmark, by German
knights, and then by Sweden.
Russia took control of all of Estonia in
the early 1700s. In 1918 Estonia became
an independent country with Tallinn as
its capital.
In 1940 Estonia was forced to become
part of the Soviet Union. For a time
duringWorldWar II (193945),
Germany controlled Tallinn.
Estonia became an independent country
again in 1991. Tallinn remained its
capital.
..More to explore
Estonia
Talmud
The Talmud is a collection of ancient
Jewish teachings. The written laws of
Judaism are found in the Torah, the first
five books of the Hebrew Bible. People
in ancient Israel also followed many oral,
or unwritten, teachings. Jewish leaders,
called rabbis, eventually wrote down
those oral laws and traditions. They also
added their own comments. These
included interpretations of the laws as
Eastern Orthodox Christians worship at the
Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Tallinn,
Estonia.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Talmud 13
well as stories that helped explain moral
lessons. Together, these collections of
laws, interpretations, and stories are
known as the Talmud.
The Talmud was written by many rabbis
over hundreds of years. The first part of
the Talmud is the Mishna, which states
the oral laws. Scholars think that a rabbi
in Palestine (a region of the Middle
East) finished the Mishna in the early
200s. It has six sections, for laws on
daily prayer and farming, special rituals,
marriage, criminal and civil law, rules of
the temple, and cleanliness.
The second part of the Talmud is the
Gemara, which contains comments on
the ideas in the Mishna. Rabbis wrote
the Gemara from the 200s through the
500s. There are two versions of the
Gemaraone written in Palestine and
one written in Babylonia (a historic
region of southwestern Asia). Modern
scholars consider the Babylonian version
to be more complete.
#More to explore
Bible Judaism Palestine Torah
Talon
#see Nail and Claw.
Tanganyika, Lake
Lake Tanganyika is the longest freshwater
lake in the world and the second
deepest. It is located in eastern Africa.
The lake forms the border between Tanzania
and the Democratic Republic of
the Congo.
The lake is 410 miles (660 kilometers)
long. It has a depth of 4,710 feet (1,436
meters). Many rivers flow into the lake.
The largest are the Malagarasi, the Ruzizi,
and the Kalambo. The lakes only
outlet is the Lukuga River.
Rice and other crops are grown along
the lakes shore. People also fish in its
waters. Several important ports are
found along the lake.
In 1858 Lake Tanganyika was first visited
by Europeans. At that time British
explorers were searching for the source
of the Nile River.
#More to explore
Lake
Young men study the Talmud at a
special school called a yeshiva.
The Talmud is a collection of
ancient Jewish teachings.
14 Talon BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tanzania
The country of Tanzania contains Africas
highest mountain and its largest
lake. Dar es Salaam is the capital, but
Tanzanias government has moved some
of its offices to a new capital, Dodoma.
Geography
Tanzania has a coast on the Indian
Ocean in the east. The country includes
the mainland (called Tanganyika) and
the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, and
Mafia. Tanzania shares borders with
Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique.
Large plains, mountains, valleys, and
lakes cover Tanzanias land. The great
Serengeti Plain lies in the northeast. East
of this plain is Mount Kilimanjaro, the
highest point in Africa. Africas huge
Western Rift and Great Rift valleys run
through the country. Along Tanzanias
borders are three large lakes: Lake Nyasa,
Lake Tanganyika, and Lake Victoria.
Lake Victoria is the worlds second largest
freshwater lake. (Lake Superior in
North America is the largest.)
Most of Tanzania is hot and dry. The
coast and the islands receive the most
rain.
Plants and Animals
Forests grow in the rainy high areas.
Grasslands and scattered trees cover
much of the country. The large
Serengeti National Park protects huge
herds of wildebeests, gazelles, and zebras.
The park also has many lions, leopards,
hippopotamuses, giraffes, and baboons.
Rhinoceroses and elephants survive in
smaller numbers. Bands of chimpanzees
live in the west.
People
Tanzania has more than 120 different
ethnic groups. The Sukuma are the
Ngorongoro Crater is a popular tourist spot
in Tanzania. Visitors to the area can see
zebras and many other animals.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tanzania 15
countrys largest group. The Sukuma
and other groups have their own languages.
Most Tanzanians also speak Swahili,
which different groups use to
communicate with each other. Some
Tanzanians also speak English. The
countrys main religions are Christianity
and Islam. Many people follow traditional
African beliefs. Most Tanzanians
live in small villages or in the countryside.
Economy
Tanzanias economy depends on agriculture.
The main food crops are cassava,
corn, sorghum, bananas, rice, and sweet
potatoes. Farmers also grow coffee, cotton,
cashew nuts, tea, and tobacco.
Cloves are grown on the islands of Zanzibar
and Pemba.
Small industries in Tanzania make food
products, cement, clothing, beer, and
cigarettes. Mines provide gold, diamonds,
and gems, including tanzanites.
History
Remains of some of the earliest known
human ancestors have been found in
Tanzania. Some are about 1.75 million
years old. Groups of hunter-gatherers
lived in the area as early as 5000 BC.
Farmers and herders appeared around
1000 BC.
Arab and European Control
By AD 100 Arabs set up trading settlements
on the East African coast. In the
late 1400s the Portuguese arrived. About
200 years later the Arab rulers of Oman
(a country on the Arabian Peninsula)
gained control. More Europeans began
arriving in the 1800s. Great Britain took
over Zanzibar in 1890.
Germany took over the mainland in
1885. The land that is now Tanzania,
Rwanda, Burundi, and part of Mozambique
became known as German East
Africa. In 1919, afterWorldWar I, Britain
took control of the Tanzania portion.
The British named the land
Tanganyika.
Independence
Tanganyika gained independence in
1961, and Zanzibar became independent
in 1963. The two joined to form
the United Republic of Tanzania in
1964. Beginning in the 1990s hundreds
of thousands of people poured into Tanzania
to escape violence in neighboring
countries.
..More to explore
Dar es Salaam Kilimanjaro, Mount
The Masai people live in Tanzania and
neighboring Kenya. They are nomads,
meaning that they usually do not live in permanent
settlements. They follow their herds
of cattle and other animals throughout the
year.
Facts About
TANZANIA
Population
(2008 estimate)
40,213,000
Area
364,901 sq mi
(945,090 sq km)
Capital
Dar es Salaam
(acting)
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Dar es Salaam,
Arusha, Mbeya,
Mwanza
16 Tanzania BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Taoism
#see Daoism.
Tapir
Tapirs are mammals that live in swamps
and in forests near rivers. They are
related to horses and rhinoceroses. Three
kinds of tapir live in Central and South
America. Another kind lives in Southeast
Asia.
A tapir has a heavy body with short legs.
It has a soft, flexible snout like a short
elephant trunk. Its feet have hooves, like
those of a horse. Tapirs weigh 500 to
600 pounds (225 to 270 kilograms).
They are 6 to 8 feet (1.8 to 2.4 meters)
long, plus a short tail. They stand about
3 feet (1 meter) tall at the shoulder. The
tapirs of the Americas have brown or
gray hair. The tapir of Asia is black with
some white parts.
Tapirs are shy animals that like the deep
forest. They sleep most of the day. At
night they come out to eat grass, leaves,
water plants, and fruit. A tapir uses its
nose to move things aside and find
food, like a horse does. Tapirs swim to
escape their enemies, such as jaguars
and tigers.
Tapirs are endangered, which means
they are in danger of dying out. People
hunt tapirs for food and sport. Plus,
people have destroyed tapirs homes by
cutting down forests for wood.
#More to explore
Horse Mammal Rhinoceros
Tarsier
Tarsiers are tiny animals with huge eyes.
Their excellent senses of sight and hearing
make them good nocturnal, or
nighttime, hunters. Tarsiers belong to
A tapir walks along a riverbank in Ecuador.
A tarsier has pads on the tips of its long
fingers and toes. The pads are like suction
cups. They help the animal cling to a tree
trunk.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tarsier 17
the group of animals called primates.
Other primates include lemurs, monkeys,
and humans. There are at least
three different species, or types, of
tarsier.
Tarsiers live in the rain forests of
Indonesia and the Philippines. They
spend most of their time in trees and
can leap between trunks 10 feet (3
meters) apart.
Tarsiers have brown, gray, or reddish fur.
They are only about 6 inches (15 centimeters)
long with a thin, 10-inch (25-
centimeter) tail. Tarsiers have a round
head with large eyes and ears. Like an
owl, a tarsier can turn its head halfway
around. Tarsiers fingers and toes have
pads like suction cups that help them to
grip branches.
Tarsiers sleep in trees during the day and
hunt on the ground at night. They jump
on their prey and grab it with their
hands. Tarsiers eat small animals such as
insects, lizards, and snakes. They do not
eat plants.
Some tarsiers live alone. Others live in
male and female pairs. They can have
babies at any time of the year. The
female is pregnant for six months and
then gives birth to one offspring. A baby
tarsier can climb and jump after only a
few days. Tarsiers can live for about 12
years.
..More to explore
Lemur Monkey Primate Rain
Forest
Tashkent
Population
(2007 estimate)
1,959,190
Tashkent is the capital of the country of
Uzbekistan. It is one of the largest cities
in central Asia. It is also a major center
of culture and industry.
Many cotton farms surround Tashkent.
Factories in the city make cotton cloth
and machines used to process the cotton.
Other factories make airplanes,
packaged foods, and chemicals. Many
people in the city work in government
or business offices.
A museum in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, has a
domed roof. It is named after Timur, a Mongol
leader who ruled what is now Uzbekistan
in the 1300s.
Tarsiers are
the only
primates that
do not eat
plants.
18 Tashkent BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tashkent dates back at least 2,000 years.
In ancient times it was an important
trading center. Many different groups,
including the Turks, the Arabs, and the
Mongols, ruled Tashkent over its long
history.
In 1865 Tashkent became part of Russia.
It soon became a regional capital. Along
with Russia, the city became part of the
Soviet Union in the early 1900s.
An earthquake destroyed much of Tashkent
in 1966. The city was later rebuilt.
Uzbekistan became an independent
country in 1991. Tashkent was made its
capital.
#More to explore
Uzbekistan
Tasmania
Tasmania is the smallest state of
Australia. Most of its land is a triangleshaped
island. The state also includes
the nearby islands of Bruny, King, and
Flinders as well as many smaller islands.
Macquarie Island, about 900 miles
(1,450 kilometers) to the southeast, is a
part of Tasmania, too. Tasmanias
capital is Hobart.
Geography
Tasmania lies about 150 miles (240
kilometers) south of Victoria, a state in
southeastern Australia. The main island
is 180 miles (290 kilometers) long. Its
widest part is 175 miles (280
kilometers) wide. The state covers an
area of 26,410 square miles (68,401
square kilometers).
A flat, raised area called a plateau covers
much of the main island. Mountains rise
in the west. Mount Ossa, at 5,305 feet
(1,617 meters), is the highest point. The
Derwent and the South Esk are the
major rivers. The island also has more
than 4,000 lakes. Most of these lakes are
shallow. But Lake Saint Clair, with a
depth of more than 700 feet (215
meters), is Australias deepest lake. Tasmanias
climate is mild and moist.
Tasmania, Australia, is home to small, fierce
animals called Tasmanian devils. The island
has many kinds of animals and plants that
are found nowhere else on Earth.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tasmania 19
People
Tasmania is home to about 500,000
people. Most of them have British
ancestors. Most of the people live in the
southeast and the north. Hobart, in the
southeast, is the largest city and main
port. Launceston is the main city of
northern Tasmania.
Economy
Many Tasmanians work in servicesfor
example, communications, computer
work, and tourism. Manufacturing is
also important to the economy. Tasmania
has many resources to use in manufacturing.
Its forests provide wood for
the lumber and paper industries. Mines
provide iron, zinc, lead, copper, and tin,
which are used to make metal products.
In addition, Tasmania produces many
foods and drinks. Tasmanian farmers
grow potatoes, onions, peas, apples,
grapes, and hops. They raise dairy cows,
beef cattle, and sheep. The coastal waters
provide fish.
History
Tasmanian Aborigines, or the first
people in Tasmania, may have lived on
the island as early as 40,000 years ago.
The Dutch explorer Abel Tasman
reached the island in 1642. He named it
Van Diemens Land after the governorgeneral
of the Dutch East Indies (now
Indonesia). At that time several thousand
Tasmanian Aborigines lived on the
island. The last full-blooded Tasmanian
Aborigine died in 1876.
Tasmania became a part of the British
colony of New South Wales (in
southeastern Australia) in 1803. In
1825 it became a separate colony. Many
of the Europeans who lived there were
prisoners sent to the island from Great
Britain.
In 1856 the people of Van Diemens
Land elected their own government.
They changed the islands name to
Tasmania, after the explorer Tasman. In
1901 Tasmania became a state of
Australia.
#More to explore
Australia New SouthWales Victoria
Tax
Governments can get money in various
ways. For example, they can charge fees
for such things as drivers licenses. But
almost every government gets money
simply by demanding a certain amount
from its citizens. Money collected in this
way is called a tax.
Port Arthur was a prison settlement in Tasmania,
Australia, during the 1800s. Many
convicts were taken there to work as punishment
for their crimes. Today Port Arthurs
buildings are in ruins. Many tourists visit
them.
Tasmania is
home to a
unique animal
called the
Tasmanian
devil. It was
named for its
fierce growl
and bad
temper.
20 Tax BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Purposes of Taxes
Governments collect taxes for several
purposes. The most important purpose
is to get money to pay for government
services. These services include protection
by an army or police, road building,
and public education. Some governments
use taxes to change peoples
behavior. For example, they may put
high taxes on tobacco to get people to
stop smoking. Finally, governments may
raise or lower taxes to help their countrys
overall economy.
Types of Taxes
There are many different types of taxes.
Among them are income taxes, property
taxes, and sales taxes.
A tax on the money that people make is
called a personal income tax. Companies
in the United States withhold, or hold
back, a part of almost every workers
pay. They send this money to the U.S.
government. After the end of the year,
people send in income tax returns,
which are forms that tell the government
how much money they made. Some
people then have to pay still more
money, while others get back some of
their money in a refund. Sometimes
governments make rich people pay
higher taxes than poor people. Companies
also pay taxes on the money they
make. This tax is called corporate
income tax.
Taxes on the value of land, buildings,
and some large possessions (cars, for
example) are called property taxes. In
the United States, state and local governments
collect property taxes.
When people buy goods and services,
they often pay a sales tax on top of the
price. Sales tax is usually a certain percentage
of the selling price. In the
United States, each state has its own
sales taxes. However, many countries
have national sales taxes. European
countries use a form of sales tax called a
value-added tax (VAT).
History
In ancient times, most people gave
goods or services to a ruler instead of
taxes. A farmer might give part of his
crop. An ancient Egyptian might help to
build a pyramid. However, the rulers of
ancient Rome collected taxes in the form
of money.
Taxes grew in importance over the
years, although people were often
unhappy when governments demanded
them. The colonists who started the
American Revolution in 1775 were
angry because they had to pay taxes to
Great Britain without having votes in
Parliament (the British legislature). An
unfair tax system was also one of the
Some taxes are used to build and to take
care of such public areas as parks and roads.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tax 21
causes of the French Revolution, which
began in 1789.
In the 1900s some state governments in
the United States and governments of
other countries looked for ways to collect
money without raising taxes. Many
began using lotteries (gambling games)
to raise extra money.
#More to explore
Economics Government Money
Taylor, Zachary
A hero of the MexicanWar, Zachary
Taylor was elected the 12th president of
the United States in 1848. He died after
only 16 months in office.
Early Life
Zachary Taylor was born on November
24, 1784, in Montebello, Virginia. His
parents, Richard Taylor and Mary
Strother, came from important Virginia
families. Zachary grew up on a plantation
in what is now Kentucky. There
were no schools nearby, so he learned
from a tutor.
In 1810 Taylor married Margaret Mackall
Smith. They had six children.
Military Career
Taylor joined the Army in 1806. Over
the next 40 years he became a respected
military leader. His strength and courage
earned him the nickname Old Rough
and Ready. Taylor commanded troops in
theWar of 1812 and against Native
Americans in various battles.
In 1846, just before the MexicanWar,
Taylor defended the border of Texas
against Mexican troops. Taylors troops
defeated the Mexicans in two battles.
After the United States declared war,
Taylor crossed into Mexico and captured
the city of Monterrey. In 1847 Taylors
forces defeated a larger Mexican army in
In the Boston Tea Party of 1773, some
American colonists destroyed tea to protest
a British tax.
Zachary Taylor was the 12th president of
the United States.
22 Taylor, Zachary BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
the battle of Buena Vista. That victory
made Taylor a national hero.
Presidency
The Whig Party chose Taylor to run for
president in 1848. He defeated the
Democratic candidate, Lewis Cass, in
the election. Taylor was the first man to
become president without any experience
in politics.
President Taylor had to deal with the
difficult issue of slavery. Although he
owned slaves, Taylor opposed the spread
of slavery. In 1849 he recommended
that California be admitted to the
Union as a free stateone that would
not allow slavery. Taylors recommendation
angered proslavery Southerners in
Congress.
Taylor did not live to see the
Compromise of 1850, which temporarily
settled the slavery crisis.On July 4, 1850,
he became ill with cholera.He died on
July 9 inWashington, D.C. Vice
PresidentMillard Fillmore became
president.
..More to explore
Fillmore, Millard MexicanWar
Slavery United States War of 1812
Tbilisi
Population
(2006 estimate)
1,103,300
Tbilisi is the capital of Georgia, a small
country in the Caucasus Mountains of
Asia. The city lies on the Kura River. It
is Georgias largest city by far. It is also a
major center of industry, culture, and
research.
November 24, July 9,
1784 1806 1812 1847 1848 1849 1850
Taylor is born
in Montebello,
Virginia.
Taylor joins
the Army.
Taylor leads
troops in the
War of 1812.
Taylor defeats
a Mexican
army in the
Mexican War.
Taylor is
elected
president.
Taylor fights
the spread of
slavery.
Taylor dies in
Washington,
D.C.; Millard
Fillmore becomes
president.
T I M E L I N E
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tbilisi 23
Factories in Tbilisi make machinery,
clothing, processed foods, and drinks.
Many people in the city work for the
government or in tourism or other service
industries. Tourists often visit
Tbilisi to bathe in the natural hot
springs, where hot mineral water spouts
from the ground.
Tbilisi was founded in the 450s. The
city lay along an important trade route
between east and west. This made Tbilisi
a valuable prize for many conquering
groups. Over the centuries it was ruled
by the Persians, Byzantines, Arabs, and
Mongols.
In 1801 Russia captured Tbilisi. It
became the capital of the Russian province
of Georgia. The Soviet Union made
Georgia one of its republics in 1921. In
1991 Georgia became an independent
country with Tbilisi as its capital.
#More to explore
Georgia, Republic of
Tea
Tea is a strong and energizing drink. It is
made by soaking the leaves of the tea
plant in hot water. Tea is especially
popular in Asia, the United Kingdom,
many former British colonies, and the
Middle East.
The most common types of tea are black
and green, both of which are made from
the same plant. The plant likely grew
first in China. It now also grows in
many other parts of Asia, especially
India. Countries in eastern Europe,
Africa, and South America also grow tea.
Some teas have added scents or flavors,
such as jasmine or orange. Although
Shops in Tbilisi, Georgia, use
both the Georgian alphabet and
the Latin alphabet for their signs.
Workers pick tea leaves in
Malaysia.
24 Tea BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
most people drink their tea hot, many
people in the United States drink iced
tea. Other hot drinks made with plant
leaves, flowers, or roots may also be
called tea. Examples include chamomile
tea, South American mate, and South
African rooibos, or red tea.
According to legend, people first drank
tea in China in about 2700 BC. At first
people used tea as medicine. In about
the AD 200s it became a daily drink. The
Dutch and the English brought tea from
China to Europe in the 1600s. From
there it spread to Europes colonies.
Technology and
Invention
Technology is the use of knowledge to
invent new devices or tools. Throughout
history, technology has made peoples
lives easier.
Ancient Technology
Early humans set themselves apart from
other animals when they learned to
control fire. About 2 million years ago,
they also learned to use stones as
weapons or tools. This began a period
that is known as the Stone Age. Stone
Age people also learned to make pottery
from clay.
Later on, people learned to work with
metal. The people of Anatolia (now in
Turkey) made copper tools and weapons
as early as 6500 BC. In about 3000 BC
people discovered that mixing
copper with tin formed a stronger
metalbronze. This discovery began the
Bronze Age.
Two important developments took place
in the Middle East at the beginning of
the Bronze Age. One was the invention
of the ox-drawn plow. The other was the
invention of the wheel and axle. Many
scientists date the beginning of civilization,
or advanced culture, to this time.
In the 1000s BC the Hittite people of
Anatolia learned to work with iron,
which is stronger than bronze. This
began the Iron Age. Eventually, people
throughout Europe, Asia, and northern
Africa made strong iron tools and
weapons.
Technology in the Middle Ages
A period called the Middle Ages began
in Europe in about AD 500 and lasted
until about 1500. Many advances during
this time came from other places
Thousands of years ago Stone Age people
learned to create tools and weapons by
chipping away at pieces of stone.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Technology and Invention 25
for example, China, the Byzantine
Empire, Persia, India, and the Islamic
world.
By about the 1400s, Europeans learned
the Chinese technique of casting iron.
This involved heating iron in a special
furnace and then pouring it into a mold
to harden. Chinese inventors also developed
black powder, the original form of
gunpowder.
New sources of power were developed
during this time. The horse became a
major energy source with the invention
of the padded horse collar. The collar
meant that the horse could be used to
pull plows and other objects. People also
harnessed water and wind power to run
new types of water mills and windmills.
Two kinds of technology helped to end
the Middle Ages and to begin modern
times. The rudder (a part for steering a
ship), the triangular sail, and the compass
made possible the sea voyages of
European explorers. In about 1450
Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing
press. As a result books could be
produced in great numbers. Many
people learned to read, and learning
became widespread.
Industrial Revolution
Iron, Coal, and Steam
Early in the 1700s two English inventors
set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.
This was a period of great growth
of industry. Abraham Darby discovered
that a coke-burning furnace produced
good iron. Coke is a form of coal. Thomas
Newcomen invented a pump that
kept coal mines from filling with water.
A steam engine powered the pump.
With these developments, coal and iron
production expanded rapidly. Iron
remained the main metal for building
and toolmaking until the late 1800s. At
that time steel (a mixture of iron and
carbon) began to replace regular iron.
Meanwhile, in the late 1700s steam
began to replace wind and water as the
major source of power. In a steam
engine, burning coal heated water. The
boiling water produced the steam that
ran the engine.
Machines and Factories
Other inventions also sped up the production
of goodsespecially textiles, or
cloth. By the early 1800s such machines
as the power loom made cloth faster and
easier to weave. Cloth making moved
from homes and workshops into large
A French book from the late 1200s shows
two important inventions: the windmill and
the waterwheel. These devices use the
power of the wind or the water to run
machines, often to grind grain. Before they
were invented, the labor of people or animals
powered the machines.
26 Technology and Invention BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
mills and factories. The factories used
steam engines to run many of their
machines. Other industries followed this
model.
Transportation
Between 1765 and 1782 JamesWatt of
Scotland greatly improved the steam
engine. John Fitch of the United States
ran a steamboat as early as 1787. In
1803 Richard Trevithick created the
steam locomotive.
In 1856 Henry Bessemer of England
invented an improved way of making
steel. People began using steel to build
railroads, ships, and bridges. (People
also used steel to build the first
skyscrapers.)
In 1876 the German engineer Nikolaus
August Otto built a gasoline-powered
engine. By 1885 two Germans named
Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz had
used gasoline engines in the first successful
automobiles.
Electricity
In the first half of the 1800s scientists
learned to generate, or produce, electricity.
In 1835 Samuel F.B. Morse of the
United States used electricity in his telegraph.
This invention allowed people to
communicate across long distances. In
1876 the U.S. inventor Alexander Graham
Bell invented the telephone, which
also used electricity. Thomas Edison
demonstrated the electric lightbulb in
1879. Electric power also came to be
used for electric railways in cities.
Petroleum and Chemicals
In the second half of the 1800s petroleum,
or oil, became a major power
source. Edwin Laurentine Drake drilled
the first successful oil well in the United
States in 1859. Petroleum can be made
into gasoline, fuel oil, and many other
products.
In 1856 William Henry Perkin of
England made a breakthrough in the
A steam locomotive called the Dewitt Clinton
hauled carriages on railroad tracks in
the early 1830s.
Thomas Alva Edison holds up an early version
of the electric lightbulb, which he
developed in the late 1800s.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Technology and Invention 27
field of chemistry. Starting with coal
tar, which is made from coal, he
invented the first synthetic, or artificial,
dye. Coal tar and petroleum proved to
be useful in the making of drugs and
plastics as well.
Modern Technology
Mass Production
Modern manufacturing methods can
produce goods in large numbers. This is
called mass production. An important
technique of mass production is the
assembly line. An assembly line product
is put together one piece at a time as it
moves past workers on a conveyor. Each
worker does just one task. In the early
1900s Henry Ford perfected the assembly
line to make automobiles in the
United States.
Later in the 1900s robots began to
replace assembly-line workers. A robot is
a machine that operates on its own.
Air and Space
In 1903 the Wright brothers of Ohio
produced the first successful airplane.
The Russian-born inventor Igor
Sikorsky developed the helicopter in the
United States in the 1930s. At about
the same time Frank Whittle of
England developed a jet engine for
airplanes.
German scientists used rockets inWorld
War II (193945). Rocket engines carry
oxygen as well as fuel. This allows them
to work in outer space, where there is no
oxygen. After the war the Soviet Union
and the United States developed programs
to send people into outer space in
space ships. In 1957 the Soviets put the
first artificial satellite into orbit around
Earth. The Americans landed the first
human on the Moon in 1969.
Energy
Beginning in the 1900s scientists found
ways to harness the energy of sunlight.
Solar furnaces use mirrors to focus solar
heat. Solar cells make electricity from
sunlight.
Scientists also found ways to use the
energy that holds atoms together. Atoms
are the tiny units that make up everything.
This energy is called nuclear
energy. It found its first use in very powerful
bombs called atom bombs that the
United States used inWorldWar II.
Scientists soon learned to use nuclear
energy to make electric power.
Electronics and Computers
Electronic products changed peoples
lives greatly during the 1900s. Electronic
A machine in a factory produces polyester
cloth. Polyester is an artificial fiber made
from coal and petroleum (oil) products.
28 Technology and Invention BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
products rely on electricity to carry or
process information. Radios were some
of the first electronic products. By the
1920s radio programs were being broadcast
into peoples homes. Television, a
later electronic product, came into use
during the 1930s and 1940s. The first
electronic computers were invented in
the 1940s as well.
Later in the 1900s electronic products
became smaller. People discovered how
to fit the parts that make electronic
products work onto tiny chips called
integrated circuits. These chips made
personal computers possible. Other
inventions of the late 1900s also used
integrated circuits. They included compact
disc players, cellular telephones,
digital cameras, and many other electronic
products.
Technology and Medicine
In the 1900s scientists began applying
technology directly to living things. Scientists
developed electrical devices to
help people with disabilities. Some
devices, such as hearing aids and kidney
dialysis machines, operate from outside
the body. Doctors place other electrical
devices inside the body. For example,
pacemakers help keep hearts beating
steadily.
In addition, scientists learned how to cut
and rejoin genes. (Genes are tiny units
within cells that carry information about
a living thing.) This is called genetic
engineering. Genetic engineering may
help to cure human diseases. It also
helps to produce food plants that resist
diseases.
#More to explore
Airplane Automobile Bridge
Bronze Age Computer Electricity
Electronics Genetics Industrial
Revolution Iron Age Nuclear Energy
Petroleum Plastic Printing Radio
Railroad Robot Rocket Ship
Steel Stone Age Telephone
Television Textile
Tecumseh
Tecumseh was a leader of the Shawnee
Indians. He fought to keep American
settlers out of the Ohio River valley.
Tecumseh was born in 1768 in what is
now Ohio. His father was a Shawnee
chief. His mother belonged to the
Creek tribe. When Tecumseh was about
A dialysis machine helps a patient whose
kidneys are not working properly. The
machine does the work that the kidneys
would do. Blood from the patient flows
through the machine, where it is cleaned.
The blood then returns to the patients bloodstream.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tecumseh 29
6 years old, his father was killed in a
battle with white settlers. Then
Tecumsehs mother returned to her
people. An older sister and brother
raised Tecumseh. A Shawnee chief later
adopted him.
Tecumseh spent his life fighting American
settlers who were taking land from
Indians. As a boy during the American
Revolution, he helped the British attack
American colonists. Later he united
Indian tribes to fight Americans. He
worked with his brother Tenskwatawa, a
religious leader.
Tecumseh saw the War of 1812 as a
chance for his people to recover the land
they had lost. The war was between
Great Britain and the United States.
Tecumseh and his warriors helped the
British. They hoped a British victory
would allow the Indians to take back
their land.
British and Indian forces captured
Detroit, Michigan. Later Tecumsehs
army invaded Ohio with the British.
After failing to capture a fort near
Toledo, they crossed into Canada. The
British and the Indians were defeated
near the Thames River in Ontario on
October 5, 1813. Tecumseh was killed
in the battle.
#More to explore
Shawnee War of 1812
Teeth
Many vertebrates, or animals with backbones,
have teeth inside their mouths.
Teeth are hard, bony structures that
grow from the jawbone. Humans and
other animals use their teeth to bite and
to chew food.
Types of Teeth
Teeth of different shapes do different
jobs. Front teeth, called incisors, bite
and cut. Pointed teeth, called cuspids or
canines, tear and shred. Teeth with two
points, called bicuspids, tear and grind.
Back teeth, called molars, crush and
grind.
Humans have two sets of teeth during
their lives. The first set consists of 20
teeth. These are called primary, or baby,
teeth. When a child is about 6 years old,
these teeth begin to loosen and fall out.
Over the next eight years 28 permanent
teeth replace all the baby teeth. When a
person is around age 20, four more
Tecumseh led American Indians
in a losing struggle to keep their
land.
30 Teeth BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
molars, called wisdom teeth, grow in.
Many people have their wisdom teeth
removed to keep their other teeth
straight.
Tooth Structure
The visible part of a tooth is called the
crown. Several layers make up the
crown. The outer layer is a hard white
covering called enamel. Enamel protects
the tooth from wear and tear. Below the
enamel is dentin. This yellow, bonelike
material is softer than enamel. Dentin
makes up the largest part of the tooth.
The center of a tooth is called the pulp.
The pulp is soft tissue that contains
blood and nerves. Nerves in the teeth
send signals to the brain about heat,
cold, or pain.
The soft tissue around the base of each
tooth is called the gum. The roots of the
teeth lie below the gums. A tooth has
between one and three roots. A gluelike
substance called cementum coats the
roots. Cementum keeps the teeth stuck
in the jawbone.
Problems with Teeth
A common problem with teeth is tooth
decay, or cavities. Cavities can form if a
sticky film called plaque is allowed to
build up on the teeth. Germs in plaque
eat away the tooth and cause pain and
infection. Dentists fill cavities to prevent
further damage. Plaque can also make
gums red, sore, and weak. Over time,
weakened gums can wear down so far
that the teeth fall out. People can keep
teeth healthy by brushing and flossing
teeth and visiting the dentist.
Sometimes the teeth do not bite
together properly. Dentists called orthodontists
can straighten teeth.
#More to explore
Dentistry Mouth
The tusks of
elephants and
walruses are
enlarged
upper teeth.
A diagram shows the teeth of people at two
different ages. Humans have two sets of
teeth during their lives. The first set is called
the primary teeth. At about age 6, ones
primary teeth begin to fall out. The second
set, called the permanent teeth, replaces
them.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Teeth 31
Tegucigalpa
Population
(2007 estimate)
944,400
Tegucigalpa is the capital of Honduras,
a country in Central America. The city
lies on the Choluteca River. It is located
in a hilly region surrounded by
mountains. It is the largest city in
Honduras.
Tegucigalpa is one of the main industrial
centers in Honduras. Factories in the
city make cloth, clothing, processed
foods such as sugar, and other goods.
The Honduras region was once part of a
Spanish colony. Spanish conquerors
founded Tegucigalpa in 1578. They
built the city as a center for mining silver
from the nearby mountains.
Honduras became an independent
country in 1838. For much of the
1800s the countrys capital shifted back
and forth between Tegucigalpa and the
city of Comayagua. Tegucigalpa became
the permanent capital of Honduras in
1880.
A strong hurricane hit Honduras in
1998. Tegucigalpa was severely damaged.
..More to explore
Honduras
Tehran
Population
(2007 estimate)
7,873,000
Tehran is the capital of Iran, a country
in the Middle East. The city lies in the
Elburz Mountains. It is Irans largest city
by far. It is also a center of education
and industry.
Factories in Tehran make such products
as cloth, cement, food products, and
medicines. A factory near the city processes
oil. Many people in Tehran work
in government offices.
Iran has a long history. For most of that
history Tehran was not a very important
city. In ancient times the city of Rayy
Many houses sit on hilly ground in Tegucigalpa,
Honduras.
32 Tegucigalpa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
was the capital of Iran. Tehran was a
suburb of Rayy. Invaders nearly
destroyed Rayy in 1220. Many people
from Rayy then moved to Tehran.
Tehran was the home of several of Irans
rulers from the 1500s to the 1700s. It
became the capital of Iran in the 1780s.
Since then it has been the countrys
most important city. In the early 1900s
Irans rulers made Tehran larger and
more modern.
During a revolution in 1979 Islamic
leaders took control of Iran. Supporters
of the revolution captured the U.S.
embassy in Tehran. They held a group of
Americans as hostages there from 1979
until 1981.
In the 1980s a long war between Iran
and Iraq hurt Tehrans economy and
development. In the 1990s the city
began to grow again.
..More to explore
Iran
Tel AvivYafo
Population
(2006
estimate), city,
382,500; urban
area,
3,040,400
Tel AvivYafo is a large city in Israel, a
country in the Middle East. It is Israels
main center of business and culture. The
city lies on the Mediterranean Sea. As its
name suggests, it was created by combining
two towns: Tel Aviv and Yafo.
Yafo is the Hebrew name for the ancient
port city of Jaffa.
Most of Israels banks and insurance
companies have headquarters in Tel
AvivYafo. Many people in the city
work in business services, tourism, and
trade. Factories in Tel AvivYafo process
diamonds and foods and make clothing,
medicines, and high-technology products.
The bazaar is the market district of Tehran,
Iran. The merchants there offer many types
of goods for sale.
Tel AvivYafo is a modern city on the shore
of the Mediterranean Sea.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tel AvivYafo 33
Many thousands of years ago Jaffa was a
city of the Canaanite people. It was later
ruled by the Egyptians, Israelites, Persians,
and others. Muslim Arabs ruled
Jaffa from about the 1200s to the
middle of the 1900s.
Jewish settlers founded Tel Aviv in 1906.
At first it was a suburb of Jaffa. At the
time both cities were part of the land
called Palestine. In 1948 part of Palestine,
including Tel Aviv and Jaffa,
became the country of Israel. Israel soon
combined Tel Aviv and Jaffa to create
the city of Tel AvivYafo.
#More to explore
Israel
Telecommunication
Telecommunication is any kind of
human communication that takes place
across a distance. Several inventions have
helped people to communicate quickly
over great distances.
The first important step in telecommunication
was the telegraph. It was
invented in the 1830s by Samuel F.B.
Morse. His invention could send coded
messages instantly over a wire. Long and
short electrical signals, called Morse
Code, stood for letters of the alphabet.
By 1866 telegraph cables under the
Atlantic Ocean linked North America
and Europe.
The telephone made it possible to send
the sound of the human voice over a
wire. Alexander Graham Bell invented
the telephone in 1876. Today telephone
signals may travel through wires,
through fiber-optic cables, or even as
radio waves.
In the 1890s Guglielmo Marconi
invented the wireless telegraph, or radio.
Like the telegraph, his invention sent
messages in code, but the messages traveled
through the air as radio waves. Spoken
messages were first sent by radio in
1907. The first network of radio stations
in the United States was the National
Broadcasting Company (NBC). It
broadcast its first radio programs in
1926.
By the 1930s it was possible to send a
picture as well as a sound signal over
radio waves. This was the beginning of
television (TV). In 1936 the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) started
the worlds first TV programming. Now
television signals may travel as radio
waves or through cables.
Today the Internet makes it possible for
people around the world to communi-
Short-wave, microwave, cellular telephone,
and other types of telecommunication
antennas receive and send messages from
high ground near Phoenix, Arizona.
The historic
section of
Tel AvivYafo
is called Old
Jaffa. It is
known for its
gardens, narrow
alleys,
and art
studios.
34 Telecommunication BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
cate through computers. The U.S. government
developed an early form of the
Internet in the 1960s and 1970s. Telephone
wires, television cables, fiberoptic
cables, and satellites connect
computers around the world to the
Internet.
#More to explore
Communication Internet Radio
Telegraph Telephone Television
Telegraph
The telegraph is a device for communicating
over a distance. It uses electricity
to send coded messages through wires.
In the middle of the 1800s the telegraph
was the fastest way to communicate over
long distances.
Invention of the Telegraph
The first two working telegraphs were
invented at about the same time in the
1830s. In Great Britain two inventors
built a telegraph that used six wires and
five needles. A part called the transmitter
sent electric currents through the
wires. At the other end, the currents
moved needles on a part called the
receiver. The receiver had a special plate
with letters and numbers on it. The
needles pointed to the letters and numbers
to spell out messages.
Meanwhile, in the United States, Samuel
F.B. Morse worked on a telegraph of
his own. Morse developed a new system
for sending telegraph messages. It used
dots, dashes, and spaces to stand for
letters and numbers. This system is
called Morse Code. Morse and his partner,
Alfred Vail, built a telegraph with
just one wire. The transmitter had an
arm called a key. The person sending the
message pressed the key to tap out messages
in Morse Code.
In 1843 the U.S. government paid
Morse to build the first long-distance
telegraph line. It ran 35 miles (60 kilometers)
fromWashington, D.C., to Baltimore,
Maryland. The next year Morse
sent the first message through the system.
The message was What hath God
wrought!
The Telegraph Industry
Morses telegraph started an entire
industry. By the end of 1861 a telegraph
line ran all the way across the United
States. By the end of the 1800s telegraph
lines crisscrossed the world. In the early
1900s a new kind of telegraph could
print out messages. Later telegraphs
could send messages through the air
instead of through wires. The wireless
telegraph was an early form of radio. By
the end of the 20th century the tele-
The telegraph invented by Samuel F.B.
Morse had a key for tapping out messages.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Telegraph 35
graph had been mostly replaced by faster
communications that used computers.
#More to explore
Electricity Morse Code Radio
Telecommunication
Telephone
The telephone is a very common device
for communicating over a distance.
With a telephone, a person can talk
almost instantly with someone on the
other side of the world. Most telephones
are linked to each other by wires. Others,
such as cell phones, are connected
by invisible radio waves that travel
through the air.
How a Traditional Telephone
Works
A traditional telephone depends on
wires to send sound. It has a handset
and a base that are connected by a cord.
The handset is the part that a person
holds to make or answer a call. One end
of the handset has a microphone for
talking. The other end has a small loudspeaker
for listening. The base connects
the telephone to an electric current
through a wire.
When the caller speaks into a telephone,
the microphone changes the sound of
the persons voice into an electric signal.
The base sends out the signal through its
wire. How the signal travels from there
depends on where the call is going. It
can remain an electric current, passing
through wires and cables. It can travel
through thin glass fibers in the form of
light. This way of sending information is
called fiber optics. Or the signal can be
changed into radio waves and sent
through the air by antennas and satellites.
When the signal reaches the telephone
at the other end, its loudspeaker
changes it back into the sound of the
callers voice.
Cordless Telephones
A cordless telephone is more convenient
than a traditional telephone. It does not
have a cord connecting the handset and
the base. It allows a person to walk
around the house while talking.
A cordless telephone uses both electric
signals and radio waves. The base
receives the call as an electric signal, like
a corded phone does. Then the base
turns the electric signal into radio waves.
Using an antenna, the base sends the
waves through the air to the handset.
The handsets antenna picks up the
waves. Then the handset turns the waves
back into sound.
Cell Phones
Cellular telephones, or cell phones, are
even more convenient than cordless
phones because they work over a much
wider area. Because of this, in some places
they are called mobile phones. They send
and receive calls using radio waves.
Cell-phone companies divide up an area,
such as a city, into sections called cells.
Each cell has a tower for receiving and
sending out radio waves. If a caller travels
from one cell into another, the call
switches from tower to tower. This
means that a cell phone can work any-
The word
telephone
comes from
the Greek
words tele,
meaning far
and phone,
meaning
sound.
36 Telephone BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
place that the cell-phone companys
network reaches. Cell-phone networks
can stretch across an entire country.
A cell phone sends out a special signal
whenever it is turned on. The signal lets
the network know where to send the
calls that come to that phone.
Many cell phones can do things other
than make calls. Certain kinds can get
information from the Internet or send
and receive e-mail. Some cell phones can
take photographs.
History
Not everyone agrees who invented the
telephone. However, Alexander Graham
Bell usually gets the credit. In 1876 he
sent the first words by telephone. Later
that year Bell made the first longdistance
call. He talked with his assistant,
who was 2 miles (3.2 kilometers)
away. By 1915 people could place telephone
calls across the United States.
Telephone service across the Atlantic
Ocean began in 1927. The first cell
phones appeared in the late 1970s.
Telephones had no dials in the
first part of the 1900s. Instead of
dialing, callers told a telephone
operator the number they
wanted to call.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Telephone 37
In some reflecting telescopes light passes
though a lens before hitting the curved
mirror. The lens helps to make the
image sharper.
Some light telescopes are fairly small
tubes that sit on a stand and can be carried
around easily. Buildings called
observatories house much larger, more
powerful light telescopes. Spacecraft may
also carry light telescopes. The Hubble
Space Telescope, which orbits Earth on a
spacecraft, is a type of reflecting telescope.
Other Telescopes
Some types of telescopes do not collect
light. These telescopes collect other
forms of energy from spacefor
example, radio waves, infrared radiation
(a type of heat), and X-rays. Planets,
stars, gas, and other things in space give
off these types of energy.
Radio telescopes look like huge bowls.
They collect radio waves that travel to
Earths surface. Infrared, X-ray, and
other similar telescopes are mounted on
spacecraft.
All these telescopes allow scientists to
gather information about things in space
that cannot necessarily be seen. For
example, they have shown that there is
water vapor in other parts of the Milky
Way galaxy. They have also helped scientists
understand how stars and planets
form and how stars die.
History
By the early 1600s several people had
made simple refracting telescopes. In
1609 the Italian scientist Galileo
improved the design of a telescope made
by a Dutch inventor. Later in the 1600s
several inventors, including the English
scientist Isaac Newton, built reflecting
telescopes.
A U.S. astronomer built the first radio
telescope in 1937. Other scientific telescopes
developed along with spacecraft,
which scientists began launching in the
1950s.
#More to explore
Astronomy Galileo Lens Light
Mirror
Television
Television, or TV, is a system for sending
moving pictures and sound from one
place to another. It is one of the most
important and popular forms of communication.
TV programs provide news,
information, and entertainment to
people all over the world.
The Very Large Array is a group of 27
bowl-shaped radio antennas in the state of
New Mexico. Each antenna is 82 feet (25
meters) across. When used together they
make one very powerful radio telescope.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Television 39
How TVWorks
TV begins with a television camera, or
video camera. The camera records the
pictures and sound of a TV program. It
changes the pictures and sound into
electric signals. A TV set receives the
signals and turns them back into pictures
and sound.
The TV Signal
A standard TV camera changes the pictures
into an electric signal called the
video signal. The video signal carries the
pictures in the form of tiny dots called
pixels. The cameras microphone
changes the sound into another electric
signal, called the audio signal. The video
and audio signals together form the TV
signal.
Digital TV, or DTV, is a newer way of
handling TV signals. A digital TV signal
carries pictures and sound as a number
code, like a computer does. A digital
signal can carry more information than a
standard signal can, which creates better
pictures and sound. High definition TV,
or HDTV, is a high-quality form of
digital TV.
People who own plasma TVs often hang
them on a wall. Plasma TVs are thinner and
lighter than standard TVs.
Television stations may broadcast, or send, TV signals with antennas, satellites, or cables.
The signals sent with antennas may reach houses directly.
40 Television BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
A TV signal can reach a TV set in several
ways. Local TV stations use antennas to
send, or broadcast, signals through the
air as radio waves. Cable TV stations
send signals through underground
cables. Satellites, or spacecraft, traveling
high above Earth can send signals to
special antennas called satellite dishes. A
signal can also come from a VCR, DVD
player, or DVR (digital video recorder)
connected to the TV set. VCRs, DVRs,
and some DVD players can record a TV
signal coming into the TV and then play
it back later.
Display
A standard TV set turns the video signal
into beams of tiny particles called electrons.
It shoots these beams at the back
of the screen through a picture tube.
The beams paint the pixels on the
screen in a series of rows to form the
picture. The TV set sends the audio
signal to loudspeakers.
LCD and plasma TVs form the picture
differently. They do not use a picture
tube and electron beams. Because they
do not hold a picture tube, LCD and
plasma TVs are much thinner and
lighter than standard TVs. They can
even hang on a wall.
LCD stands for liquid crystal display.
Liquid crystal is a substance that flows
like a liquid but has some tiny solid
parts, too. The display sends light and
electric current through the liquid crystal.
The electric current causes the solid
parts to move around. They block or let
light through in a certain way to make
the picture on the screen.
A plasma display has many tiny cells, or
units, containing gas. Electricity sent
through the gas forms a plasma. A
plasma is a bunch of particles that have
an electric charge. The plasma gives off
light, which makes the picture.
Signals sent through satellite or cables go first to a cable or satellite TV company. Those
companies then send the signals to homes through other cables or satellites.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Television 41
History
Inventors in Great Britain and the
United States made the first demonstrations
of TV in the 1920s. The first
working TV sets appeared in the 1930s.
In 1936 the British Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC) started the worlds first TV
programming. The first commercial
television stations in the United States
started broadcasting in 1941.
Many families bought their first TV set
afterWorldWar II, in the late 1940s
and the 1950s. The first sets could show
only black-and-white pictures. Color TV
and cable TV started in the 1950s. Digital
TV arrived in the 1990s.
#More to explore
Camera Electronics Radio
Telecommunication
Temple
A temple is a building that people use
for worshipping gods or for other religious
purposes. The houses of worship
in many ancient religions were called
temples. Hinduism, Buddhism, and
several other religions today also have
temples. The architecture of temples
varies from place to place.
The temples of ancientMesopotamia (in
what is now Iraq) were highly decorated
towers called ziggurats. They were shaped
like pyramids with large steps. In ancient
Egypt temples often had large, decorated
columns. In the Americas the Inca and
theMaya built pyramid-shaped temples.
The ancient Greeks and Romans built
temples that have influenced architecture
until the present day. A Greek temple was
made of marble or stone. It had columns
that enclosed a space holding an image of
a god. An altar to that god stood outside
the temple. Roman temples were similar,
but the altar was inside the temple.
Hinduism and Buddhism began in
ancient India. People there carved
temples out of cliffs. Later Indian
temples were freestanding. They often
included tall, elaborately carved towers.
Today Hindu and Buddhist temples
throughout eastern Asia range from
small and simple to huge and complex.
Other religions that have temples
include Shinto and Jainism. Jewish synagogues
are often called temples, too.
Islamic temples are called mosques.
Christian houses of worship generally
are known as churches. However, Mormons
(followers of the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints) have temples
for special religious ceremonies.
#More to explore
Church Mosque Synagogue
Buddhist monks walk past a Buddhist temple
in Bangkok, Thailand.
42 Temple BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tennessee
The name Tennessee comes from a
Cherokee Indian word, Tanasi. Tanasi
was the name of a major Cherokee village
in the area. Tennessee is known as
the Volunteer State. The nickname came
from the large number of men who volunteered
for military service in theWar
of 1812. The capital is Nashville.
Geography
Tennessee is located in the south-central
part of the United States. It borders
eight states. In the west the Mississippi
River separates Tennessee from Missouri
and Arkansas. Virginia and Kentucky lie
to the north of Tennessee. Mississippi,
Alabama, and Georgia are to the south.
In the east Tennessee shares a border
with North Carolina.
Eastern Tennessee lies within the Appalachian
Mountain chain. The Blue
Ridge Mountains along the
TennesseeNorth Carolina border
include the range known as the
Great Smoky Mountains.West of the
mountains is an area of low ridges. The
central part of the state is a region with
generally flat but sometimes rolling
land.Western Tennessee consists of
plains, including a narrow strip of
swamp and floodplain along the Mississippi
River.
Tennessee has a moderate climate.Winters
are cool and summers are warm.
People
Most of Tennessees early white settlers
came from the Eastern states. These
people were mainly English, Scots-Irish,
and German. Today about four fifths of
the Tennessee population is white and of
European heritage. African Americans
are by far the largest minority group;
they represent 16 percent of the states
population.
Economy
Manufacturing and service industries
dominate Tennessees economy. The
states factories produce motor vehicles
The Great Smoky Mountains lie in the eastern
part of Tennessee.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tennessee 43
and parts, processed foods, chemicals,
and many other products.
Leading service industries include health
care, real estate, and tourism. Tourists
visit Tennessees natural wonders, such
as the Great Smoky Mountains. Civil
war battlefields and the musical attractions
located in Memphis and Nashville
are also popular. Tennessees major agricultural
products include cattle, chickens,
greenhouse plants and produce, and
dairy goods.
History
Native Americans including the Cherokee
and the Chickasaw lived in the area
that is now Tennessee before European
settlers arrived. In the second half of the
1600s both the French and the English
claimed the area. Settlers from both
countries built forts and trading posts.
In 1763 Britain took control of the
whole area.
The first permanent white settlement in
the region was started in 1769. Many
other people from the American colonies
followed. In 1796 Tennessee
became the nations 16th state.
The American CivilWar (186165)
divided Tennessee. The eastern part of
the state sided with the North, but the
western planters and slave owners supported
the South. Tennessee battlefields
at Shiloh and other places were sites of
intense fighting during the war.
In 1933 the United States government
created an agency called the Tennessee
Valley Authority (TVA). Under the
TVA, new dams and hydroelectric
power plants were built on Tennessee
rivers. The dams and power plants
helped control floods and generated
electricity for the region.
Tennessee was a center of the civil
rights movement in the 1950s and
1960s. Tragically, Memphis was the
scene of the 1968 killing of civil rights
leader Martin Luther King, Jr. In the
1990s the population of Tennessee
increased faster than that of the United
States as a whole. Tennessees economy
also grew during this period. The state
supported this growth by encouraging
the development of many different
types of industry.
..More to explore
Cherokee Nashville
The Cumberland River reflects the skyline of
Nashville, the second largest city in Tennessee.
The BellSouth Building is topped by two
spires. It was the tallest building in the state
when it was built in 1994.
Facts About
TENNESSEE
Flag
Population
(2000 census)
5,689,283
rank, 16th state;
(2008 estimate)
6,214,888
rank, 17th state
Capital
Nashville
Area
42,143 sq mi
(109,151 sq
km)rank, 36th
state
Statehood
June 1, 1796
Motto
Agriculture and
Commerce
State bird
Mockingbird
State flower
Iris
44 Tennessee BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tennis
Tennis is a fast-paced sport for two or
four players. It can be played either outdoors
or indoors. Tennis players use a
stringed racket to hit a ball over a net.
They score points by hitting the ball out
of the opponents reach.
Court and Equipment
Tennis is played on a rectangular court.
The court is 78 feet (23.8 meters) long.
The width depends on whether there are
two or four players. For a singles match
(two players), the court is 27 feet (8.2
meters) wide. For a doubles match (four
players), the court is 36 feet (11 meters)
wide. The surface of the court may be
grass, clay, or a hard material such as
concrete. The court is divided in half by
a net that is 3 feet (0.9 meter) high.
The only equipment needed for tennis is
a racket and a ball. A tennis racket has a
frame with crossed strings attached to it.
Most racket frames are made of a lightweight
material such as graphite. Tennis
balls are small, light, and bouncy. They
are usually yellow or white.
Playing the Game
A tennis game begins with a serve. One
of the players, called the server, stands at
one end of the court. The server throws
the ball into the air and tries to hit it
over the net. The opponent tries to
return the servehit the ball back over
the net. The players hit the ball back
and forth until one of them fails to
make a good return. Then the other
player scores a point. The players try to
hit the ball to a part of the court where
the opponent will have a hard time
returning it.
The serve is the most important stroke
in tennis. The served ball must land in a
boxed area on the opponents side of the
A tennis court is 78 feet long. Its width depends on how many people are playing. In a
singles match, or a match for two players, the court does not include the alleys. The alleys
are used only for doubles matches, in which four people play. The alleys make the court wider.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tennis 45
court. If the ball misses that box, it is
called a fault. The server then gets
another chance to serve. If the server
makes another fault, the opponent gets a
point. On the other hand, the server
earns a point by serving the ball so well
that the opponent cannot hit it. This is
called an ace.
A player needs four points to win a
game. Points are counted in four stages:
15 for the first point, 30 for the second,
40 for the third, and game. A score of
zero is called love. The servers score is
given first. For example, if the score is
30love, the server has two points and
the opponent none. If both players reach
40, the score is called deuce. The player
who scores the first point after deuce
must also get the next point to win the
game. In other words, a player must win
by two points.
A series of games makes up a set, and a
series of sets makes up a match. The first
player to win six games traditionally
wins a set. But again, a player must win
by two. This means that a player cannot
win a set by a score of 65. The set continues
until one player wins by two
gamesfor example, 75 or 86. To
win a match, a player usually has to win
either two out of three or three out of
five sets.
History
Major Walter CloptonWingfield of
Great Britain published the first book of
tennis rules in 1873. The first tennis
championship took place four years
later. It was held in a part of London,
England, calledWimbledon. Tennis
reached the United States in the 1870s.
Four major international tennis tournaments
take place each yearone in Australia,
one in France, one in the United
Kingdom, and one in the United States.
A player who wins all four is said to have
won the Grand Slam.
Tenzing Norgay
Tenzing Norgay was an expert mountain
climber. In 1953 he and Edmund Hillary
of New Zealand became the first
people to set foot on top of Mount Everest,
the worlds tallest peak.
Tenzing Norgay was born on May 15,
1914, in Tshechu, Tibet. He was a
Sherpa. Sherpas are people known for
their strength and endurance at high
altitudes. Tenzing worked on many
Everest expeditions. On March 10,
1953, he began climbing with a group
that included Hillary. The two men
reached the top on May 29. Tenzing left
a food offering, a common practice in
Doubles tennis is played with two players
on a side. A doubles court is slightly wider
than a singles court.
46 Tenzing Norgay BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
his Buddhist religion. He died on May
9, 1986, in Darjeeling, India.
#More to explore
Everest, Mount Hillary, Edmund
Teresa, Mother
The Roman Catholic nun called Mother
Teresa received the Nobel peace prize in
1979 for helping to relieve the sufferings
of the poor. She was especially active in
the slums of Calcutta (now Kolkata),
India.
She was born on August 27, 1910, in
Skopje, Macedonia. Her birth name was
Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu. In 1928 she
joined a community of nuns in Ireland
called the Sisters of Loretto.Weeks later
she sailed to India. For the next 17 years
she taught at a school in Calcutta run by
the Sisters of Loretto.
In 1946 Mother Teresa decided to
spend her life helping the sick and the
poor. She studied nursing and started
working in the slums. In 1948 she
founded the Missionaries of Charity, a
religious order of women dedicated to
serving the poor. Mother Teresa led the
order for nearly 50 years. It opened
schools for children and centers to treat
the blind, the disabled, the old, and the
dying. She received many awards for
her work.
In 1989 Mother Teresa suffered a heart
attack. Despite her poor health, she continued
to work in Calcutta most of the
time until she retired in March 1997.
She died there on September 5, 1997.
After her death, the Missionaries of
Charity carried on her work in more
than 90 countries.
#More to explore
Roman Catholicism
Termite
Termites are insects that eat wood. They
can damage buildings, furniture, and
other wooden items. There are more
than 1,500 species, or kinds, of termite.
They are most common in tropical rain
forests.
Termites build damp nests in wood or
underground. Some underground nests
rise partly above the ground as mounds
or towers. The nests are made of dirt,
clay, and chewed wood.
Termites live in organized groups called
colonies. Each colony has three kinds of
In 1963 the
Indian government
awarded
Mother Teresa
the title
Padmashri
(Lord of the
Lotus) for her
services to the
people of
India.
Mother Teresa
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Termite 47
termite: royalty, soldiers, and workers.
Each kind of termite has a certain job
within the colony.
The royalty is made up of a king and
queen. They are responsible for reproduction.
These termites have wings and
eyes. A queen can grow to more than 4
inches (10 centimeters). Kings are
smaller.
Once a year pairs of young kings and
queens leave the nest. Each pair starts a
new colony. Soon the young queens
begin laying 3,000 to 5,000 eggs a day.
The soldiers and the workers are grayish
white, blind, and wingless. They are
usually less than 0.25 inch (1 centimeter)
long. Soldiers guard the nest against
enemies, mainly ants.Workers provide
the colony with food.
Termites eat mostly wood. They attack
and often destroy trees, fence posts,
houses, and furniture. But termites also
help nature by breaking down dead
wood into nutrients. The nutrients can
then be recycled and used by bacteria
and plants.
#More to explore
Insect Nest
Terrorism
Terrorists are people who use fear to try
to change society. They create fear by
committing violent crimes. In the 21st
century many countries consider terrorists
to be more dangerous than enemy
armies.
Goals
Not all terrorists want the same thing.
Some want to overthrow a government.
They are called revolutionary terrorists.
Examples include the Red Brigades in
Italy in the 1970s and the Shining Path
in Peru in the 1980s and 1990s. Both
groups wanted to establish Communist
governments.
Other terrorists want independence for a
particular group. In Sri Lanka a group
called the Liberation Tigers seeks a
homeland for the Tamil people. Several
Palestinian groups want to start a Palestinian
state in the Middle East and to
weaken or destroy Israel.
Some terrorists oppose minority groups.
The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was formed
in the United States in the 1860s to
prevent African Americans from voting.
Later the KKK also targeted Catholics,
Jews, and other groups.
Sometimes the rulers of a country practice
another kind of terrorism by killing
Termites eat their way through a piece of
wood.
48 Terrorism BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
their own citizens. Such rulers want to
make people afraid to go against their
power. Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union
and Saddam Hussein of Iraq ruled by
terror.
Methods andWeapons
Terrorists often use bombs. They might
carry bombs in cars, in packages, or on
their bodies. They might also send
bombs in packages. People called suicide
bombers intend to die when they set off
their explosives.
Terrorists can also release chemicals or
other harmful substances. In 1995 a
Japanese group released poison gas into
the subway system in the city of Tokyo.
Twelve people were killed. In 2001 five
people died in the United States after
someone mailed letters containing the
disease anthrax.
Terrorists also kidnap or assassinate
(murder) leaders. Or they might hijack,
or seize, boats or airplanes. Sometimes
they hold the passengers as hostages
until their demands are met.
History
The word terrorism was first used in the
French Revolution, which began in
1789. It described the way some of the
revolutionary leaders punished those
who opposed their actions.
In the late 1800s people called anarchists
started to use terrorism. Anarchists
want to do away with all
government. An anarchist killed U.S.
PresidentWilliam McKinley in 1901.
Anarchists also killed several European
leaders.
In the 1900s more groups used terrorism
than ever before. One reason is that
deadly weapons became easier to get.
Another reason is that airplane travel
gave terrorists new ways to commit violence.
Many of the groups that used
terrorism had political goals. Others had
very strong religious beliefs.
In September 2001 members of a group
called al-Qaeda hijacked four airplanes
in the United States. They crashed three
of them into buildings. Their targets
included theWorld Trade Center in
New York City and the Pentagon, near
Washington, D.C. It was the deadliest
terrorist act up to that time. About
3,000 people were killed. Soon afterward
U.S. President GeorgeW. Bush
declared a war on terror.
#More to explore
Crime Ku Klux Klan
Terrorists crashed an airplane into the Pentagon,
near Washington, D.C., on September
11, 2001. The Pentagon is the
headquarters of the U.S. Department of
Defense.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Terrorism 49
Texas
Texas was an independent
nation before becoming part of
the United States. It had won freedom
from Mexico in 1836. Nine years later
on December 29, 1845, Texas was
admitted to the Union. Its national flag
then became its state flag. This red,
white, and blue flag with a single star
was the origin of the Texas nickname,
the Lone Star State. Austin is the
capital.
Geography
Texas is located in the south-central part
of the United States. The river called the
Rio Grande separates Texas from the
country of Mexico on the southwest.
The Gulf of Mexico lies to the southeast.
East of Texas are Louisiana and
Arkansas. New Mexico is to the west,
and Oklahoma is to the north.
The landscape of Texas consists mainly
of plains and hills. The largest natural
region is the coastal plain that covers
southern and eastern Texas. It consists of
flat, low prairies that stretch far inland
from the Gulf of Mexico. In the central
and west-central parts of the state are
raised plateaus and hill country.
The Texas panhandle is a block of land
that extends northward above the rest of
the state. It is a flat, dry area with frequent
sandstorms. The eastern edge of
the panhandle and the north-central
part of the state are lowland regions of
The Guadalupe Mountains
National Park in western Texas
features rugged mountains surrounded
by a desert.
50 Texas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
prairie and rolling plains. The most rugged,
mountainous land in Texas lies in
the far west.
People
During the late 20th century Texas was
one of the fastest-growing states in the
country. Texas is now second in population
only to California. Three of its
urban centersHouston, Dallas, and
San Antonioare ranked among the
countrys 10 most populated cities.
Whites of European heritage represent
more than half of the states residents.
Hispanic Americans, mostly of Mexican
origin, make up almost a third of the
population. About 12 percent of the
people are African American.
Economy
The Texas economy is among the largest
in the country. Major parts of the
economy include commercial trade, real
estate, and finance. Tourism is also valuable
to the state. About 40 million
people visit the state each year.
The states top manufacturing industries
are in the field of high technology. These
industries include the production of
computers and electronic products.
Texas is the home of Dell, a major computer
company. Another company in the
state, Texas Instruments, is a major producer
of electronic goods and military
equipment. Oil production and the
manufacture of chemical and petroleum
(oil) products also contribute to the
states economy.
In agriculture, Texas ranks first in the
country in the production of cattle.
Other valuable farm products include
cotton and chickens.
History
Native Americans lived in the Texas
region before Europeans arrived. Early
tribes included the Caddo, the Jumano,
and others. Later the Comanche moved
into the area.
The Spanish began to explore the Texas
region in the early 1500s. In 1685 the
French explorer Sieur de La Salle started
a settlement along the Texas coast. It did
not last long, but it did make the Spanish
move more quickly to build settlements
of their own. San Antonio was
founded in 1718 and became the main
settlement of Spanish Texas.
Sand dunes stretch along an island off the coast of Texas in the Gulf of Mexico.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Texas 51
When Mexico declared its independence
from Spain in 1821, Texas became part
of Mexico. During this period, Mexico
allowed pioneers from the United States
to enter the territory and set up colonies.
Stephen F. Austin brought the first
group of colonists to a site along the
Brazos River. Austin is often called the
Father of Texas.
Texans soon became unhappy with the
Mexican government. In 1835 they
revolted, and the next year they declared
independence. In the most famous
battle of the Texas war for independence,
the Texans fought heroically to
defend a mission called the Alamo. They
lost at the Alamo, but they eventually
defeated the Mexicans at a battle along
the San Jacinto River. Texas became an
independent republic in 1836. Sam
Houston, the leader of the war, was
elected its first president.
In 1845 Texas was admitted to the
United States as the 28th state. Like
other Southern states, Texas allowed
slavery at that time. It joined the Confederacy
during the American CivilWar
(186165). Although Texans fought for
the South, the state itself was far
removed from the major battlefields.
After the war Texas cowboys began driving
cattle northward to markets or
ranges. This vital industry led to the
popular image of the cowboy in song,
story, and film. The great cattle drives
continued until about 1890.
The states oil industry owes much to a
place named Spindletop. Located near
Beaumont, Spindletop became the
states first great oil well in 1901.
Numerous other wells followed. A huge
oil field in eastern Texas was discovered
in 1930.
On November 22, 1963, U.S. president
John F. Kennedy was shot to death in
Dallas. The vice president, Texas politician
Lyndon B. Johnson, became the
countrys next president.
Another politician from Texas, George
Bush, served as the countrys president
from 1989 to 1993. His son GeorgeW.
Bush was elected president in 2000 and
reelected in 2004. The Bushes were only
the second father and son to both serve
as president (the first were John Adams
and John Quincy Adams).
..More to explore
Alamo American CivilWar Austin
Restaurants and cafes draw
many people to the section of
San Antonio, Texas, known as
the River Walk.
Facts About
TEXAS
Flag
Population
(2000 census)
20,851,820
rank, 2nd state;
(2008 estimate)
24,326,974
rank, 2nd state
Capital
Austin
Area
268,581 sq mi
(695,621 sq
km)rank, 2nd
state
Statehood
December 29,
1845
Motto
Friendship
State bird
Mockingbird
State flower
Bluebonnet
52 Texas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Textile
The word textile commonly means
woven or knitted cloth. Lace, felt, and
many other kinds of cloth are considered
textiles, too. Even nets, rope, and yarn
may be called textiles. People use textiles
to make clothing, towels, sheets, table
linens, carpets, boat sails, flags, and
many other things.
Textile production is one of the worlds
major industries. Factories throughout
the world produce many tons of textiles
every year. But people still create textiles
in small shops and at home as well.
Making Textiles
To create textiles, people first make
thread or yarn out of fibers. Some fibers
are naturalfor example, cotton, wool,
linen, and silk. Others are artificial, or
man-madefor example, nylon and
polyester. Then people weave, knit,
knot, loop, or braid the thread or yarn
together. These processes may be done
by hand or by machine. People also may
make textiles by pressing or gluing fibers
together.
People often dye the thread or yarn
before making it into textiles. They also
may dye or print designs on cloth after it
is made.
History
People have made yarn and woven cloth
for thousands of years. Some of the
worlds oldest textiles have been found
in ancient Egyptian tombs. Fragments of
3,000-year-old cloth also have been
found in South America.
At first, people made cloth for themselves
and their families. Eventually
craftspeople took over the work and
divided it into separate trades. Different
workers spun the yarn, dyed it, and
wove it into cloth. Other workers sold
the cloth in shops. In the Middle Ages
(about AD 500 to 1500) certain cities
and regions became known for the kinds
of textiles they made.
People made textiles by hand or with
simple machines until the 1700s. Several
inventions then made weaving faster. By
the 1800s water and steam power ran
many textile-making machines. Since
that time, called the Industrial Revolution,
textiles have been made mainly in
factories.
#More to explore
Clothing Fibers Industrial
Revolution
Rayon was the
first artificial
textile fiber. It
was first made
in the 1800s.
Merchants in the country of
Uzbekistan display many kinds
of colorful cloth for sale.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Textile 53
Thailand
The local name for Thailand means
land of the free. True to its name,
Thailand is the only country in Southeast
Asia that was never ruled by European
powers. Thailands capital is
Bangkok.
Geography
Thailand is shaped like an elephants
head. Narrow southern Thailand is the
trunk, and the north is the head and the
ear. Thailand shares borders with Myanmar,
Laos, Cambodia, and Malaysia.
The Andaman Sea, a part of the Indian
Ocean, lies to the west. The Gulf of
Thailand lies to the east.
Mountains and deep river valleys cover
northern Thailand. The highest peak,
Mount Inthanon, is 8,481 feet (2,585
meters) high. The mountains run down
the western border into the south. The
Chao Phraya is the countrys major
river. It flows through plains in central
Thailand. The northeast is a broad, flat
area called the Khorat Plateau.
Winds known as monsoons affect Thailands
climate. The winds bring a hot
season, a rainy season, and a cool season.
Plants and Animals
Bamboo, coconut palms, mangroves,
ferns, and mango and papaya trees grow
in Thailand. Teak and other hardwood
trees grow in the rain forests of the
north.
Small numbers of wild elephants, rhinoceroses,
and tapirs live in Thailand.
Many monkeys and birds live in the
forests. Lizards, frogs, snakes, and crocodiles
are common.
People
Thai people make up most of the population.
Chinese people form a smaller
group. The country also has small
An unusual rock formation stands in a bay
in southern Thailand.
54 Thailand BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
groups of Malays, Khmer, and others.
Thai is the main language, but English
is also widely spoken.
Almost all the people of Thailand follow
Buddhism. Some people in the south,
especially Malays, practice Islam. Most
people live in rural areas.
Economy
Tourism is one of Thailands largest
industries. Manufacturing is another
important part of the economy. Some of
the major products are clothing, computers
and other electronics, cement,
sugar, and jewelry. Thailand is one of the
worlds largest producers of the metals
tungsten and tin. The countrys mines
also provide coal, natural gas, and gems.
Many Thai people work in farming. The
main crops include rice, sugarcane, cassava,
and corn. Thailand also produces
natural rubber, pineapples, and bananas.
Pigs, chickens, and fish are other sources
of food.
History
Thousands of years ago people in what
is now Thailand grew rice and made
metal tools. Between the AD 500s and
800s the Mon people set up small Buddhist
kingdoms. By the 1100s the
Khmer people of what is now Cambodia
ruled parts of eastern Thailand.
Thai peoples moved into the area from
China in about the 900s. In the 1200s
they founded two kingdoms in what is
now northern Thailand. The Sukhothai
kingdom was founded after a local Thai
ruler led a revolt against the Khmer. The
Lan Na kingdom was founded after
another Thai ruler conquered a Mon
kingdom.
In the 1300s the kingdom of Ayutthaya
took the place of Sukhothai. The kingdom
came to be known as Siam. Siam
conquered Lan Na in the 1700s.
In 1782 a royal family called the Chakri
dynasty came to power in Siam. During
the 1800s Siam stayed independent
while Europeans took over neighboring
countries. In 1932 a military revolt
ended the Chakri dynastys absolute
control over the country. Siam then
became a constitutional monarchy. This
means that the country still has a king
from the Chakri dynasty, but his powers
are limited. In 1939 the country became
known as Thailand.
The military took control of Thailand in
1947. In 1973 students held protests
that led to a more democratic government.
But military leaders took power
several times in the following years.
..More to explore
Bangkok Buddhism
Tourists ride tame elephants in Thailand.
Facts About
THAILAND
Population
(2008 estimate)
64,316,000
Area
198,117 sq mi
(513,120 sq km)
Capital
Bangkok
Form of
government
Constitutional
monarchy
Major cities
Bangkok, Samut
Prakan, Nonthaburi,
Udon
Thani, Nakhon
Ratchasima
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Thailand 55
Thames River
The Thames River has been the main
waterway of England since the time of
the ancient Romans. Compared to the
great rivers of the world, the Thames is
neither long nor mighty. Its importance
comes from the great civilization that
arose on its banks.
The Thames begins in the Cotswold
Hills of central England. From there it
winds about 210 miles (338 kilometers)
from west to east. After passing the city
of Oxford, it flows through the countryside
and then into London. The many
landmarks along the Thames in London
include the Houses of Parliament, Saint
Pauls Cathedral, the Tower of London,
and the Millennium Dome. The
Thames empties into the North Sea.
People have lived in the Thames Valley
for thousands of years. Before railways
and good roads were built, the Thames
was the areas main trade route. Over
time many industries were set up along
the banks. Today millions of people
depend on the river for water and for
sewage removal.
#More to explore
England River
Thanksgiving
Thanksgiving is a yearly holiday marked
by feasts and family gatherings. The day
is celebrated in the United States,
Canada, and other countries. It takes
place on the fourth Thursday in November
in the United States. In Canada it
occurs on the second Monday in October.
Both countries celebrate Thanksgiving
with turkey feasts. In the United
States, Thanksgiving Day parades and
football games have become important
traditions as well.
The Pilgrims of the Plymouth colony
held the first Thanksgiving in 1621.
They had landed in America on their
ship the Mayflower in December 1620.
Only half of them survived that first
There are many important buildings along
the Thames River. The group of buildings at
left is the Houses of Parliament, in London,
England. This is where members of the British
Parliament meet.
56 Thames River BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
winter. The next year, the harvest in the
fall was good. To celebrate their harvest,
the colonists and their Native American
guests enjoyed a three-day feast.
Sarah Josepha Hale, the editor of a
popular womens magazine, led the
effort to have Thanksgiving become a
national celebration in the United
States. In 1846 she started sending letters
to important politicians in order to
achieve her goal. Finally, in 1863, President
Abraham Lincoln proclaimed a
national day of Thanksgiving. In
December 1941 Congress officially
named the fourth Thursday in November
as Thanksgiving Day.
Theater
A theater is a place where people go to
see plays and other performances. The
word theater can also refer to everything
involved in producing a live staged performance.
The most common form of
theater is a drama, or play. A drama is a
story that is acted out for an audience.
Other kinds of theatrical productions
may feature elements other than a story.
They include musicals, puppet shows,
circuses, operas, and ballets and other
dance performances.
Inside the Theater
The part of a theater where the actors
perform is called the stage. The most
common kind, called a proscenium
stage, is like a room with three walls.
The audience sits in an auditorium and
views the production as though looking
through the fourth wall. Some theaters
have a thrust stage, which extends partly
into the seating area. The audience sits
on three sides of the extended section of
a thrust stage. In an arena stage the audience
surrounds the stage. An arena stage
is also called theater-in-the-round.
Other important parts of the theater
include the backstage area and the dressing
rooms. There is also a booth where
technicians control the lighting and
sound.
People in Theater
Many people work together to create
theater. In a play actors have the most
visible roles. The main people behind
the scenes are the producer and the
director. As the plays main businessperson,
a producer obtains and manages
all the money. The director decides how
the play will be brought to life. This
involves overseeing the actors and the
behind-the-scenes crew. The director
also runs rehearsals, or practices. A playwright
writes the script, which contains
the words the actors say.
A family prepares to eat a turkey dinner
together at Thanksgiving.
The word theater
comes
from a Greek
word meaning
a place for
seeing.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Theater 57
The stage manager oversees all behindthe-
scenes activity during the production.
The set designer creates backdrops
and furniture. The property master
manages the small items, or props, used
onstage. Lighting experts focus light on
the stage to concentrate on certain activity
and to set a mood. The makeup artist
and costume designer help the actors
look their parts.
Other types of theatrical productions
may involve other people with special
talents. For example, in puppet theater
various people design, make, and operate
the puppets. In productions featuring
dance a person called a
choreographer may make up all the
dance steps and movements. Musicians
and composers may be a key part of
productions that use music.
History
Early Theater
In ancient Greece plays were performed
as part of special festivals. The audience
sat on seats carved into the side of a hill
overlooking the stage. Some ancient
Greek theaters could seat as many as
20,000 people.
In Europe during the Middle Ages (AD
5001500) plays were often related to
Christianity. At first they were performed
in churches. Later they were
performed outdoorson the church
steps, on decorated platforms, or sometimes
even in wagons.
In the 1300s a type of theater called
Noh was developed in Japan. Noh plays
combine words, music, and dance to
portray legends. Men or boys play all the
parts, including the female characters.
The actors do not act out scenes. Instead
they use their movements and appearance
as symbols to suggest the story. A
Noh play takes place on a thrust stage.
The stage has four pillars topped by a
curving temple roof.
The Renaissance (1300s to 1500s) was a
period of great artistic creation in
Europe. The large theaters built then set
the pattern for todays theaters. Grand
spectacles staged in these theaters were
usually for the upper classes. The common
people went to see groups of traveling
actors perform comic entertainment
outdoors.
In the late 1500s many theaters opened
in London, England. The most famous
was the Globe Theater, where William
Shakespeare staged many of his plays.
The Globe had a thrust stage that
extended halfway into an open court-
Actors who
played gods in
ancient Greek
plays were
sometimes
hung from a
crane so they
could fly
across the
stage.
In the 1600s many of William Shakespeares
plays were performed at the Globe
Theater in London, England. The theater
was torn down in the mid-1600s, but it was
rebuilt on almost the same spot in the 1990s.
58 Theater BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
yard. The common people stood in the
courtyard.Wealthier members of the
audience sat in seats. During Shakespeares
time women did not perform in
plays. The female characters were played
by men or boys who dressed as women.
Modern Theater
In Japan in the 1600s a new form of
drama called Kabuki appeared. It
focused on singing, dancing, and mime
(movement without words). Actors in a
Kabuki play wear striking costumes and
makeup. They use elaborate gestures to
show strong emotions. Kabuki is performed
on a thrust stage. A narrow,
raised platform extends through the
audience from the stage to the back of
the theater. The actors use the platform
for dancing and for important entrances
and exits. A female dancer developed
Kabuki. But after the 1650s only men
acted in the plays.
Kabuki is related to a form of Japanese
puppet theater called Bunraku. In Bunraku
the performers move around large
dolls to act out a drama. One of the
performers chants the words of the story.
Puppet theater also has a long tradition
in many other countries, including
Indonesia, Turkey, India, and China. In
Europe puppet shows presented favorite
characters in entertaining stories.
In Europe during the 1600s many theaters
began to use the proscenium, or
arch, stage. This is the type of stage seen
in many modern theaters.
Several actors in Europe andNorth
America in the 1700s and 1800s
developed new ideas about acting. Before
then actors often read their parts as if they
were making a speech. The English actor
David Garrick developed a more natural
acting style.He delivered his lines in the
spirit of the character he was playing.
In the 1800s New York City became the
theatrical center of the United States, as
London was in England. In the 1900s
people began performing theater in a
greater variety of places.More cities and
towns around the world built new
theaters.
#More to explore
Ballet Circus Dance Drama Opera
Bunraku is a Japanese form of puppet theater.
The people who move the puppets
appear on the stage with the puppets.
A crowd watches a play being performed
at an outdoor theater in Kabul, Afghanistan.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Theater 59
Thimphu
Population
(2002 estimate)
45,000
Thimphu is the capital of Bhutan, a
small country in south-central Asia. The
city lies on the Raidak River in a valley
of the Himalaya Mountains. It is a small
city. It does not have the crowds and
activity that many other capitals have.
Farming is the main economic activity
in Thimphu. Farmers grow rice, corn,
and wheat around the city. Thimphu has
few industries. The leading industries
process timber and make electricity from
waterpower.
Little is known about the early history of
Thimphu. The high mountains surrounding
Bhutan long kept it separate
from the rest of the world.
For hundreds of years Bhutan had no set
capital. The center of government was
wherever the king lived. In 1962, however,
Thimphu was named the capital.
The government then began making the
city more modern.
#More to explore
Bhutan
Thistle
Thistles are prickly plants that most
people think of as weeds. But some
kinds of thistle have nice flowers, and
people grow them as garden plants. One
type of thistle is the national symbol of
Scotland.
Thistles can grow to more than 8 feet
(2.4 meters) tall. They usually have
prickly leaves. The stem and flowers can
also be prickly. The leaves usually have
ragged edges. They are green or blue
green and are sometimes covered with
fine white hairs.
Thistles have many tiny flowers growing
together in tight clusters. The flowers are
packed so closely that the clusters look
like single flowers. Most types of thistle
can grow dozens of these flower clusters
on one plant. The flowers are mostly
pink, purple, or yellow. They produce
feathery seeds that scatter in the wind.
Thistles grow mostly from seeds. Some
thistles also can grow from small pieces
of root in the soil. This makes thistles
Farm crops grow close to an old Buddhist
religious building that now houses the government
of Bhutan. In the distance is the city
of Thimphu.
60 Thimphu BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
hard to remove from farm fields.
Thistles are also hard to get rid of
because their roots grow deep into the
soil. Also, livestock and other animals do
not eat thistles because they are so
prickly.
#More to explore
Plant Scotland
Thorpe, Jim
Jim Thorpe was one of the greatest allaround
athletes in history. He excelled at
football, baseball, basketball, boxing,
lacrosse, swimming, and hockey.
James Francis Thorpe was born on May
28, 1888, in Indian Territory, which is
now Oklahoma. He was mostly of
Native American descent. Thorpe
attended Carlisle Indian Industrial
School in Pennsylvania. There he played
football under the famous coach named
PopWarner.
In 1912 Thorpe went to the Olympic
Games in Stockholm, Sweden. He won
gold medals in the decathlon and the
pentathlon. (The decathlon is a trackand-
field competition with 10 events.
The pentathlon has five events.) But in
1913 Thorpes medals were taken away
from him. It was found that Thorpe had
played professional baseball in 1909 and
1910. A rule stated that professional
athletes could not participate in the
Olympics.
Thorpe played major league baseball
from 1913 through 1919. Then, from
The flowers of a thistle are
actually clusters of many tiny
flowers.
Jim Thorpe was a star player in
the early days of American professional
football.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Thorpe, Jim 61
1919 through 1926, he was an early star
of American professional football. In
192021 he served as the first president
of the organization that is now called the
National Football League.
Thorpe died in Lomita, California, on
March 28, 1953. The International
Olympic Committee returned Thorpes
Olympic gold medals to his family in
1983.
Tibet
Tibet is a part of western China. It has
some of the worlds tallest mountains.
Tibet is so high that it is often called the
Roof of theWorld. The capital is Lhasa.
Most of Tibet is on a piece of land called
the Plateau of Tibet. The plateau is a
raised flat area about 15,000 feet (4,600
meters) above sea level. The Himalaya
Mountains are to the south. Mount
Everest, the worlds highest peak, is on
the border of Tibet and the country of
Nepal. Tibets climate is cold and dry.
Almost all the people of Tibet are Tibetans.
Some Chinese also live there. Tibetans
speak the Tibetan language and
practice their own form of Buddhism.
The main leader of Tibetan Buddhism is
called the Dalai Lama.
The economy of Tibet is based on farming.
Tibetans raise yaks, horses, cows,
sheep, and goats. They grow barley,
wheat, millet, buckwheat, and potatoes.
Tibetans also make handicrafts such as
carpets, blankets, jewelry, and wooden
bowls. A few factories produce textiles,
machinery, chemicals, and other goods.
Tibet became a powerful Buddhist kingdom
between the AD 600s and 800s. It
came under the rule of the Mongols in
the 1200s. In the 1700s the Qing, or
Manchu, Dynasty of China took over
Tibet.
The Qing Dynasty lost power in 1912.
Then the Dalai Lama ruled Tibet. But
in 1950 China again took control. The
Tibetans rebelled against the Chinese in
1959, but they were defeated. The Dalai
Lama fled to India. In the 1960s and
1970s the Chinese closed Buddhist
monasteries and temples and destroyed
The Potala Palace in Tibet was once the
home of the Dalai Lama.
62 Tibet BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
religious writings. In the 1980s China
began to allow some freedom in Tibet.
#More to explore
Buddhism China Dalai Lama
Himalayas
Tick and Mite
Ticks and mites are tiny animals that are
found all over the world. They are
related to spiders. Many ticks and mites
are parasites. This means that they live
on or inside other animals, which are
called hosts.
Ticks can be more than an inch (2.5
centimeters) long, but most are much
smaller. They can be hard-bodied or
soft. Most hard ticks live in fields or
woods. Soft ticks generally live in the
hosts home or nest.
Mites live in water and soil, on plants,
and as parasites on animals. Some are so
small that people can see them only with
a microscope. Others can be 0.25 inch
(6 millimeters) long.
Ticks and mites develop in stages from
an egg into an adult. Hard ticks start
and end each stage on the ground. At
the end of each stage they attach to a
host, such as a rodent, dog, or person.
They suck the hosts blood for a few
days and then drop to the ground. They
can go months without a meal as they
wait for a host.
Ticks and mites can be very harmful.
They can spread diseases to people, animals,
and plants. For example, the deer
tick carries Lyme disease. Hard ticks can
also give off nerve poisons that can paralyze
or kill the host. Some mites cause
itching and skin problems.
#More to explore
Lyme Disease Parasite Spider
Tide
Along the coasts of every ocean on Earth
the water level changes on a regular
basis. This movement is known as the
tide. The greatest height reached as the
water rises is known as high tide. The
lowest level reached as the water falls is
known as low tide.
Tides take place in all bodies of water. In
some waters, however, the change is so
slight that tides go unnoticed. Tides are
easier to see where an ocean meets land
along seacoasts and in bays. There are
An American dog tick perches on grass
while it waits for a chance to attach itself to
a dog or other mammal. The American dog
tick can give humans a serious disease
called Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tide 63
usually two high and two low tides per
day at any given place. The times at
which they happen, however, change
from day to day. The average amount of
time between two high tides is 12 hours
and 25 minutes.
Tides are caused by a natural force
called gravity. Because of gravity, all
bodies in the universe pull on each
other. The sun and the Moon both pull
on Earth, but the Moon has a greater
influence because it is closer to Earth
than the sun. As the Moon pulls on
Earth it makes the water move. On the
side of Earth near the Moon, the water
builds up in a wave. Another wave
forms on the other side of Earth. This
is because the Moon is pulling Earth
away from the water on that side. These
waves result in high tide. As Earth
rotates and the Moon moves around
Earth, the tides change as well. Because
the Moon moves around Earth in a
regular path, the cycle of the tides
follows a regular pattern.
#More to explore
Earth Gravity Moon Sun
Tierra del Fuego
Tierra del Fuego is a group of islands at
the southern tip of South America.
About two thirds of the islands are in
Chile, and the rest are in Argentina.
The name Tierra del Fuego is Spanish
for land of fire. The explorer Ferdinand
Magellan named the islands.
When he sailed around the tip of South
America in the 1500s, he saw many fires
built by Indians along the coast.
A waterway called the Strait of
Magellan separates the islands from
mainland South America. The main
island, called Tierra del Fuego, is
triangular. The southern and western
parts of the islands are mountainous.
Both the sun and the Moon pull on Earths
ocean water with a natural force called
gravity. This pull creates tides. As the sun,
Moon, and Earth move in space, they
sometimes form a straight line, shown at
top. This arrangement creates high tides
that are higher than usual. It also creates
low tides that are lower than usual. At other
times the sun, Earth, and Moon are positioned
like the corner of a square, shown at
bottom. This arrangement evens out the
tides more. It creates high tides that are less
high than usual and low tides that are less
low than usual.
64 Tierra del Fuego BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Forests of beech trees grow in the
middle of the main island.
Chiles only oil field is in the northern
part of Tierra del Fuego. The islands
have some textile and electronics companies.
There is some logging in the forests.
Tourism is a valuable industry, too.
The first people to live on the islands
were the Ona, Yahgan, and Alacaluf
Indians. Magellan sailed past the islands
in 1520. Gold was discovered on Tierra
del Fuego in the 1880s. Then people
from Argentina and Chile started moving
to the islands. Oil was found in the
area in 1945.
#More to explore
Argentina Chile Magellan, Ferdinand
Tiger
The tiger is the largest of the cats. Like
lions, tigers are very strong and fierce
hunters.Tigers are found in the wild only
in parts of Russia, China, and South and
Southeast Asia. They live in forests,
grasslands, and swamps. The scientific
name of the tiger is Panthera tigris.
Physical Features
Male tigers can grow to more than 3 feet
(1 meter) high and 10 feet (3 meters)
long, including the tail. They usually
weigh between 350 and 640 pounds
(160 to 290 kilograms). Their fur can
range from light yellow on the belly to
deep yellow or orange on the back. Dark
stripes cover the head, body, and legs.
There are also black rings on the tail.
There are five different kinds of tiger.
The best known is the Bengal tiger,
found mainly in India. The rare Siberian
tiger is larger and has longer, softer fur.
The Bengal and Siberian tigers are the
kinds most often seen in zoos.
Behavior
Tigers hunt alone at night. They prey on
animals such as deer and wild hogs.
Tigers generally avoid large animals such
as elephants and bears. They also try to
stay away from people. But sometimes
they attack people to save themselves or
because they cannot find other food.
A tiger crouches in the grass and watches
its prey before attacking it. It grabs the
prey with its paws and bites the animals
neck. Then the tiger drags the dead animal
to a safe place and eats it over several
days.
Siberian tiger
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tiger 65
Life Cycle
Tigers normally come together only to
mate. About three months after mating,
the female has two or three cubs. She
looks after them for about two years and
teaches them to hunt. Tigers live about
11 years.
Tigers and Humans
Tigers are endangered, or in danger of
dying out. People have moved onto land
where tigers once lived, destroying their
homes. Plus, people hunt tigers for sport
and for their skin. Many countries now
have laws to protect tigers.
#More to explore
Cat Lion
Tigris River
The Tigris River of southwest Asia is
1,180 miles (1,900 kilometers) long. It
begins in the mountains of eastern Turkey.
It then touches the northeastern
border of Syria and crosses Iraq. In
southeastern Iraq the Tigris joins the
Euphrates River. The two rivers together
form the Shatt Al-!Arab. That waterway
empties into the Persian Gulf.
The land that the Tigris flows through
gets little rainfall. It is also very hot. But
farmers are still able to grow crops there.
They water their crops using water from
the Tigris and the Euphrates. The watering
methods they use are called irrigation.
Some of the earliest known civilizations
began on the land between the Tigris
and the Euphrates. The ancient Greeks
called the area Mesopotamia. The name
means land between the rivers. Several
ancient cities were built along the Tigris.
One was Assur. That city gave its name
to the empire called Assyria. Nineveh
was another ancient city on the river. It
was Assyrias capital. The main modern
cities on the Tigris are Baghdad and
Mosul, both in Iraq.
#More to explore
Euphrates River Irrigation
Mesopotamia
Tile
#see Brick and Tile.
Time
People use the idea of time to measure
how long it takes for things to happen.
They also use time to describe how long
ago things happened in the past. Time
helps to describe when things may happen
in the future as well.
66 Tigris River BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Units of Time
People divide time into days and hours.
There are 24 hours in one full day and
night. Hours are divided into minutes
and seconds. There are 60 minutes in an
hour and 60 seconds in a minute.
People measure longer periods of time by
years. There are 365 or 366 days in one
year. A year is divided into 12 months.
Months have from 28 to 31 days.
Time Zones
At any time, only part of Earth experiences
daylight. It is nighttime for the
rest of the planet. This means that it
cannot be the same time of day in every
part of the world. For this reason people
have divided the globe into 24 sections
called time zones. At most places inside
a time zone, it is the same time of day.
Imaginary lines separate all the time
zones. The lines run from the North
Pole to the South Pole. The first time
zone begins at 0° longitude, or the
prime meridian. This imaginary line
runs through Greenwich, England.
When people cross one of the imaginary
lines, they enter a new time zone. The
time of day changes by one hour. If they
cross into a time zone to the west, it is
one hour earlier. If they cross into a time
zone to the east, it is one hour later. (In
a few places in the world, the time
changes by only a half hour.)
The imaginary lines dividing the time
zones are not always straight. They often
bend west or east. This allows whole
countries or regions to be within a single
time zone. However, large countries
such as the United States and Russia
are divided into several time zones.
On the other side of Earth from the
prime meridian is the International Date
Line (IDL). It runs through the Pacific
Ocean at about 180° longitude. When
travelers cross the IDL going from west
to east, they gain a whole day on the
calendar. For example, if they start traveling
on January 2, the date changes to
January 1 when they cross the IDL.
When people travel from east to west
across the IDL, they move a day forward
in time.
History
Ancient people measured time by looking
at the sky. They saw the sun rise and
set and the Moon grow full. They
watched the stars and the other planets
change position. They also experienced
the days becoming shorter and longer
and the cycle of the seasons.
A stopwatch measures the minutes and seconds
an athlete takes to complete a run.
People use many different types of watches,
clocks, and calendars to keep track of time.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Time 67
Earth is divided into 24 time zones. The boundary lines between the zones are not always straight because every country makes its own rules
about which time zones it wants to be in.
68 Time BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
People in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia,
Central America, and other places created
calendars to keep track of the passing
days. The ancient Egyptians also
invented a form of clock called a sundial.
Sundials cast shadows that move as
the day passes.
Eventually people all over the world
had developed many types of clocks
and calendars to keep track of time. But
the time was different in every city. In
the 1800s some people thought there
should be one system of measuring
time so that everyone could agree about
what time it is. This was important for
such things as making schedules for
trains and knowing when to go to
school. In 1884 countries throughout
the world adopted the time zone system
that is still in use.
#More to explore
Calendar Clock Latitude and
Longitude Season Sundial
Tirane
Population
(2001 census)
343,078
Tirane is the capital of Albania, a
country in southeastern Europe. It lies
on the Ishm River. It is Albanias largest
city.
Tirane is Albanias main center of business
and industry. However, in the early
21st century the countrys economy was
one of the poorest in Europe. Factories
in Tirane make clothing, processed
foods, leather, and other products.
ATurkish general foundedTirane in the
early 1600s. Albania was then part of the
TurkishOttoman Empire.Tirane
gradually grew into a busy trading center.
Albania became an independent country
in 1912. Tirane became its capital in
1920. Between 1939 and 1944, during
WorldWar II, Italian and then German
forces controlled the city.
Between 1946 and the early 1990s,
Albania was a Communist country. Protests
in Tirane helped to bring an end to
Communist rule. However, the end of
Communism did not bring about a lasting
peace. In the later 1990s the city was
the site of several violent political protests.
#More to explore
Albania
People crowd Tiranes main square at night.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tirane 69
Titanic
On its first trip across the Atlantic
Ocean, a passenger ship called the
Titanic struck a huge iceberg. The ship
sank on April 15, 1912, killing more
than 1,500 people. It was one of the
most famous disasters of the 20th century.
Before there were airplanes, people
crossed oceans on ships called ocean
liners. The Titanic was one of the largest
ocean liners of its time. It was more than
880 feet (270 meters) long and had nine
decks, or floors. The hull, or body, was
made of steel and divided into 16 compartments.
Some people said that the
Titanic was unsinkable.
On April 10, 1912, the Titanic set out
from Southampton, England. It was
bound for New York City. Some of the
passengers were rich people on business
or pleasure trips. Others were poor
European emigrants who were looking
for a better life in North America.
Lookouts saw an iceberg at 11:40 PM on
April 14. The ship could not move out
of the way fast enough. The hull was
torn apart and the ship began to fill with
water. At 2:20 AM the next day, the
Titanic sank.
About 705 people escaped in lifeboats.
However, there were not nearly enough
lifeboats for the 2,224 people that the
ship carried. Governments strengthened
safety rules for ships after the disaster.
In 1985 deep-sea explorers found the
remains of the Titanic at a depth of
13,000 feet (4,000 meters) near the
Canadian island of Newfoundland.
Underwater vessels explored the ship
and brought pieces of wreckage to the
surface.
#More to explore
Iceberg Ship
Titans
In ancient Greek mythology the Titans
were giants who once ruled the world.
According to legend, they were the children
of Uranus (Heaven) and Gaea
(Earth). Uranus hated his children, and
he shut them up in the Earth. The
Titans rebelled against him and took
power. Cronus (Saturn) then became the
ruler of the Titans.
Later Cronus son Zeus led a long war
that forced the Titans from power. Zeus
then became the chief god.
Other important Titans included Rhea,
who was the wife of Cronus and the
mother of Zeus. The Titan called Hyperion
was the father of the sun, Moon,
The passenger ship called the Titanic sank
in 1912, on its first voyage.
70 Titanic BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
and dawn. Atlas was a Titan who had to
carry the heavens on his shoulders. And
the Titan Prometheus helped humankind
by giving people fire.
#More to explore
Atlas Greece, Ancient Mythology
Prometheus Zeus
Tlingit
The Tlingit are Native Americans of
southern Alaska and northern British
Columbia, in Canada. They live along
the coast and on nearby islands in the
Pacific Ocean.
The Tlingit traditionally got much of
their food by fishing. They also hunted
seals and sea otters and gathered wild
berries and roots. The Tlingit used cedar
wood from nearby forests to build
houses. Their houses were large enough
for several families.
In 1741 Russian explorers arrived in
Tlingit lands. By the end of the 1700s
Russian traders had set up a fort in Tlingit
territory. Many Tlingit fell ill with
deadly diseases carried by the Russians
and other European settlers. In the
1830s smallpox killed about half of the
Tlingit.
In 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the
United States. Then U.S. settlers began
taking over the tribes land. More settlers
arrived after gold was discovered in
the area in 1880.
In 1912 the Tlingit helped to form a
group called the Alaska Native Brotherhood.
This group worked to take back
the lands of southern Alaskas Indians.
The Titans were a group of giants in the
myths of ancient Greece. Among the more
important Titans were Atlas, Hyperion,
Prometheus, Cronus, and Rhea.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tlingit 71
In 1971 the U.S. government returned
44 million acres (18 million hectares) of
land to the Tlingit and other tribes.
At the end of the 20th century more than
9,000 Tlingit lived in the United States.
Another 1,000 Tlingit lived in Canada.
#More to explore
Native Americans
Toad
Toads are small animals often confused
with frogs. Toads, however, have dry,
rough skin and short legs. Frogs have
moist, smooth skin and longer legs.
Toads can be found in all but the coldest
parts of the world. They are amphibians,
meaning that they live on both land and
water. However, toads generally spend
more of their time on land than they do
in the water.
Toads have squat, plump bodies. They
do not have tails. They range from about
1 to 10 inches (2.5 to 25 centimeters)
long. Their skin is usually brownish
olive, often with some darker spots. One
group, called variegated toads, has large
back feet and are bright yellow, red, or
green with black spots.
Toads are typically covered with bumps
that look like warts. When a toad feels
threatened it releases poison from the
bumps. The poison can sting an enemys
eyes and mouth. The poison of some
toads is strong enough to kill their
enemies.
Toads are active mainly at night. They
spend the day underground or hidden
under leaves or stones. In the winter
most toads enter a state of inactivity
called hibernation. Some toads are inactive
during hot and dry weather as well.
Toads move by short hops or by walking.
They catch prey with their long,
sticky tongues. Toads generally eat
insects and worms. Some large toads,
however, eat frogs and small rodents.
Tlingit gather in Sitka, Alaska, in 2004 to
remember a battle with Russian soldiers that
took place in 1804.
The natterjack toad lives in northern Europe.
72 Toad BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Toads lay their eggs underwater. After a
few days the eggs hatch into small, fishlike
creatures called tadpoles. Tadpoles
have tails and gills. The gills are structures
that help them breathe underwater.
Tadpoles eventually lose their tails and
develop lungs and legs. They can then
leave the water to live on land.
#More to explore
Amphibian Frog Hibernation
Tobacco
Tobacco is a plant that is grown for its
leaves. The dried leaves are usually made
into cigarettes, cigars, or pipe tobacco.
Users light these products and breathe in
the smoke. Tobacco also may be chewed
or taken in the form of a powder.
All these products deliver a habitforming
drug called nicotine to the user.
This drug makes it hard to stop using
tobacco. But using tobacco can cause
serious health problems, including lung
cancer, breathing disorders, and heart
disease.
Native Americans were the first people
to grow tobacco plants. They used
tobacco in ceremonies and as medicine.
In the late 1400s and early 1500s European
explorers learned about tobacco
from the Native Americans. The Europeans
established large farms called plantations
in the Americas to grow the crop.
They also brought tobacco back to their
home countries.
Today people in many parts of the world
grow and use tobacco. However, some
governments have tried to limit its use.
For example, some places do not allow
smoking in public buildings.
#More to explore
Drug
Tobago
#see Trinidad and Tobago.
Some toads, such as the Oriental firebellied
toad, can be quite colorful.
Tobacco plants produce large
leaves. The leaves are dried after
they are picked.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tobago 73
Togo
The tiny country of Togo sits north of
the equator inWest Africa. Togos capital
is Lome.
Togo is a long, narrow country. In the
south it has a short coastline on the
Atlantic Ocean. Togo borders Ghana,
Burkina Faso, and Benin. The Togo
Mountains cross central Togo. Plains
cover the north. Togo has a hot climate
with dry and rainy seasons.
Grasslands and scattered trees cover
most of Togo. Tropical forests grow in
the southwest. Togos animals include
elephants, lions, monkeys, hippopotamuses,
crocodiles, lizards, and snakes.
Togo has many different ethnic groups.
The two largest groups are the Ewe in
the south and the Kabre in the north.
Most of the people practice Christianity,
African religions, or Islam. French is the
national language. Most people live in
small villages.
Most of Togos people are farmers. The
main food crops include cassava, yams,
and corn. Many people raise sheep,
goats, and pigs. Farmers also produce
coffee, cocoa, and cotton. Fishing is
another source of food.
The Ewe and the Kabre peoples lived in
the region before the 1300s. In 1884
Germans took over the region. During
WorldWar I France gained control of
part of the area.
In 1960 French Togoland gained independence.
In 1967 a military general
took power. He remained president until
he died in 2005. Togo then elected his
son as president.
..More to explore
Lome
Women shop at an outdoor market
in Togo.
Facts About
TOGO
Population
(2008 estimate)
6,762,000
Area
21,925 sq mi
(56,785 sq km)
Capital
Lome
Form of
government
Republic
Major cities
Lome, Sokode,
Kpalime, Atakpame,
Kara
74 Togo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tohono
Oodham
The Tohono Oodham are Native
Americans who live in southern Arizona
and northern Mexico. They are often
called the Papago. The Tohono
Oodham are related to the Pima people.
They may be descendants of the ancient
Hohokam Indians.
The Tohono Oodham traditionally
built houses from mud and brush in the
desert. Their name means desert
people. Because their land was very dry,
they moved in different seasons to make
sure they had enough water. Summer
rains provided water to grow crops. The
tribe grew corn, beans, squash, and cotton.
When the rains stopped, the
Tohono Oodham moved to winter villages
in the mountains. There they got
water from springs. For food, they
hunted wild animals and gathered wild
plants.
Spanish explorers arrived in the lands of
the Tohono Oodham in the late 1600s.
The Spanish taught the tribe how to
grow wheat and raise cattle and horses.
The Tohono Oodham of Mexico eventually
lost much of their land to settlers
and ranchers. The Tohono Oodham of
the United States were given several reservations.
The Tohono Oodham Reservation
in Arizona is the countrys second
largest reservation. In the late 20th century
there were more than 17,000
Tohono Oodham in the United States.
A few hundred lived in the Mexican
state of Sonora.
..More to explore
Hohokam Culture Native Americans
Pima
Tokyo
Population
(2008
estimate), city,
8,731,000;
(2007
estimate), urban
area,
35,700,000
Tokyo is the capital of Japan, an island
country in eastern Asia. It is located on
Japans main island, Honshu. The city
A photograph from the early 1900s shows
a Tohono Oodham woman carrying a basket
on her head.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tokyo 75
lies on Tokyo Bay, which is part of the
Pacific Ocean. Tokyo is one of the largest
cities in the world. It is Japans center
of industry, culture, and education.
The city of Tokyo is part of the huge
Tokyo metropolitan area. It includes the
countryside around Tokyo as well as
several islands. The Tokyo metropolitan
area also includes three other major
citiesYokohama, Kawasaki, and
Chiba.
Cityscape
Tokyo has several distinct districts. At
the heart of the city is the Imperial Palace,
the home of the emperor of Japan.
Many other national government buildings
are in the nearby Kasumigaseki
district. Marunouchi is a business district.
Shinjuku is a center of entertainment
and shopping. The Ginza district
is world famous for its expensive stores.
Economy
Tokyo is Japans main center of manufacturing,
banking, and business management.
Many companies have
headquarters in the city. Publishing is a
leading industry. Factories in Tokyo
make such products as computers, televisions,
and other electronics. Factories
in the metropolitan area produce metals,
chemicals, and machinery.
History
In ancient times the city was named
Edo. It was a small village until the
Tokugawa family began ruling Japan in
the early 1600s. The Tokugawa rulers
made Edo their headquarters. The city
then grew greatly. In the 1800s more
than a million people lived there. However,
Japans official capital was the city
of Kyoto.
The emperor Meiji began ruling Japan
in 1868. Edo was then renamed Tokyo
and made the official capital. Under
Meijis rule the city was made more
modern.
An earthquake severely damaged Tokyo
in 1923 and killed at least 100,000
people. Bombing destroyed much of the
city in the 1940s, duringWorldWar II.
But Tokyo was soon rebuilt. In the second
half of the 1900s it developed into
an industrial center. It also became
known for its many modern skyscrapers.
#More to explore
Japan
Tolkien, J.R.R.
J.R.R. Tolkien wrote popular books of
fantasy fiction. The most famous of his
Shibuya is a lively shopping district in Tokyo.
76 Tolkien, J.R.R. BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
books are The Hobbit and The Lord of
the Rings.
John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was born on
January 3, 1892, in South Africa. At
age 4 he moved with his family to
Great Britain. Tolkien graduated from
Oxford University in 1915. Soon
afterward he left to fight for the British
in World War I.
In 1925 Tolkien began teaching at
Oxford. His classes dealt with the roots
of the English language. He studied old
fables, myths, and legends. During this
time Tolkien began writing fantasy stories.
Part of this writing included making
up an entire language called Elvish.
The characters called elves in Tolkiens
stories speak this language.
Tolkien published The Hobbit in 1937.
He wrote it partly to amuse his four
children. The main character of the
book is a short, furry-footed creature
called a hobbit. The story takes place in
a fantasy world called Middle-earth.
The Lord of the Rings, published in 1954
and 1955, also takes place in Middleearth.
This novel is sometimes divided
into three parts: The Fellowship of the
Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of
the King.
Tolkien died on September 2, 1973. He
had started another book about Middleearth,
called The Silmarillion, but did
not finish it. Tolkiens son Christopher
published this book in 1977.
Toltec
The ancient Toltec people developed a
great civilization in what is now central
Mexico. From the AD 900s to the 1100s
they were the most powerful Native
Americans in the region.
The capital city of the Toltec was Tula.
Historians do not know exactly where
Tula was. However, they know that it
J.R.R. Tolkien
Stone columns that stand 15 feet
(4.6 meters) high were carved
by the Toltec in Mexico.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Toltec 77
was in the area of what is now Mexico
City. As many as 40,000 people lived in
Tula.
The Toltec built houses out of clay
bricks. These bricks kept the heat out in
the summer and the cold out in winter.
In Tula the Toltec also built great pyramids
and palaces.
The Toltec farmed for most of their
food. They grew corn and squash. They
also grew cotton and plants that they
used to make medicines.
The Toltec settled in what is now central
Mexico in about AD 900. In the 1100s
other Indian groups began invading
Toltec lands from the north. The invaders
were called the Chichimec. The
Chichimec destroyed Tula in about
1160.
The Chichimec took on many Toltec
ways of life. Among the Chichimec
groups were the Aztec. They created the
next great Indian civilization in central
Mexico.
#More to explore
Aztec Native Americans
Tomato
Tomatoes are commonly called vegetables,
but they are actually fruits. They
are eaten raw or used in cooking.
Canned tomatoes and tomato juice are
also popular. Tomatoes are grown in all
mild regions of the world. They belong
to the nightshade family.
Tomato plants generally have many
spreading branches. The leaves are hairy
and have a strong smell. The flowers are
yellow and hang in clusters. The fruit is
about 0.5 to 3 inches (1.3 to 7.6
centimeters) across. It can be round or
oval or shaped like a pear. When ripe,
the fruit is soft, juicy, and usually red or
yellow. Tomatoes contain many small
seeds surrounded by jellylike pulp. This
pulp contains most of the tomatos
vitamin C.
Tomato plants first grew wild in the
Andes Mountains of South America.
The Spanish brought tomatoes to
Europe after finding them growing in
the Americas. At first Europeans grew
tomatoes only for decoration. They
thought that tomatoes were poisonous
because they are related to the deadly
nightshade plants. Tomatoes did not
become popular in the United States
until the early 1900s.
#More to explore
Fruit Nightshade
The Toltec are
known for the
art objects
they made
from stone
and metal.
Tomatoes come in different sizes and
shapes. Some small varieties are called
cherry tomatoes or grape tomatoes.
78 Tomato BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tonga
The country of Tonga is made up of
about 170 islands in the southern Pacific
Ocean. The largest island is Tongatapu.
It is where the capital, Nukualofa, is
located.
Tonga is a part of the Pacific region
called Oceania. People live on only
about 40 of Tongas islands. Some
islands are the peaks of underwater volcanoes.
Others are atolls, or coral reefs
that surround a pool of water. Tongas
climate is warm and rainy.
Rain forests grow on the volcanic
islands. Mangrove trees grow in swampy
areas. Tongas birds include doves, kingfishers,
cuckoos, and shrikes. Large fruit
bats, called flying foxes, live on Tongatapu.
Almost all the people of Tonga are
Polynesians, the native people of eastern
Oceania. The main languages are Tongan
and English. Nearly all Tongans are
Christians. About two thirds of the
people live on Tongatapu. Fewer than
half of the people live in cities.
The economy of Tonga is based on
farming and fishing. Farmers grow
squash, coconuts, cassava, yams,
bananas, and vanilla beans. They also
raise pigs, goats, and cattle. Tourism is
another important part of the economy.
People have lived on the islands for at
least 3,000 years. Kings and queens have
ruled Tonga since the AD 900s.
Dutch and British explorers visited the
islands in the 1600s and 1700s. Christian
missionaries arrived in the 1800s. In
1900 Tonga gave control of its foreign
affairs to Great Britain.
Tonga became independent of Britain in
1970. In the 1990s some Tongans began
asking the king to make the country a
democracy.
..More to explore
Nukualofa Oceania
Schoolchildren in Tonga raise their hands to
answer the teachers question.
Facts About
TONGA
Population
(2008 estimate)
103,000
Area
290 sq mi (750
sq km)
Capital
Nukualofa
Form of
government
Constitutional
monarchy
Major towns
Nukualofa,
Neiafu,
Haveluloto
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Tonga 79
Tongue
The tongue is an organ, or body part, in
the mouth. It is made up of a group of
muscles. Most vertebrates, or animals
with a backbone, have a tongue.
The tongue is firmly attached to the
bottom of the mouth. This attachment
keeps the tongue from being swallowed.
The underside of a mammals tongue is
smooth. The top of the tongue is rough
and bumpy. These bumps are called
papillae. The papillae contain taste buds.
They also produce some of the fluid in
saliva, a sticky liquid that keeps the
mouth moist.
Eating and Tasting
In many animals the tongue helps in
chewing and swallowing food. Papillae
help to grip and hold food. The front
muscles of the tongue move food
around and over the teeth during chewing.
The back muscles of the tongue
help in swallowing. They push chewed
food to the back of the mouth and
down the throat.
The tongue is also responsible for the
sense of taste. The taste buds contain
special cells that send information about
foods to the brain. These special cells
each respond to a particular kind of
taste. Humans can sense five basic tastes:
salty, sweet, sour (acid), bitter, and
umami. Umami represents the taste of
certain chemicals called amino acids.
People are born with about 10,000 taste
buds, and there may be 50 to 150 cells
in each bud. As people age, the number
of taste buds may drop to 5,000. This
may explain why some foods taste stronger
to young people.
Other Uses
Tongues have many other uses. The
human tongue plays an important part
in speaking. It forms and shapes the
sounds that make up language. Dogs
and cats use their tongues to clean themselves.
Frogs use their tongues to catch
insects and other small animals for food.
Snakes and other reptiles flick out their
tongues to collect scents in the air.
..More to explore
Mouth Muscle
The drawing on the top shows papillae
on the tongue. The drawing on the bottom
shows how the tongue fits into the mouth.
80 Tongue BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Tonsillitis
Tonsillitis is an infection of the tonsils.
The tonsils are oval-shaped lumps of
tissue in the throat. Usually they help
protect the body against disease. But
sometimes they become infected themselves.
An infection is an attack by tiny
germs that cause disease. Children get
tonsillitis more often than adults.
The germs that cause tonsillitis are
called bacteria and viruses. Infected tonsils
become large and red. A person with
tonsillitis first feels a sore throat. The
sore throat sometimes makes it painful
to talk or to swallow. The person might
also get a fever. Glands on the sides of
the neck might swell.
Tonsillitis spreads easily, especially by
coughs and sneezes. Avoiding people
with tonsillitis reduces the chance of
infection. Frequent hand washing also
helps. Washing the hands can kill the
bacteria and viruses that cause
tonsillitis.
The treatment of tonsillitis depends on
the cause. If bacteria are the cause, the
doctor gives the person a medicine
called an antibiotic. If a virus is the
cause, the tonsillitis usually has to clear
up on its own. Tonsillitis generally lasts
less than a week. During that time the
person should rest and drink lots of liquids.
In some severe cases of tonsillitis, a
doctor has to remove the tonsils.
..More to explore
Bacteria Virus
Topeka
Population
(2000 census)
122,377;
(2007 estimate)
122,642
Topeka is the capital of the U.S. state of
Kansas. The city lies on the Kansas
River.
Many people in Topeka work for the
government or in trade, health care, or
other service industries. The city is an
important market for wheat grown in
the surrounding area. The leading
manufacturing industries include
printing, food processing, and making
tires.
In its early history Topeka played a role
in the U.S. conflict over slavery. A group
of people who opposed slavery founded
the city in 1854. Several battles took
place there. Groups fought over whether
A doctor examines a girls throat. When a
child has a sore throat, the doctor often
checks for tonsillitis.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Topeka 81
Kansas should permit slavery when it
became a U.S. state. In 1861 Kansas
became a state that did not allow slavery.
Topeka was made the capital.
In the 1860s Topeka became the headquarters
for the building of a large railway.
The railway brought jobs to the city
and helped it grow.
In 1951 the Kansas River overflowed
and flooded Topeka. A tornado damaged
much of the city in 1966.
#More to explore
Kansas Slavery
Torah
A holy text of Judaism, the Torah is
made up of the first five books of the
Hebrew Bible (which Christians call the
Old Testament). These books are Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy.
The Torah begins with the story of the
creation of the world. It goes on to
explain and interpret the laws of God,
including the Ten Commandments.
Jews believe that God gave the laws of
the five books to the prophet Moses on
Mount Sinai.
All Jewish synagogues, or places of worship,
keep a copy of the Torah. The copy
is written by hand on parchment scrolls
(rolled-up sheets of animal skin). During
most synagogue services a member
of the congregation reads from the
Torah. Most synagogues read the entire
Torah in one year.
In Hebrew the word Torah means to
teach or to show the way. In that
broad sense, all Jewish teachings
including the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud,
and unwritten Jewish traditions
can be considered part of the Torah.
#More to explore
Bible Judaism Moses Talmud
A sculpture honoring pioneers stands near
the Kansas state Capitol in Topeka, Kansas.
The Torah is a Jewish holy text. Each copy is
handwritten on rolled-up sheets of animal
skin.
82 Torah BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
Toussaint-
Louverture
Toussaint-Louverture was born a slave
but became a great military leader. He
led the fight for the independence of
Haiti. Haiti occupies part of the island
of Hispaniola in theWest Indies.
Early Life
Francois Dominique Toussaint was born
in about 1743 in Saint-Domingue (now
Haiti). He was black, like most of the
other slaves in Saint-Domingue.
Although he was a slave, he learned
some French and Latin. As a young man
he supervised the work of other slaves
on the large farm where he lived. He
became free in 1777.
Rebel Leader
During most of Toussaints life, France
controlled Saint-Domingue. But the
slaves greatly outnumbered the French
people living there. In 1791 the slaves
rose up in rebellion.Toussaint formed his
own rebel army.He soon became known
asToussaint-Louverture. This was
because he easily found openings in the
enemys defenses. (Louverture comes
from the French word for opening.)
France fought to end the rebellion. But
by 1801 Toussaint had taken over all of
Hispaniola. He freed everyone on the
island who was still a slave. He then
made himself governor-general for life.
Capture and Death
Toussaint ruled until 1802. In that year
France sent troops to take back control.
Toussaints forces were outnumbered. In
1803 the French captured Toussaint and
sent him to France. He died in a French
prison on April 7, 1803.
Another black leader named Jean-
Jacques Dessalines continued the fight
against France. His forces won independence
for Saint-Dominguerenamed
Haitiin 1804.
#More to explore
Haiti Slavery
Toy
Children everywhere enjoy playing with
toys. A toy can be a simple ball, a game,
or an expensive machine that uses the
latest technology. Years ago most toys
were made from wood and cloth. Today
the most common material is plastic.
Toys date back to ancient times. Scientists
often find toys when they dig up
old ruins. These include ancient balls,
Teddy bears
have been
popular toys
for more than
100 years.
They are
named after
Theodore
Teddy
Roosevelt, who
was U.S.
president from
1901 to 1909.
Toussaint-Louverture
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Toy 83
dolls, tops, and toy wagons and boats.
They have also dug up game pieces.
People have played games similar to
chess, checkers, and backgammon for
thousands of years.
Many toys, from both ancient and modern
times, look like objects from the
adult world. As children grow they often
imitate adults in their play. They enjoy
toys modeled after things that adults use
in everyday life. A child in ancient Egypt
might have played with a small wooden
camel. A child in todays world might
have a toy car or a toy telephone.
The modern toy industry is a very big
business. Simple toys are still common.
But many companies produce toys that
run on batteries. Other toys use the latest
electronic and computer technology.
The toy business is challenging, however,
because fads quickly come and go.
A toy loved by children today may soon
lose popularity. Safety is another concern
for toy makers. Most toy packaging
includes safety warnings. These messages
warn about such things as small objects
that a very young child could swallow.
#More to explore
Electronic Games
Track and Field
Contests of running, jumping, and
throwing are called track-and-field events
in the United States. In other countries
this group of sporting events is called
athletics.Track and field is the oldest
form of organized sport. It is a major part
of the SummerOlympic Games.
Track Meets and Events
Track-and-field events take place during
a competition called a meet, or track
meet. Track meets can be held either
indoors or outdoors. Most meets take
place in outdoor stadiums. These stadiums
have a grass infield surrounded by
an oval running track.
The contests in a meet are divided into
track events and field events. In the
track events athletes race against each
other. The track used for outdoor running
events measures 400 meters
around. (One meter is equal to 3.3 feet.)
The track is divided into running lanes.
All the other events in a meetthe
jumps and the throwsare field events.
Field events are normally held in the
grass infield.
Running Events
Short-distance races are called sprints.
They cover distances of 100 meters, 200
Simple wooden blocks decorated with numbers
and letters are a popular toy.
84 Track and Field BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
meters, and 400 meters. Sprinters need
to get a quick start. Then they run at
top speed for the whole race.
Middle-distance races cover 800 to
2,000 meters. Like sprinters, middledistance
runners need speed. But unlike
sprinters, they do not always run at top
speed. They need to adjust their speed to
make sure that they have enough
strength to run a longer distance. This
strategy is called pacing.
Athletes compete in a variety of throwing, jumping, and running events at a track meet.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Track and Field 85
Long-distance races cover 3,000 meters
or more. Speed is not as important in
long-distance races as it is in shorter
races. Above all, long-distance runners
need good physical conditioning. They
have to be able to run for a long time.
The marathon is a long-distance race
that covers 26 miles 385 yards (42.2
kilometers). Marathons are run on
roads. Cross-country races are longdistance
events run on natural land.
There are several other types of running
events. Relay races involve four runners
per team. Each team member runs one
fourth of the races total distance. Hurdling
combines sprinting with jumping
over barriers called hurdles. The steeplechase
is a long-distance race in which
runners jump over hurdles and water
barriers.
Jumping Events
There are four jumping events at a track
meet: the high jump, the pole vault, the
long jump, and the triple jump. The
high jump and the pole vault are called
vertical jumps. The athlete who jumps
the highest is the winner. High jumpers
try to leap over a thin bar balanced
between two supports. Pole vaulters also
try to jump over a bar, but the bar is set
higher. They use a long, flexible pole to
gain height. The pole bends to launch
the vaulter over the bar.
The long jump and the triple jump are
called horizontal jumps. The athlete who
jumps the farthest wins these events. In
both events the athlete begins with a
high-speed run. At the end of the run a
long jumper takes a single leap forward.
A triple jumper must perform a series of
three actions: a hop, a step, and a jump.
Throwing Events
A track meet includes four throwing
events: the shot put, the hammer throw,
the discus throw, and the javelin throw.
In each event athletes try to throw an
In the type of race called hurdling, runners
jump over a series of barriers called hurdles.
Pole vaulters use a long, flexible pole to
launch themselves over a high bar.
86 Track and Field BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
object as far as possible. The shot is a
heavy metal ball. The hammer is a metal
ball connected by a strong wire to a
handle. The discus is a plate-shaped
disk. The javelin is a spear. The athlete
who throws the object the farthest wins.
Decathlon and Heptathlon
The decathlon and the heptathlon are
competitions that combine several
events. They test all-around athletes. In
the Olympics men compete in the
decathlon and women compete in the
heptathlon. Points are awarded in each
event and added up to determine the
winner.
The decathlon and the heptathlon each
take two days to complete. The decathlon
consists of 10 events: the 100-, 400-,
and 1,500-meter runs, the 110-meter
hurdles, the discus and javelin throws,
the shot put, the pole vault, the long
jump, and the high jump. The heptathlon
consists of seven events: the 200-
and 800-meter runs, the 100-meter
hurdles, the high jump, the long jump,
the shot put, and the javelin throw.
History
People in different cultures have held
footraces and other track-and-field contests
for thousands of years. The first
records of the Olympic Games, held in
Greece, date from 776 BC. At those
Olympics there was only one event, a
footrace. Later Olympics in Greece
included a five-event competition. It
consisted of a footrace, the long jump,
wrestling, and javelin and discus throws.
The ancient Olympics ended in the AD
300s.
Track and field as practiced today developed
in England. There the sport dates
back to the 1100s. But track and field
was not well organized as a sport until
the 1800s. The sport started becoming
popular in the United States in the
1860s.
The Olympic Games began again in
1896. The Olympics helped to spread
interest in track and field throughout
the world. An organization called the
International Association of Athletics
Federations (IAAF) now governs trackand-
field competition in the Olympics.
It also approves all world records in
track-and-field events.
#More to explore
Marathon Olympic Games
Trade
Trade is the buying and selling of goods
and services. Goods are objects that
people grow or makefor example,
food, clothes, and computers. Services
Machines move large containers of goods
off a ship and onto trucks at a port in
Canada. Shipping goods between countries
is an important part of international trade.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Trade 87
are things that people dofor example,
banking, communications, and health
care. People have traded since prehistoric
times. Today most countries take part in
international trade, or trade across country
borders.
Reasons for Trade
Trade happens because people need or
want goods that they do not have.
People also trade for services when they
do not have the time or the skills to do
things. Trade between countries happens
for similar reasons. For example, some
countries have resources, such as oil, or
skills, such as car manufacturing, that
other countries will buy.
Both people and countries want trade to
benefit them. Families want to earn
more money than they spend on goods
and services. Countries try to sell, or
export, as much as they buy, or import,
from other countries.
Trade Limits
In some economies, the government
controls all trade. In others, the government
allows companies to trade more
freely. However, even governments that
support free trade control trade in some
way. They may keep companies from
trading dangerous or illegal products.
They may also pass laws to prevent companies
from forming monopolies. A
monopoly occurs when one company
has so much control over a certain type
of good or service that no other companies
can compete, or make money selling
that good or service.
Countries also limit trade between other
countries and themselves to protect their
economies. Countries may charge tariffs,
or special taxes, on foreign goods. They
may also set quotas, or limits on the
amount of foreign goods they buy.
Free Trade
In the 1900s many countries worked to
stop trade limits. Some formed trading
blocs, or groups of countries that trade
freely. Examples include the North
American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), the European Union, and
South Americas Mercosur. In addition,
about 150 countries joined theWorld
Trade Organization (WTO). TheWTO
encourages free trade around the world.
The lifting of trade limits caused international
trade to grow. However, some
people questioned the idea of free trade.
Many children enjoy trading
baseball cards. A trade only
happens when each person has
a card or cards that the other
person wants.
88 Trade BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA
If governments did not oversee trade,
they warned, international companies
could pay workers poorly and pollute
the environment.
History
Trade developed along with civilization.
Before 2000 BC people in the earliest
civilizations of Mesopotamia, ancient
Egypt, and the Indus Valley traded
among themselves and with other
peoples. As time passed, civilizations
built trade routes. They used these paths
to transport spices, salt, gold, and other
goods over greater distances. Trade
routes went over land and sea.
In the AD 1400s Europeans began
exploring by sea to find new trade routes
to Asia. Some explored the coast of
Africa. Others crossed the Atlantic
Ocean to North and South America. By
the 1600s Portugal, Spain, England,
France, and the Netherlands had set up
colonies, or settlements, around the
world.
In the 1700s the Industrial Revolution
began. This was a period when people
invented machines to make goods in
factories. This improved manufacturing
and transportation, and trade increased.
An idea called laissez-faire capitalism
soon became popular. Laissez-faire is a
French phrase that means to let do. It
meant that governments should not
interfere with trade or other economic
activities. It allowed companies and their
owners to do whatever they wanted.
Many became rich as a result.
Workers soon started labor movements
to protest their poor treatment by rich
companies. In the early 1900sWorld
War I and the Great Depression led to a
decline in trade. Many governments
began to support workers and to control
trade more strictly. The idea of free trade
did not become popular again until after
WorldWar II (193945).
#More to explore
Capitalism Civilization Colony
Economics Tax Transportation
Trail of Tears
In 1838 and 1839 the U.S. government
took away the homeland of the Cherokee
people. It forced the Cherokee to
travel from the Southeast to what is now
Oklahoma. Most of them had to walk
all the way. This event is known as the
Trail of Tears.
In the early 1800s the Cherokee got
along better with the United States than
most other Native American groups.
Then, in 1835, gold was found on
A painting shows Cherokee taking a long
forced journey called the Trail of Tears.
Thousands of them died along the way.
BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Trail of Tears 89
Cherokee land in Georgia. Some white
people decided to take over the land and
push the Cherokee out.
In 1835 a few Cherokee signed a treaty,
or agreement, with the U.S. government.
They agreed to sell all Cherokee
land to the United States for 5 million
dollars. But most of the tribe did not
think the treaty was legal. The U.S.
Supreme Court agreed with them.
President Andrew Jackson and Georgia
officials ignored the Courts decision. In
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